Papal rescripts concern the granting of favours or the administration of justice under canon law. In Roman Catholicism rescripts are responses in writing by the pope or a Congregation of the Roman Curia to queries or petitions of individuals.
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Under the governance of the jurists Gregorius, Aurelius Arcadius Charisius, and Hermogenianus, the imperial government began issuing official books of precedent, collecting and listing all the rescripts that had been issued from the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–38) to the reign of Diocletian.Harries, 14–15; Potter, 295–96. The Codex Gregorianus includes rescripts up to 292, which the Codex Hermogenianus updated with a comprehensive collection of rescripts issued by Diocletian in 293 and 294.
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The Massachusetts appellate courts issue rescripts to the lower courts. These are the equivalent of mandates (i.e. writs of mandamus) in federal appellate practice.Mass. R. App.
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These would be called hatt-ı hümâyûn on arz, hatt-ı hümâyûn on mahzar, etc. depending on the type of the document. The Sultan responded not only to documents submitted to him by his viziers but also to petitions (arzuhâl) submitted to him by his subjects following the Friday prayer. Thus, hatt-ı hümayuns on documents were analogous to Papal rescripts and rescripts used in other imperial regimes.
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291-4 and the Codex Hermogenianus, a limited collection of rescripts from c. 295, was published. The Sirmondian Constitutions may also represent a small-scale collection of imperial laws.
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The word originated from the Roman imperial court, which often issued rescripts, in many cases prompted by its many governors and other officials. Some important early legal collections were composed entirely of rescripts, for instance the Codex Hermogenianus, published around AD 300."Codex Hermogenianus" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford, 1991, p. 474. The other main field of application is the papal Roman Curia, which adopted many Roman administrative terms and practices.
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Diocletian's reign marks the end of the classical period of Roman law. Where Diocletian's system of rescripts shows an adherence to classical tradition, Constantine's law is full of Greek and eastern influences.Johnston, "Epiclassical Law" (CAH), 207.
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Oxford University Press, 2014, , p. 181 Admittedly, Diocletian's praetorian prefects – Afranius Hannibalianus, Julius Asclepiodotus, and Aurelius Hermogenianus – aided in regulating the flow and presentation of such paperwork, but the deep legalism of Roman culture kept the workload heavy.Williams, 53–54, 142–43. Emperors in the forty years preceding Diocletian's reign had not managed these duties so effectively, and their output in attested rescripts is low. Diocletian, by contrast, was prodigious in his affairs: there are around 1,200 rescripts in his name still surviving, and these probably represent only a small portion of the total issue.
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However, they were entitled to correspond directly with the emperor, as various imperial rescripts show. A few border commanders were, exceptionally, styled comes e.g. the comes litoris Saxonici ("Count of the Saxon Shore") in Britain.Notitia Occidens Title A Comes rei militaris (lit.
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Caracalla, the 22nd Roman Emperor. In Roman law, a constitution is a generic name for a legislative enactment by a Roman emperor. It includes edicts, decrees (judicial decisions) and rescripts (written answers to officials or petitioners)."constitutions" in Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World.
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Johnston, "Epiclassical Law" (CAH), 201; Williams, Diocletian. 143. The sharp increase in the number of edicts and rescripts produced under Diocletian's rule has been read as evidence of an ongoing effort to realign the whole Empire on terms dictated by the imperial center.Potter, 296, 652.
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Apostolic expeditors (in full, in Latin Expeditionarius literarum apostolicarum, Datariae Apostolicae sollicitator atque expeditor; in Italian simply Spedizionieri) are Roman Curial officials who attend to the sending of Papal Bulls, Papal Briefs and Papal Rescripts emanating from the Apostolic Chancery, the Dataria, the Sacred Paenitentiaria and the Secretariate of Briefs.
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Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda.Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70. Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated.Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 45.
