These refutations should include specific references to relevant sources of information, when appropriate.
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The 529 plan precedent Two refutations to the misconceptions listed above mention 529 plans.
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These statements weren't the one-lined, vague sentiments they normally push out, but point-by-point refutations.
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Kavanaugh supporters repeatedly characterize the statements by the three purported party attendees as "refutations" of Ford's claims.
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In his refutations of Jackson and Zwigoff, it was, in fact, Weinstein who sounded crazy — which is as it should be.
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Often, the refutations are published in lower-profile journals, and so it's possible that reporters are less likely to know about them.
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They recalled how "crisis actor" became a household term due to this disinformation campaign -- and due to the surprisingly effective refutations by the students.
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Women like Desai, having brought a big employer to a halt, were walking refutations of the stereotype of South Asian women as submissive and downtrodden.
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Most concerning, while 234 articles reported on initial studies that were later shown to be questionable, only four articles followed up and covered the refutations.
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As Karl Popper noted in Conjectures and Refutations (1963), some people tend to attribute anything they dislike to the intentional design of a few influential 'others'.
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But a larger problem might be that we don't consider retractions, refutations, and failed replications of studies to be stories just as much as the original story.
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" Russian social media erupted with a certain amount of derision about the whole enterprise, particularly since the link in Russian to the page translated as "publications and refutations.
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But one of the earliest and most enduring pop-culture refutations of those stereotypes comes from Bruce Lee, who starred in just five feature films before his death in 1973.
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Be proactive rather than reactive There must be greater efforts from government, civil society and religious groups to ensure the condemnations, refutations and alternatives to terrorism are sufficiently present and accessible online.
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On Twitter, it is easy to find many very clear and accurate refutations of the President's rhetoric in his State of the Union address, in which he claims credit for just about everything.
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This Hail Mary pass will likely remain completely up in the air until we see how Collins, Murkowski, and Paul vote—or until two of those three issue McCain-level refutations of the bill.
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The sense of helpless uncertainty that accompanies my experience of cancer is exacerbated by claims and counterclaims I read daily in the newspaper, charges and refutations that make it difficult to distinguish truths from falsehoods.
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One possible response to this problem is to let politicians post any claims they want in ads on the site, but to have refutations by Facebook of false or misleading statements displayed prominently with these ads.
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His position is so different from the typical GOP line that during one of his economic speeches, reliable Republican backer and business lobby heavyweight the U.S. Chamber of Commerce tweeted point-by-point refutations of his policies.
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Today the same search turns up just 18,600 videos, and the vast majority are news reports about his life and death, debates over the legality of his killing, refutations of his work by scholars or other material about him.
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The ability to provide real-time fact-checks during political debates and major speeches, as well as factual refutations of social media posts and interview responses, provides a great public benefit to Americans who are willing to consider new information when deciding how to vote.
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When President Trump's staff began questioning Priebus's efficacy and job security in conversations with reporters in early March, the White House blasted on-record refutations, telling BuzzFeed News at the time that the chief of staff is "an incredible leader" who has played an "essential" role on the president's priorities, like health care.
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According to Watson, throughout the dialogue, the clerk provides "increasingly feeble and snobbish" refutations.
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A number of mathematics teachers have implemented Lakatos' method of proofs and refutations in the classroom, when teaching other mathematical topics.Fatih Karakus & Mesut Bütün; Examining the Method of Proofs and Refutations in Pre- Service Teachers Education, Bolema vol. 27 no.45 Rio Claro Apr. 2013.
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His polemics are combined in the "Anacephalaeosis" (1528), one of the most complete refutations offered of Lutheranism.
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Karl Popper argued that Adler's individual psychology like psychoanalysis is a pseudoscience because its claims are not testable and cannot be refuted; that is, they are not falsifiable.Popper KR, "Science: Conjectures and Refutations", reprinted in Grim P (1990) Philosophy of Science and the Occult, Albany, 104–110. See also Conjectures and Refutations.
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For refutations, see e.g. Aikio 2003; Bakró-Nagy 2003, 2005; De Smit 2003; Georg 2003; Kallio 2004; Laakso 2004; Saarikivi 2004.
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2014 [1963]. Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. London: Routledge. p. 55. > I approached the problem of induction through Hume.
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The 1976 book Proofs and Refutations is based on the first three chapters of his 1961 four-chapter doctoral thesis Essays in the Logic of Mathematical Discovery. But its first chapter is Lakatos's own revision of its chapter 1 that was first published as Proofs and Refutations in four parts in 1963–4 in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science.
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In the end, Socrates seems to discard all these ideas as wrong, although his para-logical refutations have strong hints of irony about them.
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Such accusations were manifested through poetry criticizing the Fatimids. Qadir also commissioned several refutations of Ismaili doctrines, including those written by the Mu'tazili 'Ali b. Sa'id al- Istakri (1013).
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Hunt was a strict Biblical Creationist - refutations of evolution and theistic evolution were a frequent topic of his radio programs, Search the Scriptures Daily and According to God's Word.
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He also offered refutations of a number of earlier Buddhist views such as the Vijñānavāda or Yogācāra school.Fenner, Peter G. (1983). "Chandrakīrti's refutation of Buddhist idealism." Philosophy East and West Volume 33, no.
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Critical rationalism is an epistemological philosophy advanced by Karl Popper. Popper wrote about critical rationalism in his works, such as: The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1934/1959), The Open Society and its Enemies (1945),Popper, K., The Open Society and Its Enemies, Princeton University Press, 2013, p.435. Conjectures and Refutations (1963),Popper, K., Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, Routledge, 2014, p. 34. Unended Quest (1976),Popper, K., Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography, Routledge, 2005, p. 132.
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Cover of Proofs and Refutations by Imre Lakatos. Proofs and Refutations: The Logic of Mathematical Discovery is a 1976 book by philosopher Imre Lakatos expounding his view of the progress of mathematics. The book is written as a series of Socratic dialogues involving a group of students who debate the proof of the Euler characteristic defined for the polyhedron. A central theme is that definitions are not carved in stone, but often have to be patched up in the light of later insights, in particular failed proofs.
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In 1611, the Greater Northerner Jeong In-hong ferociously attacked the scholars Yi Hwang and Yi Eon-jeok. Some Westerners refuted Jeong's attack, but refutations against Jeong were also done by the Southerners and Lesser Northerners.
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Sophistical Refutations (; ) is a text in Aristotle's Organon in which he identified thirteen fallacies.Sometimes listed as twelve. According to Aristotle, this is the first work to treat the subject of deductive reasoning (Soph. Ref., 34, 183b34 ff.).
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The philosopher of science Karl Popper suggested that all scientific theories are by nature conjectures and inherently fallible, and that refutation to old theory is the paramount process of scientific discovery. According to Popper’s Philosophy the Growth of Scientific Knowledge is based upon Conjectures and Refutations. Prof. Shapiro’s doctoral studies with Prof. Dana Angluin attempted to provide an algorithmic interpretation to Karl Popper's approach to scientific discovery in particular for automating the "Conjectures and Refutations" method making bold conjectures and then performing experiments that seek to refute them. Prof.
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This gives mathematics a somewhat experimental flavour. At the end of the Introduction, Lakatos explains that his purpose is to challenge formalism in mathematics, and to show that informal mathematics grows by a logic of "proofs and refutations".
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Lakatos, Worrall and Zahar (1976), Proofs and Refutations , pp. 106–126, note that Poincaré's formal proof (1899) "Complèment à l'Analysis Situs", Rediconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo, 13, pp. 285–343, rewrites Euler's conjecture into a tautology of vector algebra.
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He also contributed an "agony uncle" column to the weekend Financial Times, in which he responded to readers' social dilemmas. In 2011, Tang founded a website, ICorrect.com, where celebrities can post fixes and refutations of incorrect information spreading over the internet.
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Although the liar paradox was well known in antiquity, interest seems to have lapsed until the twelfth century, when it appears to have been reinvented independently of ancient authors. Medieval interest may have been inspired by a passage in the Sophistical Refutations of Aristotle. Although the Sophistical Refutations are consistently cited by medieval logicians from the earliest insolubilia literature, medieval studies of insolubilia go well beyond Aristotle. Other ancient sources which could suggest the liar paradox, including Saint Augustine, Cicero, and the quotation of Epimenides appearing in the Epistle to Titus, were not cited in discussions of insolubilia.
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Lakatos' philosophy of mathematics was inspired by both Hegel's and Marx's dialectic, by Karl Popper's theory of knowledge, and by the work of mathematician George Pólya. The 1976 book Proofs and Refutations is based on the first three chapters of his 1961 four-chapter doctoral thesis Essays in the Logic of Mathematical Discovery. But its first chapter is Lakatos's own revision of its chapter 1 that was first published as Proofs and Refutations in four parts in 1963–4 in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. It is largely taken up by a fictional dialogue set in a mathematics class.
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His alternative system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century, with debates and refutations of his ideas continued up to the 16th century. Copernicus cited his system in the De revolutionibus while discussing theories of the order of the inferior planets.
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The Sophistical Refutations is viewed by someE.g. Forster, E. S. in Aristotle. Topica. Loeb Classical Library Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989. p. 265. as an appendix to the Topics, inasmuch as its final section183a38-184b9 appears to form an epilogue to both treatises.
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This is a rather broad example though. For a more detailed example we may turn to an aphorism of Heraclitus: > The road up and the road down are the same thing. (Hippolytus, Refutations > 9.10.3) This is an example of a compresent unity of opposites.
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Like the original, the refutations seem to have been written in imitation of eastern models. Only one of the refutations was specifically directed against Ibn Gharsiya. American scholar James T. Monroe states that the fact of Ibn Gharsiya's risala against the Arabs going unpunished, indicates that the cause of Arabism as a meaningful social force had ceased to have any political significance. Göran Larsson, an associate professor of religious studies at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, points out that in spite of his extensive use of Persian traditions in his risala, Ibn Gharsiya was not promoting a specifically Persian sovereign, merely a non-Arab model of rule.
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If not they may be > ruled out altogether. This razor is sharper than Ockham's: all entities are > ruled out except those which are perceived.Karl Popper, Conjectures and > Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, New York: Routledge, 2002, > p. 231. In another essay of the same bookK.
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118, 508c-d He is known principally from Aristotle, who criticizes his method of squaring the circle.Aristotle, Posterior Analytics, 75b4; Sophistical Refutations, 171b16, 172a3 He also upset Aristotle by asserting that obscene language does not exist.Aristotle, Rhetoric, 3.2, 1405b6-16 Diogenes LaërtiusDiogenes Laërtius, i. 16, vi.
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Upon the film's release it did not receive theatrical distribution in Japan and was the subject of vociferous refutations by Japanese ultranationalists who denied the events ever took place.McNeill, David. Nanjing Massacre 70th Anniversary: Looking Back In Anger, Japan Times, 6 December 2007. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
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He is also known to have translated several works of Aristotle, such as Prior Analytics, Topics, and Sophistical Refutations. In addition to his translations, Athanasius composed prayers of supplication, three of which are to be used at the celebration of the Eucharist, and prayers for the dead.
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Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2012. Ibn Aqil has two large works covering both the influence of Ibn Hazm's common works and cataloging his rarities, Ibn Hazm khilal alfa 'aam and Nawadir al-imam Ibn Hazm respectively.Samir Kaddouri, "Refutations by Maliki Authors." Taken from Ibn Hazm of Cordoba, pg. 597.
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The last four speeches of the debate are reserved for refutations of arguments already made. In current policy debate, the "first affirmative constructive" (1AC) is used to present the "plan". Whether all new "off-case arguments" must be presented in the "first negative constructive" is a point of contention.
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Among these schools are ego psychology, object relations, and interpersonal, Lacanian, and relational psychoanalysis. Psychologists such as Hans Eysenck and philosophers including Karl Popper criticized psychoanalysis. Popper argued that psychoanalysis had been misrepresented as a scientific discipline,Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1963, pp.
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Field, Tim. (1995). Bully in Sight: How to Predict, Resist, Challenge and Combat Workplace Bullying, p. 60. Karl Popper coined the concept conventionalist twist or conventionalist stratagem in Conjectures and Refutations with similar use as this fallacy but in the context of the falsifiability of certain scientific theories.
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Lauchert wrote that in three later volumes Hontheim defended his book, as Febronius and various other pseudonyms, against a series of attacks. In addition to Judicium academicum from the University of Cologne (1765), refutations appeared from a large number of Roman Catholic authors, Lauchert lists titles by Pietro Ballerini, Tommaso Maria Mamachi, and Francesco Antonio Zaccaria. There were also refutations written from a Protestant standpoint, to repudiate the idea that a diminution of papal power was all that was necessary to bring the Protestants back into union with the Roman Catholic Church, for instance Lauchert lists titles by Karl Friedrich Bahrdt, Johann Friedrich Bahrdt, and Karl Gottlob Hofmann. The book was formally condemned, , by Pope Clement XIII.
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Ludwig Wittgenstein (at least in his early period),Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Routledge 2001 [1921]. J. L. Austin,Austin, J. L., 1950, "Truth", reprinted in Philosophical Papers, 3rd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press 1979, 117–33. and Karl PopperKarl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, 1963.
