To arrive at an answer, you need a framework for reasoning about technical debt.
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Even more important, he writes, Honest reasoning about issues is inconsistent with group loyalty.
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My reasoning about clean sheets and efficiency may not hold up to expert scrutiny.
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And when we do, our reasoning about it is often superficial, contradictory, and easy to influence.
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Donald Trump was quick to ridicule that line of reasoning about "Honest Abe" during his response time.
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Reasoning: About 28500 percent of people who lost coverage didn't file the necessary documents with the state.
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I don't think it has any basis in economic reasoning about the costs and benefits of trade.
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Inner speech may participate in reasoning about right and wrong by constructing point-counterpoint situations in our minds.
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The theory makes several points, including that William is the Man in Black, and introduces some reasoning about timelines.
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"The underpinnings of the ability to do higher-order thinking really comes down to reasoning about relationships," she says.
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Reasoning about moral issues and identifying which types of problems are solvable with math are skills unique to humans.
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The officials have said the Trump administration has not provided any reasoning about why the commercial orders are being delayed.
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The integrated Swiss bank reflects the same reasoning about entrepreneurs as in Asia, but in an economy with several generations' start.
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Once you pick a team, you tend to start engaging in motivated reasoning about politics, disregarding information that undermines your side.
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Since then the company has expanded its offerings to include a suite of APIs for parsing, reasoning about and generating language.
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A "natural" religion indicates what we can figure out by our own reflective reasoning about our finite situation in the world.
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JC: Yeah, there are a whole set of decisions — I think it is hard to do moral reasoning about things that don't exist yet.
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Chief Justice John Roberts cast the decisive vote in the case, siding with the four liberals in preserving Obamacare based on his reasoning about federal taxing power.
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There's the familiar reasoning about not having time to register, or the registration process being too difficult (there is some truth to this, especially in marginalized communities).
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It was a bold PR move — but it was also motivated by clearly articulated reasoning about racism and how Colbert was punching down in this particular instance.
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I've seen old law school casebooks that didn't even have the Constitution printed in them, and legal opinions where statutes were used, at best, to buttress reasoning about legislative intent.
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And though Facebook's reasoning about down-ranking, not deleting, makes sense, that might not be a heavy enough hammer to stop content manipulators, and their simple video-editing software, in their tracks.
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Trump's line of reasoning about what the memos show echoed the argument made by three leading House Republicans at the heart of the chamber's investigation into whether Russia meddled with the 2016 election.
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"If the goal of AI is to achieve human-level intelligence, reasoning about images is vital to that," Hays says, noting that roughly a third of the human brain is dedicated to visual processing.
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But one aspect of the Pixel 3 XL, in particular, that became more pronounced and perplexing now that we've seen it in full — and heard Google's reasoning about its existence — is the rather obtrusive display notch.
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Courts have compelled the administration to release portions of two of these memos, but the public should have access to all of the government's legal reasoning about who may be targeted, where and for what reasons.
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In the 1990s Hoare — whose "Hoare logic" was one of the first formal systems for reasoning about the correctness of a computer program — acknowledged that maybe specification was a labor-intensive solution to a problem that didn't exist.
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Yet Douglass was repelled by Brown's fanaticism: morally clear-eyed on the subject of slavery, Brown was crazy on the subject of what to do about slavery, moved by bloodlusts and Biblicism and incapable of reasoning about means and ends.
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But Dr Hoekzema and her colleagues point out that most of the more permanent reductions in grey matter happened across several parts of the brain that, in other experiments, have been found to be associated with the processing of social information, and with reasoning about other people's states of mind.
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Gerry Barber's doctoral dissertation concerned reasoning about change in knowledgeable office systems.
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Adolescents' reasoning about exclusion from social groups. Developmental Psychology, 39, 71-84 Killen and Stangor, 2001Killen, M., & Stangor, C. (2001). Children's social reasoning about inclusion and exclusion in gender and race peer group contexts. Child Development, 72, 174-186).
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Many models of reflective practice have been created to guide reasoning about action.
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Meta-reasoning is reasoning about reasoning. In computer science, a system performs meta-reasoning when it is reasoning about its own operation. This requires a programming language capable of reflection, the ability to observe and modify its own structure and behaviour.
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PMAP is to aid the protease researchers in reasoning about proteolytic networks and metabolic pathways.
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Networks, crowds, and markets: reasoning about a highly connected world. Cornell, NY: Cambridge Univ Pr.
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The Logic of Message Design: Individual Differences in Reasoning about Communication. Communication Monographs, 55(1), 80.
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Thornberg, R. (2008). School children's reasoning about school rules. Research Papers in Education, 23, 37–52.Thornberg, R. (2008).
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Ronald Fagin (born 1945) is an American mathematician and computer scientist, and IBM Fellow at the IBM Almaden Research Center. He is known for his work in database theory, finite model theory, and reasoning about knowledge.Ronald Fagin, Joseph Y. Halpern, Yoram Moses, and Moshe Y. Vardi, Reasoning about Knowledge, MIT Press, 1995. Paperback edition, 2003.
