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"rotavirus" Definitions
  1. any of a genus (Rotavirus) of reoviruses that have a three-layered protein capsid with no outer lipid envelope when mature and that include one (species Rotavirus A) causing epidemics of severe and sometimes fatal diarrhea in infants and young children
"rotavirus" Synonyms
gastroenteritis diarrhoea(UK) diarrhea(US) food poisoning stomach flu salmonella gastro norovirus botulism enterovirus mycotoxins upset stomach enterotoxins bacterial infection gastrointestinal disorder alimentary mycotoxicosis infectious diarrhea ptomaine ptomaine poisoning foodborne illness

353 Sentences With "rotavirus"

How to use rotavirus in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "rotavirus" and check conjugation/comparative form for "rotavirus". Mastering all the usages of "rotavirus" from sentence examples published by news publications.

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It remains to be seen whether the increase in immune response to the rotavirus vaccine translates to fewer children developing rotavirus diarrhea.
Another issue could be that newborn infants tend to already have antibodies to rotavirus passed on to them in the womb because their mothers have been exposed to rotavirus.
Rotavirus can leave children badly dehydrated and is sometimes fatal.
Before vaccines were developed, rotavirus killed about 450,403 children worldwide each year.
One prevents rotavirus infection, a potentially fatal cause of diarrhea in babies.
H.I.V., malaria, tuberculosis and rotavirus have been major priorities — not heart disease.
"But it's certainly worth the effort to have your child vaccinated for rotavirus."
One of that study's conclusions was that more rotavirus vaccine should be available.
And because mothers also get rotavirus, he added, they develop antibodies to it.
Details: Merck sold its rotavirus vaccine to Gavi for $3.50 per dose in Africa.
Raw camel milk has been shown to prevent rotavirus infections (which causes deadly diarrhea).
Rotavirus vaccines are normally 80 to 90 percent effective in wealthy and middle-income countries.
While the rotavirus vaccine protects about 21980% of children in developed countries such as the United States and Finland, a study found the same vaccine protected only 210% of Bangladeshi children from getting severe diarrhea from rotavirus in their first two years of life.
Globally, cervical cancer and rotavirus infections kill hundreds of thousands of women and children every year.
Other rotavirus vaccines take up as much space as all other commonly used refrigerated vaccines combined.
In any case, getting more rotavirus vaccine into more babies "is really important," Dr. Berkley said.
Rotavirus, a disease I had never even heard of, was killing half a million kids each year.
Omido brought him to the hospital, where tests for malaria, typhoid, and rotavirus all came back negative.
More than 30 athletes and officials had fallen ill, and there were three confirmed cases of rotavirus.
He had another bad rotavirus infection about a year ago and had to go to the clinic again.
Children who completed a full course of rotavirus vaccine were at lower risk of developing Type 1 diabetes.
Yet that is the reality for children around the world who don't have access to the rotavirus vaccine.
NATIONAL An article on Thursday about a vaccine for rotavirus referred incorrectly to another vaccine used in Africa.
Probiotics have also been shown to boost the already high immune response to rotavirus vaccine among babies in Finland.
Before his first birthday, Mohommad had a rotavirus infection and suffered diarrhea at least 19803 times in one day.
In 1999, the first American rotavirus vaccine, Rotashield, was withdrawn from the market because of fears that it triggered intussusception.
So far, John and his colleagues have found that giving infants a supplement of lactobacillus along with zinc, which also improves the health of the gut, in their breast milk starting one week before they got the rotavirus vaccine was associated with an increase in the number of children who developed protective antibodies to rotavirus.
As a result, he was putting himself at risk for hepatitis, rotavirus, and a whole slew of other pathogens and parasites.
Two examples in the survey are rotavirus, a severe gastroenteritis, and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), a leading cause of bacterial meningitis.
Vaccinating Nigerian infants against rotavirus can yield benefits worth a whopping $126 per dollar spent, thanks to the reduced toll of diarrhoea.
In 2006, the vaccine co-developed by Offit was introduced for rotavirus -- which caused severe diarrhea in infants -- significantly blunting the disease.
This small amount of feces could contain as many as 200 trillion rotavirus cells, 20 billion Shigella bacteria, and 100,000 parasitic worm eggs.
When they make mistakes they admit them and roll them back, like they did with the [first] rotavirus vaccine back in the 1990s.
It costs $70 per dose in the U.S. GlaxoSmithKline also sells a rotavirus vaccine, which it sells to Gavi for $2.25 per dose.
Among Spilki's more disturbing findings are that the water is loaded with rotavirus, which is associated with vomiting, diarrhea, and all-around misery.
The idea of adjusting the rotavirus vaccine schedule to make it work better is reminiscent of a strategy used for oral polio vaccine.
That many additional doses of rotavirus vaccine would be impractical because it's really only a health threat in children up to age 2.
A problem with the gut The rotavirus vaccine isn't the only one that fails to live up to its potential in developing countries.
La imagen muestra un pequeño frasco de medicamente que dice en inglés, "vacuna para rotavirus y coronavirus bovinos" y "exclusivamente para uso veterinario".
Some crucial vaccines for children are only available on the private market, such as those aimed at pneumonia and meningitis, pneumococcal and rotavirus.
Also, children in rich countries get protection against certain diseases — like chickenpox, German measles, rotavirus, pneumonia, flu and papillomavirus — that poor children do not.
Researchers ask the participating families to return to the clinic if their babies, after getting the rotavirus vaccine along with the routine immunizations, develop diarrhea.
When he was a baby, he was one of 210 infants who received the same highly effective rotavirus vaccine that's standard in the United States.
Not long ago, parents in the U.S. found themselves helpless in the face of infant death from tetanus; blindness from measles; and hospitalization from rotavirus.
We have children's vaccines against measles, mumps, rubella, diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, chickenpox, polio, hepatitis A and B, rotavirus, pneumococcus, haemophilus influenzae and meningococcal disease.
The market remains huge, especially since Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of Congo and other countries with great needs have yet to start immunizing against rotavirus.
Analysts told NPR it's not clear how much more money Merck stands to make in the Chinese market, but rotavirus is a big problem there, too.
Rotavirus is the most common cause of severe diarrhea in young children worldwide, and in Bangladesh it kills nearly 23,000 children younger than 5 every year.
If an injectable version of rotavirus were developed, it could be part of the solution because, like the injectable polio vaccine, it would bypass the gut.
There's a key similarity between the rotavirus, cholera and shigella vaccines: They are all given orally, as drops in the mouth or a solution to swallow.
Vaccination rates varied across states, with rotavirus (a common cause of stomach flu in children) coverage highest in Rhode Island (85.1%) and lowest in California (64.7%).
The vaccine that prevents rotavirus, which can cause severe gastric problems in children, may have another benefit: lowering the risk for Type 1 diabetes in toddlers.
They may also take oral vaccines, such as those against rotavirus, polio and cholera, even if they contain pork gelatin, because they are considered medicine, not food.
One of the best known viruses on this list, athletes who compete in the water may come into contact with Rotavirus — the main cause of gastroentertis globally.
"Vaccines are a victim of their own success," said Dr. Offit, a co-inventor of a vaccine for rotavirus, which can cause severe diarrhea in young children.
Diarrheal diseases, including contagious rotavirus causing watery diarrhea, vomiting, fever and abdominal pain (mostly among infants and young children), are another risk when children are too tightly housed.
Mohommad recovered, and by now, the worst is probably over, as dehydration and serious complications from rotavirus infections usually only occur in the first two years of life.
Boosting the performance of the rotavirus vaccine "is more of an engineering problem than a scientific problem ... to change several things so you incrementally improve it," Petri said.
Dr. Lee Riley, an infectious disease expert at the University of California, Berkeley, spoke to local reporters , warning about the dangers of fecal matter when it dries, specifically rotavirus.
An Australian study, published in JAMA Pediatrics, examined the prevalence of Type 1 diabetes in the eight years before and after the rotavirus vaccine came into use in 2007.
Holding up a beaker of fecal matter, Mr. Gates reminded the audience that human waste is disgusting, containing 200 trillion rotavirus particles and 100,000 parasitic worm eggs, among other organisms.
An Australian study found that in children up to 4 years old, the rate of Type 1 diabetes decreased by 15 percent in the years following the rotavirus vaccine's introduction.
Last year, 11 cruise ships carrying hundreds of passengers to the United States reported outbreaks of rotavirus, norovirus and E. coli, according to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Still, there are many developing countries that have limited vaccine supplies and scant funding for childhood vaccination services, which has allowed preventable diseases like whooping cough and rotavirus to continue spreading.
Rotavirus disease is a highly contagious virus that can cause severe illness and death in infants and young children, but there is a vaccine that is highly effective in preventing it.
Vaccines also may be less effective in poor countries because they may imperfectly match the circulating rotavirus strains, experts said, or because poor diets cause frequent diarrhea, removing protective gut bacteria.
The greatest testament to the performance of the rotavirus vaccine is the lack of children showing up at the clinic where Petri, Haque and their team are carrying out the current study.
These bugs have been implicated in the lackluster immune response to the cholera vaccine, and Petri and his colleagues have linked inflammation in the gut with poor protection from the rotavirus vaccine.
"It's very hard to combat an emotional feeling with statistics," said Paul Offit, director of the Vaccine Education Center at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia and the co-inventor of a rotavirus vaccine.
Mohommad's story could be a common one in Bangladesh, as well as many low-income countries in Africa and South America where the rotavirus vaccine is already included in the routine immunization schedule.
"We seem to be willing to rush a vaccine into clinical trials without extensive animal model or safety testing," said Paul Offit, a University of Pennsylvania immunologist who co-developed the rotavirus vaccine.
The new vaccine against rotavirus, the most common cause of death from diarrhea in children under age 5, is made by an Indian company and was tested in Niger by Doctors Without Borders.
"This is great news," said Dr. Paul A. Offit, an infectious disease specialist at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia and one of the inventors of another rotavirus vaccine, Rotateq, which was launched in 2006.
The new study, published in the New England Journal of Medicine, found that the vaccine, made by the Serum Institute of India, was 603 percent effective in preventing severe episodes of rotavirus-related diarrhea.
Over the first year of a baby's life, the AAP recommends vaccinations for Hepatitis B, rotavirus (RV) RV1, RV5, DTaP (diphtheria, tetanus and acellular pertussis), Haemophilus influenzae type b, pneumococcal conjugate, inactivated poliovirus and influenza.
Forty-two poor or lower-middle-income countries are now using rotavirus vaccine, said Dr. Seth Berkley, the chief executive of Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, which buys billions of dollars of vaccines for poorer countries.
The problem with a rotavirus vaccine was that another company had already developed one but then had to take it off the market because it was found to increase the risk of bowel obstruction in infants.
Several new or improved vaccines were introduced during the study period that may have helped reduce sick visits and hospitalizations for conditions like pneumococcal infections, some strains of seasonal flu and rotavirus, the study team notes.
In the 1980s, in the same slums in Dhaka where he and Petri now study rotavirus vaccination, nearly everybody was infected with a parasitic worm called ascaris, which can cause abdominal pain and growth delays in children.
That's important here, because both flu and rotavirus are certainly still in circulation and could well turn up in children who have not been immunized — both diseases are highly contagious and can be very serious in infants.
While it's far from certain that athletes will catch rotavirus from the polluted bay or Zika from mosquitoes, the deeper problems in Brazil aren't going to be improved — and may well be worsened — by hosting the games.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends vaccinations for Hepatitis B, rotavirus (RV) RV1, RV5, DTaP (diphtheria, tetanus and acellular pertussis), Haemophilus influenza type B, pneumococcal conjugate, inactivated poliovirus and influenza over the first year of a baby's life.
Merck & Co Inc on Monday won a second chance to argue that three pediatric medical practices should be forced to arbitrate claims they brought in a proposed class action alleging it illegally stifled competition to its rotavirus vaccine RotaTeq.
An earlier Japanese lab study revealed that povidone-iodine products outperformed other common antiseptics such as chlorhexidine gluconate and benzalkonium chloride in inactivating many other common problematic viruses, such as coxsackie, rhinovirus, adenovirus, rotavirus, influenza, to name a few.
It could control the level of inflammation in the gut, stimulate the immune response toward making antibodies and establish a gut microbiota that is "more conducive to a vaccine response," said John, who studies the immune response to the rotavirus vaccine.
Dr. Paul Offit, the director of the Vaccine Education Center at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia and the co-inventor of a rotavirus vaccine, said people often do not understand the severity of diseases that have been eradicated by vaccines.
The lead author, Kirsten P. Perrett of the University of Melbourne, said that these results, while not conclusive, show that it is possible that preventing rotavirus will reduce the risk for Type 1 diabetes in some infants at genetic risk.
Five times in the past 13 months, Copacabana Beach, where the marathon swimming and triathlon will take place, had so much rotavirus in the water that if it were located in California, it would have had to post water quality warnings.
We start giving flu shots at 6 months; a baby needs two doses, one month apart, so your baby should be protected against flu, and an 8-month-old child should also have finished the series of vaccines against rotavirus, which causes diarrhea.
The rotavirus and HPV vaccines were contentious subjects and might never have reached the market without Dr. Mahmoud's determination, said Dr. Julie L. Gerberding, an executive vice president at Merck & Co., and former head of the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
The image shows a picture of a vial of ScourGard 123K, a vaccine for "healthy, pregnant cows and heifers as an aid in preventing diarrhea in their calves caused by bovine rotavirus, bovine coronavirus, and enterotoxigenic strains of Escherichia coli", produced by the drug-manufacturer Zoetis ( here ).
More than 296 percent of Rwandan infants are vaccinated against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hepatitis B, Haemophilus influenzae Type B, polio, measles, rubella, pneumococcus and rotavirus, noted a 6003 study led by Dr. Paul Farmer, of Harvard Medical School, and Dr. Agnes Binagwaho, then Rwanda's health minister.
And records were reached for vaccination coverage for a range of other diseases including measles, rotavirus, and Hepatitis B. The spread of vaccination is the major cause of a dramatic decline in global infectious disease deaths: Estimated measles deaths fell from 103,000 in 2000 to 90,000 in 2016.
Soon after, Paul Offit, the director of the Vaccine Education Center at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia and co-inventor of a lifesaving rotavirus vaccine, said in The Daily Beast that the paper shouldn't have been published, in part because the study was small and conflicted with earlier research.
Although a rotavirus vaccine is one of the recommended childhood immunizations in countries like the United States, where the disease is responsible for only 243 to 21960 deaths a year, it is not a routine immunization in many countries with a high burden of disease, including Bangladesh, Pakistan and India.
The study in which Mohommad and his family are participating tested the effect of giving children the two doses of rotavirus vaccine at 10 and 17 weeks of age instead of the recommended 6 and 10 weeks, when higher levels of maternal antibodies could remain and prevent infants' immune systems from responding to the vaccine.
The incidence and severity of rotavirus infections has declined significantly in countries that have acted on the recommendation to introduce the rotavirus vaccine. In Mexico, which in 2006 was among the first countries in the world to introduce rotavirus vaccine, the diarrheal disease death rates from rotavirus dropped by more than 65% among children age two and under during the 2009 rotavirus season. In Nicaragua, which in 2006 became the first developing country to introduce the rotavirus vaccine, investigators recorded a substantial impact, with rotavirus vaccine preventing 60% of cases against severe rotavirus and cutting emergency room visits in half.
A 2014 review of available clinical trial data from countries routinely using rotavirus vaccines in their national immunisation programs found that rotavirus vaccines have reduced rotavirus hospitalisations by 49–92 percent and all cause diarrhoea hospitalisations by 17–55 percent. In Mexico, which in 2006 was among the first countries in the world to introduce rotavirus vaccine, diarrhoeal disease death rates dropped during the 2009 rotavirus season by more than 65 percent among children age two and under. In Nicaragua, which in 2006 became the first developing country to introduce a rotavirus vaccine, severe rotavirus infections were reduced by 40 percent and emergency room visits by a half. In the United States, rotavirus vaccination since 2006 has led to drops in rotavirus-related hospitalisations by as much as 86 percent.