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The claims by Bloomberg have been heavily questioned. By 2 p.m. on the day of publication, Apple, Amazon, and Supermicro issued blanket denials, which Bloomberg duly reported. Within the week, the United States Department of Homeland Security put out a statement to the effect that they saw no reason to question those refutations.
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Alcibiades of Apamea (fl. 230) was a Jewish Christian member of, or possibly even founder of, the Elcesaites. Of the several cities called Apamea it is Apamea in Syria which is intended. He is known only from the accounts of Hippolytus of Rome in his Refutations (Refutatio omnium haeresium, Book 10 ch.
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Despite such refutations, Dart defended the ODK hypothesis for some time relying upon fieldwork conducted by some of his colleagues that seemed to dismiss the claims of Washburn and others, most notably the hyena bone-collector hypothesis. For example, Alun Hughes (1954),Hughes, A. 1954. "Hyenas vs. australopithecines as agents of bone accumulation".
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His only published work is 'Experimental Philosophy'. Its three books deal respectively with microscopy and corpuscularian theory; the experiments of Torricelli; and the vacuum, and refutations proposed for the works of the Jesuit Jacobus Grandamicus (Jacques Grandami, 1588–1672).Andrew Pyle (editor), Dictionary of Seventeenth Century British Philosophers (2000), article on Power, pp. 667-670.
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The term first appears in classical texts as 'Ancient Greek transliteration Aristotle: On Sophistical Refutations. On Coming-to-be and Passing Away. On the Cosmos., 393b, pages 360–361, Loeb Classical Library No. 400, London William Heinemann LTD, Cambridge, Massachusetts University Press MCMLV or ' (in Ptolemy's writings in Greek), and later as ' in Latin documents.
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Examples of antisemitism in both the Arab and Muslim world on intelligence.org.il, site of the Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center at the Center for Special Studies (C.S.S), Israel. Retrieved 24 September 2006. Among the earliest refutations of The Protocols as a forgery were a series of articles printed in The Times of London in 1921.
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Balagtasan is participated by two or more protagonists who engaged in a debate on a selected subject. Each protagonist are to express their views in verse and with rhyming. Refutations shall also be done in the same manner. A judge, known as the lakandiwa if male or lakambini if female, will decide the winner of the balagtasan.
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Karamustafa, pg. 73. He was one of the school's important early jurists, being remembered by later adherent Ibn Hazm as one of the top leaders of the school.Samir Kaddouri, "Refutations of Ibn Hazm by Maliki Authors from al-Andalus and North Africa." Taken from Ibn Hazm of Cordoba: The Life and Works of a Controversial Thinker, pg. 541. Eds.
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The ancient Greek deiknymi (), or thought experiment, "was the most ancient pattern of mathematical proof", and existed before Euclidean mathematics,Szábo, Árpád. (1958) " 'Deiknymi' als Mathematischer Terminus fur 'Beweisen' ", Maia N.S. 10 pp. 1–26 as cited by Imre Lakatos (1976) in Proofs and Refutations p.9. (John Worrall and Elie Zahar, eds.) Cambridge University Press .
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He therefore denied the materialism of the soul while simultaneously claiming its existence. Although he buttressed his arguments with familiar scholarship and ancient authorities, including scripture, he was labeled an atheist and at least a dozen hostile refutations of the work were published by 1782.Schofield, Vol. 2, 59–76; Gibbs, 99–100; Holt, 112-24; Tapper, 317.
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The risala of Ibn Garcia and five refutations (University of California Press 1970), translated with an introduction and notes by James T. Monroe., p.346 According to the Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, however, this epistle was merely of minor importance, and its few exponents tended to repeat clichés adopted from the earlier Islamic East, e.g., Iran.
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According to Bernard Lewis, there is nothing in Muslim theology (with a single exception) that can be considered refutations of Judaism or ferocious anti-Jewish diatribes.Lewis (1999) p. 126 Lewis and Chanes suggest that, for a variety of reasons, Muslims were not antisemitic for the most part. The Quran, like Judaism, orders Muslims to profess strict monotheism.
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Though the book is written as a narrative, it aims to develop an actual method of investigation based upon "proofs and refutations". In Appendix I, Lakatos summarizes this method by the following list of stages: # Primitive conjecture. # Proof (a rough thought-experiment or argument, decomposing the primitive conjecture into subconjectures). # "Global" counterexamples (counterexamples to the primitive conjecture) emerge.
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It is one of the many individual selves where each "pure consciousness settles in its own pure nature", as a unique distinct soul/self.Stephen H. Phillips, Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of "new Logic". Open Court Publishing, 1995, pages 12–13. However, Yoga school's methodology was widely influential on other schools of Hindu philosophy.
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The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and Xenophon) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or aporetically,Cf. Plato, Republic 336c & 337a, Theaetetus 150c, Apology of Socrates 23a; Xenophon, Memorabilia 4.4.9; Aristotle, Sophistical Refutations 183b7. has stimulated debate over the meaning of the Socratic method.W.K.C. Guthrie, The Greek Philosophers (London: Methuen, 1950), 73–75.
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Ludovico Maracci acquired much celebrity in editing and publishing the Qurʻan in Arabic with his translation into Latin. Alcorani Textus Universus Arabicè et Latinè, in two volumes, at Padua in 1698. His version of the Qurʻan included a life of Muhammad, with notes, and refutations of Muslim doctrines. It was the result of forty years of labour and toilsome research of the Benedictines.
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If you want to believe that the methodology will work, it must be postulated as an axiom. In Popper's case, the axiom is that the methodology of conjectures and refutations is going to work. The conjectures are the searchlight, because they lead to observational results. But this axiom will not help any objective rule in the justification of scientific knowledge.
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During his retirement in Sicily, Porphyry wrote Against the Christians (Κατὰ Χριστιανῶν; Adversus Christianos) which consisted of fifteen books. Some thirty Christian apologists, such as Methodius, Eusebius, Apollinaris, Augustine, Jerome, etc., responded to his challenge. In fact, everything known about Porphyry's arguments is found in these refutations, largely because Theodosius II ordered every copy burned in A.D. 435 and again in 448.
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Keenan 1994:52) These refutations of grain avoidance are found in Mouzi Lihuolun Article 30 (Keenan 1994:151-153). The Baopuzi discussion of grain abstention notes, > Should you take to the mountains and forests during political troubles, you > will avoid dying of starvation by observing the rule about starches. > Otherwise, do not rush into this practice, for rushing cannot be very > beneficial.
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One-sided messages are frequently seen in political campaigns when a candidate denigrates his or her opponent through "mudslinging". This method is effective in reinforcing extant attitudes of derision toward the opposition and support for the "mudslinging" candidate. If the audience supports the opposition, however, the attack message is ineffective. Two-sided messages present both counterarguments and refutations of those counterarguments.
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A great deal of speculation, along with claims and refutations, dealt with the number of Ethiopian forces involved in the war. According to an estimate by Rome-based Globe Research, Ethiopian forces around Baidoa were estimated to number about a division of 12,000 soldiers. Baidoa airport hosted a squadron of helicopters, and was being expanded by Ethiopian engineers to accommodate fighter aircraft.
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His Commentary on Genesis and Exodus is an exegesis of Genesis and Exodus. Some fragments exist in Armenian of his commentaries on the Acts of the Apostles and Pauline Epistles. He also wrote refutations against Bardaisan, Mani, Marcion and others. Ephrem is attributed with writing hagiographies such as The Life of Saint Mary the Harlot, though this credit is called into question.
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Karl Popper,Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, 1963. ("Popper professes to be anti- conventionalist, and his commitment to the correspondence theory of truth places him firmly within the realist's camp.") and Gustav BergmannGustav Bergmann, Logic and Reality, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964; Gustav Bergmann, Realism: A Critique of Brentano and Meinong, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967. espoused metaphysical realism.
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He also criticized studies that show the opposite results as Regnerus for having very low sample sizes, being politically motivated themselves, and that these were poorly made refutations quickly thrown out as a knee jerk reaction because science came out with results that contradicted the modern liberal political theories, and did not follow the APA's own recommendations for reporting effect sizes and other methodological requirements.
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It very gently modifies one's attitude. Refutations are weak compared with its mild but potent operation. To become historically-minded is to be grown-up." From Chapter 2: :"It is true that biologists have, many of them, given up what they call 'Darwinism'; they have surrendered Spencer's notion of the hereditary transmission of acquired characters, and they even use the word 'evolution' timidly and with many reservations.
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The Holocaust History Project (THHP) is an inactive non-profit corporation based in San Antonio, Texas. Its archived website offers a comprehensive selection of documents, recordings, photographs, and essays regarding the Holocaust, Holocaust denial, and antisemitism. The project became known for its refutations of the Leuchter report and the Rudolf report. It has since assisted in the defense in the case of Irving v. Lipstadt.
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Many works about Gil Vicente associate him with a goldsmith of the same name at the court of Évora;"Vicente, Gil". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2006. technical terms used by the playwright lend credibility to this identification. In 1881, Camilo Castelo Branco wrote the letter "" ("Gil Vicente, Refutations of the Opinion of Mr. Teófilo Braga"), which argued that Gil Vicente the writer and Gil Vicente the goldsmith were two different people.
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Bold hypothesis or bold conjecture is a concept in the philosophy of science of Karl Popper, first explained in his debut The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1935) and subsequently elaborated in writings such as Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (1963). The concept is nowadays widely used in the philosophy of science and in the philosophy of knowledge. It is also used in the social and behavioural sciences.
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Priestley also argued that discussing the soul was impossible because it is made of a divine substance and humanity cannot gain access to the divine. He therefore denied the materialism of the soul while simultaneously claiming its existence. Although he buttressed his arguments with familiar scholarship and ancient authorities, including scripture, he was labeled an atheist. At least a dozen hostile refutations of the work were published by 1782.
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To each node may be attached a value such as the ownership of the proposition, or an evaluation specifying the degree of confidence placed in premise. Similarly, symbols can be added to the arrows to state the strength of the inference. In addition, the user may link arguments, supply missing premises (argument reconstruction) and use refutations. The diagram will always take the form of a tree structure in Araucaria.
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At Mary's accession all the city churches were commanded to go in procession and sing Te Deum.Diary of Henry Machyn, p. 66. Edmund Bonner having been reinstated as Bishop of London, John Gwynneth republished his refutations of John Fryth's doctrines,A manifeste detection of the notable falshed of that part of Iohn Frithes boke whiche he calleth his foundacion (Thomas Berthelet, London 1554). Full text at Umich/eebo (open).
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Carlo Rovelli, "The First Scientist, Anaximander and his Legacy" (Yardley: Westholme, 2011).Daniel W. Graham, "Explaining the Cosmos: The Ionian Tradition of Scientific Philosophy" (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006). Karl Popper calls this idea "one of the boldest, most revolutionary, and most portentous ideas in the whole history of human thinking."Karl Popper, "Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge" (New York: Routledge, 1998), pg 186.
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Compare Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i.736 The following other refutations are published: Wilhelm Schickard, Triumphator Vapulans sive Refutatio, etc. (Tübingen, 1629); Stephen Gerlow, Disputatio Contra Lipmanni Nizzachon (Königsberg, 1647); Christian Schotan, Anti-Lipmanniana (Franeker, 1659), giving also the Hebrew text of Sefer HaNitzachon. Informally, Anti-Lipmanniana came to be used also as an overall term for the entire corpus of Christian writings debating with and seeking to refute Lipman's arguments.
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There is a man by the same name mentioned in Aristotle's Politics who overthrew the democracy at Cyme, but nothing is known of this event, nor can it be said with any degree of certainty that they are the same man.Aristotle, Politics V, 1304b-1305a. Aristotle mentions a Thrasymachus again in his Sophistical Refutations, where he credits him with a pivotal role in the development of rhetorical theory.
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Al-Ḥasan ibn ʻAlī al-Barbahārī was a Muslim theologian and populist religious leader from Iraq. He was a scholar and jurist who played an important role in the Sunni struggle against the S̲h̲īʿa missionaries and successfully opposed the progress of Mu'tazilism in the Abbasid Caliphate during the 10th–11th (4th–5th AH) centuries. His books include creedal and methodological refutations against the Shias, Qadaris, Mu'tazilis and Ash'aris.
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A great deal of discussion ensued thereafter. Since then, Percy has posted on his own website a great many more refutations of Scheidel's work. The triumvirate of Saller, Shaw, and Scheidel persist in their position that ancient Roman males married around age 28 instead of 18, and to females of 18 instead of 14. The earlier average dates were found by Percy among his personal trove of ancient Roman wedding licenses.
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Torretti, Philosophy of Physics (Cambridge U P, 1999), p 221: "Twentieth-century positivists would maintain, of course, that the rules of inductive logic are not meant to preside over the process of discovery, but to control the validity of its findings". Practicing what Popper had preached—conjectures and refutations—neopositivism ran its course, catapulting its chief rival, Popper, initially a contentious misfit, to carry the richest philosophy out of interwar Vienna.
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Satadushani is a work written by Vedanta Desika who lived in the 12th century. He is considered as one among the most illustrious Acharya of the Vaishnavite tradition and is the leader of the Vadagalai sect of the Vaishnavas. Though the title of the work suggests hundred refutations, only 66 of them are now available. Satadushani is a work of logic otherwise called as Tarka in Hindu philosophy.