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Rescripts may take various forms, from a formal document of an established type, such as a Papal Bull, to the forwarding of the demand with a simple mention by way of decision, something like "rejected" or "awarded", either to the party concerned or to the competent executive office to be carried out. By analogy it is also applied to similar procedures in other contexts, such as the Ottoman, Chinese and Japanese imperial courts, or even prior to the Roman empire. Two well-known examples of Japanese Imperial rescripts were Emperor Hirohito's 1945 Imperial Rescript on the Termination of the War written in response to the Potsdam Declaration and his 1946 Humanity Declaration written in response to a request by General Douglas MacArthur.
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He became the Head of the Directorate of Ceremonies, in which role he was notorious for altering rescripts in transit to and from the emperor. This meant he essentially controlled what the emperor knew and what the emperor approved.Tong, James W. Collective Violence in a Premodern Society: Rebellions and Banditry in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).
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378–381 More broadly, fundamental norms written in the Constitution by constituent power cannot be amended. Preamble of the Constitution states;”We reject and revoke all constitutions, laws, ordinances, and rescripts in conflict herewith”. Pacifism, popular sovereignty and respect for basic human rights are among them according to the Preamble and Article 11. Hideki SHIBUTANI(渋谷秀樹)(2013) Japanese Constitutional Law.
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These rescripts formed the core of his compilation of imperial laws, the single-book codex that bore his name, which was perhaps designed to function as a supplement to the Codex Gregorianus that itself had gathered up material from as far back as the emperor Hadrian. Certainly, the two works are closely linked in subsequent citations, the Hermogenian always after the Gregorian., pp.
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Its validity is based on its issuance by the pope by his own initiative, not upon the reasons alleged. The first motu proprio was promulgated by Pope Innocent VIII in 1484. It continues to be a common form of Papal rescripts, especially when establishing institutions, making minor changes to law or procedure, and when granting favours to persons or institutions.
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235–38) are alleged to have issued general rescripts against the religion and targeted its clergy, but the evidence for their acts is obscure and contested.On S. Severus: SHA Septimius Severus 17.1; Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 511; cf. Barnes, "Legislation", 40–41; idem., Tertullian: A Historical and Literary Study (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 151. On Maximin: Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 6.28; Barnes, "Legislation", 43; Clarke, 621–25 Frend, "Genesis and Legacy", 513.
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The task of imperial secretary in Morocco hasn't changed for a long time. The katib present himself at the palace every day, morning and evening, except Thursday and Friday. He writes there, or more often, copies there, if he has a beautiful handwriting, the letters addressed to the governors of the cities and the tribes, the Sherifian rescripts and circular letters. Moroccan Makhzen was a center of intrigues and slander.
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The Dataria consisted first of a cardinal as its principal who was titled the "Pro-Datary" ("Prodatarius") until Sapienti Consilio of Pope Pius X, and thereafter was titled "Datarius" ("Datary"). There was formerly as much discussion of the title of "pro-datary" as of that of "vice chancellor" of the Apostolic Chancery: some contend that the title is derived from the fact that the office dated the rescripts of the Supreme Pontiff, while others that it is derived from the right to grant (dare) the indults and rescripts for which petition was made to the Supreme Pontiff. It is certain that, on account of these faculties, the Datary enjoyed great prestige during the flourishing of the office, when he was denominated the "Oculus Papae" ("Eye of the Pope"). After the Cardinal Datary came the "Subdatary" ("Subdatarius"), a prelate of the Roman Curia who assisted the Datary and assumed almost all of the faculties of the Datary as his substitute on occasion.
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During the reign of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus, the persecution of Christians was not as extreme as it was under Decius, although Pope Cornelius was exiled in 252AD. Novatian was also forced to flee Rome during this period of persecution. Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus issued only two imperial rescripts during their reign. During the shared reign of Trebonianus Gallus and Volusianus, the Roman Empire was invaded by both the Goths and the Sassanids.