Following rotavirus vaccine introduction in the United States, hospitalisation rates have fallen significantly. Public health campaigns to combat rotavirus focus on providing oral rehydration therapy for infected children and vaccination to prevent the disease. The incidence and severity of rotavirus infections has declined significantly in countries that have added rotavirus vaccine to their routine childhood immunisation policies.
The incidence and severity of rotavirus infections has declined significantly in countries that have added rotavirus vaccine to their routine childhood immunisation policies.
In the United States, vaccination has reduced rotavirus-related hospitalizations by as much as 86% since 2006. Recent studies in developing countries that have introduced rotavirus vaccines have supported these findings, showing significant decreases in deaths and hospitalizations from rotavirus diarrhea after introduction. Additionally, the vaccines may also prevent illness in non-vaccinated children by limiting exposure through the number of circulating infections. A 2014 review of available clinical trial data from countries routinely using rotavirus vaccines in their national immunization programs found that rotavirus vaccines have reduced rotavirus hospitalizations by 49–92% and all-cause diarrhea hospitalizations by 17–55%.
In addition to its impact on human health, rotavirus also infects animals, and is a pathogen of livestock. Rotavirus is usually an easily managed disease of childhood, but worldwide nearly 500,000 children under five years of age still die from rotavirus infection each year and almost two million more become severely ill. In the United States, before initiation of the rotavirus vaccination programme, rotavirus caused about 2.7 million cases of severe gastroenteritis in children, almost 60,000 hospitalisations, and around 37 deaths each year. Public health campaigns to combat rotavirus focus on providing oral rehydration therapy for infected children and vaccination to prevent the disease.
Following the introduction of routine rotavirus vaccination in the US in 2006, the health burden of rotavirus gastroenteritis "rapidly and dramatically reduced" despite lower coverage levels compared to other routine infant immunizations. Clinical trials of the Rotarix rotavirus vaccine in South Africa and Malawi, found that the vaccine significantly reduced severe diarrhoea episodes caused by rotavirus, and that the infection was preventable by vaccination. A 2019 Cochrane systematic review of 55 clinical trials that included 216,480 participants concluded RV1 (Rotarix), RV5 (RotaTeq), and Rotavac and are effective vaccines. Additional rotavirus vaccines are under development.
The team's work has led to global control of rotavirus. Dr Bishop has also published theoretical works about the patterns in the epidemiology of rotavirus infection.José MV, Bishop RF. Scaling properties and symmetrical patterns in the epidemiology of rotavirus infection. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci.
Lanzhou lamb rotavirus vaccine was licensed for use in China in 2000, and is manufactured by the Lanzhou Institute of Biological Products. It contains a G10P[12] lamb rotavirus strain.
Because improved sanitation does not decrease the prevalence of rotaviral disease, and the rate of hospitalisations remains high, despite the use of oral rehydrating medicines, the primary public health intervention is vaccination. Two rotavirus vaccines against Rotavirus A infection are safe and effective in children: Rotarix by GlaxoSmithKline and RotaTeq by Merck. Both are taken orally and contain attenuated live virus. Rotavirus vaccines are licensed in more than 100 countries, but only 17 countries have introduced routine rotavirus vaccination.
Rotavirus vaccine decrease the rates of diarrhea in a population. New vaccines against rotavirus, Shigella, Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), and cholera are under development, as well as other causes of infectious diarrhea.
Rotavirus, norovirus, adenovirus, and astrovirus are known to cause viral gastroenteritis. Rotavirus is the most common cause of gastroenteritis in children, and produces similar rates in both the developed and developing world. Viruses cause about 70% of episodes of infectious diarrhea in the pediatric age group. Rotavirus is a less common cause in adults due to acquired immunity.
This family represents a rotavirus cis-acting replication element (CRE) found at the 3'-end of rotavirus mRNAs. The family is thought to promote the synthesis of minus strand RNA to form viral dsRNA.
The World Health Organization(WHO) recommends that rotavirus vaccine be included in all national immunisation programmes. The incidence and severity of rotavirus infections has declined significantly in countries that have acted on this recommendation. The Rotavirus Vaccine Program is a collaboration between PATH, the (WHO), and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and is funded by the GAVI Alliance. The Program aims to reduce child morbidity and mortality from diarrhoeal disease by making a vaccine against rotavirus available for use in developing countries.
India's implementation of the rotavirus vaccine in its Universal Immunization Programme has saved many children's lives. Nearly every child in every country globally experiences at least one rotavirus infection in early childhood. However, in India, children are more likely to get this infection multiple times, and children in India are more likely to die from it. A rotavirus vaccine is available.
A 2009 review estimated that vaccination against rotavirus would prevent about 45% of deaths due to rotavirus gastroenteritis, or about 228,000 deaths annually worldwide. At US$5 per dose, the estimated cost per life saved was $3,015, $9,951 and $11,296 in low-, lower-middle-, and upper-middle-income countries, respectively. Safety and efficacy trials in Africa and Asia found that the vaccines dramatically reduced severe disease among infants in developing countries, where a majority of rotavirus-related deaths occur. A 2019 Cochrane review concluded that RV1, RV5, and Rotavac vaccines are safe and are effective at preventing diarrhea. Rotavirus vaccines are licensed in more than 100 countries, and more than 80 countries have introduced routine rotavirus vaccination.
PATH supports the introduction of vaccines against rotavirus in developing countries to protect young children from severe diarrhea. In 2006, PATH helped Nicaragua become the first developing country to introduce rotavirus vaccines within months of their introduction. Former PATH researcher John Wecker noted that rotavirus infections dropped in areas that began to use the vaccine after the WHO recommended its international use in 2009. PATH also conducts research to show the impact of rotavirus vaccines and help countries choose whether to adopt the vaccines into their immunization programs.
Cellular vs Rotavirus Translation Rotavirus protein NSP3 (NS34) is bound to the 3' end consensus sequence of viral mRNAs in infected cells. Four nucleotides are the minimal requirement for RNA recognition by rotavirus nonstructural protein NSP3: using short oligoribonucleotides, it was established that the minimal RNA sequence required for binding of NSP3A is GACC. Rotavirus RNA-binding protein NSP3 interacts with eIF4GI and evicts the poly(A)-binding protein from eIF4F. And NSP3A, by taking the place of PABP on eIF4GI, is responsible for the shut-off of cellular protein synthesis.
The experience provoked intense debate about the relative risks and benefits of a rotavirus vaccine. In 2006, two new vaccines against ' infection were shown to be safe and effective in children, and in 2009, the WHO recommended that rotavirus vaccine be included in all national immunisation programmes. The incidence and severity of rotavirus infections has declined significantly in countries that have acted on this recommendation.
Rotavirus gastroenteritis is the most common cause of severe diarrhoea among infants and young children. It is caused by Rotavirus, a genus of double- stranded RNA virus in the family Reoviridae. By the age of five, nearly every child in the world has been infected with rotavirus at least once. However, with each infection, immunity develops, and subsequent infections are less severe; adults are rarely affected.
The viruses survive between 9 and 19 days. Sanitary measures adequate for eliminating bacteria and parasites seem to be ineffective in control of rotavirus, as the incidence of rotavirus infection in countries with high and low health standards is similar.
In 1974, Thomas Henry Flewett suggested the name rotavirus after observing that, when viewed through an electron microscope, a rotavirus particle looks like a wheel (rota in Latin); the name was officially recognised by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses four years later. In 1976, related viruses were described in several other species of animals. These viruses, all causing acute gastroenteritis, were recognised as a collective pathogen affecting humans and animals worldwide. Rotavirus serotypes were first described in 1980, and in the following year, rotavirus from humans was first grown in cell cultures derived from monkey kidneys, by adding trypsin (an enzyme found in the duodenum of mammals and now known to be essential for rotavirus to replicate) to the culture medium.
During 2005, the largest recorded epidemic of diarrhoea occurred in Nicaragua. This unusually large and severe outbreak was associated with mutations in the rotavirus A genome, possibly helping the virus escape the prevalent immunity in the population. A similar large outbreak occurred in Brazil in 1977. Rotavirus B, also called adult diarrhoea rotavirus or ADRV, has caused major epidemics of severe diarrhoea affecting thousands of people of all ages in China.
Cellular vs rotavirus translation Rotavirus RNA- binding protein NSP3 interacts with eIF4GI and evicts the poly(A) binding protein from eIF4F. NSP3A by taking the place of PABP on eIF4GI, is responsible for the shut-off of cellular protein synthesis. Rotavirus mRNAs terminate a 3’ GACC motif that is recognized by the viral protein NSP3. This is the location where NSP3 competes with poly(A)-binding protein for eIF4G binding.
235x235px Rotarix is a monovalent, human, live attenuated rotavirus vaccine containing one rotavirus strain of G1P[8] specificity. Rotarix is indicated for the prevention of rotavirus gastroenteritis caused by G1 and non-G1 types (G3, G4, and G9) when administered as a 2-dose series in infants and children. It was approved in Europe in 2006 and by the U.S. FDA in April 2008. It is administered by mouth.
Some live vaccinations include: MMR, varicella, certain types of the influenza vaccine, and rotavirus.
Once rotavirus infection occurs viral GACC-tailed mRNAs are translated while the poly(A)-tailed mRNA is severely impaired. In infected cells, there have been high magnitudes of both translation induction (GACC- tailed mRNA) and reduction (poly(A)-tailed mRNA) both dependent on the rotavirus strain. These data suggest that NSP3 is a translational surrogate of the PABP-poly(A) complex; therefore, it cannot by itself be responsible for inhibiting the translation of host poly(A)-tailed mRNAs upon rotavirus infection. PABP-C1 evicted from eIF4G by NSP3 accumulates in the nucleus of rotavirus-infected cells.
More than 80 countries have introduced routine rotavirus vaccination, almost half with the support of Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance. In order to make rotavirus vaccines available, accessible, and affordable in all countries—particularly low- and middle-income countries in Africa and Asia where the majority of rotavirus deaths occur—international non-governmental organization PATH, the WHO, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and Gavi have partnered with research institutions and governments to generate and disseminate evidence, lower prices, and accelerate introduction. These and other organizations continue to work to improve coverage and public health impact of rotavirus vaccination today.
H. Fred Clark and Paul Offit, the inventors of RotaTeq. RotaTeq is a live, oral pentavalent vaccine that contains five rotavirus strains produced by reassortment. The rotavirusA parent strains of the reassortants were isolated from human and bovine hosts. Four reassortant rotaviruses express one of the outer capsid, VP7, proteins (serotypes G1, G2, G3, or G4) from the human rotavirus parent strain and the attachment protein VP4 (type P7) from the bovine rotavirus parent strain.
Percentage of rotavirus tests with positive results, by surveillance week, United States, July 2000 – June 2009.
Rotavirus infections rarely cause other complications and for a well managed child the prognosis is excellent.
Rotaviruses elicit both B and T cell immune responses. Antibodies to the rotavirus VP4 and VP7 proteins neutralise viral infectivity in vitro and in vivo. Specific antibodies of the classes IgM, IgA and IgG are produced, which have been shown to protect against rotavirus infection by the passive transfer of the antibodies in other animals. Maternal trans-placental IgG might play a role in the protection neonates from rotavirus infections, but on the other hand might reduce vaccine efficacy.
Rotavirus gastroenteritis is a mild to severe disease characterised by vomiting, watery diarrhoea, and low-grade fever. Once a child is infected by the virus, there is an incubation period of about two days before symptoms appear. Symptoms often start with vomiting followed by four to eight days of profuse diarrhoea. Dehydration is more common in rotavirus infection than in most of those caused by bacterial pathogens, and is the most common cause of death related to rotavirus infection.
Reverse transcription- polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) can detect and identify all species and serotypes of human rotavirus.
Globally, vaccination has reduced hospital admissions and emergency department visits by a median of 67%. Rotavirus vaccines are licensed in over 100 countries, and more than 80 countries have introduced routine rotavirus vaccination, almost half with the support of Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance. To make rotavirus vaccines available, accessible, and affordable in all countries—particularly low- and middle-income countries in Africa and Asia where the majority of rotavirus deaths occur, PATH (formerly Program for Appropriate Technology in Health), the WHO, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and Gavi have partnered with research institutions and governments to generate and disseminate evidence, lower prices, and accelerate introduction. The vaccine may prevent type 1 diabetes.
IVI initiated the Rotavirus Diarrhea Program to provide policymakers in developing countries with the disease burden evidence and economic data needed to ensure the inclusion of rotavirus vaccines in their national immunization programs. Running from 1999 to 2010, the program conducted disease surveillance and economic studies in Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Mongolia, South Korea, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam. In 2007, in collaboration with Vietnam's National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology (NIHE), IVI conducted a Phase II trial of GSK's RotaRix rotavirus vaccine in Khanh Hoa, Vietnam. In 2009, in collaboration with NIHE, PATH, and Merck, IVI completed a phase III trial of Merck's RotaTeq rotavirus vaccine in Nha Trang Vietnam, where it vaccinated 900 infants.
The levels of IgG and IgA in the blood and IgA in the gut correlate with protection from infection. Rotavirus specific serum IgG and IgA at high titres (e.g. >1:200) have been claimed to be protective and there is a significant correlation between IgA titres and rotavirus vaccine efficacy.
Rotavirus infections occur primarily during cool, dry seasons. The number attributable to food contamination is unknown. Outbreaks of rotavirus A diarrhoea are common among hospitalised infants, young children attending day care centres, and elderly people in nursing homes. An outbreak caused by contaminated municipal water occurred in Colorado in 1981.
Following infection by rotaviruses there is a rapid innate immune response involving types I and III interferons and other cytokines (particularly Th1 and Th2 ) which inhibit the replication of the virus and recruit macrophages and natural killer cells to the rotavirus infected cells. The rotavirus dsRNA activates pattern recognition receptors such toll-like receptors that stimulate the production of interferons. The rotavirus protein NSP1 counteracts the effects of type 1 interferons by suppressing the activity of the interferon regulatory proteins IRF3, IRF5 and IRF7.
While sapovirus has two ORFs Astrovirus has three and also has 6 recombinant strains. Astrovirus replicate within the cytoplasm and are propagated readily in the GI tract. Rotavirus, like norovirus, astrovirus, and sapovirus, causes gastroenteritis. Rotavirus, however, is much more lethal, causing 37% of deaths in children with diarrhea and 215,000 deaths worldwide.
In addition to the VPs, there are six nonstructural proteins (NSPs), that are only produced in cells infected by rotavirus. These are called NSP1, NSP2, NSP3, NSP4, NSP5 and NSP6. At least six of the twelve proteins encoded by the rotavirus genome bind RNA. The role of these proteins play in rotavirus replication is not entirely understood; their functions are thought to be related to RNA synthesis and packaging in the virion, mRNA transport to the site of genome replication, and mRNA translation and regulation of gene expression.
This is about 40 per cent of all hospital admissions related to diarrhea in children under five worldwide.UNICEF/WHO (2009) "Diarrhoea: Why children are still dying and what can be done." Retrieved 23 May 2010 In the United States alone—before initiation of the rotavirus vaccination programme—over 2.7 million cases of rotavirus gastroenteritis occurred annually, 60,000 children were hospitalised and around 37 died from the results of the infection. The major role of rotavirus in causing diarrhoea is not widely recognised within the public health community, particularly in developing countries.
The Food and Drug Administration approved two mammalian vero cell based vaccines for rotavirus, Rotarix by GlaxoSmithKline and RotaTeq by Merck.
Rotavirus is the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis in infants and young children worldwide. This virus contains a dsRNA genome and is a member of the Reoviridae family. The genome of rotavirus consists of eleven segments of dsRNA. Each genome segment codes for one protein with the exception of segment 11, which codes for two proteins.
The experience provoked intense debate about the relative risks and benefits of a rotavirus vaccine. In 2006, two new vaccines against infection were shown to be safe and effective in children, and in June 2009 the World Health Organization recommended that rotavirus vaccination be included in all national immunisation programmes to provide protection against this virus.