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It also contains an account of the rival schools of philosophy and a series of refutations based on logic. For example, Somananda disagrees with the gross realism of the Nyaya-Vaisesika system, the subtle realism of Samkhya, and the idealism of Vedanta, or that of Vijnanavada of Buddhism. In his view, the universe is an appearance, but not of Maya (illusion) but of the free will of Shiva. In reality the universe is Shiva himself.
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See Hacohen, 2000. Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics, to Popper and in 1982 said that "ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology".See Weimer and Palermo, 1982 Popper also participated in the inaugural meeting of the Mont Pelerin Society.
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Popper Conjectures and Refutations, Part I, 3. titled "Three Views Concerning Human Knowledge", Popper argues that Berkeley is to be considered as an instrumentalist philosopher, along with Robert Bellarmine, Pierre Duhem and Ernst Mach. According to this approach, scientific theories have the status of serviceable fictions, useful inventions aimed at explaining facts, and without any pretension to be true. Popper contrasts instrumentalism with the above mentioned essentialism and his own "critical rationalism".
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Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions.Popper, Karl (1963), Conjectures and Refutations, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, UK. Reprinted in Theodore Schick (ed., 2000), Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain View, Calif. Thus, it is a mark of good science if a discipline has a growing list of superseded theories, and conversely, a lack of superseded theories can indicate problems in following the use of the scientific method.
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The Posterior Analytics (Latin: Analytica Posteriora) deals with demonstration, definition, and scientific knowledge. :5. The Topics (Latin: Topica) treats issues in constructing valid arguments, and inference that is probable, rather than certain. It is in this treatise that Aristotle mentions the Predicables, later discussed by Porphyry and the scholastic logicians. :6. The Sophistical Refutations (Latin: De Sophisticis Elenchis) gives a treatment of logical fallacies, and provides a key link to Aristotle's work on rhetoric.
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The Fourth Buddhist Council of the Sarvastivada tradition is said to have been convened by the Kushan emperor Kanishka (r. CE 127-151), perhaps at Harwan, near Srinagar, Kashmir. The Fourth Council of Kashmir is not recognized as authoritative for the Theravadins; reports of this council can be found in scriptures which were kept in the Mahayana tradition. The Mahayana tradition based some of its scriptures on (refutations of) the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma texts.
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2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1983 argued, necessarily be at least 'quasi'-empirical (embracing 'the scientific method' for consensus if not experiment). Imre Lakatos (1976),Lakatos, Imre (1976), Proofs and Refutations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. who did his original work on this topic for his dissertation (1961, Cambridge), argued for 'research programs' as a means to support a basis for mathematics and considered thought experiments as appropriate to mathematical discovery.
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Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) was the first to systematize logical errors into a list, as being able to refute an opponent's thesis is one way of winning an argument. Aristotle's "Sophistical Refutations" (De Sophisticis Elenchis) identifies thirteen fallacies. He divided them up into two major types, linguistic fallacies and non-linguistic fallacies, some which depend on language and others that do not. These fallacies are called verbal fallacies and material fallacies respectively.
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380 & 386 Of his four books on Sayyid Qutb, 'Adhwa Islamiyyah ala aqidat Sayyid Qutb wa fikrihi' is considered the most important.Roel Meijer, Politicizing al-jarh wa-l-ta'dil p.386 Apart from his controversial works in refutations, Al-Madkhali has authored several books in the field of hadith. His Master's thesis, 'Between the two Imams: Muslim and Daruqutni' is recommended by some of Saudi Arabia's senior scholars for experienced students of Hadith.
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Lakatos, Worrall and Zahar use Poincaré (1893)Poincaré, H. (1893). "Sur la Généralisation d'un Théorème d'Euler relatif aux Polyèdres", Comptes Redus des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, 117 p. 144, as cited in Lakatos, Worrall and Zahar, p. 162 to answer one of the major problems perceived by critics, namely that the pattern of mathematical research depicted in Proofs and Refutations does not faithfully represent most of the actual activity of contemporary mathematicians.
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In fact, everything known about Porphyry's arguments is found in these refutations, largely because Theodosius II ordered every copy burned in A.D. 435 and again in 448. Porphyry became one of the most able pagan adversaries of Christianity of his day. His aim was not to disprove the substance of Christianity's teachings but rather the records within which the teachings are communicated. Augustine and the 5th-century ecclesiastical historian Socrates of Constantinople, assert that Porphyry was once a Christian.
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Ockham and Scotus wrote commentaries on the Categories and Sophistical Refutations. Grosseteste wrote an influential commentary on the Posterior Analytics. In the Enlightenment there was a revival of interest in logic as the basis of rational enquiry, and a number of texts, most successfully the Port-Royal Logic, polished Aristotelian term logic for pedagogy. During this period, while the logic certainly was based on that of Aristotle, Aristotle's writings themselves were less often the basis of study.
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This book consists of twenty-three chapters, and is a collection of discussions on the points of controversy. It gives refutations of the 'heretical' views held by various Buddhist sects on matters philosophical. The Kathavatthu is the fifth of the seven books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. However, the historicity of this has been questioned, as the account preserved in the San Jian Lu Pi Po Sho (Sudassanavinayavibhasha), although otherwise almost identical, does not mention the Kathavatthu.
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The Duke was stabbed repeatedly, while the Dauphin, at a distance, remained impassive. According to some accounts, the corpse of the Duke of Burgundy had the right hand cut off as the Duke himself had done several years earlier to his cousin, the Dauphin's uncle Louis I of Orléans (November 23, 1407). The Dauphin was pointed out as the principal instigator of the assassination of the Duke of Burgundy. Despite his refutations and excuses, he could not clear himself.
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During the medieval period conversions in Christian ruled lands were often conducted by force, such as in the case of the Alhambra Decree of 1492 leading to the conversos, those converted by force, and Marranos. In Muslim lands dialogue between Jews and Christians was more equal, and Jewish apologists were able to refute Christians openly. In Christian lands those such as Hasdai Crescas (c.1340–1411) could only write refutations of Christian belief at great risk.
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Church councils were, from the beginning, bureaucratic exercises. Written documents were circulated, speeches made and responded to, votes taken, and final documents published and distributed. A large part of what is known about the beliefs of heresies comes from the documents quoted in councils in order to be refuted, or indeed only from the deductions based on the refutations. Most councils dealt not only with doctrinal but also with disciplinary matters, which were decided in canons ("laws").
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This is one of the many refutations of the treatise on the Eucharist issued in 1598 by the Huguenot theologian Du Plessis-Mornay. The Protestant publicist made a reply to which Fronton de Duc rejoined in 1602. Librarian from 1604 of the Collège de Clermont, he reorganized the library, which had been scattered during the period in which the Jesuits had been obliged to abandon the school. While holding this position he also taught (1618–23) positive theology.
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Aristotle (384–322 BC) was the first philosopher who distinguished arguments attacking a thesis or attacking other persons. The various types of ad hominem arguments have been known in the West since at least the ancient Greeks. Aristotle, in his work Sophistical Refutations, detailed the fallaciousness of putting the questioner but not the argument under scrutiny. Many examples of ancient non- fallacious ad hominem arguments are preserved in the works of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus.
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Kindness, > Clarity, and Insight, p. 230. Shambhala Publications. The adoption of the practice of Dzogchen by the Dalai Lamas has been a source of controversy among more conservative members of the Gelug tradition and the 14th Dalai Lama also acknowledges that within Gelug tradition there have been many refutations and criticisms of Dzogchen (but he notes that these are not found in Tsongkhapa's works).His Holiness the Dalai Lama, Dalai Lama XIV Bstan-ʼdzin-rgya-mtsho (2012).
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Book I introduces Aristotle's approach to nature, which is to be based on principles, causes, and elements. Before offering his particular views, he engages previous theories, such as those offered by Melissus and Parmenides. Aristotle's own view comes out in Ch. 7 where he identifies three principles: substances, opposites, and privation. Chapters 3 and 4 are among the most difficult in all of Aristotle's works and involve subtle refutations of the thought of Parmenides, Melissus and Anaxagoras.
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Cognitive psychologists studied the process of conceptual change and its two counterpoints: # Closed- mindedness: The reluctance to consider ideas which conflict with one's own established beliefs. # Belief perseverance: The tendency to cling to such ideas even after they have suffered decisive refutations. For instance, in the 1950s, Festinger, Riecken, and Schachter joined a cult whose members shared the belief that the world would end on December 21, 1954. After the prediction failed, most believers still clung to their earlier conceptual framework.
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In this way, scholars always try to ensure the quality of what is said. A scholarly criticism is successful if it provides a proof or refutation that nobody can rationally deny, so that most people accepted it as definitive. Much scholarly criticism does not provide truly spectacular proofs or refutations. That is difficult to do, if many bright minds have worked or are working on the same issue – but a careful, methodically developed criticism can nevertheless contribute valuable and significant information.
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Menocchio (Domenico Scandella, 1532–1599) was a miller from Montereale Valcellina, Italy, who was tried for heresy by the Roman Inquisition for his unorthodox religious views and then was burnt at the stake in 1599. The 16th- century life and mediaeval religious beliefs of Menocchio are known from the records of the Inquisition, and are the subject of The Cheese and the Worms (1976) by Carlo Ginzburg,Levine, D., & Vahed, Z. (2001). Ginzburg's Menocchio: Refutations and Conjectures. Histoire sociale/Social History, 34(68).
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These include: Plato's Laws; Aristotle's Sophistical Refutations (from a Syriac translation by Theophilus of Edessa) and Topics (from a translation by Hunayn ibn Ishaq); and Theophrastus' Metaphysics. He also composed a number of philosophical and theological treatises, the most significant being Tahdhib al-akhlaq and Maqala fi at-tawhid. He taught a number of Christian and Muslim students, including Ibn Miskawayh, Ibn al-Khammar and Ibn Zura. Ibn Zura made Arabic translations of Aristotle and other Greek writers from Syriac.
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The Catholic Church in France threatened the crown with withdrawal of financial support unless it effectively suppressed the circulation of the book. The list of people writing refutations of the work was long. The prominent Catholic theologian Nicolas-Sylvestre Bergier wrote a refutation titled Examen du matérialisme ("Materialism examined"). Voltaire hastily seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the Système in the article "Dieu" in his Dictionnaire philosophique, while Frederick the Great also drew up an answer to it.
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Wenham, Gordon. "Pentateuchal Studies Today," Themelios 22.1 (October 1996) By the end of the 19th century the scholarly consensus was that the Pentateuch was the work of many authors writing from 1000 BCE (the time of David) to 500 BCE (the time of Ezra) and redacted c. 450, and as a consequence whatever history it contained was more often polemical than strictly factual—a conclusion reinforced by the then fresh scientific refutations of what were at the time widely classed as biblical mythologies.
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The end of Sophistical Refutations and beginning of Physics on page 184 of Bekker's 1831 edition. The Corpus Aristotelicum is the collection of Aristotle's works that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's works that were lost or intentionally destroyed, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's nineteenth-century edition, which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.
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Falsificationism's demarcation falsifiable grants a theory the status scientific—simply, empirically testable—not the status meaningful, a status that Popper did not aim to arbiter.Karl Popper, ch 4, subch "Science: Conjectures and refutations", in Andrew Bailey, ed, First Philosophy: Fundamental Problems and Readings in Philosophy, 2nd edn (Peterborough Ontario: Broadview Press, 2011), pp 338–42. Popper found no scientific theory either verifiable or, as in Carnap's "liberalization of empiricism", confirmable,Godfrey-Smith, Theory and Reality (U Chicago P, 2003), p 57–59.
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It is a refutation of the nirvesesha Advaita of Sankaracharya. It establishes the validity of the Vishishtadvaita philosophy of Ramanuja as against the Advaita of sankara. It is said that at the age of around 50 or 55 Vedanta Desika was invited by his disciples at Srirangam to engage in a polemical debate with a group of Advaitins from North India. The arguments made in the form of refutations against these men are said to be the content of this work.
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212 According to Lacroix, Al-Madkhali insisted that priority must be given to correcting Islamic creed amongst the people, whereas the Muslim Brotherhood's initial focus was on political reform. Some observers state that Al-Madkhali is most noted for his refutations of Islamic thinker Sayyid Qutb. Al-Madkhali received acclamations for his works refuting Sayyid Qutb from other Salafist scholars such as Saleh Al-Fawzan, Muqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'i, and Muhammad ibn al Uthaymeen.Roel Meijer, Politicizing al-jarh wa-l-ta'dil p.
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According to Wallace, "to demonstrate the untenability of social discrimination, the Kālacakratantra at times uses a type of analysis that is similar to the one frequently applied in Buddhist refutations of the independent existence of a personal identity."Wallace 2001, p. 115. The Kālacakra system also links the soteriological implications of social relationships to socio-political events. Negative events, such as the Muslim conquests of India and the decline of Buddhism in India, are linked to social segregation and divisions (based on corrupt Puranic teaching).