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Many permissions and obligations are complementary to each other, and deontic logic is a tool sometimes used in reasoning about such relationships.
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The event calculus is a logical language for representing and reasoning about events and their effects first presented by Robert Kowalski and Marek Sergot in 1986. It was extended by Murray Shanahan and Rob Miller in the 1990s. Similar to other languages for reasoning about change, the event calculus represents the effects of actions on fluents. However, events can also be external to the system.
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In computer science, algebraic semantics is a form of axiomatic semantics based on algebraic laws for describing and reasoning about program semantics in a formal manner.
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Joseph Yehuda Halpern (born 1953) is an Israeli-American professor of computer science at Cornell University. Most of his research is on reasoning about knowledge and uncertainty.
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These numbers play a key role in Alan Turing's proof of the undecidability of the halting problem, and are very useful in reasoning about Turing machines as well.
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The latter two are members of the so- called Darwin's finch group of tanagers, significant for their impact on Charles Darwin's reasoning about evolution and the emergence of new species.
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Dynamic logic is an extension of modal logic originally intended for reasoning about computer programs and later applied to more general complex behaviors arising in linguistics, philosophy, AI, and other fields.
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Additionally, some relational psychoanalysts believe that the success of psychoanalysis is not due its various explanatory systems or its reasoning about repression, but rather simply due to the process of interpersonal communication.
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Science, 2017-12-20. doi:10.1126/science.aar8218Justin P. Brienza, Igor Grossmann. "Social class and wise reasoning about interpersonal conflicts across regions, persons and situations". Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 2017-12-20.
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She is the daughter of the author Athena Cacouris (). She currently teaches a first year course to Computing and Joint Mathematics and Computer Science undergraduates at Imperial College London called ‘Reasoning about Programs’.
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Reasoning about variables as probability distributions causes difficulties for novice programmers, but these difficulties can be addressed through use of Bayesian network visualisations and graphs of variable distributions embedded within the source code editor.
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Introduced in 1962, Petri nets were an early attempt to codify the rules of consistency models. Dataflow theory later built upon these, and Dataflow architectures were created to physically implement the ideas of dataflow theory. Beginning in the late 1970s, process calculi such as Calculus of Communicating Systems and Communicating Sequential Processes were developed to permit algebraic reasoning about systems composed of interacting components. More recent additions to the process calculus family, such as the π-calculus, have added the capability for reasoning about dynamic topologies.
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Yoram Moses () is a Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology. Yoram Moses received a B.Sc. in mathematics from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1981, and a Ph.D. in Computer Science from Stanford University in 1986. Moses is a co-author of the book Reasoning About Knowledge, and is a winner of the 1997 Gödel Prize in theoretical computer science and the 2009 Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing. His major research interests are distributed systems and reasoning about knowledge.
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Halpern graduated in 1975 from University of Toronto with a B.S. in mathematics. He went on to earn a Ph.D. in mathematics from Harvard University in 1981 under the supervision of Albert R. Meyer and Gerald Sacks. He has written three books, Actual Causality, Reasoning about Uncertainty, and Reasoning About Knowledge and is a winner of the 1997 Gödel Prize in theoretical computer science and the 2009 Dijkstra Prize in distributed computing. From 1997 to 2003 he was editor-in-chief of the Journal of the ACM.
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The preliminary paperM. Kifer and G. Lausen (1989). "F-logic: a higher-order language for reasoning about objects, inheritance, and scheme", ACM SIGMOD Record 18(2), June 1989, 134–146. M. Kifer and G. Lausen (1997).
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He is also the co-author with Henry Kautz, Richard Pelavin, and Josh Tenenberg of Reasoning About Plans (Morgan Kaufmann, 1991).Review by Mitchell Marks and Kristian J. Hammond (1993), ACM SIGART Bulletin 4 (2): 8–11, .
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Since instructions inside loops can be executed repeatedly, it is frequently not possible to give a bound on the number of instruction executions that will be impacted by a loop optimization. This presents challenges when reasoning about the correctness and benefits of a loop optimization, specifically the representations of the computation being optimized and the optimization(s) being performed.In the book Reasoning About Program Transformations, Jean- Francois Collard discusses in depth the general question of representing executions of programs rather than program text in the context of static optimization.
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The novel begins with Oscar's reasoning about the past. And the main events start at the end of September 1979 in Barcelona. The novel narrates two parallel stories. The principal one is the history of Marina and Oscar.
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"F-logic: a higher-order language for reasoning about objects, inheritance, and scheme", re-issued 1997. from 1989 won the 1999 Test of Time Award from ACM SIGMOD. A follow-up paperM. Kifer, W. Kim, Y. Sagiv (1992).
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Lecture Notes in Computer Science Volume 3662, 2005, pp 1-12.G. Yang and M. Kifer (2003), Reasoning about Anonymous Resources and Meta Statements on the Semantic Web. Journal on Data Semantics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science vol.
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Taoist dialectical thinking permeates every aspect of Chinese psychology. Peng and Nisbett showed that Chinese thinking is dialectical rather than binary.Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54(9), 741-754.