RoXaN (Rotavirus 'X'-associated non-structural protein) also known as ZC3H7B (zinc finger CCCH-type containing 7B), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ZC3H7B gene. RoXaN is a protein that contains tetratricopeptide repeat and leucine-aspartate repeat as well as zinc finger domains. This protein also interacts with the rotavirus non-structural protein NSP3.
In addition to its impact on human health, rotavirus also infects other animals, and is a pathogen of livestock. Rotaviral enteritis is usually an easily managed disease of childhood, but in 2013, rotaviruses caused 37 percent of deaths of children from diarrhoea and 215,000 deaths worldwide, and almost two million more became severely ill. Most of these deaths occurred in developing countries. In the United States, before initiation of the rotavirus vaccination programme in the 2000s, rotavirus caused about 2.7 million cases of severe gastroenteritis in children, almost 60,000 hospitalisations, and around 37 deaths each year.
There are ten species of rotavirus, referred to as A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I and J. Humans are primarily infected by the species rotavirus A. A–E species cause disease in other animals, species E and H in pigs, D, F and G in birds, I in cats and J in bats. Within rotavirus A there are different strains, called serotypes. As with influenza virus, a dual classification system is used based on two proteins on the surface of the virus. The glycoprotein VP7 defines the G serotypes and the protease-sensitive protein VP4 defines P serotypes.
Dehydration is more common in rotavirus infection than in most of those caused by bacterial pathogens, and is the most common cause of death related to rotavirus infection. Rotavirus A infections can occur throughout life: the first usually produces symptoms, but subsequent infections are typically mild or asymptomatic, as the immune system provides some protection. Consequently, symptomatic infection rates are highest in children under two years of age and decrease progressively towards 45 years of age. The most severe symptoms tend to occur in children six months to two years of age, the elderly, and those with immunodeficiency.
Rotavirus is a genus of double-stranded RNA viruses in the family Reoviridae. Rotaviruses are the most common cause of diarrhoeal disease among infants and young children. Nearly every child in the world is infected with a rotavirus at least once by the age of five. Immunity develops with each infection, so subsequent infections are less severe; adults are rarely affected.
Due to immunity acquired in childhood, most adults are not susceptible to rotavirus; gastroenteritis in adults usually has a cause other than rotavirus, but asymptomatic infections in adults may maintain the transmission of infection in the community. There is some evidence to suggest blood group secretor status and the predominant bacteria in the gut can impact on the susceptibility to infection by rotaviruses.
One of Flewett's original electron micrographs showing a single rotavirus particle. When examined by negative stained electron microscopy, rotaviruses often resemble wheels. In 1943, Jacob Light and Horace Hodes proved that a filterable agent in the faeces of children with infectious diarrhoea also caused scours (livestock diarrhoea) in cattle. Three decades later, preserved samples of the agent were shown to be rotavirus.
These epidemics occurred as a result of sewage contamination of drinking water. Rotavirus B infections also occurred in India in 1998; the causative strain was named CAL. Unlike ADRV, the CAL strain is endemic. To date, epidemics caused by rotavirus B have been confined to mainland China, and surveys indicate a lack of immunity to this species in the United States.
Her dissertation was on mathematical epidemiology, titled "Evaluation of Rotavirus models with coinfection and vaccination" under the advisement of Herbert W. Hethcote and Tong Li.
While hygienic measures alone may be insufficient for the prevention of rotavirus diarrhea, it can be prevented by a safe and potentially cost-effective vaccine.
Gene 11 of Rotavirus encodes a nonstructural protein, NSP5 and also encodes NSP6, from an out of phase open reading frame. In contrast to the other rotavirus non-structural proteins, NSP6 was found to have a high rate of turnover, being completely degraded within 2h of synthesis. NSP6 was found to be a sequence independent nucleic acid binding protein, with similar affinities for ssRNA and dsRNA.
Paul Offit (right) along with H. Fred Clark. Clark and Offit are two of the three inventors of the rotavirus vaccine RotaTeq, which is credited with saving hundreds of lives a day. Offit worked for 25 years on the development of a safe and effective vaccine against rotavirus, which is a cause of diarrhea, and which kills almost 600,000 children a year worldwide, about half as many as malaria kills; most deaths are outside the West. His interest in the disease stemmed from the death of a 9-month-old infant from rotavirus-caused dehydration while under his care as a pediatric resident in 1979.
Rotavirus is transmitted by the faecal-oral route, via contact with contaminated hands, surfaces and objects, and possibly by the respiratory route. The faeces of an infected person can contain more than 10 trillion infectious particles per gram; fewer than 100 of these are required to transmit infection to another person. Rotaviruses are stable in the environment and have been found in estuary samples at levels as high as 1–5 infectious particles per US gallon. Sanitary measures adequate for eliminating bacteria and parasites seem to be ineffective in control of rotavirus, as the incidence of rotavirus infection in countries with high and low health standards is similar.
The ability to grow rotavirus in culture accelerated the pace of research, and by the mid-1980s the first candidate vaccines were being evaluated. In 1998, a rotavirus vaccine was licensed for use in the United States. Clinical trials in the United States, Finland, and Venezuela had found it to be 80 to 100% effective at preventing severe diarrhoea caused by rotavirus A, and researchers had detected no statistically significant serious adverse effects. The manufacturer, however, withdrew it from the market in 1999, after it was discovered that the vaccine may have contributed to an increased risk for intussusception, a type of bowel obstruction, in one of every 12,000 vaccinated infants.
Kang is a medical scientist who has worked on diarrhoea diseases and public health in India since the early 1990s. She is a key contributor to rotavirus epidemiology and vaccinology in India. Focusing on vaccines, enteric infections and nutrition in young children in disadvantaged communities, she has combined field epidemiology with intensive laboratory investigations to inform both the science of infectious diseases and policy in India. Her comprehensive research on rotavirus has demonstrated the high burden of rotavirus disease across India, the genetic diversity of viruses, the lower protection from infection and vaccines and the exploration of several approaches to improve the performance of oral vaccines.
Otherwise, the virus can be released into extracellular fluids. Examples of localised infections include: common cold (rhinovirus), flu (parainfluenza), gastrointestinal infections (rotavirus) or skin infections (papillomavirus).
Kang G, et al. Rotavirus vaccines. Indian J of Med Microbiol 2006;24:4:252-7. Doctors Without Borders (MSF) developed a heat-stable version named BRV-PV.
Almost every child has been infected with rotavirus by age five. It is the leading single cause of severe diarrhoea among infants and children, being responsible for about 20% of cases, and accounts for 50% of the cases requiring hospitalisation. Rotavirus causes 37% of deaths attributable to diarrhoea and 5% of all deaths in children younger than five. Boys are twice as likely as girls to be admitted to hospital.
There are ten species of the genus, referred to as A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I and J. Rotavirus A, the most common species, causes more than 90% of rotavirus infections in humans. The virus is transmitted by the faecal-oral route. It infects and damages the cells that line the small intestine and causes gastroenteritis (which is often called "stomach flu" despite having no relation to influenza). Although Rotavirus was discovered in 1973 by Ruth Bishop and her colleagues by electron micrograph images and accounts for approximately one third of hospitalisations for severe diarrhoea in infants and children, its importance has historically been underestimated within the public health community, particularly in developing countries.
Additional rotavirus vaccines are under development. These include: a human neonatal P[6]G3 strain, RV3, developed by Ruth Bishop and colleagues in Australia; a human bovine reassortant vaccine developed by Albert Kapikian and presently undergoing development and trials in different countries; and a non-replicating rotavirus vaccine (NRRV) candidate made of the P2-VP8 fusion protein, which is currently undergoing development and trials in South Africa. Rotavirus antigens for parenteral delivery, such as the P2-VP8 candidate, can be expressed as virus-like particles prepared in baculovirus, expressed antigens, DNA vaccines, and killed virus. These novel approaches are being pursued using animal models and, in the case of the NRRV P2-VP8 candidate, clinical trials.
The name "rotavirus" was later suggested by the Irishman, Thomas Henry Flewett, because of the round, wheel-like shape of virus particles. Rotaviruses cause diarrhoea and vomiting in young children and are a leading cause of death in the developing countries. Three thousand children are now hospitalised with rotavirus every year, down from 10,000 before the vaccine was introduced in 2007. Bishop says the invention of electron microscopy helped her make the discovery.
These antibodies stimulate monocyte proliferation, and rotavirus infection might explain some early steps in the cascade of immune cell proliferation. Indeed, earlier studies of rotavirus damage in the gut showed this causes a villous atrophy. This suggests that viral proteins may take part in the initial flattening and stimulate self-crossreactive anti-VP7 production. Antibodies to VP7 may also slow healing until the gliadin-mediated tTG presentation provides a second source of crossreactive antibodies.
Rotavirus is spread through the mouth and skin, but the virus leaves those cells alone and only infects and reproduces in cells in the small intestine. She has additionally studied how the rotavirus spreads in human populations, the immune response to it, and its replication cycle. This work has contributed to new diagnostic tests, isolation of new strains, and efforts towards a vaccine. She’s published more than 130 papers in international journals.
Rotavirus vaccine is a vaccine used to protect against rotavirus infections, which are the leading cause of severe diarrhea among young children. The vaccines prevent 15-34% of severe diarrhea in the developing world and 37-96% of severe diarrhea in the developed world. The vaccines decrease the risk of death among young children due to diarrhea. Immunizing babies decreases rates of disease among older people and those who have not been immunized.
Ruth Frances Bishop (born 12 May 1933)Who's Who in Australia, ConnectWeb, 2013. is an Australian virologist, who was a leading member of the team that discovered the human rotavirus.
It also offers a range of vaccines, for the prevention of hepatitis A, hepatitis B, invasive disease caused by H, influenzae, chickenpox, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, rotavirus, cervical cancer and others.
Rotavin-M1 was licensed for use in Vietnam in 2007, and is manufactured by the Center for Research and Production of Vaccines. The vaccine contains a G1P[8] human rotavirus strain.
Caesium chloride (CsCl) solution and two morphological types of rotavirus. Following centrifugation at 100g a density gradient forms in the CsCl solution and the virus particle separate according to their densities.
Rotavirus A infections can occur throughout life: the first usually produces symptoms, but subsequent infections are typically mild or asymptomatic, as the immune system provides some protection. Consequently, symptomatic infection rates are highest in children under two years of age and decrease progressively towards 45 years of age. Infection in newborn children, although common, is often associated with mild or asymptomatic disease; the most severe symptoms tend to occur in children six months to two years of age, the elderly, and those with compromised or absent immune system functions. Due to immunity acquired in childhood, most adults are not susceptible to rotavirus; gastroenteritis in adults usually has a cause other than rotavirus, but asymptomatic infections in adults may maintain the transmission of infection in the community.
Both whole bovine MFGM and its extracted lipid components were found to exhibit dose-dependent inhibition of rotavirus infectivity in vitro. Antibacterial effects of MFGM have included decreased gastric colonization and inflammation after H. pylori infection in mice; inhibition of shiga toxin gene expression by E. coli O157:H7; and decreased colonization and translocation of L. monocytogenes. Mice that were fed prophylactically with bovine whey glycoprotein fraction, including MFGM proteins, did not develop diarrhea after exposure to rotavirus.
G18P or RVA/pigeon-wt/AUS/VIC/2016/G18P[17] is a strain of Rotavirus A infecting and killing domestic pigeons. This disease is found in Western Australia, Victoria, and South Australia.
Genistin and other isoflavones are demonstrated to be bioactive within the neonatal intestine and may reduce the severity of rotavirus infections; genistin alone shows inhibition of the viral infectivity by 40-60%.
Figure 1: Molecular targets and potential antiviral treatments against influenza virus infection Nitazoxanide is also being researched as a potential treatment for chronic hepatitis B, chronic hepatitis C, rotavirus and norovirus gastroenteritis.
Description: Electron micrograph of two rotavirus particles that have been negatively stained with potassium phosphotungstate Estes has studied rotaviruses and noroviruses. Although rotaviruses can infect animals, the research Estes performs concerns its effects on children. In the 2009 article Rotaviruses: from pathogenesis to vaccination Estes explains the life- threatening side effects of rotavirus infection and the vaccinations that are now being used as a preventative measure. Efforts, by others to develop a successful vaccine against the virus started in the 1980s.
There are five species of rotavirus, referred to as A, B, C, D and E. Humans are primarily infected by species A, B and C, most commonly by species A. All five species cause disease in other animals. Within rotavirus A there are different strains, called serotypes. As with influenza virus, a dual classification system is used based on two proteins on the surface of the virus. The glycoprotein VP7 defines the G serotypes and the protease-sensitive protein VP4 defines P serotypes.
Most of the rotavirus proteins accumulate in viroplasm, where the RNA is replicated and the DLPs are assembled. Viroplasm is formed around the cell nucleus as early as two hours after virus infection, and consists of viral factories thought to be made by two viral nonstructural proteins: NSP5 and NSP2. Inhibition of NSP5 by RNA interference results in a sharp decrease in rotavirus replication. The DLPs migrate to the endoplasmic reticulum where they obtain their third, outer layer (formed by VP7 and VP4).
In rotavirus-infected cells, the non-structural proteins NSP5 and NSP2 localize in complexes called viroplasms, where replication and assembly occur and they can drive the formation of viroplasm-like structures in the absence of other rotaviral proteins and rotavirus replication. There is no atomic-resolution structure of NSP5 determined as of June 2019. However, the low resolution three-dimensional structure of the NSP2-NSP5 assembly has been observed by cryo-EM. NSP5 occupies the same site as RNA when binding to NSP2.
The YGL motif (or the amino acids in sequence of Tyrosine-Glycine-Leucine) is an integrin-binding motif present in several viral glycoproteins including Equine Herpes Virus (EHV) 1, EHV-4, and in rotavirus VP4.
She also spent nearly nine years serving on the Editorial Board for the Journal of Virology. electron microscopy image of rotavirus From 2000 to 2010 she was a Howard Hughes Medical Institute International Research Scholar.
Due to both its effectiveness and safety, in 2009 the World Health Organization recommended that the rotavirus vaccine be offered to all children globally. Two commercial rotavirus vaccines exist and several more are in development. In Africa and Asia these vaccines reduced severe disease among infants and countries that have put in place national immunization programs have seen a decline in the rates and severity of disease. This vaccine may also prevent illness in non- vaccinated children by reducing the number of circulating infections.
The study compared nitazoxanide and probiotics in the treatment of acute rotavirus diarrhea. They found small differences in favor of nitazoxanide in comparison with probiotics and concluded that nitazoxanide is an important treatment option for rotavirus diarrhea. Lateef et al.. conducted a study in India that evaluated the effectiveness of nitazoxanide in the treatment of beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata) infection. They concluded that nitazoxanide is a safe, effective, inexpensive, and well-tolerated drug for the treatment of niclosamide- and praziquantel-resistant beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata) infection.
Both are taken orally and contain disabled live virus. The World Health Organization recommends that rotavirus vaccine be included in all national immunization schedules because the risk of intussusception following rotavirus vaccination remains very low compared with the benefits of preventing the impact of severe and deadly diarrhea. In 2011, Merck agreed to sell its vaccine to Gavi at $3.50 per dose, for distribution to West African countries, compared to about $70 in the United States. GlaxoSmithKline sells its vaccine for $2.25 per dose.
PATH is working with biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies to support the development of vaccines for diseases such as meningitis and pneumonia and to help countries introduce vaccines for childhood illnesses such as rotavirus and Japanese encephalitis.
Along with his colleagues Fred Clark and Stanley Plotkin, Offit invented RotaTeq, a pentavalent rotavirus vaccine manufactured by Merck & Co. Since 2006, RotaTeq has been one of two vaccines currently used against rotavirus. In February 2006, RotaTeq was approved for inclusion in the recommended U.S. vaccination schedule, following its approval by the Food and Drug Administration. Premarketing studies found that RotaTeq was effective and safe, with an incidence of adverse events comparable to placebo. RotaTeq has been credited (by Peter Hotez) with saving hundreds of lives a day.