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Both the fallacy of division and the fallacy of composition were addressed by Aristotle in Sophistical Refutations. In the philosophy of the ancient Greek Anaxagoras, as claimed by the Roman atomist Lucretius, it was assumed that the atoms constituting a substance must themselves have the salient observed properties of that substance: so atoms of water would be wet, atoms of iron would be hard, atoms of wool would be soft, etc. This doctrine is called homoeomeria, and it depends on the fallacy of division.
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Kaysing encouraged Ralph René to write "NASA Mooned America!", after René decided that he also had research to prove the landings were faked.René 1994 More generally, despite refutations and other evidence, Kaysing's writings have inspired others in their disbelief in the historicity of the Moon landings. Kaysing's daughter, Wendy L. Kaysing, has stated that she hopes to one day write a book about her father with Kaysing's nephew, Dietrich von Schmausen, not to reiterate Kaysing's hoax claims, rather to talk about her father as a person.
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He is best known for his Arabic translations of Aristotle and of his Greek commentators. Most of these translations were made from Syriac to Arabic but the famous Arabic bibliography Kitab-al-Fihrist mentions a translation of Aristotle's Sophistical Refutations from Greek to Syriac. These Arabic translations of the Aristotelian corpus were continued by his students (especially Yahya ibn Adi) and were used by later Arabic philosophers such as Avicenna. Abu Bishr wrote several commentaries of his own on Aristotle but they are all lost.
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29 His most notable contribution to fascism was his anti-semitism and he was the author in 1937 of the book The Jews in Italy.R.J.B. Bosworth, The Oxford Handbook of Fascism, Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 308 The book was influenced by Bernard Lazare in so much as it accepted his thesis that the activities of the Jews themselves helped to cause anti-semitism, although it made no reference to Lazare's refutations of the prejudice.Wiley Feinstein, The Civilization of the Holocaust in Italy, 2003, p.
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We possess not the slightest of archaeological proofs for these things, while, on the contrary, there are plenty of refutations. In general, epic is a genre in which bad events (for the people) are transformed into just the reverse: defeats turn out to be victories. The city excavated by Schliemann is not Troy at all, although it is Ilios. In the Hittite written sources two different towns are mentioned in the West of Asia Minor: Truya – this is Troy, and Wilusa – this is Greek (W)ilios.
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Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani, "Shareet al-Khobar," tape #4, 1989: Khobar, Saudi Arabia. When Ibn Hazm listed the most important leaders of the school, he listed known Ẓāhirīs Abdullah bin Qasim, al-Balluti, Ibn al-Mughallis, al-Dibaji and Ruwaym, but then also mentioned Abu Bakr al- Khallal,Samir Kaddouri, "Refutations of Ibn Hazm by Maliki Authors from al- Andalus and North Africa." Taken from Ibn Hazm of Cordoba: The Life and Works of a Controversial Thinker, p. 541. Eds. Camilla Adang, Maribel Fierro and Sabine Schmidtke.
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Some people expected the unofficial recommendation of the GM School to be influential, particularly when the official analysts could not agree, but 15...b5 came in a distant second with 15% of the vote. In first place was Jon Speelman's idea of 15...Ra8 with 48% of the vote. 15... Ra8 The results of the vote were a reflection of the increasing coordination of the World Team. Krush was maintaining an analysis tree, and continually updating with all the suggestions and refutations from the bulletin board.
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Examples are the titles and insignias of the various ranks in the armed forces - Makpoen, Lingpoen, Drimpoen, etc. which translate into General, Lieutenant, Sergeant and so on for the three groups of Bhutan's armed forces, the Royal Bhutan Army, the Royal Bhutan Police and the Royal Body Guards. Furthermore, these titles and insignias are believed to be derived from an extensive research and study of the Namthar of Ling Gesar (Biography of King Gesar) by the learned Lopen Namgay. Most of these refutations are not documented.
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Imre Lakatos (,Philosophy of Science: Popper and Lakatos, lecture on the philosophy of science of Karl Popper and Imre Lakatos, delivered to master's students at the University of Sussex in November 2014. ; ; November 9, 1922 – February 2, 1974) was a Hungarian philosopher of mathematics and science, known for his thesis of the fallibility of mathematics and its 'methodology of proofs and refutations' in its pre-axiomatic stages of development, and also for introducing the concept of the 'research programme' in his methodology of scientific research programmes.
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The informal fallacy of accident (also called destroying the exception or a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid) is a deductively valid but unsound argument occurring in a statistical syllogism (an argument based on a generalization) when an exception to a rule of thumb is ignored. It is one of the thirteen fallacies originally identified by Aristotle in Sophistical Refutations. The fallacy occurs when one attempts to apply a general rule to an irrelevant situation. For example: It is easy to construct fallacious arguments by applying general statements to specific incidents that are obviously exceptions.
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The book takes as its starting point the 'here is one hand' argument made by G. E. Moore and examines the role of knowledge claims in human language, particularly of "certain ('gewisser') empirical propositions", what are now called Moorean propositions or Moorean certainties. An important outcome is Wittgenstein's claim that all doubt is embedded in underlying beliefs and therefore the most radical forms of doubt must be rejected since they form a contradiction within the system that expressed them. Wittgenstein also sketched novel refutations of philosophical skepticism in various guises.
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In "The Garden of Forking Paths", Borges describes a novel by the fictional Chinese scholar Ts'ui Pên, whose plot bifurcates at every point in time. The idea of the flow of time branching can be compared to the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics and the notion of multiverses present in some versions of string theory. Similarly, the infinitude of diverging, infinite universes in mathematical cosmology is reflected Borges' rejection of linear, absolute time. Borges' writings address the nature of entity and the possibility of infinite "realities", as in his essay "New Time Refutations" (1946).
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However, Popper criticised what he saw as Kuhn's relativism.K R Popper (1970), in I Lakatos & A Musgrave (eds.) (1970), at p. 56. Also, in his collection Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (Harper & Row, 1963), Popper writes, Another objection is that it is not always possible to demonstrate falsehood definitively, especially if one is using statistical criteria to evaluate a null hypothesis. More generally it is not always clear, if evidence contradicts a hypothesis, that this is a sign of flaws in the hypothesis rather than of flaws in the evidence.
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Miami, Florida: The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, special issue following vol. 25. In the process of elaborating what he calls a meta-transpersonal psychology, Capriles has carried out refutations of Wilber, Grof and Washburn.Friedman, Harris and MacDonald, Douglas A. "Editors’ Introduction". The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, Volume 25, 2006, page ii Although the ideas of William James are considered central to the transpersonal field, Gary Alexander thought that transpersonal psychology did not have a clear understanding of the negative dimensions of consciousness (such as evil) expressed in James' philosophy .
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Propositional proof systems can be interpreted as nondeterministic algorithms for recognizing tautologies. Proving a superpolynomial lower bound on a proof system P thus rules out the existence of a polynomial-time algorithm for SAT based on P. For example, runs of DPLL algorithm on unsatisfiable instances correspond to tree-like Resolution refutations. Therefore, exponential lower bounds for tree-like Resolution (see below) rule out the existence of efficient DPLL algorithms for SAT. Similarly, exponential Resolution lower bounds imply that SAT solvers based on Resolution, such as CDCL algorithms cannot solve SAT efficiently (in worst-case).
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Yet instead of accepting the refutations > the followers of Marx re-interpreted both the theory and the evidence in > order to make them agree. In this way they rescued the theory from > refutation; but they did so at the price of adopting a device which made it > irrefutable. They thus gave a 'conventionalist twist' to the theory; and by > this stratagem they destroyed its much advertised claim to scientific > status. Popper believed that Marxism had been initially scientific, in that Marx had postulated a theory which was genuinely predictive.
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Second chapter (Avirodha: non-conflict, non-contradiction): discusses and refutes the possible objections to Vedānta philosophy, and states that the central themes of Vedanta are consistent across the various Vedic texts. The Brahma Sūtra states, examines and dismisses the refutations raised by other schools of thoughts, those now classified under Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Harshananda, Swami (2009), The Six Systems of Hindu Philosophy, A Primer, p.75 The second chapter consists of 157 sutras, with thirteen Adhikaranas in the first Pada, eight in second, seventeen Adhikaranas in third, and nine in the fourth Pada.
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Another title found in the Tosefta and Talmud is ben Stada (son of Stada). However, in Shabbat 104b and Sanhedrin 67a in the Babylonian Talmud, a passage is found that some have interpreted as equating ben Pandera with ben Stada. The passage is in the form of a Talmudic debate in which various voices make statements, each refuting the previous statement. In such debates the various statements and their refutations are often of a Midrashic nature, sometimes incorporating subtle humour and should not always be taken at face value.
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9; Aristotle, Sophistical Refutations 183b7. If anything in general can be said about the philosophical beliefs of Socrates, it is that he was morally, intellectually, and politically at odds with many of his fellow Athenians. When he is on trial for heresy and corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, he uses his method of elenchos to demonstrate to the jurors that their moral values are wrong-headed. He tells them they are concerned with their families, careers, and political responsibilities when they ought to be worried about the "welfare of their souls".
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Weyl's 1979 book Karl Marx - Racist contains a summary and critique of Marx's views on race and the role of Jews in modern capitalism, and a discussion of later refutations of Marx's economic views. At the same time, Weyl himself supported white minority-rule regimes in southern Africa against "communist terrorists" like Nelson Mandela, preferring the whites of Rhodesia, South Africa, and Portuguese colonial rule.Mahoso, Tafataona P. "Media in a Globalised World with Special Reference to Print Media in SADC Region". International Catholic Union of the Press (UCIP). 2002.
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Karl Popper, ch 4, subch "Science: Conjectures and refutations", in Andrew Bailey, ed, First Philosophy: Fundamental Problems and Readings in Philosophy, 2nd edn (Peterborough Ontario: Broadview Press, 2011), pp. 338–42. Popper regarded scientific hypotheses to be unverifiable, as well as not "confirmable" under Rudolf Carnap's thesis.Peter Godfrey-Smith, Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), pp. 57–59. He also found non-scientific, metaphysical, ethical and aesthetic statements often rich in meaning and important in the origination of scientific theories.
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While there are many studies that have been conducted comparing different treatments of inoculation, there is one specific comparison that is mentioned throughout various studies. This is the comparison between what is known as refutational same and refutational different messages. A refutational same message is an inoculation treatment that refutes specific potential counterarguments that will appear in the subsequent persuasion message, while refutational different treatments are refutations that are not the same as those present in the impending persuasive message. Pfau and his colleagues (1990) developed a study during the 1988 United States presidential election.
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Illuminationist philosophy was a school of Islamic philosophy founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi in the 12th century. This school is a combination of Avicenna's philosophy and ancient Iranian philosophy, with many new innovative ideas of Suhrawardi. It is often described as having been influenced by Neoplatonism. In logic in Islamic philosophy, systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the Illuminationist school, founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155–1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation.
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" The teachings in Brahma Sutras, states Shankara, differ from both the Buddhist realists and the Buddhist idealists. Shankara elaborates on these arguments against various schools of Buddhism, partly presenting refutations which were already standard in his time, and partly offering his own objections. Shankara's original contribution in explaining the difference between Advaita and Buddhism was his "argument for identity" and the "argument for the witness". In Shankara's view, the Buddhist are internally inconsistent in their theories, because "the reservoir- consciousness that [they] set up, being momentary, is no better than ordinary consciousness.
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Kaufmann commented that despite Popper's hatred of totalitarianism, Popper's method was "unfortunately similar to that of totalitarian 'scholars'". In his The Open Philosophy and the Open Society: A Reply to Dr. Karl Popper's Refutations of Marxism (1968), the Marxist author Maurice Cornforth defended Marxism against Popper's criticisms. Though disagreeing with Popper, Cornforth nevertheless called him "perhaps the most eminent" critic of Marxism. The philosopher Robert C. Solomon writes that Popper directs an "almost wholly unjustified polemic" against Hegel, one which has helped to give Hegel a reputation as a "moral and political reactionary".
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The problem of evil has been extended to non-human life forms, to include animal suffering from natural evils and human cruelty against them. Responses to various versions of the problem of evil, meanwhile, come in three forms: refutations, defenses, and theodicies. A wide range of responses have been made against these arguments. There are also many discussions of evil and associated problems in other philosophical fields, such as secular ethics,Nicholas J. Rengger, Moral Evil and International Relations, in SAIS Review 25:1, Winter/Spring 2005, pp.
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Protagoras also said that on any matter, there are two arguments (logoi) opposed to one another. Consequently he may have been the author of Dissoi logoi, an ancient Sophistic text on such opposing arguments.Gera, D.L. Two Thought Experiments in the Dissoi Logoi.The American Journal of Philology121(1): 24 According to Aristotle, Protagoras was criticized for having claimed "to make the weaker argument stronger"ton hēttō logon kreittō poiein Protagoras is credited with the philosophy of relativism, which he discussed in his lost work, Truth (also known as Refutations).
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Jahm bin Ṣafwān was heavily criticized by later scholars for his theological teachings. Many Hadith scholars wrote refutations of Jahm bin Ṣafwān's doctrines, particularly Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al-Bukhari, and al-Darimi.They wrote respectively: al-Radd 'alā al-Zanādiqah wa'l-Jahmiyyah, Khaql Af'āl al-'Ibād wa'l-Radd 'alā al- Jahmiyyah wa-Ashāb al-Ta'tîl and al-Radd 'alā'l-Jahmiyyah The latter also wrote a large refutation of a prominent Jahmite by the name of Bishr ibn Ghiyāth al-Mārisî wherein he declared him a Kafir (an unbeliever).Refer to: Naqd 'Uthmān b.