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The technologies developed by the Semantic Web community provide one basis for formal reasoning about the knowledge model that is developed by importing this data. However, there is also a wide array of technologies that work on relational data.
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CryptoVerif Bruno Blanchet. A Computationally Sound Mechanized Prover for Security Protocols. In IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, pages 140-154, Oakland, California, May 2006. is a software tool for the automatic reasoning about security protocols written by Bruno Blanchet.
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Significant progress in the field of the automated commonsense reasoning is made in the areas of the taxonomic reasoning, actions and change reasoning, reasoning about time. Each of these spheres has a well-acknowledged theory for wide range of commonsense inferences.
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TimeML addresses four problems regarding event markup, including time stamping (with which an event is anchored to a time), ordering events with respect to one another, reasoning with contextually underspecified temporal expressions, and reasoning about the length of events and their outcomes.
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Prolog is an untyped language. Attempts to introduce types date back to the 1980s, and as of 2008 there are still attempts to extend Prolog with types. Type information is useful not only for type safety but also for reasoning about Prolog programs.
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There has been an increase in the endorsement of egalitarian gender roles in the home by both women and men.Gere, J., & Helwig, C.C. (2012). Young adults' attitudes and reasoning about gender roles in the family context. "Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36", 301–313.
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The RCC8 calculus is intended for reasoning about spatial configurations. Consider the following example: two houses are connected via a road. Each house is located on an own property. The first house possibly touches the boundary of the property; the second one surely does not.
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He organized with David M. Mark the NATO financed conference "Cognitive and Linguistic Aspects of Geographic Space" in Las Navas del Marqués. He published two articles "Qualitative spatial reasoning about distances and directions in geographic space" and "Qualitative spatial reasoning: Cardinal directions as an example".
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" However, where utilitarians focused on reasoning about consequences as the primary tool for reaching happiness, Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that happiness cannot be reached solely through reasoning about consequences of acts, but also requires a pursuit of good causes for acts, such as habits according to virtue. In turn, which habits and acts that normally lead to happiness is according to Aquinas caused by laws: natural law and divine law. These laws, in turn, were according to Aquinas caused by a first cause, or God. According to Aquinas, happiness consists in an "operation of the speculative intellect": "Consequently happiness consists principally in such an operation, viz.
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The Z User Group exists to promote use and development of the Z notation, a formal specification language for the description of and reasoning about computer-based systems. It was formally constituted on 14 December 1992 during the ZUM'92 Z User Meeting in London, England.
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However, they note that they are not aware of examples of the connection of Ikaria with these trace fossils. Therefore, the assumptions that Ikaria is the producer of these traces as well as the reasoning about Ikaria behavior, anatomy and taxonomy are speculative and may be erroneous.
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GOLOG is a high-level logic programming language for the specification and execution of complex actions in dynamical domains. It is based on the situation calculus. It is a first-order logical language for reasoning about action and change. GOLOG was developed at the University of Toronto.
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Reasoning about the Design and Execution of Research requires examinees to show that they can understand science in the context of experiments. The fourth skill of Data-based and Statistical Reasoning requires students to be able to read graphs and tables and draw conclusion from evidence.
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However, both types of "law" may be considered instances of a scientific law in the field of statistics. What distinguishes an empirical statistical law from a formal statistical theorem is the way these patterns simply appear in natural distributions, without a prior theoretical reasoning about the data.
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Therefore no > reasoning about Infinitesimals. (#354) Take away the signs from Arithmetic & > Algebra, & pray what remains? (#767) These are sciences purely Verbal, & > entirely useless but for Practise in Societys of Men. No speculative > knowledge, no comparison of Ideas in them. (#768) In 1707, Berkeley published two treatises on mathematics.
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Concurrency theory has been an active field of research in theoretical computer science. One of the first proposals was Carl Adam Petri's seminal work on Petri nets in the early 1960s. In the years since, a wide variety of formalisms have been developed for modeling and reasoning about concurrency.
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Pavel Naumov () is a Russian-American logician who specializes in reasoning about knowledge and strategies in multiagent systems. Naumov graduated from Moscow State University with a Diploma in Mathematics, where his advisor was Sergei N. Artemov. He received Ph.D. in Computer Science from Cornell University under Robert Lee Constable.
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Ontologies and other semantic technologies can be key enabling technologies for sensor networks because they will improve semantic interoperability and integration, as well as facilitate reasoning, classification and other types of assurance and automation not included in the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards. A semantic sensor network will allow the network, its sensors and the resulting data to be organised, installed and managed, queried, understood and controlled through high-level specifications. Ontologies for sensors provide a framework for describing sensors. These ontologies allow classification and reasoning on the capabilities and measurements of sensors, provenance of measurements and may allow reasoning about individual sensors as well as reasoning about the connection of a number of sensors as a macroinstrument.
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Great thinkers, in contrast, boldly and creatively address big problems. Scholars deal with these problems only indirectly by reasoning about the great thinkers' differences.Leo Strauss, "An Introduction to Heideggerian Existentialism", 27–46 in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism, ed. Thomas L. Pangle (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1989) 29–30.