In 1998, Merck & Co. recruited Mahmoud as president of its vaccine division, a position he held until he retired in 2006. At Merck, he oversaw the development of several important vaccines, including the rotavirus vaccine and the HPV vaccine. The former prevents potentially fatal diarrhea for young children caused by rotavirus, while the latter (Gardasil) prevents several cancers, most importantly cervix cancer, caused by the human papillomavirus. His role was considered pivotal as he overcame significant doubt about the viability of the vaccines and succeeded in bringing them to market.
In the intervening years, a virus in mice was shown to be related to the virus causing scours. In 1973, Ruth Bishop and colleagues described related viruses found in children with gastroenteritis. In 1974, Thomas Henry Flewett suggested the name rotavirus after observing that, when viewed through an electron microscope, a rotavirus particle looks like a wheel (rota in Latin) the name was officially recognised by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses four years later. In 1976, related viruses were described in several other species of animals.
These viruses, all causing acute gastroenteritis, were recognised as a collective pathogen affecting humans and other animals worldwide. Rotavirus serotypes were first described in 1980, and in the following year, rotaviruses from humans were first grown in cell cultures derived from monkey kidneys, by adding trypsin (an enzyme found in the duodenum of mammals and now known to be essential for rotavirus to replicate) to the culture medium. The ability to grow rotaviruses in culture accelerated the pace of research, and by the mid-1980s the first candidate vaccines were being evaluated.
This is especially important for close family members, who account for most of the transmissions to young infants. In the same manner, children receiving vaccines against pneumococcus reduces pneumococcal disease incidence among younger, unvaccinated siblings. Vaccinating children against pneumococcus and rotavirus has had the effect of reducing pneumococcus- and rotavirus-attributable hospitalizations for older children and adults, who do not normally receive these vaccines. Influenza (flu) is more severe in the elderly than in younger age groups, but influenza vaccines lack effectiveness in this demographic due to a waning of the immune system with age.
The toxic rotavirus protein NSP4 induces age- and calcium ion- dependent chloride secretion, disrupts SGLT1 transporter-mediated reabsorption of water, apparently reduces activity of brush-border membrane disaccharidases, and possibly activates the calcium ion-dependent secretory reflexes of the enteric nervous system. Healthy enterocytes secrete lactase into the small intestine; milk intolerance due to lactase deficiency is a symptom of rotavirus infection, which can persist for weeks. A recurrence of mild diarrhoea often follows the reintroduction of milk into the child's diet, due to bacterial fermentation of the disaccharide lactose in the gut.
Even in developed countries there are periodic system failures resulting in a sanitary sewer overflow. This is the typical mode of transmission for infectious agents such as cholera, hepatitis A, polio, Rotavirus, Salmonella, and parasites (e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides).
Presentations differ among causes, but T cell insufficiency generally manifests as unusually severe common viral infections (respiratory syncytial virus, rotavirus), diarrhea, and eczematous or erythrodermatous rashes. Failure to thrive and cachexia are later signs of a T-cell deficiency.
Cis-acting replication elements bring together the 5′ and 3′ ends during replication of positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses (for example Picornavirus, Flavivirus, coronavirus, togaviruses, Hepatitis C virus) and double-stranded RNA viruses (for example rotavirus and reovirus).
It is not related to influenza, though it has erroneously been called the "stomach flu". Gastroenteritis is usually caused by viruses. However, bacteria, parasites, and fungus can also cause gastroenteritis. In children, rotavirus is the most common cause of severe disease.
Mark Yeager is an American biologist, focusing in cardiac gap junction membrane channels, integrin water channels, rotavirus, reovirus and retrovirus. Yeager is a professor at University of Virginia and an Elected Fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Hilleman Laboratories has recently announced a significant advancement in improving access to the life-saving rotavirus vaccine to children. The vaccine candidate will have optimized bulk antigen production processes combined with simple yet robust formulation and a scalable fill/finish to ensure a competitively priced vaccine which will improve access in the low-resource settings like India. The firm's focus is to heat stabilize the existing vaccine and bring it to vaccine vial monitor (VVM) 30 levels and higher. This will determine the feasibility of applying latest delivery technologies to an existing oral rotavirus vaccine to make it thermostable for further opportunities.
RoXaN is capable of interacting with NSP3 in vivo and during rotavirus infection. Domains of interaction correspond to the dimerization domain of NSP3 (amino acids 163 to 237) and the LD domain of RoXaN (amino acids 244 to 341). The interaction between NSP3 and RoXaN does not impair the interaction between NSP3 and eIF4G I, and a ternary complex made of NSP3, RoXaN, and eIF4G I can be detected in rotavirus-infected cells, implicating RoXaN in translation regulation. Expression of RoXaN was found to be correlated with a higher tumor grad in GIST (gastrointestinal stromal tumors).
The fifth reassortant virus expresses the attachment protein VP4, (type P1A), from the human rotavirus parent strain and the outer capsid protein VP7 (serotype G6) from the bovine rotavirus parent strain. In February 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved RotaTeq for use in the United States. In August 2006, Health Canada approved RotaTeq for use in Canada. Merck worked with a range of partners including governmental and non-governmental organisations to develop and implement mechanisms for providing access to this vaccine in the developing world, an effort which was slated to come to an end in 2020.
The vaccination requirement includes the following vaccinations: Mumps, Measles, Rubella, Tetanus, diphtheria, Meningococcal disease, Pneumococcal disease, Haemophilus influenzae type B, Rotavirus, Varicella, Influenza, Hepatitis A and B, Pertussis, and Polio. These requirements are established by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP).
James Crowe's research has focused on adaptive immune responses to various viral pathogens, in particular influenza virus, HIV, dengue virus, respiratory syncytial virus, rotavirus, human metapneumovirus and vaccinia virus. His group is particularly known for their work on antibody recognition of viral pathogens.
Additionally, some individuals may be allergic to ingredients in the vaccine. MMR vaccine is rarely associated with febrile seizures. Severe side effects are extremely rare. Varicella vaccine is rarely associated with complications in immunodeficient individuals and rotavirus vaccines are moderately associated with intussusception.
The vaccines are safe. This includes their use in people with HIV/AIDS. While an earlier version of the vaccine was linked to intussusception, the current versions are not. Older recommendations were to avoid rotavirus vaccination in babies who have had intussusception.
The vaccines are made from weakened rotavirus. The vaccine first became available in the United States in 2006. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. As of 2013, there are two types of vaccine available globally, Rotarix and RotaTeq.
Rotasiil is lyophilized pentavalent vaccine. It contain human bovine reassortant strains of rotavirus serotypes G1, G2, G3, G4 and G9. This is world's first thermostable vaccine which can be stored without refrigeration at or below 25 °C. Rotasiil is recently launched in India.
Inhibition of NSP5 by RNA interference in vitro results in a sharp decrease in rotavirus replication. The DLPs migrate to the endoplasmic reticulum where they obtain their third, outer layer (formed by VP7 and VP4). The progeny viruses are released from the cell by lysis.
For example, assays exist for rubella virus, rotavirus, and rheumatoid factor, and an excellent LA test is available for cryptococcus.Howanitz and Howanitz, Laboratory Medicine. Published by Church Livingston; 1991: pp 825–828 Agglutination techniques are also used in definitive diagnosis of group A streptococcal infection.
Viruses can reproduce rapidly because they have relatively few genes. For example, influenza virus has only eight genes and rotavirus has eleven. In comparison, humans have 20,000–25,000. Some viral genes contain the code to make the structural proteins that form the virus particle.
There are five species of this virus, referred to as A, B, C, D, and E.ICTV Virus Taxonomy: 2009 Release Rotavirus A, the most common, causes more than 90% of infections in humans. The virus is transmitted by the faecal-oral route. It infects and damages the cells that line the small intestine and causes gastroenteritis (which is often called "stomach flu" despite having no relation to influenza). Although rotavirus was discovered in 1973 and accounts for up to 50% of hospitalisations for severe diarrhoea in infants and children, its importance is still not widely known within the public health community, particularly in developing countries.
The rotavirus vaccine is recommended as a prevention for children. Treatment involves getting enough fluids. For mild or moderate cases, this can typically be achieved by drinking oral rehydration solution (a combination of water, salts and sugar). In those who are breastfed, continued breastfeeding is recommended.
Viroplasms (green) in cells infected with rotavirus (top), and uninfected cells (bottom). (Immunofluorescent stain) A viroplasm, sometimes called 'virus factory' or 'virus inclusion'. is an inclusion body in a cell where viral replication and assembly occurs. They may be thought of as viral factories in the cell.
NSP2, is a rotavirus nonstructural RNA-binding protein that accumulates in cytoplasmic inclusions (viroplasms) and is required for genome replication. NSP2 is closely associated in vivo with the viral replicase. The non- structural protein NSP5 plays a role in the structure of viroplasms mediated by its interaction with NSP2.
Merck and the Wellcome trust jointly fund the Hilleman Laboratories, an India-based non-profit research organization dedicated to the development of low-cost vaccines for use in developing countries. Current projects include the development of low cost, thermostable vaccines for the prevention of cholera, rotavirus, and meningitis.
Adel K. Mahmoud (August 24, 1941 – June 11, 2018) was an Egyptian-born American doctor and expert in infectious diseases. He was credited with developing the Gardasil HPV vaccine and the rotavirus vaccine while serving as president of Merck Vaccines. After retiring from Merck he became a professor at Princeton University.
Rotavirus is often spread by direct contact with infected children. The human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, is transmitted by bodily fluids transferred during sex. Others, such as the dengue virus, are spread by blood-sucking insects. Viruses, especially those made of RNA, can mutate rapidly to give rise to new types.
Filters may have fine meshes that must be replaced or cleaned, and ceramic water filters must have their outside abraded when they have become clogged with impurities. These water filters should not be confused with devices or tablets that disinfect water which remove or kill viruses such as hepatitis A and rotavirus.
One theory proposes that type 1 diabetes is a virus- triggered autoimmune response in which the immune system attacks virus- infected cells along with the beta cells in the pancreas. Several viruses have been implicated, including enteroviruses (especially coxsackievirus B), cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, mumps virus, rubella virus and rotavirus, but to date there is no stringent evidence to support this hypothesis in humans. A 2011 systematic review and meta-analysis showed an association between enterovirus infections and type 1 diabetes, but other studies have shown that, rather than triggering an autoimmune process, enterovirus infections, as coxsackievirus B, could protect against onset and development of type 1 diabetes. Some studies have found a decreased risk with oral rotavirus vaccine while others found no effect.
Rotavirus mRNAs are capped but not polyadenylated, and viral proteins are translated by the cellular translation machinery. This is accomplished through the action of the viral Nonstructural Protein NSP3 which specifically binds the 3' consensus sequence of viral mRNAs and interacts with the eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF4G I. RoXaN (rotavirus X protein associated with NSP3) is 110-kDa cellular protein that contains a minimum of three regions predicted to be involved in protein–protein or nucleic acid–protein interactions. A tetratricopeptide repeat region, a protein–protein interaction domain most often found in multiprotein complexes, is present in the amino- terminal region. In the carboxy terminus, at least five zinc finger motifs are observed, further suggesting the capacity of RoXaN to bind other proteins or nucleic acids.
By contrast colds, influenza and rotavirus infections are usually a problem during the winter months. Other viruses, such as measles virus, caused outbreaks regularly every third year. In developing countries, viruses that cause respiratory and enteric infections are common throughout the year. Viruses carried by insects are a common cause of diseases in these settings.
With benign familial infantile epilepsy, the seizures onset from four to eight months of age. Some cases of nonfamilial benign infantile seizures occur during a case of mild gastroenteritis. Called benign infantile seizures associated with mild gastroenteritis (BIS with MG), the seizures only occur during this illness and no not recur. Infection with rotavirus is the most common cause.
Children infected with rotavirus usually make a full recovery within three to eight days. However, in poor countries treatment for severe infections is often out of reach and persistent diarrhea is common. Dehydration is a common complication of diarrhea. Severe dehydration in children may be recognized if the skin color and position returns slowly when pressed.
In most cases, stool cultures to confirm the exact cause are not required. Diarrhea can be prevented by improved sanitation, clean drinking water, and hand washing with soap. Breastfeeding for at least six months and vaccination against rotavirus is also recommended. Oral rehydration solution (ORS)—clean water with modest amounts of salts and sugar—is the treatment of choice.
There are many causes of infectious diarrhea, which include viruses, bacteria and parasites. Infectious diarrhea is frequently referred to as gastroenteritis. Norovirus is the most common cause of viral diarrhea in adults, but rotavirus is the most common cause in children under five years old. Adenovirus types 40 and 41, and astroviruses cause a significant number of infections.
1974: Tetanus toxoid vaccine recommended for pregnant women, reducing neonatal mortality by 30%. 1978: Rotavirus identified as the most common cause of diarrhoea in infants in Bangladesh, and as highest priority for new vaccines. 1982: Rice- based ORS shown to be fully effective alternative to glucose-based ORS and preferred for routine use at icddr,b.
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that rotavirus vaccine be included in national routine vaccinations programs, especially in areas where the disease is common. This should be done along with promoting breastfeeding, handwashing, clean water, and good sanitation. It is given by mouth and requires two or three doses. It should be given starting around six weeks of age.
Rotaviruses are highly contagious and cannot be treated with antibiotics or other drugs. Because improved sanitation does not decrease the prevalence of rotaviral disease, and the rate of hospitalisations remains high despite the use of oral rehydrating medicines, the primary public health intervention is vaccination. In 1998, a rotavirus vaccine was licensed for use in the United States. Clinical trials in the United States, Finland, and Venezuela had found it to be 80 to 100% effective at preventing severe diarrhoea caused by rotavirus A, and researchers had detected no statistically significant serious adverse effects. The manufacturer, however, withdrew it from the market in 1999, after it was discovered that the vaccine may have contributed to an increased risk for intussusception, a type of bowel obstruction, in one of every 12,000 vaccinated infants.
Hilleman Laboratories has joined hands with Kolkata- based National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (NICED), an Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) organization to develop a vaccine against Shigella, a bacteria that causes dysentery. Currently, there is no approved vaccine available to prevent Shigellosis. This bacteria is found to be second most deadly virus that causes severe diarrhea in children after Rotavirus.
Diagnosis of infection with a rotavirus normally follows diagnosis of gastroenteritis as the cause of severe diarrhoea. Most children admitted to hospital with gastroenteritis are tested for '. Specific diagnosis of infection with ' is made by finding the virus in the child's stool by enzyme immunoassay. There are several licensed test kits on the market which are sensitive, specific and detect all serotypes of '.
These immunoglobulins are specific to many human pathogens, including Escherichia coli, Cryptosporidium parvum, Shigella flexneri, Salmonella species, Staphylococcus species, and rotavirus (which causes diarrhea in infants). Before the development of antibiotics, colostrum was the main source of immunoglobulins used to fight bacteria. In fact, when Albert Sabin made his first oral vaccine against polio, the immunoglobulin he used came from bovine colostrum.
There are currently 97 species in this family, divided among 15 genera in two subfamilies. Reoviruses can affect the gastrointestinal system (such as Rotavirus) and respiratory tract. The name "Reo-" is derived from respiratory enteric orphan viruses.MicrobiologyBytes —Reoviruses The term "orphan virus" refers to the fact that some of these viruses have been observed not associated with any known disease.
In 1991 Santosham founded the Johns Hopkins Center for American Indian Health (CAIH), which he directed for fifteen years. In North America, Native Americans are considerably more likely to die of vaccine-preventable diseases. Santosham led efficacy trials for several childhood vaccinations, including rotavirus, influenza type B and the pneumococcal vaccine. Santosham worked closely with Native American communities to disseminate these vaccinations.