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The first is a list of heresies of Christology from Mani to Severus of Antioch with their refutations, wherein he attacks the views of Julian of Halicarnassus and presents Chalcedonianism as a middle ground between monophysitism and Nestorianism. The second is a philosophical presentation of Chalcedonian Christology in the tradition of Greek dialectic. Theodore may also be the author of the treatise On Sects, which is usually attributed to Leontius of Byzantium in the manuscripts. It also survives in a Georgian translation and has also been attributed to Theodore Abu Qurrah.
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In one of those blogs, Reiss says came across an article about the resurgence of measles and myths about the MMR vaccine. Reiss discovered that one of the readers of the article had posted a comment with common anti-vaccination claims. Reiss says that being familiar with how vaccine-preventable diseases used to affect and kill many people, she was shocked that someone would oppose vaccines. After that first encounter with anti-vaccine arguments, Reiss says she started reading more about the claims made by people opposing vaccines and the refutations provided by experts.
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Marx's predictions have been criticized because they have allegedly failed, with some pointing towards the GDP per capita increasing generally in capitalist economies compared to less market oriented economics, the capitalist economies not suffering worsening economic crises leading to the overthrow of the capitalist system and communist revolutions not occurring in the most advanced capitalist nations, but instead in undeveloped regions.Andrew Kliman, Reclaiming Marx's "Capital", Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, p. 208, emphases in original. In his books The Poverty of Historicism and Conjectures and Refutations, philosopher of science Karl Popper criticized the explanatory power and validity of historical materialism.
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"... ἐν τούτῳ γε μὴν νῆσοι μέγιστοι τυγχάνουσιν οὖσαι δύο, Βρεττανικαὶ λεγόμεναι, Ἀλβίων καὶ Ἰέρνη, ...", transliteration "... en toutôi ge mên nêsoi megistoi tynchanousin ousai dyo, Brettanikai legomenai, Albiôn kai Iernê, ...", Aristotle: On Sophistical Refutations. On Coming-to-be and Passing Away. On the Cosmos., 393b, pages 360–361, Loeb Classical Library No. 400, London William Heinemann LTD, Cambridge, Massachusetts University Press MCMLV Greek geographer, Pytheas of Massalia The first known written use of the word Britain was an ancient Greek transliteration of the original P-Celtic term in a work on the travels and discoveries of Pytheas that has not survived.
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The notion that living beings originated from inanimate materials comes from the Ancient Greeks—the theory known as spontaneous generation. Aristotle in the 4th century BCE gave a proper explanation, writing: Aristotle also states that it is not only that animals originate from other similar animals, but also that living things do arise and always have arisen from lifeless matter. His theory remained the dominant idea on origin of life (outside that of deity as a causal agent) from the ancient philosophers to the Renaissance thinkers in various forms. With the birth of modern science, experimental refutations emerged.
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The Church published an official statement in its newsroom and a blog listing its refutations. There have been comments about the disagreements between Wright and the Church of Scientology in the media. Karen Swartz reviewed the book for Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions, writing that Wright achieves his goal for the book, providing “a rich history that engages current questions,” while allowing for a “more nuanced discourse” of the meaning of religion, while perpetuating a “heavily Protestant understanding.” She also comments that the author recognizes the lack of information provided by the Church and encourages readers to research further.
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The Skhalitapramathana Yuktihetusiddhi by Āryadevapāda, in a manuscript found in Tibet, discusses the Charvaka philosophy, but attributes a theistic claim to Charvakas - that happiness in this life, and the only life, can be attained by worshiping gods and defeating demons. Toso posits that as Charvaka philosophy's views spread and were widely discussed, non-Charvakas such as Āryadevapāda added certain points of view that may not be of the Charvakas'. Buddhists, Jains, Advaita Vedantins and Nyāya philosophers considered the Charvakas as one of their opponents and tried to refute their views. These refutations are indirect sources of Charvaka philosophy.
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Some of the refutations of these views are developed at considerable length. Through these ethical chapters runs the prayer of Israel imploring God to gather together his scattered children, to bring to fulfilment the predictions of the Prophets, and to have mercy upon his Temple and his people. The book concludes with a justification of God, whose wisdom and greatness are said to be revealed in all God's works as well as in the history of Israel. These chapters are completed by the author's signature, and are followed by two hymns, the latter apparently a sort of alphabetical acrostic.
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Commentaria in Analytica priora Aristotelis, 1549 Andrea Briosco, Aristotle and Alexander of Aphrodisias, 16th century plaquette, Bode-Museum Alexander composed several commentaries on the works of Aristotle, in which he sought to escape a syncretistic tendency and to recover the pure doctrines of Aristotle. His extant commentaries are on Prior Analytics (Book 1), Topics, Meteorology, Sense and Sensibilia, and Metaphysics (Books 1-5).Donald J. Zeyl, Daniel Devereux, Phillip Mitsis, (1997), Encyclopedia of Classical Philosophy, page 20. The commentary on the Sophistical Refutations is deemed spurious, as is the commentary on the final nine books of the Metaphysics.
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Among the thirteen types of fallacies in his book Sophistical Refutations, Aristotle lists a fallacy he calls (prosody), later translated in Latin as accentus. While the passage is considered obscure, it is commonly interpreted as referring to the ambiguity that emerges when a word can be mistaken for another by changing suprasegmental phonemes, which in Ancient Greek correspond to diacritics (accents and breathings). Since words stripped from their diacritics do not exist in the Ancient Greek language, this notion of accent was troublesome for later commentators. Whatever the interpretation, in the Aristotelian tradition the fallacy remains roughly confined to issues of lexical stress.
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Karl Popper described the characteristics of a scientific theory as follows:Popper, Karl (1963), Conjectures and Refutations, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, UK. Reprinted in Theodore Schick (ed., 2000), Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain View, Calif. # It is easy to obtain confirmations, or verifications, for nearly every theory—if we look for confirmations. # Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory—an event which would have refuted the theory.
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15 et seq. The aggadic contents of the midrash are also very extensive and varied; it contains, too, simple explanations of Scriptural passages; several refutations of heretics; explanations of the differences between "ḳere" and "ketib" and between words written "plene" ("male") and defectively ("ḥaser"); interpretations according to noṭariḳon and gematria; several narratives and parables; and numerous aphorisms, moral sayings, and popular proverbs. Some of the aphorisms and proverbs may be cited here: "One may not give an honest man an opportunity to steal, much less a thief".Vayishlach 12 85b "The office seeks those that would escape it".
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Stove starts chapter one by clarifying the sort of view that would uncontroversially constitute an irrationalist position regarding science. Stove then advances his reading of the philosophers he is criticising: "Popper, Kuhn, Lakatos, and Feyerabend, are all writers whose position inclines them to deny (A), or at least makes them more or less reluctant to admit it. (That the history of science is not "cumulative", is a point they all agree on)." Popper himself had given a 1963 summary of his thoughts the title "Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge", seemingly endorsing (A) in almost identical language.
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Massimo Pigliucci. Denying Evolution: Creationism, Scientism, and the Nature of Science. (Sinauer, 2002): page 252-264 Amongst the refutations Pigliucci noted several mistakes Wells made and outlined how Wells oversimplified some issues to the detriment of the subject. Pigliucci also wrote an article-length review in BioScience and concludes, "Wells, as much as he desperately tries to debunk what to him is the most crucial component of evolutionary theory, the history of human descent, is backed against the wall by his own knowledge of biology." In 2005, Pigliucci debated Wells on Uncommon Knowledge on broader issues of evolution and intelligent design.
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The first large work on church history which appeared in this period was composed in the interests of Lutheranism. Mathias Flacius, called Illyricus (a native of Illyria), united with five other Lutherans (John Wigand, Mathias Judex, Basilius Faber, Andreas Corvinus, and Thomas Holzschuher), to produce an extensive work, that should exhibit the history of the Church as a convincing apology for strict Lutheranism. (See Centuriators of Magdeburg.) In the Centuriæ, a partisan work, the institutions of the Roman Church appear as works of Satan and darkness. It called forth Catholic refutations, particularly that of Cæsar Baronius.
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Moody's report influenced Lord Bathurst; Moody's protégé James Stephen; and Moody's successor Sir Henry Taylor. Historian D. J. Murray contends that Hyde Villiers and Taylor were merely advisors, and not experts like Moody and Stephen. Dougan was infuriated when he discovered that Moody had submitted the report without his consent, and began to compose a response, but he died, destitute, in September 1826, before he had completed his response. Dougan's response was completed after his death by his daughter, Mary, but it was intercepted by Moody, who annotated it extensively with refutations, before it reached Bathurst.
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This epistle represents the adoption of the Eastern Shuʻubi ideology by many indigenous Andalusian Muslims, which argued against Arab exclusivity, as expressed in their treatises comparing the Arabs unfavourably with the Persians and the Byzantines. Ibn Gharsiya's risala was written in Arabic courtly prose; thus it did not represent a rejection of Arabic literary culture, but only of Arab lineage. According to the Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, this risala was of minor importance, and its few exponents tended to repeat clichés adopted from the earlier Islamic East. The risala elicited at least seven refutations, only five of which actually survive.
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Las Casas countered that the scriptures did not in fact support war against all heathens, only against certain Canaanite tribes; that the Indians were not at all uncivilized nor lacking social order; that peaceful mission was the only true way of converting the natives; and finally that some weak Indians suffering at the hands of stronger ones was preferable to all Indians suffering at the hands of Spaniards. The judge, Fray Domingo de Soto, summarised the arguments. Sepúlveda addressed Las Casas's arguments with twelve refutations, which were again countered by Las Casas. The judges then deliberated on the arguments presented for several months before coming to a verdict.
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Later in the Chapel Hill conference, Richard Feynman used Pirani's description to point out that a passing gravitational wave should in principle cause a bead on a stick (oriented transversely to the direction of propagation of the wave) to slide back and forth, thus heating the bead and the stick by friction. This heating, said Feynman, showed that the wave did indeed impart energy to the bead and stick system, so it must indeed transport energy, contrary to the view expressed in 1955 by Rosen. In two 1957 papers, Bondi and (separately) Joseph Weber and John Archibald Wheeler used this bead argument to present detailed refutations of Rosen's argument.
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Most churchmen, however, took a far more prosaic attitude. In the early period, it must have appeared far from clear that Darwin's theory of natural selection would come to be hegemonic among scientists, as refutations and alternate systems were still being proposed and debated. Then, when evolution became widely accepted, most churchmen were far less concerned with refuting it than they were with establishing schemes whereby Darwinism could be reconciled with Christianity. This was true even among prominent Old Schoolers at Princeton Theological Seminary such as Charles Hodge's successors A. A. Hodge and B. B. Warfield who came to endorse the ideas now described as theistic evolution.
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The Carmelitas had few cows to supply the little milk they drank every few days as a way to accomplish their vows of poverty and austerity. As a result of the custom of their time, women weren't allowed to access the convent, thanks to a decree of Pope Clemente VIII, which said that any woman who trespasses the wall would be banned from the Catholic Church. Another relevant point, was living in penance, which is why they asked for ordinary mortifications to the president of the community. In requesting penance, they had to take off their habit capes and be on their knees, accepting the assignments without refutations.
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In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, "I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski."Hacohen, 2000 Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics, to Popper, and in 1982 said, "...ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology."Weimer and Palermo, 1982 Popper also had long and mutually influential friendships with art historian Ernst Gombrich, biologist Peter Medawar, and neuroscientist John Carew Eccles.
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He pursued the condemnation of Justus Menius, participated in the Colloquy of Worms in 1557 and wrote with and Johann Stössel the Weimarer Konfutationsbuch [ the Weimarer Book of Refutations ], which was mandatory for the Lutheran churches throughout Thuringia. The Duke of Saxony, John Frederick the Middle, also took him to Heidelberg to prevent his father-in-law, Frederick III the Pious, the Elector Palatinate of the Rhine, from going over to the Reformed side. The Heidelberger Abendmahlsgespräch [ Heidelberger Discussion of the Lord’s Supper ], with which Mörlin was involved on 3 and 4 July 1560, remained unsuccessful. However, from the side of the Radicals, Flacius struck, distancing Mörlin from the Philippists.
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He has been an active contributor to an ongoing discussion concerning the date of the Buddha's death, and has argued that data supplied in Pali texts composed in Sri Lanka enable us to date that event to about 404 BCE. Whilst an undergraduate, Gombrich helped to edit the volume of papers by Karl Popper entitled "Conjectures and Refutations". Since then, he has followed this method in his research, seeking the best hypothesis available and then trying to test it against the evidence. This makes him oppose both facile scepticism and the quest for a method which can in any way substitute for the simple need for critical thought.