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He is a past program chair of the ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing (PODC) and the ACM Symposium on Parallelism in Algorithms and Architectures (SPAA). His research covers techniques for designing, implementing, and reasoning about multiprocessors, and in particular the design of concurrent data structures for multi-core machines.
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The unborn fetus on which these new eugenic procedures are performed cannot speak out, as the fetus lacks the voice to consent or to express his or her opinion. Philosophers disagree about the proper framework for reasoning about such actions, which change the very identity and existence of future persons.
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Efforts are underway to develop functional programming languages for quantum computing. Functional programming languages are well-suited for reasoning about programs. Examples include Selinger's QPL,Peter Selinger, "Towards a quantum programming language", Mathematical Structures in Computer Science 14(4):527-586, 2004. and the Haskell-like language QML by Altenkirch and Grattage.
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Reasoning about emotional and neutral materials. Is logic affected by emotion? Psychological Science, 15, 745-75 Decision making is often influenced by the emotion of regret and by the presence of risk. When people are presented with options, they tend to select the one that they think they will regret the least.
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"Madhyamaka in India and Tibet." In Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy.” Edited by J. Garfield and W. Edelglass. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 206-221. In Tibet, a distinction also began to be made between the Autonomist (Svātantrika, rang rgyud pa) and Consequentialist (Prāsaṅgika, thal ’gyur pa) approaches to Mādhyamaka reasoning about emptiness.
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McIlraith was elected an ACM Fellow in 2019 "for contributions to knowledge representation and its applications to automated planning and semantic web services". She was also elected an AAAI Fellow in 2011 “for significant contributions to knowledge representation, reasoning about action, and the formal foundations of the semantic web and diagnostic problem solving”.
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The design of the POPLmark benchmark is guided by features common to reasoning about programming languages. The challenge problems do not require the formalisation of large programming languages, but they do require sophistication in reasoning about: ; Binding : Most programming languages have some form of binding, ranging in complexity from the simple binders of simply typed lambda calculus to complex, potentially infinite binders needed in the treatment of record patterns. ; Induction : Properties such as subject reduction and strong normalisation often require complex induction arguments. ; Reuse : Furthering collaboration being a key aim of the challenge, the solutions are expected to contain reusable components that would allow researchers to share language features and designs without requiring them to start from scratch every time.
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Cardiac Tutor provides clues, verbal advice, and feedback in order to personalize and optimize the learning. Each simulation, regardless of whether the students were successfully able to help their patients, results in a detailed report which students then review.Eliot, C., & Woolf, B. (1994). Reasoning about the user within a simulation-based real-time training system.
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Petri nets are an attractive and powerful model for reasoning about asynchronous circuits. However, Petri nets have been criticized for their lack of physical realism (see Petri net: Subsequent models of concurrency). Subsequent to Petri nets other models of concurrency have been developed that can model asynchronous circuits including the Actor model and process calculi.
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Anneli Heimbürger et al. (eds). IOS Press. p. 98 An architecture description is a formal description and representation of a system, organized in a way that supports reasoning about the structures and behaviors of the system. A system architecture can consist of system components and the sub-systems developed, that will work together to implement the overall system.
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Thus, learning action models differs from reinforcement learning. It enables reasoning about actions instead of expensive trials in the world. Action model learning is a form of inductive reasoning, where new knowledge is generated based on agent's observations. It differs from standard supervised learning in that correct input/output pairs are never presented, nor imprecise action models explicitly corrected.
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Rewriting s to t by a rule l::=r. If l and r are related by a rewrite relation, so are s and t. A simplifcation ordering always relates l and s, and similarly r and t. In theoretical computer science, in particular in automated reasoning about formal equations, reduction orderings are used to prevent endless loops.
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Extensions of the -calculus, such as the spi calculus and applied , have been successful in reasoning about cryptographic protocols. Beside the original use in describing concurrent systems, the -calculus has also been used to reason about business processesOMG Specification (2011). "Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) Version 2.0", Object Management Group. p.21 and molecular biology.
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ProVerif is a software tool for automated reasoning about the security properties found in cryptographic protocols. The tool has been developed by Bruno Blanchet. Support is provided for cryptographic primitives including: symmetric & asymmetric cryptography; digital signatures; hash functions; bit- commitment; and signature proofs of knowledge. The tool is capable of evaluating reachability properties, correspondence assertions and observational equivalence.
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Visual representations, manipulatives, gestures, and to some degree grids, can support qualitative reasoning about mathematics. Instead of only emphasizing computational skills, multiple representations can help students make the conceptual shift to the meaning and use of, and to develop algebraic thinking. By focusing more on the conceptual representations of algebraic problems, students have a better chance of improving their problem solving skills.
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Cramer's rule is useful for reasoning about the solution, but, except for or , it is rarely used for computing a solution, since Gaussian elimination is a faster algorithm. The determinant of an endomorphism is the determinant of the matrix representing the endomorphism in terms of some ordered basis. This definition makes sense, since this determinant is independent of the choice of the basis.