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As Wang Hui had looted An Prefecture for 3 days, many of his officers acquired large numbers of properties. Li Jinquan then executed dozens of such officers to appropriate their wealth for himself. One such officer, Wu Kehe (), cried out before his execution: "If you, commander, contravene imperial rescripts to kill surrendering soldiers, then you may not escape peril yourself!" Even though Shi Jingtang heard about Li's disobedience, he could not do anything.
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Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis (527–534). The Corpus drew on the codices of Gregorius and Hermogenian, drafted and published under Diocletian's reign. As with most emperors, much of Diocletian's daily routine rotated around legal affairs – responding to appeals and petitions, and delivering decisions on disputed matters. Rescripts, authoritative interpretations issued by the emperor in response to demands from disputants in both public and private cases, were a common duty of second- and third-century emperors.
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The term Apostolic Letters (Litterae apostolicae in Latin) has two uses in Roman Catholicism: # The letters of the Apostles to Christian communities or those in authority, i.e. the Pauline Epistles, the Letter to the Hebrews, together with the seven General Epistles of the other Apostles. # One of the major types of ecclesiastical document issued by the Pope or in his name, the others being Papal Briefs, Papal Bulls, Apostolic Constitutions, Apostolic Exhortations and Papal Rescripts.
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Hucker, 29. The most senior one was popularly called Senior Grand Secretary (, shǒufǔ). The Grand Secretaries were nominally mid-level officials, ranked much lower than the Ministers, heads of the Ministries. However, since they screened documents submitted to the emperor from all governmental agencies, and had the power of drafting suggested rescripts for the emperor, generally known as piàonǐ () or tiáozhǐ (), some senior Grand Secretaries were able to dominate the whole government, acting as de facto Chancellor.
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Diocletian was awash in paperwork, and was nearly incapable of delegating his duties. It would have been seen as a dereliction of duty to ignore them. In the "nomadic" imperial courts of the later Empire, one can track the progress of the imperial retinue through the locations from whence particular rescripts were issued – the presence of the Emperor was what allowed the system to function.Serena Connolly, Lives behind the Laws: The World of the Codex Hermogenianus.
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Under Gordian III, reforms were made to limit frivolous lawsuits. Attention was also given to strengthening the defenses of the Roman frontiers and punishing any abuses of power in the provinces. Despite the efforts of the dynasty, this period was marked by political and economic upheaval, Gordian enacted a rescript that removed the four-year statute of limitation on seeking restitution of soldiers and state officials. Of all the rescripts issued by Gordian, 13 percent went to soldiers.
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With the development of the papal primacy in the Middle Ages the papal letters grew enormously in number. The popes, following the earlier custom, insisted that their rescripts, issued for individual cases, should be observed in all analogous ones. According to the teaching of the canonists, above all of Gratian, every papal letter of general character was authoritative for the entire Church without further notification. Decrees (decreta) was the name given especially to general ordinances issued with the advice of the cardinals.
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According to the De officio et jurisdictione datarii necnon de stylo Datariae of Amydenus and other authorities, the Dataria Apostolica was of very ancient origin, but the previous transaction by other offices of the business that was gradually assigned to it contradicts these authorities. The Dataria was principally entrusted with concession of matrimonial dispensations of external jurisdiction and with collation, i. e., conferral, of benefices and rescripts that were reserved to the Apostolic See. To this double faculty was later added the third of granting many other indults and favors.
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The law was not enforced as General Sarit soon overthrew the elected government in a coup and repealed the law. Bhumibol had the constitutional prerogative to pardon criminals, although there are several criteria for receiving a pardon, including age and remaining sentence. The 2006 pardoning of several convicted child rapists, including an Australian rapist and child pornographer, caused controversy. However, under the Thai constitution, the king has the prerogative to grant pardons and all laws, royal rescripts, and royal commands relating to state affairs must be countersigned by a minister unless otherwise provided for in the constitution.