Ixodes ricinus range map, the European Eyach virus vector The name "Coltivirus" is derived from the main member in the family, the Colorado tick fever virus ("Colorado tick"). Coltivirus is in the family Reoviridae, which contains eight genera. Orthoreovirus, Orbivirus, Coltivirus, Rotavirus, Aquareovirus, Cypovirus, Phytoreovirus, and Fijivirus. Coltivirus and Orbivirus together contain about 109 serotypes, and only four of these cause human disease.
Since 2000, the implementation of a rotavirus vaccination program in the United States has substantially decreased the number of cases of diarrhea by as much as 80 percent. The first dose of vaccine should be given to infants between 6 and 15 weeks of age. The oral cholera vaccine has been found to be 50–60% effective over 2 years.
Glass's research interests are in the prevention of gastroenteritis from rotaviruses and noroviruses through the application of novel scientific research. He has maintained field studies in India, Bangladesh, Brazil, Mexico, Israel, Russia, Vietnam, China and elsewhere. His research has been targeted toward epidemiologic studies to anticipate the introduction of rotavirus vaccines. He is fluent and often lectures in five languages.
NSP1, the product of rotavirus gene 5, is a nonstructural RNA-binding protein that contains a cysteine-rich region and is a component of early replication intermediates. RNA-folding predictions suggest that this region of the NSP1 mRNA can interact with itself, producing a stem-loop structure similar to that found near the 5'-terminus of the NSP1 mRNA. The carboxyl-half of the rotavirus nonstructural protein NSP1 is not required for virus replication. NSP1 could play a role in host range restriction. The cysteine-rich region of NSP1 is not considered essential for genome segment reassortment with heterologous virus. NSP1 interacts with IRF3 in the infected cell. NSP1 is an antagonist of the IFN-signaling pathway. Interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) is a key transcription factor involved in the induction of interferon (IFN) in response to viral infection.
Immunization against the pathogens that cause diarrheal disease is a viable prevention strategy, however it does require targeting certain pathogens for vaccination. In the case of Rotavirus, which was responsible for around 6% of diarrheal episodes and 20% of diarrheal disease deaths in the children of developing countries, use of a Rotavirus vaccine in trials in 1985 yielded a slight (2–3%) decrease in total diarrheal disease incidence, while reducing overall mortality by 6–10%. Similarly, a Cholera vaccine showed a strong reduction in morbidity and mortality, though the overall impact of vaccination was minimal as Cholera is not one of the major causative pathogens of diarrheal disease. Since this time, more effective vaccines have been developed that have the potential to save many thousands of lives in developing nations, while reducing the overall cost of treatment, and the costs to society.
Bharat Biotech has its manufacturing facility situated at Genome Valley, Hyderabad, India. As of July 2020, the company has over 700 employees and has a presence worldwide. The company has been responsible for developing an eco-friendly recombinant and a naturally attenuated strain derived Rotavirus vaccine called ROTAVAC. They were one of the first to develop vaccines for viral diseases like Chikungunya and Zika.
Influenza viruses are spread by coughing and sneezing. Norovirus and rotavirus, common causes of viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the faecal–oral route, passed by hand-to-mouth contact or in food or water. The infectious dose of norovirus required to produce infection in humans is less than 100 particles. HIV is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and by exposure to infected blood.
Viruses (particularly rotavirus) and the bacteria Escherichia coli and Campylobacter species are the primary causes of gastroenteritis. There are, however, many other infectious agents that can cause this syndrome including parasites and fungus. Non-infectious causes are seen on occasion, but they are less likely than a viral or bacterial cause. Risk of infection is higher in children due to their lack of immunity.
The rotavirus nonstructural protein NSP4 was the first viral enterotoxin discovered. It induces diarrhea and causes Ca2+-dependent transepithelial secretion. A transmembrane glycoprotein, NSP4 is organized into three main domains: a three-helical TM domain in the N-terminus (also a viroporin domain), a central cytoplasmic coiled-coil domain for multimerization, and an C-terminal flexible region. It can also be secreted out of the cell.
Diagram of the human gastrointestinal tract Acute diarrhea is most commonly due to viral gastroenteritis with rotavirus, which accounts for 40% of cases in children under five. In travelers, however, bacterial infections predominate. Various toxins such as mushroom poisoning and drugs can also cause acute diarrhea. Chronic diarrhea can be the part of the presentations of a number of chronic medical conditions affecting the intestine.
L. rhamnosus GG is beneficial in the prevention of rotavirus diarrhea in children. Prevention and treatment of various types of diarrhea have been shown in children and in adults. L. rhamnosus GG can be beneficial in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and nosocomial diarrhea and this has been recently supported by European guidelines. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG may reduce the risk of traveler's diarrhea.
She and others began by recreating a study conducted in Mexico to identify children protected from rotaviral infection, research the immune responses and isolate the correlate of protection. The recreated study itself did not succeed, but it did develop high quality laboratory methods for the detection of rotaviruses. Kang and one of her students subsequently established vaccine assays for rotavirus infections, used in testing Rotavac.
Such immunizations aim to trigger an immune response more rapidly and with less harm than natural infection. Most vaccines are given by injection as they are not absorbed reliably through the intestines. Live attenuated polio, rotavirus, some typhoid, and some cholera vaccines are given orally to produce immunity in the bowel. While vaccination provides a lasting effect, it usually takes several weeks to develop.
Neuzil works on vaccine development and policy. After her fellowship Neuzil joined the University of Washington School of Medicine, where she served as Director of PATH's Influenza Vaccine Development Project. PATH is a Seattle-based nonprofit global health organisation, where Neuzil worked on the rotavirus, human papillomavirus infection (HPV) and Japanese encephalitis vaccines. In 2008 Neuzil partnered with Lentigen Corporation to research the pandemic influenza vaccine.
Additionally, trials have shown significantly shorter recovery times in children suffering from acute diarrhea (primarily caused by rotavirus) when given different L. casei treatments when compared to placebo. Studies suggest that Lactobacillus is a safe and effective treatment for acute and infectious diarrhea. In the preparation of food, L. casei bacteria can be used in the natural fermentation of beans to lower levels of the compounds causing flatulence upon digestion.
RVF currently supports a rotavirus vaccination program in the West Bank and Gaza as well as addressing vaccine hesitancy in Russia, pneumococcal vaccine impact research in Russia, as well as supporting heart screening for newborns in Azerbaijan. RVF supports children’s health programs focusing on vaccination, screening and prevention and deworming and has been active in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan and the West Bank and Gaza.
Most of the bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi that contaminate well water comes from fecal material from humans and other animals, for example from on-site sanitation systems (such as pit latrines and septic tanks). Common bacterial contaminants include E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter jejuni. Common viral contaminants include norovirus, sapovirus, rotavirus, enteroviruses, and hepatitis A and E. Parasites include Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora cayetanensis, and microsporidia.
According to the manufacturer Aniosgel 85 NPC has the following efficacy: Bacteria: EN 1040, pr EN 12054, EN 1500, EN 12791, MRSA and Acinetobacter baumannii (T 72-300). Tuberculocis: (EN 14348). Fungi: EN 1275, EN 1650 (C. albicans). Viruses: Active against HIV-1, PRV (surrogate of HBV), BVDV (surrogate of HCV), Herpes virus, Rotavirus, Adenovirus, Coronavirus (SARS) and Influenza virus (H5N1), Poliovirus (NF T 72-180/30 sec).
The minimum number of identical capsomeres required for each triangular face is 3, which gives 60 for the icosahedron. Many viruses, such as rotavirus, have more than 60 capsomers and appear spherical but they retain this symmetry. To achieve this, the capsomeres at the apices are surrounded by five other capsomeres and are called pentons. Capsomeres on the triangular faces are surrounded by six others and are called hexons.
More than 450,000 of these fatalities are due to rotavirus in children under 5 years of age. Cholera causes about three to five million cases of disease and kills approximately 100,000 people yearly. In the developing world, children less than two years of age frequently get six or more infections a year that result in significant gastroenteritis. It is less common in adults, partly due to the development of acquired immunity.
As vaccines became more common, many people began taking them for granted. However, vaccines remain elusive for many important diseases, including herpes simplex, malaria, gonorrhea, and HIV. Vaccines have eliminated naturally occurring smallpox, and nearly eliminated polio, while other diseases, such as typhus, rotavirus, hepatitis A and B and others are well controlled. Conventional vaccines cover a small number of diseases, but are not effective at controlling many other infections.
Better pneumonia surveillance is critical to the global fight against this disease. The purpose of AVI is to accelerate access to life-saving pneumococcal and rotavirus vaccines for children in the world's poorest countries. Levine is also involved in dengue vaccines, acting as the lead at Johns Hopkins in the institution's involvement in the Dengue Vaccine Initiative, a consortium created to accelerate development and subsequent use of dengue vaccines.
In a study by Tellez et al., extracts from a plant Achyrocline bogotensis was used to develop an antiviral therapy for both rotavirus and astrovirus. Achyrocline bogotensis was commonly used for skin and urinary infections. Drug testing methodology involved application of the extract to cell for pre-treatment (blocking), direct viral activity (evidence of killing the virus), and treatment (a decrease in the viral load after an infection is established).
Gianotti–Crosti syndrome (), also known as infantile papular acrodermatitis, papular acrodermatitis of childhood, and papulovesicular acrolocated syndrome, is a reaction of the skin to a viral infection. Hepatitis B virus and Epstein–Barr virus are the most frequently reported pathogens. Other viruses implicated are hepatitis A virus, hepatitis C virus, cytomegalovirus, coxsackievirus, adenovirus, enterovirus, rotavirus, rubella virus, HIV, and parainfluenza virus. It is named for Ferdinando Gianotti and Agostino Crosti.
On March 22, 2010, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommended suspending the use Rotarix, one of two vaccines licensed in the United States against rotavirus, due to findings of viral DNA contamination."Components of Extraneous Virus Detected in Rotarix Vaccine; No Known Safety Risk", U.S. Food and Drug Administration, March 22, 2010 Follow- up work by GlaxoSmithKline confirmed the contamination in working cells and the viral "seed" used in Rotarix production, also confirming the material was likely present since the early stages of product development, including the clinical trials for FDA approval."Detection of DNA from PCV1 in Rotarix", FDA Testing of the other licensed vaccine against rotavirus infection, RotaTeq, also detected some components of both PCV-1 and PCV-2."DNA of Pig Viruses Found in Merck Vaccine", The Wall Street Journal, May 7, 2010 Porcine circovirus 1 is not known to cause disease in humans or other animals.
The seed, leaves, and bark of the kapok tree have been used in traditional medicine by indigenous peoples of the rainforest regions in the Americas, west-central Africa, and Southeast Asia in this disease. Bacillus subtilis was marketed throughout America and Europe from 1946 as an immunostimulatory aid in the treatment of gut and urinary tract diseases such as rotavirus and Shigella, but declined in popularity after the introduction of consumer antibiotics.
A fecal pH test is one where a specimen of feces is tested for acidity in order to diagnose a medical condition. The pH of human feces is variable but usually alkaline. An acidic stool can indicate a digestive problem such as lactose intolerance, an infection such as E. coli or rotavirus, or overgrowth of acid-producing bacteria (such as lactic acid bacteria). The average pH for a healthy person is a pH of 6.6.
Diagnosis of infection with rotavirus normally follows diagnosis of gastroenteritis as the cause of severe diarrhoea. Most children admitted to hospital with gastroenteritis are tested for Specific diagnosis of infection with is made by finding the virus in the child's stool by enzyme immunoassay. There are several licensed test kits on the market which are sensitive, specific and detect all serotypes of . Other methods, such as electron microscopy and PCR, are used in research laboratories.
Two rotavirus particles: the one on the right is coated with antibodies which stop its attaching to cells and infecting them Specific immunity to viruses develops over time and white blood cells called lymphocytes play a central role. Lymphocytes retain a "memory" of virus infections and produce many special molecules called antibodies. These antibodies attach to viruses and stop the virus from infecting cells. Antibodies are highly selective and attack only one type of virus.
Dose given was "7.5 mg/kg twice daily" and the time of resolution was "31 hours for those given nitazoxanide compared with 75 hours for those in the placebo group." Rotavirus is the most common infectious agent associated with diarrhea in the pediatric age group worldwide. Teran et al.. conducted a study at the Pediatric Center Albina Patinö, a reference hospital in the city of Cochabamba, Bolivia, from August 2007 to February 2008.
Order: Unassigned Family: Reoviridae Genus: Orbivirus Species: Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virusReoviruses (incl. Rotaviruses). (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2014, from Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus belongs to the family Reoviridae, a family of double-stranded RNA viruses that includes familiar genera Rotavirus (the most common cause of viral gastroenteritis in children), Coltivirus (causative agent of Colorado tick fever), and Orbivirus. Besides EHDV and BTV, other orbiviruses include equine encephalosis virus and African horse sickness virus.
Quaternary ammonium compounds ("quats"), such as benzalkonium chloride, are a large group of related compounds. Some concentrated formulations have been shown to be effective low-level disinfectants. Quaternary ammonia at or above 200ppm plus alcohol solutions exhibit efficacy against difficult to kill non-enveloped viruses such as norovirus, rotavirus, or polio virus. Newer synergous, low- alcohol formulations are highly effective broad-spectrum disinfectants with quick contact times (3–5 minutes) against bacteria, enveloped viruses, pathogenic fungi, and mycobacteria.
Man drinking from a populak in Armenia. An example of the so called 'vertical' design A drinking fountain with a guard to prevent contact between spigot and user's mouth. In recent studies, it has been found that some drinking fountains have been contaminated with pathogens such as bacteria. In one study, a virus commonly known to cause diarrhea in young children, known as the rotavirus, has been found on drinking fountains in child day care facilities.
From the research, scientists have started to pair crops with diseases. They believe that edible vaccines can be made for many diseases; such as, rotavirus, cholera, gastroenteritis, autoimmune disease, malaria and rabies For example, they think that booster shots can be distributed through lettuce. It is also essential to find foods that can be eaten raw because it is thought that cooking would denature the proteins. Because of this, bananas and tomatoes have become top viable options.
PAGE of rotavirus proteins stained with Coomassie blue The following chemicals and procedures are used for processing of the gel and the protein samples visualized in it. Tracking dye; as proteins and nucleic acids are mostly colorless, their progress through the gel during electrophoresis cannot be easily followed. Anionic dyes of a known electrophoretic mobility are therefore usually included in the PAGE sample buffer. A very common tracking dye is Bromophenol blue (BPB, 3',3",5',5" tetrabromophenolsulfonphthalein).
Longini studies stochastic processes applied to epidemiological problems. He has specialized in the mathematical and statistical theory of epidemics, which involves constructing and analyzing mathematical models of disease transmission, disease progression and the analysis of infectious disease data based on these models. He designs and analyses vaccine and infectious disease prevention trials and observational studies. He has worked on the analysis of epidemics of influenza, HIV, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria, rhinovirus, rotavirus, measles and other infectious agents.
Examples of viruses carried by pigs include porcine herpesvirus, rotavirus, parvovirus, and circovirus. Porcine herpesviruses and rotaviruses can be eliminated from the donor pool by screening, however others (such as parvovirus and circovirus) may contaminate food and footwear then re-infect the herd. Thus, pigs to be used as organ donors must be housed under strict regulations and screened regularly for microbes and pathogens. Unknown viruses, as well as those not harmful in the animal, may also pose risks.
Offit grew up in Baltimore, the son of a shirtmaker. He went to his father's sales meetings and reacted negatively to the tall tales told by salespeople, instead preferring the clean and straightforward practice of science. When he was five years old, he was sent to a polio ward to recover from clubfoot surgery; this experience caused him to see children as vulnerable and helpless, and motivated him through the 25 years of the development of the rotavirus vaccine. Podcast (MP3).
The infection stimulates the production of 5' hydroxytryptamine (serotonin). This activates vagal afferent nerves, which in turn activates the cells of the brain stem that control the vomiting reflex. Healthy enterocytes secrete lactase into the small intestine; milk intolerance due to lactase deficiency is a symptom of rotavirus infection, which can persist for weeks. A recurrence of mild diarrhoea often follows the reintroduction of milk into the child's diet, due to bacterial fermentation of the disaccharide lactose in the gut.