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At the end the manager is exasperated and orders to put Benigno in jail. The two soldiers Benigno and Claudio are doing the night guard in Rome, at the Altar of the Fatherland, the tomb of the Unknown Soldier. The two begin chatting about communists, and after some reasoning about death in war, Benigno demonstrates with great wonder that God exists.
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In addition to his contributions to philosophy, Berkeley was also very influential in the development of mathematics, although in a rather indirect sense. "Berkeley was concerned with mathematics and its philosophical interpretation from the earliest stages of his intellectual life." Berkeley's "Philosophical Commentaries" (1707–1708) witness to his interest in mathematics: > Axiom. No reasoning about things whereof we have no idea.
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Qualitative Reasoning (QR) is an area of research within Artificial Intelligence (AI) that automates reasoning about continuous aspects of the physical world, such as space, time, and quantity, for the purpose of problem solving and planning using qualitative rather than quantitative information. Precise numerical values or quantities are avoided, and qualitative values are used instead (e.g., high, low, zero, rising, falling, etc.).
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However, Galen believed that personality and emotion were not generated by the brain, but rather by other organs. Andreas Vesalius, an anatomist and physician, was the first to believe that the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and emotion. Psychology, a major contributing field to cognitive neuroscience, emerged from philosophical reasoning about the mind.Hatfield, G. (2002).
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In the literature, there have been several approaches which explicitly represent uncertainty in reasoning about an agent's plans and goals. Using sensor data as input, Hodges and Pollack designed machine learning-based systems for identifying individuals as they perform routine daily activities such as making coffee.M.R. Hodges and M.E. Pollack. "An 'object-use fingerprint': The use of electronic sensors for human identification".
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The MU puzzle is a puzzle stated by Douglas Hofstadter and found in Gödel, Escher, Bach involving a simple formal system called "MIU". Hofstadter's motivation is to contrast reasoning within a formal system (ie., deriving theorems) against reasoning about the formal system itself. MIU is an example of a Post canonical system and can be reformulated as a string rewriting system.
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The situation calculus is a logic formalism designed for representing and reasoning about dynamical domains. It was first introduced by John McCarthy in 1963. The main version of the situational calculus that is presented in this article is based on that introduced by Ray Reiter in 1991. It is followed by sections about McCarthy's 1986 version and a logic programming formulation.
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The corresponding logical symbols are "↔", "\Leftrightarrow", and "≡", and sometimes "iff". These are usually treated as equivalent. However, some texts of mathematical logic (particularly those on first-order logic, rather than propositional logic) make a distinction between these, in which the first, ↔, is used as a symbol in logic formulas, while ⇔ is used in reasoning about those logic formulas (e.g., in metalogic).
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"Building up and reasoning about architectural knowledge." Quality of Software Architectures. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2006. 43-58. From 2006 on, the architectural knowledge management and architectural decision research communities gained momentum and a number of papers was published at major software architecture conferences such as European Conference on Software Architecture (ECSA), Quality of Software Architecture (QoSA) and (Working) International Conference on Software Architecture (ICSA).
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Debate rose quickly over what had taken place in Watts, as the area was known to be under a great deal of racial and social tension. Reactions and reasoning about the riots greatly varied based on the perspectives of those affected by and participating in the riots' chaos. National civil rights leader Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. spoke two days after the riots happened in Watts.
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If a logic includes formulae that mean that something is not known, this logic should not be monotonic. Indeed, learning something that was previously not known leads to the removal of the formula specifying that this piece of knowledge is not known. This second change (a removal caused by an addition) violates the condition of monotonicity. A logic for reasoning about knowledge is the autoepistemic logic.
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Lamport is also known for his work on temporal logic, where he introduced the temporal logic of actions (TLA). Among his more recent contributions is TLA+, a language for specifying and reasoning about concurrent and reactive systems, that he describes in the book Specifying Systems: The TLA+ Language and Tools for Hardware and Software Engineers and defines as a "quixotic attempt to overcome engineers' antipathy towards mathematics".
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Maya Bar-Hillel (, born 1943) is a professor emeritus of psychology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Known for her work on inaccuracies in human reasoning about probability, she has also studied decision theory in connection with Newcomb's paradox, investigated how gender stereotyping can block human problem-solving, and worked with Dror Bar-Natan, Gil Kalai, and Brendan McKay to debunk the Bible code.
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Like logic programming, narrowing of algebraic value sets gives a method of reasoning about the values in unsolved or partially solved equations. Where logic programming relies on resolution, the algebra of value sets relies on narrowing rules. Narrowing rules allow the elimination of values from a solution set which are inconsistent with the equations being solved. Unlike logic programming, narrowing of algebraic value sets makes no use of backtracking.
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Functions are syntactically modeled by the relations of fundamental concepts contributing as part of a subsystem. Each subsystem is considered in the context of the overall system in terms of the purpose (end) of its function (means) in the system. Using only a few fundamental concepts as building blocks allows qualitative reasoning about action success or failure. MFM defines a graphical modeling language for representing the encompassed knowledge.