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Gasparri holds it as received practice that it suffices if the reasons alleged be actually true at the moment when the petition is presented. It is certain, however, that the executor required by Penitentiaria rescripts may safely fulfil his mission even if the pope should die before he had begun to execute it. The executor named for public impediments is usually the ordinary who forwards the supplica and for secret impediments an approved confessor chosen by the petitioner. Except when specially authorized, the person delegated cannot validly execute a dispensation before he has seen the original of the rescript.
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Some Greek-Latin exercises by an unknown writer of the 3rd century, to be learnt by heart and translated, were added to the grammar. They are of considerable value as illustrating the social life of the period and the history of the Latin language. Of these Ἑρμηνεύματα ("Interpretamenta"), the third book, containing a collection of words and phrases from everyday conversation (κατημερινὴ ὁμιλία) has been preserved. A further appendix consisted of Anecdotes, Letters and Rescripts of the emperor Hadrian; fables, of Aesop; extracts from Hyginus; a history of the Trojan War, abridged from the Iliad; and a legal fragment, Περὶ ἐλευθερώσεων ("De manumissionibus").
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If it is only the impelling cause, and the substance of the petition is not affected, or if the false statement was made through ignorance, the rescript is not vitiated. As requests for rescripts must come through a person in ecclesiastical authority, it is his duty to inform himself of the truth or falsity of the causes alleged in the petitions, and in case they are granted, to see that the conditions of the rescript are fulfilled. In its effects subreption is equivalent to obreption. Subreption may be intentional and malicious, or attributable solely to ignorance or inadvertence.
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Babylonian law is a subset of cuneiform law that has received particular study, owing to the singular extent of the associated archaeological material that has usually been found for it. So-called "contracts" exist in the thousands, including a great variety of deeds, conveyances, bonds, receipts, accounts, and most important of all, actual legal decisions given by the judges in the law courts. Historical inscriptions, royal charters and rescripts, dispatches, private letters and the general literature afford welcome supplementary information. Even grammatical and lexicographical texts contain many extracts or short sentences bearing on law and custom.
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Under Trajan the region around Alzey experienced its economic and cultural heyday. Numerous estates, such as the Roman villa of Wachenheim, supplied the border garrisons with food.Wolfgang Diehl, 1981, S. 16-17 Solidus of Valentinian I Altaia was burnt by the Alemanni under Chnodomar in the middle of the 4th century AD (352/353). In 370, in the course of the last Roman reinforcements on the Rhine Limes, the late antique Castrum Alteium was built on the ruins of the civilian settlement. The fort's name is mentioned in connection with two visits of Emperor Valentinian I, in 370 and 373, who probably issued some laws or rescripts here.
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Medieval manuscripts abound in abbreviations, owing in part to the abandonment of the uncial, or quasi-uncial, and the almost universal use of the cursive, hand. The medieval writer inherited a few from Christian antiquity; others he invented or adapted, in order to save time and parchment. They are found especially in manuscripts of scholastic theology and canon law, annals and chronicles, the Roman law, and in administrative documents, civil and privileges, bulls, rescripts. They multiplied with time, and were never so numerous as on the eve of the discovery of printing; many of the early printed books offer this peculiarity, together with other characteristics of the manuscript page.
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There are other Holy See archives in Rome, since each department of the Roman Curia has its own archives. The word "secret" in its modern sense can be applied to some of the material kept by the Apostolic Penitentiary, when it concerns matters of the internal forum; but registers of the rescripts that it issued up to 1564 have been deposited in the Vatican Apostolic Archives and are open for consultation by qualified scholars. Half of these have already been put in digital form for easier consultation. The confidentiality of the material means that, in spite of the centuries that have passed since 1564, special rules apply to its publication.
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The modern office of the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal was formed in 1885, after the Meiji government established the Japanese cabinet; however, the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal was separate from the cabinet, and acted as a direct, personal advisor to the Emperor. He was also responsible for the administration of imperial documents such as rescripts and edicts. Petitions to the emperor and the court were also handled by the Lord Keeper's office, as well as the responses. The Emperor meets with his Privy Council, which was created separately and three years after the office of the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal.