Most of these deaths occur in developing countries due to poverty and the high cost of safe water. An article published in 2003 by CDC concluded that the death of children (less than five years of age) caused by rotavirus on a global scale ranges between 352,000 to 592,000. Approximately 1.1 billion people do not have access to improved water and 2.4 billion people do not have access to sanitation facilities. This situation leads to 2 million preventable deaths each year.
He started working at the University Hospitals Leuven in 1999 and became Professor of Virology at the K.U. Leuven. Currently, he is associate chief of the department of laboratory medicine, and heads the diagnostic virology laboratory at the University Hospitals Leuven, Belgium. He is also the director of the AIDS reference laboratory and of the national coronavirus and rotavirus reference laboratories. Professor Van Ranst was appointed in 1999 to the Belgian high council for public health, where he heads the vaccination department.
Horace Louis Hodes (December 21, 1907 – April 24, 1989) was an American pediatrician and infectious disease researcher. He was the first to isolate rotavirus, he demonstrated that the Japanese encephalitis virus is transmitted by mosquitoes, and he discovered that vitamin D increased intestinal absorption of calcium. He spent his early career at Johns Hopkins Hospital and later became the chief of pediatrics at Mount Sinai Hospital in Manhattan and a professor at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.
DripDrop is designed to promote rehydration and electrolyte replacement in ill children, based on the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Committee on Nutrition requirements to help prevent dehydration in infants and children. DripDrop is lower in sugar than most sports drinks, containing 140 calories per Liter. DripDrop is similar to rehydration fluids used by the World Health Organization (WHO) that are used to treat illnesses such as cholera and rotavirus. Various academic organizations recommend DripDrop for treating short bowel syndrome.
The Wright b antigen (Wrb) is located on glycophorin A and acts as a receptor for the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Cells lacking glycophorins A (Ena) are resistant to invasion by this parasite. The erythrocyte binding antigen 175 of P. falciparum recognises the terminal Neu5Ac(alpha 2-3)Gal-sequences of glycophorin A. Several viruses bind to glycophorin A including hepatitis A virus (via its capsid), bovine parvovirus, Sendai virus, influenza A and B, group C rotavirus, encephalomyocarditis virus and reoviruses.
Therefore, mice carrying a non-functional Mx allele fail to synthesise the Mx protein and are more susceptible to influenza infection. Alternatively, immunocompromised individuals due to existing illnesses may have a defective immune system which makes them more vulnerable to damage by the virus. Furthermore, a number of viruses display variable pathogenicity depending on the age of the host. Mumps, polio, and Epstein-Barr virus cause more severe disease in adults, while others like rotavirus cause more severe infection in infants.
Papua New Guinea and Taiwan provided PGK 1 million and US$200,000 in funds, respectively. In the immediate aftermath of the floods, there were fears that the flooding could worsen an already ongoing dengue fever outbreak and cause outbreaks of diarrhea and conjunctivitis. Over the following two months, a widespread rotavirus outbreak unfolded in Honiara, Guadalcanal, and Gizo, with more than 1,000 people falling ill. Severe cases of diarrhea became common among children, with 18 dying as a result in early June.
Firdausi Qadri (born March 31, 1951) is a Bangladeshi scientist with specialization in immunology and infectious disease research. She has worked over 25 years on the development of vaccines for cholera and has expertise on other infectious disease like ETEC, Typhoid, Helicobacter pylori, rotavirus, etc. Currently, she is working as a director for Centre for Vaccine Sciences of International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease and Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b). She also serves as chairperson of the Institute for developing Science and Health initiatives.
There is only one viral toxin that has been described so far: NSP4 from rotavirus. It inhibits the microtubule- mediated secretory pathway and alters cytoskeleton organization in polarized epithelial cells. It has been identified as the viral enterotoxin based on the observation that the protein caused diarrhea when administered intraperitoneally or intra-ileally in infant mice in an age-dependent manner. NSP4 can induce aqueous secretion in the gastrointestinal tract of neonatal mice through activation of an age- and Ca2+-dependent plasma membrane anion permeability.
Treatment of acute rotavirus infection is nonspecific and involves management of symptoms and, most importantly, management of dehydration. If untreated, children can die from the resulting severe dehydration. Depending on the severity of diarrhoea, treatment consists of oral rehydration therapy, during which the child is given extra water to drink that contains specific amounts of salt and sugar. In 2004, the World Health Organisation (WHO) and UNICEF recommended the use of low-osmolarity oral rehydration solution and zinc supplementation as a two- pronged treatment of acute diarrhoea.
H. Fred Clark (1937 – April 28, 2012) was an American pediatrician, medical scientist, and social activist. He served as a research professor of pediatrics at the University of Pennsylvania's Perelman School of Medicine and at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, as well as holding the position of adjunct professor at the Wistar Institute. He is recognized for his work with Paul Offit and Stanley Plotkin developing the rotavirus vaccine RotaTeq. For this work, Clark, Offit, and Plotkin received the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia's Gold Medal in 2006.
In Germany, 90% of cases of infectious enteritis are caused by four pathogens, Norovirus, Rotavirus, Campylobacter and Salmonella. Other common causes of infectious enteritis include bacteria such as Shigella and E. coli, as well as viruses such as adenovirus, astrovirus and calicivirus. Other less common pathogens include Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium difficile and Staphylococcus aureus. Campylobacter jejuni is one of the most common sources of infectious enteritis, and the most common bacterial pathogen found in 2 year old and smaller children with diarrhoea.
It has been linked to consumption of contaminated water and food, most commonly poultry and milk. The disease tends to be less severe in developing countries, due to the constant exposure which people have with the antigen in the environment, leading to early development of antibodies. Rotavirus is responsible for infecting 140 million people and causing 1 million deaths each year, mostly in children younger than 5 years. This makes it the most common cause of severe childhood diarrhoea and diarrhea-related deaths in the world.
Even though viruses in the family Reoviridae have more recently been identified with various diseases, the original name is still used. Reovirus infection occurs often in humans, but most cases are mild or subclinical. Rotavirus, however, can cause severe diarrhea and intestinal distress in children, and lab studies in mice have implicated Orthoreovirus in the expression of coeliac disease in pre-disposed individuals. The virus can be readily detected in feces, and may also be recovered from pharyngeal or nasal secretions, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood.
Vaccination policy in the United States consists of public and private vaccination requirements. For instance, public schools require students to receive vaccinations (termed "vaccination schedule") for viruses and bacteria such as diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus (DTaP), measles, mumps, rubella (MMR), varicella (chickenpox), hepatitis B, rotavirus, polio, and more. Private institutions might require annual influenza vaccination. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention has estimated that routine immunization of newborns prevents about 42,000 deaths and 20 million cases of disease each year, saving about $13.6 billion.
Post-war inspections by UNSCOM, however, were confounded by misinformation and obfuscation. After Iraqi General Hussein Kamel al-Majid defected to Jordan in August 1995, the Iraqi government further disclosed that it had operated a robust BW program at six major sites since the 1980s. It was revealed that the Iraqi program conducted basic research on B. anthracis, rotavirus, camelpox virus, aflatoxin, botulinum toxins, mycotoxins, and an anticrop agent (wheat cover smut). It tested several delivery systems including aerial spray tanks and drone aircraft.
Treatment of acute rotavirus infection is nonspecific and involves management of symptoms and, most importantly, maintenance of hydration. If untreated, children can die from the resulting severe dehydration. Depending on the severity of diarrhea, treatment consists of oral rehydration, during which the child is given extra water to drink that contains small amounts of salt and sugar. Some infections are serious enough to warrant hospitalisation where fluids are given by intravenous drip or nasogastric tube, and the child's electrolytes and blood sugar are monitored.
From 1977 to 2006, Glass served as a medical director in the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. In 1984, he joined the National Institutes of Health Laboratory of Infectious Diseases as a medical officer with Albert Kapikian on the molecular biology of rotavirus. In 1986, Glass returned to the CDC to become Chief of the Viral Gastroenteritis Unit at the National Center for Infectious Diseases. He was a clinical associate professor in the department of pediatrics at Emory University School of Medicine with .
During his tenure, Merck gained approval of more than 20 new medicines and vaccines. These include Januvia (the first DPP-4 inhibitor for type 2 diabetes), Gardasil (the first vaccine for prevention of cervical cancer), Isentress (the first HIV integrase inhibitor), Zostavax (the first vaccine for the prevention of shingles in adults), and Rotateq (an oral vaccine for the prevention of rotavirus infection in infants). He also led the biomarker-based development of Keytruda. In 2013, he retired from Merck and was succeeded by Roger Perlmutter.
The population of Bolivia suffers from a multiplicity of infectious diseases, such as Chagas disease. Because of its inapparent symptoms, the disease remains unrecognised most of the time and, untreated, leads after about 20 years to death, mainly due to heart pathologies. It is probably one of the major reasons for the extreme low average age of the population of 34 years only. Further prevalent existing diseases are malaria and, especially among young children, life-threatening diarrhoeal diseases, caused by entamoeba, bacteria or rotavirus.
This vaccine can be used as a preventative measure for people who have an increased risk of contracting rabies, as well as a treatment for those who have been exposed recently to the disease, preventing infection in nearly 100 percent of cases. Another vaccine that Plotkin co-developed, working with H. Fred Clark and Paul Offit, is for rotavirus. In 2006, the team's vaccine became part of the U.S. recommended vaccine schedule for babies. In the 1970s, Plotkin led the development of an experimental vaccine against CMV.
In 2003, de Quadros joined the Sabin Vaccine Institute, a non-profit organization honoring the legacy of Albert Sabin, developer of the oral polio vaccine. de Quadros is instrumental in the Institute's international immunization advocacy programs, where he works on issues such as the introduction of new vaccines, e.g. rotavirus, rubella, human papilloma virus, pneumococcal and others, and on issues related to the sustainability of national immunization programs. He is also on the faculty at Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health and the School of Medicine of the George Washington University.
Paul Allan Offit (born 27 March 1951) is an American pediatrician specializing in infectious diseases, vaccines, immunology, and virology. He is the co- inventor of a rotavirus vaccine. Offit is the Maurice R. Hilleman Professor of Vaccinology, professor of pediatrics at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, former chief of the Division of Infectious Diseases (1992–2014), and the director of the Vaccine Education Center at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. He has been a member of the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices.
Offit is a board member of Every Child By Two and a Founding Board Member of the Autism Science Foundation (ASF). Offit has published more than 130 papers in medical and scientific journals in the areas of rotavirus-specific immune responses and vaccine safety, and is the author or co-author of books on vaccines, vaccination, and antibiotics. He is one of the most public faces of the scientific consensus that vaccines have no association with autism. As a result, he has been the frequent target of hate mail and death threats.
Because the two genes that determine G-types and P-types can be passed on separately to progeny viruses, different combinations are found. A whole genome genotyping system has been established for rotavirus A, which has been used to determine the origin of atypical strains. The prevalence of the individual G-types and P-types varies between, and within, countries and years. There are at least 32 G types and 47 P types but in infections of humans only a few combinations of G and P types predominate.
During the infection, rotaviruses produce mRNA for both protein biosynthesis and gene replication. Most of the rotavirus proteins accumulate in viroplasm, where the RNA is replicated and the DLPs are assembled. In the viroplasm the positive sense viral RNAs that are used as templates for the synthesis of viral genomic dsRNA are protected from siRNA-induced RNase degradation. Viroplasm is formed around the cell nucleus as early as two hours after virus infection, and consists of viral factories thought to be made by two viral nonstructural proteins: NSP5 and NSP2.
Rotaviruses in the alt=Many rotavirus particles packed together, which all look similar Rotaviruses are transmitted by the fæcal-oral route, via contact with contaminated hands, surfaces and objects, and possibly by the respiratory route. Viral diarrhoea is highly contagious. The faeces of an infected person can contain more than 10 trillion infectious particles per gram; fewer than 100 of these are required to transmit infection to another person. Rotaviruses are stable in the environment and have been found in estuary samples at levels up to 1–5 infectious particles per US gallon.
The diarrhoea is caused by multiple activities of the virus. Malabsorption occurs because of the destruction of gut cells called enterocytes. The toxic rotavirus protein NSP4 induces age- and calcium ion- dependent chloride secretion, disrupts SGLT1 (sodium/glucose cotransporter 2) transporter-mediated reabsorption of water, apparently reduces activity of brush-border membrane disaccharidases, and activates the calcium ion-dependent secretory reflexes of the enteric nervous system. The elevated concentrations of calcium ions in the cytosol (which are required for the assembly of the progeny viruses) is achieved by NSP4 acting as a viroporin.
Vaccines are being looked at to treat or prevent type 1 diabetes by inducing immune tolerance to insulin or pancreatic beta cells. While Phase II clinical trials of a vaccine containing alum and recombinant GAD65, an autoantigen involved in type 1 diabetes, were promising, as of 2014 Phase III had failed. As of 2014, other approaches, such as a DNA vaccine encoding proinsulin and a peptide fragment of insulin, were in early clinical development. The rotavirus vaccine and BCG vaccine are associated with a lower risk of type 1 diabetes.
This causes the breakdown of VP7 trimers into single protein subunits, leaving the VP2 and VP6 protein coats around the viral dsRNA, forming a double-layered particle (DLP). The eleven dsRNA strands remain within the protection of the two protein shells and the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerasecreates mRNA transcripts of the double-stranded viral genome. By remaining in the core, the viral RNA evades innate host immune responses called RNA interference that are triggered by the presence of double-stranded RNA. During the infection, rotavirus produces mRNA for both protein biosynthesis and gene replication.
There are many ways in which viruses spread from host to host but each species of virus uses only one or two. Many viruses that infect plants are carried by organisms; such organisms are called vectors. Some viruses that infect animals, including humans, are also spread by vectors, usually blood-sucking insects, but direct transmission is more common. Some virus infections, such as norovirus and rotavirus, are spread by contaminated food and water, by hands and communal objects, and by intimate contact with another infected person, while others are airborne (influenza virus).
Susana Lopez Charreton Susana López Charretón (born 19 June 1957 in Mexico City) is a Mexican virologist specialized in understanding the mechanisms of infection of rotavirus. Dr. López Charretón has led a research program as principal investigator at the Biotechnology Institute (UNAM) in Cuernavaca, Mexico for over 25 years. From 2000 to 2010 she was a Howard Hughes Medical Institute International Research Scholar. In 2012, Dr. López Charretón received the L'Oréal-UNESCO Award for Women in Science - Latin America "for identifying how rotaviruses cause the death of 600,000 children each year".
This eviction process requires rotavirus NSP3, eIF4G, and RoXaN. To better understand the interaction, modeling of the NSP3-RoXaN complex, demonstrates mutations in NSP3 interrupt this complex without compromising NSP3 interaction with eIF4G. The nuclear localization of PABP-C1 is dependent on the capacity of NSP3 to interact with eIF4G and also requires the interaction of NSP3 with a specific region in RoXaN, the leucine- and aspartic acid-rich (LD) domain. RoXaN is identified as a cellular partner of NSP3 involved in the nucleocytoplasmic localization of PABP-C1.
She has received honorary appointments as an associate faculty member at the Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health in Baltimore, Maryland and adjunct professor at Tufts University School of Medicine in Boston, Massachusetts. Kang played a significant role in the efforts that culminated in the development of Rotavac, a vaccine from Bharat Biotech International that targets diarrhea. She was one of three principal investigators in the Phase III clinical trials of the vaccine. Her initial interest was in identifying the correlates of protection against the rotavirus.
The most important pathogens are rotavirus for diarrhoea and pneumococcus for lower respiratory infections. GBD 2015 found that for the first time, annual deaths from measles had fallen below 100,000 in 2013 and 2015. It also found that the global annual rate of new HIV infections has largely stayed the same during the past 10 years. GBD 2015 also introduced the Socio-demographic Index (SDI) as a measure of a location's socio-demographic development that takes into account average income per person, educational attainment, and total fertility rate.