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Some of the principles of astrology were refuted by several medieval Islamic astronomers such as Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Avicenna, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni and Averroes. Their reasons for refuting astrology were often due to both scientific (the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical) and religious (conflicts with orthodox Islamic scholars) reasons. However these refutations mainly concerned the judicial branches of astrology rather than the natural principles of it. For example, Avicenna's refutation of astrology (in the treatise titled Resāla fī ebṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm, Treatise against the rulings of the stars) revealed support for its overarching principles.
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The book was considered extremely radical in its day and the list of people writing refutations of the work was long. The prominent Catholic theologian Nicolas-Sylvestre Bergier wrote a refutation titled Examen du matérialisme ("Materialism examined"). Voltaire, too, seized his pen to refute the philosophy of the Système in the article "Dieu" in his Dictionnaire philosophique, while Frederick the Great also drew up an answer to it. Commenting on the book, Frederick observed: It is speculated that Frederick was motivated to write a criticism of the System of Nature because the book contained an attack not just on religion, but also on monarchy.
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Certain uses of the naturalistic fallacy refutation (a scheme of reasoning that declares an inference invalid because it incorporates an instance of the naturalistic fallacy) have been criticized as lacking rational bases, and labelled anti- naturalistic fallacy.Casebeer, W. D., "Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition", Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, (2003) For instance, Alex Walter wrote: :"The naturalistic fallacy and Hume's 'law' are frequently appealed to for the purpose of drawing limits around the scope of scientific inquiry into ethics and morality. These two objections are shown to be without force." The refutations from naturalistic fallacy defined as inferring evaluative conclusions from purely factual premises .
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Instead, a list of Jellicoe's objections was included as an appendix, together with refutations by the Admiralty which Jellicoe had not been permitted to see. In May 1925, Evan-Thomas was finally able to see the King and discuss the matter. King George was now in the position of formally having to support the Admiralty: He recognised Evan-Thomas' legitimate grievances, but felt Beatty was an effective First Sea Lord at a time when the Navy was under considerable threat from spending cuts and changes in public opinion, he felt it 'better for the nation that there should be no more controversy'.Gordon, pp. 552–553.
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Moussa Ibrahim Gaddafi ( ; romanized also as Mussa and Musa, born 7 December 1974) is a Libyan political figure who rose to international attention in 2011 as Muammar Gaddafi's Information Minister and official spokesman, serving in this role until the government was toppled in the Libyan Civil War. Ibrahim held frequent press conferences in the course of the war, denouncing rebel forces and the NATO-led military intervention, often in defiant and impassioned tones. His status and whereabouts remained unknown following the Battle of Tripoli in which the Gaddafi government was overthrown, although there were several claims and subsequent refutations of his capture."Libya: Confusion at fate of Gaddafi aide Moussa Ibrahim".
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The work was first published in 1746 under the title Dissertations sur les apparitions des anges, des démons et des esprits, et sur les revenants et vampires de Hongrie, de Bohême, de Moravie et de Silésie. After a great deal of praise and response from his readers, the work was expanded and published with Privilege of the King of France in 1751 under the new title Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c..; The new version included letters and dissertations by some of his readers and extra chapters as a response to refutations and various claims.
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By 1782, at least a dozen hostile refutations were published to Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit, and Priestley was branded an atheist.Schofield (2004), 72. Priestley wrote his most important philosophical works during his years with Lord Shelburne. In a series of major metaphysical texts published between 1774 and 1780—An Examination of Dr. Reid's Inquiry into the Human Mind (1774), Hartley's Theory of the Human Mind on the Principle of the Association of Ideas (1775), Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit (1777), The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Illustrated (1777), and Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever (1780)—he argues for a philosophy that incorporates four concepts: determinism, materialism, causation, and necessitarianism.
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Philosopher of science Karl Popper, in The Poverty of Historicism and Conjectures and Refutations, critiqued such claims of the explanatory power or valid application of historical materialism by arguing that it could explain or explain away any fact brought before it, making it unfalsifiable and thus pseudoscientific. Similar arguments were brought by Leszek Kołakowski in Main Currents of Marxism. In his 1940 essay Theses on the Philosophy of History, scholar Walter Benjamin compares historical materialism to the Turk, an 18th-century device which was promoted as a mechanized automaton which could defeat skilled chess players but actually concealed a human who controlled the machine. Benjamin suggested that, despite Marx's claims to scientific objectivity, historical materialism was actually quasi-religious.
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Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (b. 1149) criticised Aristotle's "first figure" and developed a form of inductive logic, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). Systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the Illuminationist school, founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155–1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation. Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by Ibn Taymiyyah (1263-1328), the Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin (Refutation of Greek Logicians), where he argued against the usefulness, though not the validity, of the syllogismSee pp. 253-254 of and in favour of inductive reasoning.
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" Socrates' "Euthyphro dilemma" is often considered one of the earliest refutations of the idea that morality requires religion. This line of reasoning is described by Peter Singer: Greg Epstein, a Humanist chaplain at Harvard University, dismisses the question of whether God is needed to be good "because that question does not need to be answered—it needs to be rejected outright," adding, "To suggest that one can't be good without belief in God is not just an opinion ... it is a prejudice. It may even be discrimination." This is in line with the Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics which states that religion and morality "are to be defined differently and have no definitional connections with each other.
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No. 187, 7). The Christian personages who figure in the discussions are: Pope Gregory (probably Gregory X); the bishops of Sens, Mans, Meaux, Vannes, Anjou, Poitiers, Angoulême, and St. Malo; the bishop of the king (St. Louis); the confessor of the queen (probably Guillaume of Auvergne); the chancellor; friars of the Cordelier and Jacobite orders; and some Jewish converts. All the Christian dogmas which are derived from scriptural texts, such as the immaculate conception, the divinity of Jesus, his mission on earth, his birth, death, and resurrection, are analyzed and discussed; and there occur refutations of some attacks on Judaism, such as the accusation of ritual murder, which the chancellor endeavored to base upon Num. xxiii. 24.
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A alt=A caricature showing the world in flames, people hanged in the background, people burning and attacking a crucifix, a sign reading "No Christianity, No Religion, No King", and scores of people standing upside down. Paine's Age of Reason sparked enough anger in Britain to initiate not only a series of government prosecutions but also a pamphlet war. Around 50 unfavorable replies appeared between 1795 and 1799 alone, and refutations were still being published in 1812. Many of them responded specifically to Paine's attack on the Bible in Part II (when Thomas Williams was prosecuted for printing Part II, it became clear its circulation had far exceeded that of Part I).Claeys, 187–88; Davidson and Scheick, 88.
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However, he also conceived of the mathematical community as carrying on a kind of dialectic to decide which mathematical proofs are valid and which are not. Therefore, he fundamentally disagreed with the 'formalist' conception of proof which prevailed in Frege's and Russell's logicism, which defines proof simply in terms of formal validity. On its first publication as a paper in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science in 1963–4, Proofs and Refutations became highly influential on new work in the philosophy of mathematics, although few agreed with Lakatos' strong disapproval of formal proof. Before his death he had been planning to return to the philosophy of mathematics and apply his theory of research programmes to it.
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Numerous studies using many different kinds of data, definitions and statistical analyses have found support for the democratic peace theory. The original finding was that liberal democracies have never made war with one another. More recent research has extended the theory and finds that democracies have few militarized interstate disputes causing less than 1,000 battle deaths with one another, that those militarized interstate disputes that have occurred between democracies have caused few deaths and that democracies have few civil wars. There are various criticisms of the theory, including at least as many refutations as alleged proofs of the theory, some 200 deviant cases, failure to treat "democracy" as a multidimensional concept and that correlation is not causation (Haas, 2014).
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Newman's conclusions were controversial in their own right, and historians such as Anna Cienciala and Anita Prazmowska have published refutations of his conclusions.Anna M Cienciala, "Poland in British and French Policy in 1939: Determination to Fight or Avoid War?", Polish Review, 34 (1989), 199-226; Anita J. Prazmowska 'Poland's Foreign Policy: September 1938-September 1939', History Journal 29(1986), 853-73 Based upon extensive interviews with the former French foreign minister Georges Bonnet, Hoggan followed up Der erzwungene Krieg with Frankreichs Widerstand gegen den Zweiten Weltkrieg (France's Resistance to the Second World War) in 1963. In that book, Hoggan argued that the Third Republic had no quarrel with the Third Reich and had been forced by British pressure to declare war on Germany in 1939.
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B.N.K. Sharma says, The next two chapters are devoted to the justification of Purvapaksha of the opening Adhikarana of Brahma Sutras as developed by Madhva and his commentators against the refutations attempted by the critic. The last chapter deals with the criticisms on the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th Adhikaranas of Brahma Sutras and is wound up with a general review of criticisms on the rest of the Brahma Sutra Bhashya. Sharma says, It may be said that Narayanacharya has successfully repelled the criticisms of Appayya and shown them to be quite shallow and sentimental and based on irrelevant considerations. He has tried to put up an unexpurgated case for the soundness and acceptability of Madhva's interpretations of the Sutras.
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However, Ralph Miliband countered that Kolakowski had a flawed understanding of Marxism and its relation to Leninism and Stalinism. In Defence of Marx's Labour Theory of Value Economist Thomas Sowell wrote in 1985: > What Marx accomplished was to produce such a comprehensive, dramatic, and > fascinating vision that it could withstand innumerable empirical > contradictions, logical refutations, and moral revulsions at its effects. > The Marxian vision took the overwhelming complexity of the real world and > made the parts fall into place, in a way that was intellectually > exhilarating and conferred such a sense of moral superiority that opponents > could be simply labelled and dismissed as moral lepers or blind > reactionaries. Marxism was – and remains – a mighty instrument for the > acquisition and maintenance of political power.
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This has led to the accusation, first voiced by the anti-Judaist writer Johann Andreas Eisenmenger in his Entdecktes Judenthum, that "Yeshu" was always such a deliberately insulting term for Jesus. Eisenmenger claimed that Jews believed that they were forbidden to mention names of false gods and instead were commanded to change and defame them and did so with Jesus' name as they considered him a false god. He argued that Jesus' original name was "Yeshua" and as Jews did not recognize him as saviour (moshia`) or that he had even saved (hoshia`) himself, they left out the ayin from the root meaning "to save". Eisenmenger's book against Judaism was denounced by the Jews as malicious libel, and was the subject of a number of refutations.
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The Ballerini brothers became famous throughout Italy, and in 1748 Peter was chosen by the senate of Venice to serve as its canonist in Rome in a dispute over the Patriarchate of Aquileia. He attracted the attention of Pope Benedict XIV, who commissioned him to prepare an edition of St. Leo's works in refutation of the defective one published by Quesnel. After almost nine years of labour in which he enjoyed free access to all the libraries of Rome, Pietro brought out his work in three volumes (Rome, 1753–57) reproducing the entire edition of Quesnel together with elaborate refutations and additions (Migne, Patrologia Latina, LIV-LVI). The third volume is a profound study of the sources of canon law.
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These refutations were published before the article by Jean Gribenski, who does not however mention them in his book of 2001. The controversy reappeared in 2011, after the Sorbonne decided to give Chailley's name to an amphitheater (polemic triggered by an article in the weekly Le Canard enchaîné and furthered in a note in Le Nouvel Observateur.Bibliobs 4 April 2011 « Sorbonne 1940-1944 ») Michèle AltenMichelle Alten on L'Harmattan has since published an article based on an in-depth study of the archives,Michèle Alten, « Le Conservatoire de musique et d'art dramatique une institution culturelle publique dans la guerre (1940-1942) », L'Éducation musicale which sheds light on the events of 1940. She writes: It is to this inquiry that Jean Gribenski's article seems to refer.
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Since its inception, the party and its leaders have faced legal problems with the Turkish government since some critics suspect the party of having ties to the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), an armed militant organization. It was also criticized by observers for not distancing itself from PKK's armed actions to confirm its refutations of its claimed links with the PKK. As of June 2007 report by the European Union Institute for Security Studies stated that "It is an obvious secret that DTP is connected to PKK in a way and PKK is a terrorist group." A delegation consisting of the DTP MP's Fatma Kurtalan, Osman Özçelik and Aysel Tuğluk traveled to Northern Iraq to mediate the release of 8 arrested Turkish soldiers by the PKK in 2007.
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Hoffmann is well known for his witty, highly erudite and often acerbic style, and his penchant for complicated and extreme declarations. In May 2012, Hoffmann presented the Jesus Process defined as yet another round on the popular theme of "Consultation on the Historical Jesus". An introductory manifesto for the new group has been outlined in "Controversy, Mythicism, and the Historical Jesus" of May 22, 2012.R. Joseph Hoffmann, "Controversy, Mythicism, and the Historical Jesus", New Oxonian, May 22, 2012, as a part of "The Jesus Process: A Consultation on the Historical Jesus" ] When listing the major refutations of the Christ Myth thesis (Note [3]), Hoffmann notes that the "important studies" are the five works by S. J. Case, F. C. Conybeare, Maurice Goguel, R. T. France, and Morton Smith.