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The terms of reference and the terms of reference for the Conference were not clearly defined. Formally, the Conference was equal in its significance to the Senate and the Synod, but by decree of October 5, 1756, it received the right to send them "resolutions to execution" in the form of extracts from the protocols. The conference sent rescripts to the headquarters (on behalf of the empress) and received in response the reports (again addressed to Elizabeth Petrovna). The objectives and the order of work of the Conference were set forth in the minutes of the organizational meeting of the conference ministers of March 14, 1756.
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This along with the fact that the king's recorded regnal periods were given as Khotanese kṣuṇa, "implies an established connection between the Iranian inhabitants and the royal power," according to the late Professor of Iranian Studies Ronald E. Emmerick (d. 2001). He contended that Khotanese-Saka- language royal rescripts of Khotan dated to the 10th century "makes it likely that the ruler of Khotan was a speaker of Iranian." Furthermore, he elaborated on the early name of Khotan: Later Khotanese-Saka-language documents, ranging from medical texts to Buddhist literature, have been found in Khotan and Tumshuq (northeast of Kashgar). Similar documents in the Khotanese-Saka language dating mostly to the 10th century have been found in Dunhuang.
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If the answer was favourable, a decree embodying this result was published. # New remissorial letters were then sent to the bishops in partibus for Apostolic processes with regard to the reputation for sanctity and miracles in particular. These processes must be finished within 18 months and when they were received in Rome were opened, as above described, and by virtue of an equal number of rescripts, by the cardinal Prefect, translated into Italian, and their summary authenticated by the Chancellor of the Congregation of Rites. # The Advocate of the cause next prepared the documents (positio) which had reference to the discussion of the validity of all the preceding processes, informative and Apostolic.
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According to David Woods, the martyrdom of Acacius probably took place at Nicomedia on 10 May 305, but this person had nothing to do with the foundation of the Church of St Acacius at Constantinople. Rather, Woods argues that someone named Acacius had sponsored the building of the church, which subsequently bore his name and was then conflated with the martyr. Woods identifies the comes Acacius, a confidant of Constantine and a Christian, as the most likely candidate. This Acacius's existence is recorded by Eusebius of Caesarea's Vita Constantini, a posthumous biography of Constantine, and possibly by the Codex Theodosianus, a collection of laws and rescripts compiled in the reign of Theodosius II ().
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They took their first religious vows on the one-year anniversary of the inauguration, and, together with two other canons, perpetual vows on 8 September 1871, made to the Bishop of Saint-Claude, who simultaneously gave them official approval as a religious community. The new congregation received the papal Decretum laudis only five years later from Pope Pius IX, who also gave the congregation its name. He and his successor, Pope Leo XIII, were to give their formal approval of the congregation in three different rescripts (1870, 1876 and 1887). The canons took their first step toward the life they had envisioned in December 1880, when the bishop gave them the charge of a parish in the small town of Lescheres.
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To the canons of the councils of Nicaea, Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra, Antioch, Ephesus, and Constantinople, already collected and received in the Greek church, John added 89 "Apostolical Canons," the 21 of Sardica, and the 68 of the canonical letter of Basil. Writing to Photius, pope Nicholas I cites a harmony of the canons which includes those of Sardica, which could only be that of John the Lawyer. When John came to Constantinople, he edited the Nomocanon, an abridgment of his former work, with the addition of a comparison of the imperial rescripts and civil laws (especially the Novels of Justinian) under each head. Balsamon cites this without naming the author, in his notes on the first canon of the Trullan council of Constantinople.
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10, and 49.14.46. It is probably on this work that his subsequent high reputation was based; the fifth-century author Coelius Sedulius calls Hermogenian a doctissimus iurislator ('most learned relator of the law') and it is probably of the Iuris epitomae (rather than the Codex) that the same author claims that he produced three editions.Sedulius, Opus Paschale: Epistula ad Macedonium altera (), p. 172, lines 10–11: Cognoscant Hermogenianum, doctissimum iurislatorem, tres editiones sui operis confecisse. By analysing the style of the surviving extracts of the Iuris epitomae Tony Honoré has identified Hermogenian also as the drafter of the emperor Diocletian's rescripts (replies to petitions) from the beginning of AD 293 to the end of 294, a task that would have been the job of the emperor's (procurator) a libellis or magister libellorum (master of petitions).