Chanock was named head of the NIAID's Laboratory of Infectious Diseases in 1968. Researchers working with Chanock developed vaccines to prevent adenovirus infection, Hepatitis A and rotavirus, the most common cause of severe diarrhoea in infants and young children, as well as an influenza virus vaccine in the form of a nasal spray. Efforts were underway to create a vaccine to deal with dengue fever, though efforts to create immunizations for para-influenza viruses and respiratory syncytial virus were unsuccessful. Chanock was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1973.
Her research focuses on the epidemiology and prevention of infectious diseases, such as rotavirus, measles, mumps, rubella, polio, and pediatric HIV infection. She has also worked on developing and evaluating programs to prevent gender-based violence, working on interventions in Kenya. Her group partnered with the non-profit "Ujamaa-Africa/No Means No Worldwide" to develop and implement a 12-hour empowerment program to teach girls verbal and physical techniques to prevent sexual harassment and assault. They found the intervention was successful in both curbing the incidence of sexual assault and the likelihood that girls would disclose assault.
Esophagitis is an inflammation of the lining of the lower end of the esophagus (gullet or swallowing tube leading to the stomach). In HIV-infected individuals, this is normally due to fungal (candidiasis) or viral (herpes simplex-1 or cytomegalovirus) infections. In rare cases, it could be due to mycobacteria. Unexplained chronic diarrhea in HIV infection is due to many possible causes, including common bacterial (Salmonella, Shigella, Listeria or Campylobacter) and parasitic infections; and uncommon opportunistic infections such as cryptosporidiosis, microsporidiosis, Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) and viruses, astrovirus, adenovirus, rotavirus and cytomegalovirus, (the latter as a course of colitis).
Some strains of LAB may affect pathogens by means of competitive inhibition (i.e., by competing for growth) and some evidence suggests they may improve immune function by increasing the number of IgA-producing plasma cells and increasing or improving phagocytosis, as well as increasing the proportion of T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. LAB products might aid in the treatment of acute diarrhea, and possibly affect rotavirus infections in children and travelers' diarrhea in adults, but no products are approved for such indications. There is weak evidence probiotics might lower the incidence of acute upper respiratory-tract infections in adults.
Institutional delivery coverage was 83%. In 2013, 19% of deaths were caused by perinatal disorders, 18% by circulatory system diseases, and 10% by respiratory system diseases. Immunization coverage in the population under 1 year in 2015 was 100% for BCG, 99% for poliomyelitis, 100% for rotavirus, 99% for the pentavalent vaccine, and 99% for pneumococcus. In the population aged 12–23 months, measles immunization coverage was 98%. Dengue is endemic in Honduras, and the largest outbreak in the past 10 years occurred in 2010. Chikungunya virus was introduced in 2014, causing an epidemic that peaked at 1,057 cases per 100,000 population in 2015.
Two vaccines were eventually developed —RotaTeq and Rotarix; however, there has been some concern about their safety due to a small increased risk of intussusception. Estes' research group is credited with discovering a novel enterotoxin involved in rotavirus pathology, as well as the effect of histoblood group antigens on an individuals susceptibility to norowalk virus infection. Estes’s laboratory continues to research the molecular mechanisms involved in the pathology of gastrointestinal viruses using recombinant virus-like particles to probe their structure and function. She is also, through collaboration, working on vaccine development for the noroviruses that she studies.
Gastroenteritis is associated with many colloquial names, including "Montezuma's revenge", "Delhi belly", "la turista", and "back door sprint", among others. It has played a role in many military campaigns and is believed to be the origin of the term "no guts no glory". Gastroenteritis is the main reason for 3.7 million visits to physicians a year in the United States and 3 million visits in France. In the United States gastroenteritis as a whole is believed to result in costs of US$23 billion per year with that due to rotavirus alone resulting in estimated costs of US$1 billion a year.
The council promotes biomedical research in the country through intramural as well as extramural research. Over the decades, the base of extramural research and also its strategies have been expanded by the council. Intramural research is carried out currently through the council's 30 permanent research institutes/centres which are mission-oriented national institutes located in different parts of India. The institutes pursue specific areas of research such as COVID-19, tuberculosis, leprosy, cholera and diarrhoeal diseases, viral diseases including Rotavirus, dengue, Covid-19, Ebolavirus, Influenza, Japanese encephalitis, AIDS, malaria, kala-azar, vector control, nutrition, food & drug toxicology, reproduction, immunohaematology, oncology, and medical statistics.
Share of children who receive key vaccines in 2016. In order to provide the best protection, children are recommended to receive vaccinations as soon as their immune systems are sufficiently developed to respond to particular vaccines, with additional "booster" shots often required to achieve "full immunity". This has led to the development of complex vaccination schedules. In the United States, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, which recommends schedule additions for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, recommends routine vaccination of children against hepatitis A, hepatitis B, polio, mumps, measles, rubella, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, HiB, chickenpox, rotavirus, influenza, meningococcal disease and pneumonia.
January 24, 2017: Human astrovirus (particularly serotypes 1, 4, 6, and 8) were found in 4.2% of the samples collected from children suffering from acute gastroenteritis in Nara Prefecture, Japan. February 2017: Cortez et al. conducted a retrospective study on persistent infections in pediatric oncology patients and determined human astrovirus to be the main cause of gastroenteritis in immunocompromised patients. April 2017 (electronically published December 28, 2016): Bennett and Gunson developed a novel multiplex RT-PCR diagnostic technique to detect the presence of a variety of inflectional intestinal diseases (IID) including astrovirus, adenovirus, rotavirus, and sapovirus from stool samples.
During his time at Wistar, Plotkin worked on several vaccines; chief among them are vaccines for rubella, rabies, rotavirus, and cytomegalovirus (CMV). He developed a vaccine for rubella, based upon the RA 27/3 strain of the virus (also developed by Plotkin using WI-38, a fetal-derived human cell line), which was released to the public in 1969. This vaccine led to the eradication of the disease in the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, in 2005. Plotkin, working with Tadeusz Wiktor and Hilary Koprowski, produced a human vaccine for rabies during the 1960s and 1970s.
Four phases of Mission Indradhanush have been conducted till August 2017 and more than 2.53 crore children and 68 lakh pregnant women have been vaccinated. It aims to immunise all children under the age of 2 years, as well as all pregnant women, against eight vaccine preventable diseases. The diseases being targeted are diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, poliomyelitis, tuberculosis, measles, meningitis and Hepatitis B. In addition to these, vaccines for Japanese encephalitis and Haemophilus influenzae type B are also being provided in selected states. In 2016, four new additions have been made namely Rubella, Japanese Encephalitis, Injectable Polio Vaccine Bivalent and Rotavirus.
A proposed classification scheme sorts viroporins into four classes based on their topology and orientation in the membrane. Class I viroporins possess a single transmembrane helix; in class IA the C-terminus is oriented into the cytosol and in class IB the N-terminus is so oriented. Class II viroporins possess a helix-turn-helix motif with both helices crossing the membrane; in class IIA both termini are oriented externally (extracellularly or toward the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum) and in class IIB the termini are oriented toward the cytosol. Likely exceptions to this scheme exist, such as the rotavirus protein non-structural protein 4.
Gagandeep Kang is the Executive Director of THSTI. THSTI has six intramural centers namely Vaccine & Infectious Disease Research Centre (VIDRC), Pediatric Biology Centre (PBC), Centre for Bio-design & Diagnostics (CBD), Centre for Human Microbial Ecology (CHME), Policy Centre for Biomedical Research (PCBR), and Drug Discovery Research Centre (DDRC). Vaccine & Infectious Disease Research Centre (VIDRC) is engaged in development of technologies pertaining to prophylaxis, treatment and diagnosis of infections caused by JEV, DENV, HIV, Rotavirus, Mycobaterium tuberculosis, HEV. In 2009, HIV Vaccine Translational Research (HVTR) laboratory was established in collaboration with International AIDS Vaccine Initiative, USA for developing efficient immunogens to be used in immunogenic composition against HIV.
Prevnar is also the most successful commercial vaccine of all time with sales exceeding four billion dollars per year. Siber also developed Cytogam, the first Cytomegalovirus immune Globulin, BabyBIG, the first infant botulism immune globulin, the Haemophilus influenzae conjugate vaccine in Quinvaxim licensed to Berna, Acellimune, an Acellular pertussis combination vaccine, Meningitex, the first Meningoccus C conjugate vaccine, Rotashield, the first Rotavirus diarrhea vaccine, and FluMist, the first Live attenuated influenza vaccine. Siber became a diplomate with the National Board of Medical Examiners in 1971, a diplomate with the American Board of Internal Medicine in 1973, and a diplomate in infectious diseases for the American Board of Internal Medicine.
Hodes worked as an intern and resident at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia until 1935, when he moved to Baltimore to take up a position at the Harriet Lane Home of Johns Hopkins Hospital as the dispensary director. In 1936, he developed a method that used ultraviolet light to reduce the infectiousness of viruses, a technique that later was used to create commercial vaccines against rabies and influenza. He became a pediatrician at Johns Hopkins in 1938 while also serving as the medical director of Sydenham Hospital for Communicable Diseases. During an outbreak of diarrhea in 1942, he isolated the first virus known to cause diarrhea, later identified as rotavirus.
First during World War I, when a military hospital was established in the City of Frankston suburb of Langwarrin in order to treat Australian soldiers returning with venereal disease from Egypt and France. Between 1915 and 1916, research at the hospital led to reducing the length of venereal disease and halving the cost of its treatment. It also advanced the burgeoning field of occupational therapy in Australia, during this time. In the second half of the 20th century; the Frankston virologist Ruth Bishop lead the research team that discovered the rotavirus in 1973,Precel, Nicole (30 October 2013). "Professor Ruth Bishop wins 2013 CSL Florey Medal".
Most cases of bacterial gastroenteritis are caused by food-borne enteric microorganisms, such as Salmonella and Campylobacter; however, it is also important to understand the risk of exposure to pathogens via recreational waters. This is especially the case in watersheds where human or animal wastes are discharged to streams and downstream waters are used for swimming or other recreational activities. Other important pathogens other than bacteria include viruses such as rotavirus, hepatitis A and hepatitis E and protozoa like giardia, cryptosporidium and Naegleria fowleri. Due to the difficulties associated with monitoring pathogens in the environment, risk assessments often rely on the use of indicator bacteria.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines infants as those 1 month of age to 1 year of age. For these infants, the CDC recommends the following vaccinations: Hepatitis B (HepB), Rotavirus (RV), Haemophilus Influenzae type B (HIB), Pneumococcal Conjugate (PCV13), Inactivated Poliovirus (IPV < 18 yrs), Influenza, Varicella, Measles, Mumps, Rubella (MMR), and Diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertusis (DTapP < 7yrs). Each of these vaccinations are given at particular age ranges depending on the vaccination and are required to be done in a series of 1 to 3 doses over time depending on the vaccination. The efficacy of these vaccinations can be seen immediately following their introduction to society.
He has chaired UVA's Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health since 2001. In his laboratory, Petri studies enteric infections in the developing world, molecular parasitology, host defense and Clostridium difficile, and human immune response to Entamoeba histolytica and strain-associated differences in E. histolytica virulence. He leads the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation’s PROVIDE study in Bangladesh and India exploring new solutions for the problem of oral poliovirus and rotavirus vaccine failures in the developing world. He was a member of the NIAID Blue Ribbon Panel on Bioterrorism and its Implications for Biomedical Research. In 2017, he was appointed chair of the World Health Organization’s Polio Research Committee.
In 2012, Healthy Egyptians also succeeded in raising funds to provide children from low socio-economic classes in Egypt with 30,000 doses of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine, with a net value of EGP 11,500,000 (around $2,000,000, using 2012 exchange rates). The vaccines were provided free of charge to university and government hospitals all around the country. In 2014, the Egyptian Ministry of Health introduced the Haemophilus influenzae type B (HiB) vaccine in the National Immunisation Program, an important milestone in the fight against preventable diseases. The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, the rotavirus vaccine and the Hepatitis A vaccine are yet to be introduced to the National Immunisation Program.
The work has included surveillance, epidemiology, and vaccine clinical trials of pneumococcal disease; rotavirus; Haemophilus influenzae type b; respiratory syncytial virus and influenza vaccines. She has worked extensively with American Indian populations and in Africa and south Asia, partnering with local scientists and country program staff to develop rigorous scientific evidence and bring it into the vaccine policy arena, thereby accelerating the use and access to life-saving vaccines for children living in low resource countries and settings. She left Johns Hopkins in December 2018. In January 2019, O'Brien became the director of the Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals Department at the World Health Organization (WHO).
However, a 2006 study showed that EMA- negative people with coeliac tend to be older males with more severe abdominal symptoms and a lower frequency of "atypical" symptoms, including autoimmune disease. In this study, the anti-tTG antibody deposits did not correlate with the severity of villous destruction. These findings, coupled with recent work showing that gliadin has an innate response component, suggest that gliadin may be more responsible for the primary manifestations of coeliac disease, whereas tTG is a bigger factor in secondary effects such as allergic responses and secondary autoimmune diseases. In a large percentage of people with coeliac, the anti-tTG antibodies also recognise a rotavirus protein called VP7.
The Al Hakum facility began mass production of weapons-grade anthrax in 1989, eventually producing 8,000 liters or more (the 8,000 liter figure is based on declared amounts). Iraq officially acknowledged that it had worked with several species of bacterial pathogen, including Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium perfringens (gas gangrene) and several viruses (including enterovirus 17 [human conjunctivitis], rotavirus and camelpox). The program also purified biological toxins, such as botulinum toxin, ricin and aflatoxin. After 1995, it was learned that, in all, Iraq had produced 19,000 liters of concentrated botulinum toxin (nearly 10,000 liters filled into munitions), 8,500 liters of concentrated anthrax (6,500 liters filled into munitions) and 2,200 liters of aflatoxin (1,580 liters filled into munitions).
Pasteur Institute of Iran, alongside the Razi Institute, is one of the pillars of human vaccine production in the country. Due to the growing need for vaccines, recombinant products, and injectable solutions, Karaj Production Complex started its activities in 1988. Since the past 100 years, Pasteur Institute of Iran has been able to control various infectious diseases, including smallpox, cholera, rabies, hepatitis B and tuberculosis by producing numerous vaccines and effective health interventions, and has produced other vaccines such as typhoid, anthrax, gonorrhea, and typhus, and has planned to produce pneumococcal and rotavirus vaccines. Karaj Production Complex has made good strides in providing production infrastructure and expanding its activities on the Pasteur Institute's plan.
Expression of NSP3 in mammalian cells allows the efficient translation of virus-like mRNA: NSP3 forms a link between viral mRNA and the cellular translation machinery and hence is a functional analogue of cellular poly(A)-binding protein. Site-directed mutagenesis and isothermal titration calorimetry documented that NSP3 and PABP use analogous eIF4G recognition strategies, despite marked differences in tertiary structure. Using the yeast two-hybrid assay, RoXan a novel cellular protein was found to bind NSP3. The interaction between NSP3 and RoXaN does not impair the interaction between NSP3 and eIF4GI, and a ternary complex made of NSP3, RoXaN, and eIF4G I can be detected in rotavirus-infected cells, implicating RoXaN in translation regulation.
NSP1 binds to and targets IRF3 for proteasome degradation early post-infection. IRF3 degradation is dependent on the presence of NSP1 and the integrity of the N-terminal zinc-binding domain, coupled with the regulated stability of IRF3 and NSP1 by the proteasome, collectively support the hypothesis that NSP1 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase. NSP1 could mediates the degradation of IRF3, IRF5, and IRF7 by recognizing a common element of IRF proteins, thereby allowing NSP1 to act as a broad-spectrum antagonist of IRF function. NSP1 also inhibits activation of NFkappaB NSP1 inhibits cellular apoptosis by directly interacting p85 subunit of PI3K and thus activating PI3K/Akt survival pathway during early stages of rotavirus infection.