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Pfander's chief legacy to posterity is undoubtedly his book Mizan ul-Haqq (The Balance of Truth), modelled on the style of Islamic theological works, and attempting to present the Christian gospel in a form understandable to Muslims. He offered reasons to believe that the Bible is the inspired word of God, neither corrupted nor superseded, and argued that the Qur'an itself testifies to the reliability of the Christian scriptures and the supremacy of Christ. He attempted to prove from the Qur'an and other Islamic writings some alleged fallibilities in Islam and its prophet, noting a historic contrast between the violence of Islamic expansion and the peaceable spread of the early church. The Mizan ul-Haqq stimulated a number of carefully argued refutations from Islamic scholars, followed by further writings from Pfander himself.
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Tycho Brahe, Riccioli, Kepler, Galileo and others frequently cited him or his observations. His data is still used in geophysics.Dalmau, W. (1997) CRITICAL REMARKS ON THE USE OF MEDIEVAL ECLIPSE RECORDS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF LONG-TERM CHANGES IN THE EARTH'S ROTATION ', Surveys in Geophysics 18: 213-223. Around 1190, Al-Bitruji published an alternative geocentric system to Ptolemy's model. His system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century, with debates and refutations of his ideas continued to the 16th century. In 1217, Michael Scot finished a Latin translation of al-Bitruji's Book of Cosmology (Kitāb al- Hayʾah), which became a valid alternative to Ptolemy's Almagest in scholastic circles. Several European writers, including Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon, explained it in detail and compared it with Ptolemy's.
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Greek, Indian and Arabic Logic, Volume 1. 1st Edition. 2004. page 330 Because the vaitandika only seeks to disprove his opponents arguments without putting forward a thesis of his own, the Hindu Nyaya school philosophers such as Vatsyayana saw it as unfair and also irrational (because if you argue against P, you must have a thesis, mainly not P).Matilal, Bimal Krishna, 'The Character of Logic in India' State University of New York Press 1998, page 52 According to Matilal, Nagarjuna's position of not putting forth any implied thesis through his refutations would be rational if seen as a form of illocutionary act. Nagarjuna's reductions and the structure of the catuṣkoṭi became very influential in the Buddhist Madhyamaka school of philosophy which sees itself as a continuation of Nagarjuna's thought.
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Inspired and guided by Leo Strauss's revival of Platonic political philosophy, Pangle's work has as its unifying aim the clarification and defense of the original Socratic conception of political philosophy. In the manner that Pangle understands it, the Socratic conception is controversial. What the Socratic conception of political theory amounts to, Pangle contends, is a lifelong vindication, through conversational refutations that purify common sense notions of justice and nobility, of self-knowledge and of inquiry into the nature of things as the highest and supremely fulfilling dimension of human existence. This notion of the true human good, as the good that makes all relativistic and egalitarian outlooks appear impoverished, obviously contradicts or directly clashes with what most people today are told and believe is the life they ought to lead.
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At Tyndale's request, Latomus countered the two parts of this book in two different writings. Latomus's replies, along with his first letter, were collected by his nephew into a work called Refutations against Tyndale (1550), which included an introduction by Livinus Crucius, the parish priest of the Flemish village of Boeschepe. Latomus allegedly intended these works to edify, not as a solely personal academic exchange. Latomus's works are important, as they have allowed a credible reconstruction of the Catholic response to Tyndale's views; it is also apparent that Latomus either did not know of Tyndale's translation of the Bible or did not think it worth mentioning—evincing that the precise charge brought against Tyndale at the time was not translating the Bible, but the so-called heresy of Lutheranism.
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It was the 1789 events in France which triggered antecedents of Traditionalism, a theory founded on the concept of counter-revolution. Within this perspective it is the revolution, not Absolutism, that formed the key Traditionalist counterpoint of reference. The proponents listed are Lorenzo Hervás Panduro, Francisco Alvarado y Téllez, Diego José de Cádiz and Rafael de Vélez;see especially the classic Velez’ work, Apologia del Trono y del Altar (1819), a classic lecture of anti-liberal and counter-revolutionary outlook of the Fernandine era, though not all scholars necessarily see it as pre- Traditionalist concept, Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Las tradiciones ideológicas de la extrema derecha española, [in:] Hispania 49 (2001), p. 105 their refutations of revolutionary concepts were based on Spanish political tradition and offered first components of what would later become a Traditionalist doctrine.
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Still another way is not to call him a liar at all — let him do it himself." The Axis propaganda was presented in skit form, read in accents by a trio of actors: Paul Luther (Adolf Hitler, Hermann Göring, Joseph Goebbels, German radio broadcasters), Guy Repp (Benito Mussolini, Rome radio broadcasters), and Ted Osborne (Hirohito, Hideki Tōjō, Japanese radio broadcasters). wax cylinder recordings of propaganda broadcasts for analysis (May 1941) "Hundreds of Axis propaganda broadcasts, beamed not merely to the Allied countries but to neutrals, were sifted weekly," Stout's biographer John McAleer wrote. "Rex himself, for an average of twenty hours a week, pored over the typewritten yellow sheets of accumulated data ... Then, using a dialogue format—Axis commentators making their assertions, and Rex Stout, the lie detective, offering his refutations—he dictated to his secretary the script of the fifteen-minute broadcast.
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On this view, infants and children are essentially proto-scientists because they regularly use a kind of scientific method, developing hypotheses, performing experiments via play, and updating models about the world based on their results. For Gopnik, this use of scientific thinking and categorization in development and everyday life can be formalized as models of Bayesian inference. An application of this view is the "sampling hypothesis," or the view that individual variation in children's causal and probabilistic inferences is an artifact of random sampling from a diverse set of hypotheses, and flexible generalizations based on sampling behavior and context. These views, particularly those advocating general Bayesian updating from specialized theories, are considered successors to Piaget’s theory rather than wholesale refutations because they maintain its domain-generality, viewing children as randomly and unsystematically considering a range of models before selecting a probable conclusion.
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Baháʼu'lláh includes extensive quotations from the Báb's writings in support of his refutations. A major portion of the work is devoted to explaining the Báb's prophecies concerning 'Him Whom God shall make manifest'. He includes numerous quotations from the Báb's writings, such as the following (referring to 'Him Whom God shall make manifest'): :Were He to make of every one on earth a Prophet, all would, in very truth, be accounted as Prophets in the sight of God...In the day of the revelation of Him Whom God shall make manifest all that dwell on earth will be equal in His estimation. Whomsoever He ordaineth as a Prophet, he, verily, hath been a Prophet from the beginning that hath no beginning, and will thus remain until the end that hath no end, inasmuch as this is an act of God.
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The "Kosher tax" (or "Jewish tax") is the idea that food companies and unwitting consumers are forced to pay money to support Judaism or Zionist causes and Israel through the costs of kosher certification. This claim is generally considered a conspiracy theory, antisemitic canard, or urban legend and is mainly spread by antisemitic, white supremacist, and other extremist organizations. Common refutations include: because consumers who prefer kosher foods include not only Jews, but also Muslims, Seventh-day Adventists, and others, food companies actively seek kosher certification to increase market share and profitability; the fees collected support the certifying organizations themselves; extra business generated by the voluntary certification process more than makes up for the cost of supervision, hence the certification does not necessarily increase the price of products, and may in fact result in per item cost savings.
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L. Sprague de Camp wrote in The Science Fiction Handbook (1953) that "the neurotic Howard suffered from an Oedipean devotion to his mother and... from delusions of persecution." Faced with refutations from Glenn Lord, de Camp eventually stopped making claims about an Oedipus Complex but maintained that Howard was insane, especially due to Howard's suicide. A lot of the speculations about Howard's mental state appear to originate in the first, flawed, biography of Howard, Dark Valley Destiny by L. Sprague de Camp and others. These tend to be from a Freudian perspective and suggest an Oedipal attraction between Robert and his mother Hester, based on the facts that Howard took care of his dying mother, that his bedroom had a window through to his parents' bedroom and that he killed himself on the day she was going to die herself.
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Hume also presented arguments both for and against the teleological argument in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. The character Cleanthes, summarizing the teleological argument, likens the universe to a man-made machine, and concludes by the principle of similar effects and similar causes that it must have a designing intelligence: On the other hand, Hume's sceptic, Philo, is not satisfied with the argument from design. He attempts a number of refutations, including one that arguably foreshadows Darwin's theory, and makes the point that if God resembles a human designer, then assuming divine characteristics such as omnipotence and omniscience is not justified. He goes on to joke that far from being the perfect creation of a perfect designer, this universe may be "only the first rude essay of some infant deity... the object of derision to his superiors".
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Popper disparages the pseudoscientific, which occurs when an unscientific theory is proclaimed true and coupled with seemingly scientific method by "testing" the unfalsifiable theory—whose predictions are confirmed by necessity—or when a scientific theory's falsifiable predictions are strongly falsified but the theory is persistently protected by "immunizing stratagems", such as the appendage of ad hoc clauses saving the theory or the recourse to increasingly speculative hypotheses shielding the theory. Popper's scientific epistemology is falsificationism, which finds that no number, degree, and variety of empirical successes can either verify or confirm scientific theory. Falsificationism finds science's aim as corroboration of scientific theory, which strives for scientific realism but accepts the maximal status of strongly corroborated verisimilitude ("truthlikeness"). Explicitly denying the positivist view that all knowledge is scientific, Popper developed the general epistemology critical rationalism, which finds human knowledge to evolve by conjectures and refutations.
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The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ opens with a two part exposition of the Christian faith as applied to the Lord's Supper. First, one must consider the object of faith, "what one should believe".LW 36:335 Then, one may consider how one may make use of this object, which in this case refers to how one should use the sacrament.LW 36:346-7 A large portion of this opening sectionLW 36:335-45 is devoted to logical refutations of logical arguments built up by Zwingli and those who agreed with him. These rational arguments are not intended to persuade his opponents, who in Luther's view do not accept God's Word and therefore may believe as they please apart from the church,LW:36 336 but instead to help the "reasonable souls" who are still willing to "concern themselves" with God's Word.
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The third man argument (commonly referred to as TMA; ), first appears in Plato's dialogue Parmenides. (132a–b) Parmenides (speaking to Socrates) uses the example of μέγεθος (mégethos; "greatness") in a philosophical criticism of the theory of Forms. The theory of forms is formulated based on the speeches of characters across various dialogues by Plato, although it is often attributed to Plato himself. The argument was furthered by Aristotle (Metaphysics 990b17–1079a13, 1039a2; Sophistic Refutations 178b36 ff.) who, rather than using the example of "greatness" (μέγεθος), used the example of a man (hence the name of the argument) to explain this objection to the theory, which he attributes to Plato; Aristotle posits that if a man is a man because he partakes in the form of man, then a third form would be required to explain how man and the form of man are both man, and so on, ad infinitum.
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The first people to oppose Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab were his father, Abd al-Wahhab and his brother, Salman Ibn Abd al- Wahhab who was an Islamic scholar and qadi. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's brother wrote a book in refutation of his brother's new teachings, called: "The Final Word from the Qur'an, the Hadith, and the Sayings of the Scholars Concerning the School of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab", also known as: "Al-Sawa`iq al-Ilahiyya fi Madhhab al-Wahhabiyya" ("The Divine Thunderbolts Concerning the Wahhabi School"). In "The Refutation of Wahhabism in Arabic Sources, 1745–1932", Hamadi Redissi provides original references to the description of Wahhabis as a divisive sect (firqa) and outliers (Kharijites) in communications between Ottomans and Egyptian Khedive Muhammad Ali. Redissi details refutations of Wahhabis by scholars (muftis); among them Ahmed Barakat Tandatawin, who in 1743 describes Wahhabism as ignorance (Jahala).
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Particularly heated is the debate over the beliefs of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington. In his "Autobiography" Franklin wrote that as a young man "Some books against Deism fell into my hands; they were said to be the substance of sermons preached at Boyle's lectures. It happened that they wrought an effect on me quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a thorough Deist." Like some other deists, Franklin believed that, "The Deity sometimes interferes by his particular Providence, and sets aside the Events which would otherwise have been produc'd in the Course of Nature, or by the Free Agency of Man,"Benjamin Franklin, On the Providence of God in the Government of the World (1730).
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Her most recent novel is 36 Arguments for the Existence of God: A Work of Fiction (2010), which explores ongoing controversies over religion and reason through the tale of a professor of psychology who has written an atheist bestseller while his life is permeated with secular versions of religious themes such as messianism, divine genius, and the quest for immortality. The book has a long nonfiction appendix (attributed to the novel's protagonist) that details 36 traditional and modern arguments for the existence of God together with their claimed refutations. The book was chosen by National Public Radio as one of the "five favorite books of 2010" and by The Christian Science Monitor as the best book of fiction of 2010. Goldstein has written two biographical studies: Incompleteness: The Proof and Paradox of Kurt Gödel (2005) and Betraying Spinoza: The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity (2006).
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Diogenes Laërtius, ii. 104 Aristotle places him beside Tisias and Thrasymachus as the key movers in the history of rhetoric. Quoting the W. A. Pickard-Cambridge text: "For it may be that in everything, as the saying is 'the first start is the main part'... This is in fact what has happened in regard to rhetorical speeches and to practically all the other arts: for those who discovered the beginnings of them advanced them in all only a little way, whereas the celebrities of to-day are the heirs (so to speak) of a long succession of men who have advanced them bit by bit, and so have developed them to their present form, Tisias coming next after the first founders, then Thrasymachus after Tisias, and Theodorus next to him, while several people have made their several contributions to it: and therefore it is not to be wondered at that the art has attained considerable dimensions."Aristotle, On Sophistical Refutations 183b22-34.