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In 1934, Puyi had been excited when he learned that El Salvador had become the first nation other than Japan to recognize Manchukuo, but by 1938 he did not care much about Germany's recognition of Manchukuo. In May 1938, Puyi was declared a god by the Religions Law, and a cult of emperor-worship very similar to Japan's began with schoolchildren starting their classes by praying to a portrait of the god-emperor while imperial rescripts and the imperial regalia became sacred relics imbued with magical powers by being associated with the god- emperor.Dubois 2008 p.309 Puyi's elevation to a god was due to the Sino- Japanese war, which caused the Japanese state to begin a program of totalitarian mobilization of society for total war in Japan and places ruled by Japan.
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These rules hold in all canonical matters: universal ordinances, precepts, rescripts, privileges, judicial sentences; but they have nothing to do with problems of chronology or such questions as the determination of the date for the celebration of Easter. They are not absolute rules, but should be followed when no others have been expressly laid down; liturgical laws regarding, for example, the beginning of the ecclesiastical year, of the solemnity of a feast, remain unchanged. The former use of 'time' in indulgences (prior to Paul VI's revision of sacred indulgences) had special provisions in the 1917 Code (cc. 921, 922, 923, 931), and it is stated that in what pertains to the fulfilment or enforcement of contracts, the prescriptions of the civil law should be complied with, unless there has been some other agreement to the contrary.
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Completing birth registrations in Roman society were not compulsory. Whereas penalties for failure to register in the census existed, no known penalties existed in regard to birth registrations. In terms of Roman law, individuals who did not register their birth were neither penalized nor disadvantaged: there are imperial rescripts (a written answer of a Roman emperor to a query or petition in writing) that state that the failure to register children should not deprive them or their right to legitimacy, and there are recorded statements of Roman Emperors Diocletian and Maximian that inform an individual that “It is a well- established rule of law that though a declaration of birth has been lost, your status is not adversely affected.” Birth registrations could be used as proof of age; however, from historical evidence, it is clear that they were not regarded as sufficient proof in themselves.
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Ye was born in Fuqing, Fujian. His father, Ye Chaorong, was for a time sub-prefecture magistrate in Yangli (), Guangxi. Ye Xianggao passed the provincial exam in 1579 in Fujian and graduated as a jinshi in 1583, becoming a bachelor at the Hanlin Academy. He later became the Director of Studies at the National Academy in Nanjing, where he was promoted to Left Deputy Supervisor of Instruction in 1598 and Right Vice Minister of Rights in 1599. In 1607, Ye was appointed as a Grand Secretary under the Wanli Emperor, a role he officially took on in the beginning of 1608. Ye became the Senior Grand Secretary in 1609, from which point on he was effectively the only serving Grand Secretary, simultaneously managing the metropolitan examination and drafting rescripts alone, until he persuaded the Wanli Emperor to appoint two additional Grand Secretaries on October 31, 1613.
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Dispensations or graces are not granted unless there be some motive for requesting them, and the law of the Church requires that the true and just causes that lie behind the motive be stated in every prayer for such dispensation or grace. When the petition contains a statement about facts or circumstances that are supposititious or at least, modified if they really exist, the resulting rescript is said to be vitiated by obreption, which consists in a positive allegation of what is false. If, on the other hand, silence had been observed concerning something that essentially changed the state of the case, the concealment or suppression of statements or facts that according to law or usage should be expressed in an application or petition for a rescript is called subreption. Rescripts obtained by obreption or subreption are null and void when the motive cause of the rescript is affected by them.