Glass has received numerous awards including the Charles C. Shepard Lifetime Scientific Achievement Award presented by the CDC in recognition of his 30-year career of scientific research application and leadership, the Dr. Charles Merieux Award from the National Foundation for Infectious Diseases for his work on rotavirus vaccines in the developing world. In 1994, he received the Public Health Service Outstanding Service Medal. Glass is also the recipient of the Albert B. Sabin Gold Medal, Georgetown University’s Cura Personalis Award, Research!America’s Geoffrey Beene Builders of Science Award, Rice University’s Rice 360˚ Institute for Global Health Award, and the Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter Humanitarian Award from the National Foundation for Infectious Diseases.
Through the publication of Executive Decree No. 34510-S "Organic Regulation of the Ministry of Health", a new institutional structure and development of the organizational model was implemented. In July 2008, through the Executive Decree, the Costa Rica Solid Waste Plan was made official. In 2009, the country achieved the lowest infant mortality rate in its history, ranking third in Latin America, behind only Chile and Cuba. The basic vaccination scheme for the entire population was extended, through the incorporation of four new vaccines for children: chickenpox, pneumococcus, pertussis, and rotavirus. In April 2010, Law 8809 was passed, creating the and providing it with an organizational and managerial structure, as well as resources to be able to advance the coverage of comprehensive care for the country's children.
At CSICon 2018 Offit is a recipient of numerous awards, including the J. Edmund Bradley Prize for Excellence in Pediatrics from the University of Maryland Medical School, the Young Investigator Award in Vaccine Development from the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the 2013 Maxwell Finland Award for Scientific Achievement and a Research Career Development Award from the National Institutes of Health. In 2018, Offit was awarded the Albert B. Sabin Gold Medal from the Sabin Vaccine Institute in Washington, DC for his work on the oral rotavirus vaccine and his leadership in promoting immunization. In 2011 Offit was honored by the Biotechnology Industry Organization with the 2011 Biotech Humanitarian Award. Offit donated the award's $10,000 prize to the Vaccine Education Center at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia.
King also made studies of the rotavirus and the role they played in the development of gastroenteritis, typhoid, meningitis, and Hepatitis B and was a prolific publisher and presenter at international conferences on regional infectious disease. From 1981, had additional responsibilities as Director of the Jamaican Influenza Center for the WHO and on the Advisory Board for the Caribbean Epidemiological Center (CAREC). In 1983, after a decade heading the Department of Microbiology, and earning her Doctor of Medicine degree from the University of London, King was made a full professor. The appointment was only the second full professorship ever granted to a woman in UWI's history and was the first time a woman had been elevated to the position in the faculty of medicine.
Treatment duration could be personalized for individual patients or populations, such as for East Asians, who have a high frequency of the IFNL4-TT/TT genotype. Recent studies, primarily in mouse models, have demonstrated that other members of the interferon lambda family provide tissue barrier protection against a wide range of viral pathogens, including neuroinvasive West Nile virus infection, respiratory infections including influenza and gastrointestinal viruses such as norovirus and rotavirus. Given the strong evolutionary selection against the IFNL4 protein-generating IFNL4-ΔG allele, genotype for the IFNL4-ΔG/TT variant may play an important role in other infectious diseases, therefore, future epidemiological studies should examine those relationships. Interferons are generally considered to be anti-viral cytokines that are generated in response to viral invasion.
Rotavirus A nucleic acid test (NAT) is a technique used to detect a particular nucleic acid sequence and thus usually to detect and identify a particular species or subspecies of organism, often a virus or bacteria that acts as a pathogen in blood, tissue, urine, etc. NATs differ from other tests in that they detect genetic materials (RNA or DNA) rather than antigens or antibodies. Detection of genetic materials allows an early diagnosis of a disease because the detection of antigens and/or antibodies requires time for them to start appearing in the bloodstream. Since the amount of a certain genetic material is usually very small, many NATs include a step that amplifies the genetic material—that is, makes many copies of it.
Gagandeep Kang FNA, FASc, FRS (born November 3, 1962) is a clinician scientist, Professor in the Department of Gastrointestinal Sciences at the Christian Medical College, Vellore, India and currently the executive director of the Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, Faridabad, an autonomous institute of the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India. She is a leading researcher with a major research focus on viral infections in children, and the testing of rotaviral vaccines. She also works on other enteric infections and their consequences when children are infected in early life, sanitation and water safety. She was awarded the prestigious Infosys Prize in Life Sciences in 2016 for her contributions to understanding the natural history of rotavirus and other infectious diseases.
NIAID has established a reputation for being on the cutting edge of scientific progress both through its intramural labs and through the research it funds at academic institutions.NIAID Showcase For example, NIAID collaborations with various partners led to the development of FDA-approved vaccines for influenza (FluMist), hepatitis A (Havrix), and rotavirus (RotaShield). NIAID also was instrumental in the development and licensure of acellular pertussis vaccines, conjugate vaccines for Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b or Hib, and a preventive therapy for respiratory syncytial virus or RSV (Synagis). Additionally, NIAID partnerships with industry and academia have led to the advancement of diagnostic tests for several important infectious diseases, including malaria (ParaSight F), tuberculosis (GeneXpert MTB/RIF), and norovirus (Ridascreen Norovirus 3rd Generation EIA).
In 1998, a rotavirus vaccine (RotaShield, by Wyeth) was licensed for use in the United States. Clinical trials in the United States, Finland, and Venezuela had found it to be 80 to 100% effective at preventing severe diarrhea caused by rotavirusA, and researchers had detected no statistically significant serious adverse effects. The manufacturer of the vaccine, however, withdrew it from the market in 1999, after it was discovered that the vaccine may have contributed to an increased risk for intussusception, or bowel obstruction, in one of every 12,000 vaccinated infants. There then followed eight years of delay until rival manufacturers were able to introduce new vaccines that were shown to be more safe and effective in children: Rotarix by GlaxoSmithKline and RotaTeq by Merck.
On 27 August 2009, after Mohammed VI had cancelled a planned trip to Casablanca and did not attend a ceremonial religious event of the Ramadan; Bouchra Dou wrote an article in al-Jarida al-Oula in which she revealed that the monarch has been allegedly under a treatment against asthma and allergy. The treatment required the monarch to regularly consume a quantity of corticoid and that resulted in an infection with Rotavirus. As a result, a Rabat court ruled against Anouzla on 26 October 2009 and sentenced him to one-year suspended prison and a fine of 10,000 Dirhams. Dou, the original author of the article, was also sentenced to 3 months suspended prison and a 10,000 Dirhams in fines.
A simplified drawing of the rotavirus replication cycle. The stages are (1) attachment of the virus to the host cells, which is mediated by VP4 and VP7 (2) penetration of the cell by the virus and uncoating of the viral capsid (3) plus strand ssRNA synthesis ( this acts as the mRNA) synthesis, which is mediated by VP1, VP3 and VP2 (4) formation of the viroplasm, viral RNA packaging and minus strand RNA synthesis and formation of the double-layered virus particles (5) virus particle maturation and release of progeny virions. The attachment of the virus to the host cell is initiated by VP4, which attaches to molecules, called glycans, on the surface of the cell. The virus enters cells by receptor mediated endocytosis and form a vesicle known as an endosome.
The vaccines may also have prevented illness in non-vaccinated children by limiting the number of circulating infections. In developing countries in Africa and Asia, where the majority of rotavirus deaths occur, a large number of safety and efficacy trials as well as recent post-introduction impact and effectiveness studies of Rotarix and RotaTeq have found that vaccines dramatically reduced severe disease among infants. In September 2013, the vaccine was offered to all children in the UK, aged between two and three months, and it is expected to halve the cases of severe infection and reduce the number of children admitted to hospital because of the infection by 70 percent. In Europe, hospitalisation rates following infection by rotaviruses have decreased by 65% to 84% following the introduction of the vaccine.
He served with the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in the Immunization Division, and served on the Research and Development Group of the World Health Organization (WHO) Expanded Program on Immunization. He has been a member or advisory member of the CDC Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), and was a member of the Committee on Infectious Diseases of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) 1989-99; COID Chair 1995-99. Halsey's research is primarily directed toward the prevention of infectious diseases with the safest vaccines possible. He has conducted or participated in epidemiological studies of vaccine-preventable diseases and phase I, II, and III vaccine trials of hepatitis A, hepatitis B, inactivated polio virus, pertussis, Haemophilus influenzae type B, tetanus, Lyme disease, rotavirus, Argentina Hemorrhagic Fever, human papillomavirus (HPV) and influenzae vaccine viruses.
Romark Laboratories has announced encouraging results from international Phase I and II clinical trials evaluating a controlled release version of nitazoxanide in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus infection. The company used 675 mg and 1,350 mg twice daily doses of controlled release nitazoxanide showed favorable safety and tolerability throughout the course of the study, with mild to moderate adverse events. Primarily GI-related adverse events were reported. Nitazoxanide has gone through Phase II clinical trials for the treatment of hepatitis C, in combination with peginterferon alfa-2a and ribavirin. A randomised double- blind placebo-controlled study published in 2006, with a group of 38 young children (Lancet, vol 368, page 124-129) concluded that a 3-day course of nitazoxanide significantly reduced the duration of rotavirus disease in hospitalized pediatric patients.
Cells infected by rotavirus (top) and uninfected cells (bottom) The focus forming assay (FFA) is a variation of the plaque assay, but instead of relying on cell lysis in order to detect plaque formation, the FFA employs immunostaining techniques using fluorescently labeled antibodies specific for a viral antigen to detect infected host cells and infectious virus particles before an actual plaque is formed. The FFA is particularly useful for quantifying classes of viruses that do not lyse the cell membranes, as these viruses would not be amenable to the plaque assay. Like the plaque assay, host cell monolayers are infected with various dilutions of the virus sample and allowed to incubate for a relatively brief incubation period (e.g., 24–72 hours) under a semisolid overlay medium that restricts the spread of infectious virus, creating localized clusters (foci) of infected cells.
To win an award, a claimant must have experienced an injury that is named as a vaccine injury in a table included in the law within the required time period or show a causal connection. The burden of proof is the civil law preponderance-of-the-evidence standard, in other words a showing that causation was more likely than not. Denied claims can be pursued in civil courts, though this is rare. The VICP covers all vaccines listed on the Vaccine Injury Table maintained by the Secretary of Health and Human Services; in 2007 the list included vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), polio, hepatitis B, varicella (chicken pox), Haemophilus influenzae type b, rotavirus, and pneumonia. From 1988 until 8 January 2008, 5,263 claims relating to autism, and 2,865 non-autism claims, were made to the VICP.
Since the first economic analysis of routine childhood immunizations in the United States in 2001 that reported cost savings over the lifetime of children born in 2001, other analyses of the economic costs and potential benefits to individuals and society have since been studied, evaluated, and calculated. In 2014, the American Academy of Pediatrics published a decision analysis that evaluated direct costs (program costs such as vaccine cost, administrative burden, negative vaccine-linked reactions, and transportation time lost to parents to seek health providers for vaccination). The study focused on diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, Haemophilus influenza type b conjugate, poliovirus, measles/mumps/rubella (MMR), hepatitis B, varicella, 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate, hepatitis A, and rotavirus vaccines, but excluded influenza. Estimated costs and benefits were adjusted to 2009 dollars and projected over time at 3% annual interest rate.
The World Health Organization recommends that mothers breastfeed their children for the first two years of life, whereas the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Academy of Family Physicians recommend that mothers do so for at least the first six months, and continue as long as is mutually desired. Infants who are breastfed by healthy mothers (not infected with HIV/AIDS) are less prone to infections such as Haemophilus influenza, Streptococcus pneunoniae, Vibrio cholerae, Escherichia coli, Giardia lamblia, group B streptococci, Staphylococcus epidermidis, rotavirus, respiratory syncytial virus and herpes simplex virus-1, as well as gastrointestinal and lower respiratory tract infections and otitis media. Lower rates of infant mortality are observed in breastfed babies in addition to lower rates of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Decreases in obesity and diseases such as childhood metabolic disease, asthma, atopic dermatitis, Type I diabetes, and childhood cancers are also seen in children who are breastfed.
Gram-stained B. subtilis Cultures of B. subtilis were popular worldwide before the introduction of antibiotics as an immunostimulatory agent to aid treatment of gastrointestinal and urinary tract diseases. It was used throughout the 1950s as an alternative medicine, which upon digestion has been found to significantly stimulate broad-spectrum immune activity including activation of secretion of specific antibodies IgM, IgG and IgA and release of CpG dinucleotides inducing INF A/Y producing activity of leukocytes and cytokines important in the development of cytotoxicity towards tumor cells. It was marketed throughout America and Europe from 1946 as an immunostimulatory aid in the treatment of gut and urinary tract diseases such as Rotavirus and Shigellosis. It has been reported that in 1966 the U.S Army dumped bacillus subtilis onto the grates of New York City subway stations for four days in order to observe people's reactions when coated by a strange dust, due to its ability to survive it is thought to still be present there.
Geometric examples for many values of h, k, and T can be found at List of geodesic polyhedra and Goldberg polyhedra. Many exceptions to this rule exist: For example, the polyomaviruses and papillomaviruses have pentamers instead of hexamers in hexavalent positions on a quasi-T=7 lattice. Members of the double-stranded RNA virus lineage, including reovirus, rotavirus and bacteriophage φ6 have capsids built of 120 copies of capsid protein, corresponding to a "T=2" capsid, or arguably a T=1 capsid with a dimer in the asymmetric unit. Similarly, many small viruses have a pseudo-T=3 (or P=3) capsid, which is organized according to a T=3 lattice, but with distinct polypeptides occupying the three quasi-equivalent positions T-numbers can be represented in different ways, for example T = 1 can only be represented as an icosahedron or a dodecahedron and, depending on the type of quasi-symmetry, T = 3 can be presented as a truncated dodecahedron, an icosidodecahedron, or a truncated icosahedron and their respective duals a triakis icosahedron, a rhombic triacontahedron, or a pentakis dodecahedron.
To win an award, a claimant must have experienced an injury that is named as a vaccine injury in a table included in the law within the required time period or show a causal connection. The burden of proof is the civil law preponderance-of-the-evidence standard, in other words a showing that causation was more likely than not. Denied claims can be pursued in civil courts, though this is rare. The VICP covers all vaccines listed on the Vaccine Injury Table maintained by the Secretary of Health and Human Services; in 2007 the list included vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), polio, hepatitis B, varicella (chicken pox), Haemophilus influenzae type b, rotavirus, and pneumonia. From 1988 until 8 January 2008, 5,263 claims relating to autism, and 2,865 non-autism claims, were made to the VICP. Of these claims, 925 (see previous rulings), were compensated, with 1,158 non-autism and 350 autism claims dismissed, and one autism-like claim compensated; awards (including attorney's fees) totaled $847 million.
Siber has held several industry appointments for various companies since the mid-1990s. Siber served as the vice president, chief scientific officer, and senior vice president, and executive vice president for Wyeth from 1996 to 2006. Wyeth was then purchased by Pfizer in 2009. While at Wyeth, Siber oversaw the development and approval of several often used vaccines for children, including Prevnar, a pneumococcal vaccine, Acel-Imune, an acellular pertussis vaccine, Meningitec, a meningococcal meningitis vaccine, Rotashield, a rotavirus vaccine, and FluMist, a nasal spray influenza vaccine. Since retiring from Wyeth Siber has served on the boards of directors of several companies, Since 2007, Siber has served as the executive chairman (until 2013) and as executive director and chairman of the scientific advisory board for Genocea Biosiences in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 2009 he was appointed as the director of Selecta Biosciences in Watertown, Massachusetts. In 2012 he joined the board of directors and SAB of Vedantra Parmaceutcals and the board of Huamei Biotechnologies, also known as Sino-American Biotechnology Company (SABC), in Luoyang, China. In 2014 he co-founded Affinivax and serves on the board of directors.

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