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Each of these biases describes a specific tendency that people exhibit when reasoning about the cause of different behaviors. Since the early work, researchers have continued to examine how and why people exhibit biased interpretations of social information. Many different types of attribution biases have been identified, and more recent psychological research on these biases has examined how attribution biases can subsequently affect emotions and behavior.Jones, E.. & Nisbett, R.E. (1971).
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Justice Scalia wrote a dissenting opinion. Scalia agreed with Justice Alito’s reasoning about the complexity of immigration law, but concluded that the Sixth Amendment’s text and the Court’s decisions limit the amount of advice counsel is under a duty to provide.Padilla, 130 S.Ct. at 1494-95. Scalia also saw no logical stopping point to a holding that requires counsel to give advice about collateral consequences of a conviction.
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410-412 It covers the following topics, in the corresponding chapters. # Authority and relativism # The objectivity of morality # Consequentialism # Kant's ethics # Contractualism # Free will and the moral emotions # Virtue # Reasoning about ethics His 2011 book 'Commitment' (Acumen Press) is one of the books in Acumen Press' 'Art of Living' series. It discusses the value of, and obstacles to, personal commitment - especially in the areas of love, work, and faith.
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When the p-value is calculated correctly, this test guarantees that the type I error rate is at most α. For typical analysis, using the standard α = 0.05 cutoff, the null hypothesis is rejected when p < .05 and not rejected when p > .05. The p-value does not, in itself, support reasoning about the probabilities of hypotheses but is only a tool for deciding whether to reject the null hypothesis.
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Causal reasoning is not unique to humans; animals are often able to use causal information as cues for survival. Rats are able to generalize causal cues to gain food rewards. Animals such as rats can learn the mechanisms required for a reward by reasoning about what could elicit a reward (Sawa, 2009). New Caledonian Crow (Corvus moneduloides) New Caledonian crows have been studied for their ability to reason about causal events.
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As Calvino put it, "enlarge[s] the sphere of what we can imagine". It also has connections with Leibniz's Enlightenment project where the sciences are simultaneously abridged while also being enlarged. The situation is complicated however by the recognition of the fact that connections are both non-linear and linear. The environmental humanities, therefore, require both linear and non-linear modes of language through which reasoning about justice can be done.
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Prototypes are "typical" members of a category, e.g. a robin is a prototypical bird, but a penguin is not. The role of prototypes in human cognition was first identified and studied by Eleanor Rosch in the 1970s. She was able to show that prototypical objects are more easily categorized than non-prototypical objects, and that people answered questions about a category as a whole by reasoning about a prototype.
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In computer science, separation logic is an extension of Hoare logic, a way of reasoning about programs. It was developed by John C. Reynolds, Peter O'Hearn, Samin Ishtiaq and Hongseok Yang, drawing upon early work by Rod Burstall. The assertion language of separation logic is a special case of the logic of bunched implications (BI). A CACM review article by O'Hearn charts developments in the subject to early 2019.
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In computer science, the process calculi (or process algebras) are a diverse family of related approaches for formally modelling concurrent systems. Process calculi provide a tool for the high-level description of interactions, communications, and synchronizations between a collection of independent agents or processes. They also provide algebraic laws that allow process descriptions to be manipulated and analyzed, and permit formal reasoning about equivalences between processes (e.g., using bisimulation).
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Alcock earned bachelor's and master's degrees in mathematics at the University of Warwick, and in 2001 completed a PhD in mathematics education at Warwick. Her dissertation, Categories, definitions and mathematics: Student reasoning about objects in analysis, was supervised by Adrian Simpson. After working as an assistant professor at Rutgers University in New Jersey, she returned to the UK as a teaching fellow at Essex University. She moved to Loughborough in 2007.
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Ron Fagin was born and grew up in Oklahoma City, where he attended Northwest Classen High School. Following that, he completed his undergraduate degree at Dartmouth College. Fagin received his Ph.D. in Mathematics from the University of California, Berkeley in 1973, where he worked under the supervision of Robert Vaught. He joined the IBM Research Division in 1973, spending two years at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center, and then transferred in 1975 to what is now the IBM Almaden Research Center in San Jose, California. He has served as program committee chair for ACM Symposium on Principles of Database Systems 1984,ACM Symposium on Principles of Database Systems 1984 Theoretical Aspects of Reasoning about Knowledge 1994,Theoretical Aspects of Reasoning about Knowledge 1994 ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing 2005,Symposium on Theory of Computing 2005 and the International Conference on Database Theory 2009.International Conference on Database Theory 2009 Fagin has received numerous professional awards for his work.
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Intergroup exclusion context provides an appropriate platform to investigate the interplay of these three dimensions of intergroup attitudes and behaviors: prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination. Developmental scientists working from a Social Domain Theory (SDT: Killen et al., 2006; Smetana, 2006) perspective have focused on methods that measure children's reasoning about exclusion scenarios. This approach has been helpful in distinguishing which concerns children attend to when presented with a situation in which exclusion occurs.