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The original phrase used by Aristotle from which begging the question descends is: τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς (or sometimes ἐν ἀρχῇ) αἰτεῖν, "asking for the initial thing." Aristotle's intended meaning is closely tied to the type of dialectical argument he discusses in his Topics, book VIII: a formalized debate in which the defending party asserts a thesis that the attacking party must attempt to refute by asking yes-or-no questions and deducing some inconsistency between the responses and the original thesis. In this stylized form of debate, the proposition that the answerer undertakes to defend is called "the initial thing" (τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς, τὸ ἐν ἀρχῇ) and one of the rules of the debate is that the questioner cannot simply ask for it (that would be trivial and uninteresting). Aristotle discusses this in Sophistical Refutations and in Prior Analytics book II, (64b, 34–65a 9, for circular reasoning see 57b, 18–59b, 1).
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By rejecting all variants of positivism via its focus on sensations rather than realism, Karl Popper asserted his commitment to scientific realism, merely via the necessary uncertainty of his own falsificationism. Popper alleged that instrumentalism reduces basic science to what is merely applied science.Karl R Popper, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (London: Routledge, 2003 [1963]), , quote: "Instrumentalism can be formulated as the thesis that scientific theories—the theories of the so-called 'pure' sciences—are nothing but computational rules (or inference rules); of the same character, fundamentally, as the computation rules of the so-called 'applied' sciences. (One might even formulate it as the thesis that "pure" science is a misnomer, and that all science is 'applied'.) Now my reply to instrumentalism consists in showing that there are profound differences between "pure" theories and technological computation rules, and that instrumentalism can give a perfect description of these rules but is quite unable to account for the difference between them and the theories".
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Despite the logical sophistication of al-Ghazali, the rise of the Ash'ari school in the 12th century slowly suffocated original work on logic in much of the Islamic world, though logic continued to be studied in some Islamic regions such as Persia and the Levant. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (b. 1149) criticised Aristotle's "first figure" and developed a form of inductive logic, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). Systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the Illuminationist school, founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155–1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation,Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328), the Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin (Refutation of Greek Logicians), where he argued against the usefulness, though not the validity, of the syllogism See pp. 253–54 of and in favour of inductive reasoning.
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Despite the logical sophistication of al-Ghazali, the rise of the Ash'ari school in the 12th century slowly suffocated original work on logic in much of the Islamic world, though logic continued to be studied in some Islamic regions such as Persia and the Levant. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (b. 1149) criticised Aristotle's "first figure" and developed a form of inductive logic, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). Systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the Illuminationist school, founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155–1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation. Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by Ibn Taymiyyah (1263-1328), the Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin (Refutation of Greek Logicians), where he argued against the usefulness, though not the validity, of the syllogismSee pp. 253-254 of and in favour of inductive reasoning.
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Being a public figure in his occupation, as well as a learned and reputable man within the Muslim religious community, Safdar Ali had a substantial amount of influence, and after his conversion he was active in Christian missionary efforts to the Muslim communities around him. He also wrote a few works about the conclusions of his study between Islam and Christianity. Much of his works have not been translated into English. Some of his more influential and popular works are: Ghizai Ruh, which consists of hymns and sacred songs; Khallat Nama, which was a treatise regarding the issues of religious toleration; and Niaz Namah (currently only available in Urdu, the language in which it was originally written), which is a volume consisting of his letters that he wrote to his family shortly after his conversion explaining the reasons why he decided to abandon Islam as well as some refutations of popular arguments held against Christianity by Islamic theologians.
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The translator Pawla of Edessa worked "according to the tradition of Qenneshre", as a note in a manuscript of his translations of Severus of Antioch relates. There is as of yet no scholarly study of the manner and techniques of the Qenneshre school of translation. The translation and re-translation of biblical, patristic and secular philosophical texts suggests a distinct "miaphysite curriculum of study" crafted and promoted at Qenneshre. Among the works translated at Qenneshre or by monks from Qenneshre are the Homilies of Gregory of Nazianzus by Paul of Edessa in 623–624; the hymns of Severus of Antioch also by Paul and later revised by Yaʿqub of Edessa; Basil of Caesarea's Hexaemeron by Athanasios; Aristotle's Prior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics and Sophistical Refutations by Athanasios II; Aristotle's Categories by Yaʿqub in the early 8th century; and Aristotle's On Interpretation by George, bishop of the Arabs, who also re-translated the Prior Analytics, in both cases adding his own introduction and commentary.
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The article was followed by a series of supports and refutations in the short space of five years.Cf. the summary provided by A. Alvar Ezquerra, Exilio y elegía latina entre la Antigüedad y el Renacimiento (Huelva, 1997), pp. 23–24 Among the reasons given by Brown are: that Ovid's exile is only mentioned by his own work, except in "dubious" passages by Pliny the ElderNaturalis Historia, 32.152: "His adiciemus ab Ovidio posita animalia, quae apud neminem alium reperiuntur, sed fortassis in Ponto nascentia, ubi id volumen supremis suis temporibus inchoavit". and Statius,Silvae, 1.2, 254–55: "nec tristis in ipsis Naso Tomis". but no other author until the 4th century;Short references in Jerome (Chronicon, 2033, an. Tiberii 4, an. Dom. 17: "Ovidius poeta in exilio diem obiit et iuxta oppidum Tomos sepelitur") and in Epitome de Caesaribus (I, 24: "Nam [Augustus] poetam Ovidium, qui et Naso, pro eo, quod tres libellos amatoriae artis conscripsit, exilio damnavit").
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The English physician and philosopher, Sir Thomas Browne, specifically employed the word encyclopaedia for the first time in English as early as 1646 in the preface to the reader to describe his Pseudodoxia Epidemica or Vulgar Errors, a series of refutations of common errors of his age: "And therefore in this Encyclopædie and round of Knowledge, like the great and exemplary Wheels of Heaven, we must observe two Circles <...>" Browne structured his encyclopedia upon the time-honoured schemata of the Renaissance, the so-called 'scale of creation' which ascends a hierarchical ladder via the mineral, vegetable, animal, human, planetary and cosmological worlds. Browne's compendium went through no less than five editions, each revised and augmented, the last edition appearing in 1672. Pseudodoxia Epidemica found itself upon the bookshelves of many educated European readers, for throughout the late 17th century and early 18th century it was translated. For many years it was thought incompatible with the French and Dutcheze, into the French, Dutch and German languages as well as Latin.
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Copyists were discouraged from replacing them by the threat of having their hands cut off The transmission path of all such literature has been described as a "differentially permeable membrane" that "allowed the writings of Christianity to pass through but not of Christianity's enemies".."Our sole copy of the sole work about political good sense by the person arguably best able to deliver it to us from classical antiquity, Cicero," writes Ramsay MacMullen, "was sponged out from the vellum to make room for the hundredth copy of Augustine's meditation on the psalms."MacMullen, Ramsay (1997) Christianity & Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Viking and Compass The only fragments of Julian's "Against the Galileans" that have survived Christian censorship appear in a refutation by Bishop Cyril of Alexandria.Kirsch, R. (1997) God Against the Gods, p.279, Viking and Compass By the time Augustine had published the early books that comprised "The City of God" he describes how pagan authors in North Africa felt it too dangerous to publish their refutations and Augustine writes nothing to reassure them about this threat.
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In the media, there were many testimonials and refutations given by journalists for the first part of Carr's argument regarding the capacity for concentration; treatments of the second part of Carr's argument regarding the capacity for contemplation, were, however, far rarer. Although columnist Andrew Sullivan noted that he had little leisure time at his disposal for contemplation compared with when he grew up, the anecdotes provided by journalists that indicated a deficiency in the capacity to contemplate were described only in the context of third parties, such as columnist Margaret Wente's anecdote about how one consultant had found a growing tendency in her clients to provide ill-considered descriptions for their technical problems. Columnist Leonard Pitts of The Miami Herald described his difficulty sitting down to read a book, in which he felt like he "was getting away with something, like when you slip out of the office to catch a matinee". Technology evangelist Jon Udell admitted that, in his "retreats" from the Internet, he sometimes struggled to settle into "books, particularly fiction, and particularly in printed form".
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To prevent the serious renewal of warfare in the spring, it was considered essential to replace Marlborough with a general more in touch with the Queen's ministers and less in touch with their allies. To do this, Harley (newly created Earl of Oxford) and St John first needed to bring charges of corruption against the Duke, completing the anti-Whig, anti-war picture that Jonathan Swift was already presenting to a credulous public through his pamphleteering, notably in his Conduct of the Allies (1711). Two main charges were brought to the House of Commons against Marlborough: first, an assertion that over nine years he had illegally received more than £63,000 from the bread and transport contractors in the Netherlands; second, that he had taken 2.5% from the pay of the foreign troops in English pay, amounting to £280,000. Despite Marlborough's refutations (claiming ancient precedent for the first allegation, and, for the second, producing a warrant signed by the Queen in 1702 authorising him to make the deductions in lieu of secret-service money for the war), the findings were enough for Harley to persuade the Queen to release her Captain-General.
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Although the idea expressed in cogito, ergo sum is widely attributed to Descartes, he was not the first to mention it. Plato spoke about the "knowledge of knowledge" (Greek: νόησις νοήσεως, nóesis noéseos) and Aristotle explains the idea in full length: > But if life itself is good and pleasant…and if one who sees is conscious > that he sees, one who hears that he hears, one who walks that he walks and > similarly for all the other human activities there is a faculty that is > conscious of their exercise, so that whenever we perceive, we are conscious > that we perceive, and whenever we think, we are conscious that we think, and > to be conscious that we are perceiving or thinking is to be conscious that > we exist... (Nicomachean Ethics, 1170a25 ff.) In the late sixth or early fifth century BC, Parmenides is quoted as saying "For to be aware and to be are the same" (B3). Augustine of Hippo in De Civitate Dei (book XI, 26) writes "If I am mistaken, I am" ("Si…fallor, sum"), and also anticipates modern refutations of the concept. Furthermore, in the Enchiridion (ch. 7, sec.
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He has written articles and essays such as "The Story of Two Vermeer Forgeries," in Shop Talk: Studies in Honor of Seymour Slive (1995); "Rembrandt Self-Portraits: The Creation of a Myth," in Rembrandt, Rubens, and the Art of their Time: Recent Perspectives (1997); "The Queen, the Dwarf, and the Court: Van Dyck and the Ideals of the English Monarchy," in Van Dyck 1599–1999: Conjectures and Refutations (2001); and "The Appreciation of Vermeer in Twentieth-Century America" (co-author with Marguerite Glass), in The Cambridge Companion to Vermeer (2001). In 1982, at the time of the Dutch-American Bicentennial, Wheelock was named Knight Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau by the Dutch Government. The College Art Association/National Institute awarded him its Conservation Award for Distinction in Scholarship and Conservation in 1993. He received the Minda de Gunzburg Prize for the best exhibition catalogue of 1995 (Johannes Vermeer); the Johannes Vermeer Prize for Outstanding Achievement in Dutch Art, which was presented by the Johannes Vermeer Stichting; the Bicentennial Medal from Williams College; and the Dutch-American Achievement Award, presented by The Netherlands-American Amity Trust.
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Quoting the W. A. Pickard-Cambridge text: "For it may be that in everything, as the saying is 'the first start is the main part'... This is in fact what has happened in regard to rhetorical speeches and to practically all the other arts: for those who discovered the beginnings of them advanced them in all only a little way, whereas the celebrities of to-day are the heirs (so to speak) of a long succession of men who have advanced them bit by bit, and so have developed them to their present form, Tisias coming next after the first founders, then Thrasymachus after Tisias, and Theodorus next to him, while several people have made their several contributions to it: and therefore it is not to be wondered at that the art has attained considerable dimensions."Aristotle, Sophistical Refutations 183b22-34. In Dillon and Gergel are cautious not to read this as stating that this makes Thrasymachus a student of Tisias, just as it does not make Theodorus a student of Thrasymachus. Writing more specifically in the Rhetoric, Aristotle attributes to Thrasymachus a witty simile.
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His "To the King, upon his Majesties Happy Return" in 1660 established his pro-monarchical sympathies, followed by works addressed to the king or other members of the royal family, including "On St James's Park as Lately Improved by his Majesty", "Upon her Majesties New Buildings at Somerset-House", "Of the Lady Mary, Princess of Orange", and "A Presage of the Ruine of the Turkish Empire, Presented to his Majestie on his Birth-Day". His longest and most ambitious work of this type, "Instructions to a painter, for the drawing of the posture and progress of his majesties forces at sea, under the command of his highness-royal; together with the battel and victory obtained over the Dutch" appeared in 1666, commemorating the Battle of Lowestoft of the previous year, and heaping praise on James, Duke of York. Waller's style and habit of effusively commemorating great events by praising court and royalty led to a backlash of parodies and refutations, including by the likes of Andrew Marvell in his "Last Instructions to a Painter". By the 1680s Waller was in ill- health, reflected in his later works and the 1685 publication of Divine Poems, which includes the poem "Of the Last Verses in the Book".
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