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Their number has been fixed at nineteen, and they are subject to the major-domo. The principal duties of the cursores are to invite those who are to take part in consistories and functions in the papal chapel; to act as servitors in the pontifical palace and as doorkeepers of the conclave; to affix papal rescripts to the doors of the greater Roman basilicas; to issue the summons for attendance at canonizations, the funerals of cardinals etc. As representatives of the pope, the cursores must be received with the respect becoming the personage in whose name they speak, and their invitation has the force of a judicial summons. In the early ages of the Church, an institution somewhat similar to that of the cursores is found in messengers, chosen from among the clergy, to carry important tidings from one bishop to another or from the bishop to his flock.
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By contrast, the best of the ethnic Chinese law schools graduates in Manchukuo chose to work as part of Manchukuo's judicial system, suggesting many middle-class Chinese families were prepared to accept Manchukuo. Starting with the Religions Law of May 1938, a cult of Emperor-worship closely modeled after the Imperial cult in Japan where Hirohito was worshiped as a living god, began in Manchukuo. Just as in Japan, schoolchildren began their classes by praying to a portrait of the emperor while imperial rescripts and the imperial regalia become sacred relics imbued with magical powers by being associated with the god-emperor. As the Emperor Puyi was considered to be a living god, his will could not be limited by any law, and the purpose of the law was starkly reduced down to serving the will of the emperor rather than upholding values and rules.
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In the modern period also, papal letters have been constantly issued, but they proceed from the popes themselves less frequently than in the Middle Ages and Christian antiquity; most of them are issued by the papal officials, of whom there is a greater number than in the Middle Ages, and to whom have been granted large delegated powers, which include the issuing of letters. Following the example of Paul III, Pius IV and Pius V, Sixtus V by the papal bull Immensa aeterni of 22 January 1587 added to the already existing bodies of papal officials a number of congregations of cardinals with clearly defined powers of administration and jurisdiction. Succeeding popes added other congregations. Pius X in the constitution Sapienti consilio of 29 June 1908 reorganized the papal curia, papal writings being divided into (apostolic) constitutions, (papal) rescripts, (papal) bulls, (papal) briefs and apostolic letters (litterae apostolicae).
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The Corpus Juris Civilis, the name for the massive body of law promulgated by Emperor Justinian from the 530s CE and onwards, consists of two historical collections of laws and their interpretation (the Digest, opinions of the pre-eminent lawyers from the past, and the Codex Justinianus, a collection of edicts and rescripts by earlier emperors), along with Justinian's prefatory introduction text for students of Law, Institutes, plus the Novels, Justinian's own, later edicts. That the earlier collections were meant to be sources for the actual, current practice of law, rather than just being of historical interest, can be seen, for example, from the inclusion, and modification of Modestinus' famous description of poena cullei (Digest 48.9.9), in Justinian's own law text in Institutes 4.18.6. It is seen that Justinian regards this as a novel enactment of an old law, and that he includes not only the symbolic interpretations of the punishment as found in for example Cicero, but also Constantine's extension of the penalty to fathers who murder their own children.
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This was done in order that the proofs might not be lost (ne pereant probationes), and such inchoative process preceded that upon the miracles and virtues in general. # While the Apostolic process concerning the reputation of sanctity was under way outside of Rome, documents were prepared by the Procurator of the cause for the discussion de non cultu, or absence of cultus, and at the appointed time an ordinary meeting (congregatio) was held in which the matter was investigated; if it was found that the decree of Pope Urban VIII had been obeyed, another decree provided that further steps might be taken. # When the inquiry concerning the reputation of sanctity (super fama) had arrived in Rome, it was opened (as already described in speaking of the ordinary processes, and with the same formalities in regard to rescripts), then translated into Italian, summarized, and declared valid. The documents super fama in general were prepared by the Advocate, and at the proper time, in an ordinary meeting of the cardinals of the Congregation of Rites, the question was discussed: whether there was evidence of a general repute for sanctity and miracles of this servant of God.
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