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When reasoning about the meta-theoretic properties of a deductive system in a proof assistant, it is sometimes desirable to limit oneself to first-order representations and to have the ability to name or rename assumptions. The locally nameless approach uses a mixed representation of variables--De Bruijn indices for bound variables and names for free variables--that is able to benefit from the α-canonical form of De Bruijn indexed terms when appropriate.
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In 2012 the European Research Council awarded him a five-year ERC Advanced Grant for the project Reasoning about Computational Economies (RACE). In the same year he left Liverpool to become professor of computer science at the University of Oxford, and served as head of the Department of Computer Science from 2014 - 2018. In Oxford he is a senior research fellow of Hertford College, Oxford. Michael Wooldridge is author of more than 300 academic publications.
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These results indicated that infants are capable of performing simple numerical operations. Wynn has suggested that humans, along with many other animal species, are innately endowed with cognitive machinery for detecting and reasoning about numbers of items. As a result, "psychologists were stunned when Wynn announced her results, and many skeptical researchers around the world devised variants of her procedure to determine whether her conclusions were correct."Keith Devlin, Ibid., pages 6-7.
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Message design logic is a communication theory that makes the claim that individuals possess implicit theories of communication within themselves, called message design logics.Edwards, A. P., Rose, L. M., Edwards, C., & Singer, L. M. (2008). An Investigation of the Relationships among Implicit Personal Theories of Communication, Social Support and Loneliness. Human Communication, 11(4), 445-461. Referred to as a “theory of theories,” Message Design Logic offers three different fundamental premises in reasoning about communication.
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Broadly speaking, nominalism denies the existence of universals (abstract entities), like sets, classes, relations, properties, etc. Thus the plural logic(s) were developed as an attempt to formalize reasoning about plurals, such as those involved in multigrade predicates, apparently without resorting to notions that nominalists deny, e.g. sets. Standard first-order logic has difficulties in representing some sentences with plurals. Most well-known is the Geach–Kaplan sentence "some critics admire only one another".
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Non-logical axioms are formulas that play the role of theory-specific assumptions. Reasoning about two different structures, for example the natural numbers and the integers, may involve the same logical axioms; the non-logical axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure (or set of structures, such as groups). Thus non-logical axioms, unlike logical axioms, are not tautologies. Another name for a non- logical axiom is postulate.
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Interval temporal logic (also interval logic) is a temporal logic for representing both propositional and first-order logical reasoning about periods of time that is capable of handling both sequential and parallel composition. Instead of dealing with infinite sequences of state, interval temporal logics deal with finite sequences. Interval temporal logics find application in computer science, artificial intelligence and linguistics. First-order interval temporal logic was initially developed in 1980s for the specification and verification of hardware protocols.
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Such systems can be based on logics more complicated than simple propositional epistemic logic, see Wooldridge Reasoning about Artificial Agents, 2000 (in which he uses a first-order logic incorporating epistemic and temporal operators) or van der Hoek et al. "Alternating Time Epistemic Logic". In his 2007 book, The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature, Steven Pinker uses the notion of common knowledge to analyze the kind of indirect speech involved in innuendoes.
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Recent studies have used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to demonstrate that people use different areas of the brain when reasoning about familiar and unfamiliar situations. This holds true over different kinds of reasoning problems. Familiar situations are processed in a system involving the frontal and temporal lobes whereas unfamiliar situations are processed in the frontal and parietal lobes. These two similar but dissociated processes provide a biological explanation for the differences between heuristic reasoning and formal logic.
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In Isaac Newton's classical gravitation, mass is the source of an attractive gravitational field. Field theory had its origins in the 18th century in a mathematical formulation of Newtonian mechanics, but it was seen as deficient as it implied action at a distance. In 1852, Michael Faraday treated the magnetic field as a physical object, reasoning about lines of force. James Clerk Maxwell used Faraday's conceptualisation to help formulate his unification of electricity and magnetism in his electromagnetic theory.
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This fact about the conditional, the controversial (for some) law of excluded middle, hinges on reasoning about cause and effect. You might think, for instance, that the fact that it rained is what caused the ground to be wet, if it rained and the ground is wet. But it could well be that it rained after the ground was already wet, or any other possible cause of the observed effect. These other possible causes are called 'hidden variables.
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The simplicity of this approach to concurrency has resulted in temporal logic being the modal logic of choice for reasoning about concurrent systems with its aspects of synchronization, interference, independence, deadlock, livelock, fairness, etc. These concerns of concurrency would appear to be less central to linguistics, philosophy, and artificial intelligence, the areas in which dynamic logic is most often encountered nowadays. For a comprehensive treatment of dynamic logic see the book by David Harel et al. cited below.
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The algebra of communicating processes (ACP) is an algebraic approach to reasoning about concurrent systems. It is a member of the family of mathematical theories of concurrency known as process algebras or process calculi. ACP was initially developed by Jan Bergstra and Jan Willem Klop in 1982,J.C.M. Baeten, A brief history of process algebra, Rapport CSR 04-02, Vakgroep Informatica, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, 2004 as part of an effort to investigate the solutions of unguarded recursive equations.
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In 1993 he published The Nature of Rationality, refining Weber's understanding of instrumental and value rationality. The first sentence of Anarchy, State, and Utopia asserted a value rational principle of justice: Individual want satisfaction is legitimate. Nozick's basic right was the principle of entitlement to just deserts. He replaced Rawls's complex value reasoning about fair redistribution with a simple principle of distributive justice: any distribution of holdings justly acquired must be forever respected because valued for its own sake.
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This theorem showed that axiom systems were limited when reasoning about the computation that deduces their theorems. Church and Turing independently demonstrated that Hilbert's (decision problem) was unsolvable, thus identifying the computational core of the incompleteness theorem. This work, along with Gödel's work on general recursive functions, established that there are sets of simple instructions, which, when put together, are able to produce any computation. The work of Gödel showed that the notion of computation is essentially unique.
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The most obvious example of data-flow programming is the subset known as reactive programming with spreadsheets. As a user enters new values, they are instantly transmitted to the next logical "actor" or formula for calculation. Distributed data flows have also been proposed as a programming abstraction that captures the dynamics of distributed multi-protocols. The data-centric perspective characteristic of data flow programming promotes high-level functional specifications and simplifies formal reasoning about system components.
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In the late-1960s the Vietnam War became the testing ground for automated command technology and sensor networks. In 1966 the McNamara Line was proposed with the aim of requiring virtually no ground forces. This sensor network of seismic and acoustic sensors, photoreconnaissance and sensor-triggered land mines was only partially implemented due to high cost. The first mobile robot capable of reasoning about its surroundings, Shakey, was built in 1970 by the Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International).
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API Calculus is a program that solves calculus problems using operating systems within a device that solves calculus problems. In 1989 the PI- Calculus was created by Robin Milner and was very successful throughout the years. The PI Calculus is an extension of the extension of the process algebra CCS, a tool that has algebraic languages that are specific to processing and formulating statements. The PI Calculus provides a formal theory for modeling systems and reasoning about their behaviors.
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This funded a four-year study of students learning mathematics through different approaches in three US high schools. Both of these studies found that students who were actively engaged in mathematics learning using problem solving and reasoning about methods achieved at higher levels and enjoyed math more than those who engaged passively by practising methods that a teacher had demonstratedBoaler, J. (2006). Opening Their Ideas: How a de-tracked math approach promoted respect, responsibility and high achievement. Theory into Practice.
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Eric Heinze is Professor of Law & Humanities at the School of Law, Queen Mary, University of London. In The Concept of InjusticeThe Concept of Injustice (Routledge, 2013) he presents a literary approach to reasoning about justice. He calls that standpoint "post- classical", in contrast to a "classical" Western tradition, dating back to Plato's Republic, which assumes a static, logical opposition between the concepts of "justice" and "injustice". Heinze's "post-classical" approach recognises the impossibility of theorising justice and injustice as mutually exclusive categories.
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In computer science, one can encounter invariants that can be relied upon to be true during the execution of a program, or during some portion of it. It is a logical assertion that is always held to be true during a certain phase of execution. For example, a loop invariant is a condition that is true at the beginning and the end of every execution of a loop. Invariants are especially useful when reasoning about whether a computer program is correct.
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Features are the basis of many other developments, allowing high-level "geometric reasoning" about shape for comparison, process- planning, manufacturing, etc. Boundary representation has also been extended to allow special, non-solid model types called non-manifold models. As described by Braid, normal solids found in nature have the property that, at every point on the boundary, a small enough sphere around the point is divided into two pieces, one inside and one outside the object. Non-manifold models break this rule.
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Journal of Psychology and Theology, 2010: Adult Attachment, God, Attachment and Gender in Relation to Perceived Stress by Sarah R. Reiner Kirkpatrick suggests that for many people in many religions, the attachment system is fundamentally involved in their thinking, beliefs, and reasoning about God and their relationship to God. According to this theory our knowledge of how attachment processes work in non-religious relationships should prove useful in understanding the ways in which people see God and interact with God.
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2009 This automates the reasoning about the program behavior with respect to the given correct specifications. Model checking and symbolic execution are used to verify the safety-critical properties of device drivers. The input to the model checker is the program and the temporal safety properties. The output is the proof that the program is correct or a demonstration that there exists a violation of the specification by means of a counterexample in the form of a specific execution path.
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If one agrees that set theory is an appealing foundation of mathematics, then all mathematical objects must be defined as sets of some sort. Hence if the ordered pair is not taken as primitive, it must be defined as a set.Quine has argued that the set-theoretical implementations of the concept of the ordered pair is a paradigm for the clarification of philosophical ideas (see "Word and Object", section 53). The general notion of such definitions or implementations are discussed in Thomas Forster "Reasoning about theoretical entities".
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One approach rejects the law of excluded middle and consequently reductio ad absurdum.Morgenstern, L. (1986), 'A First Order Theory of Planning, Knowledge and Action', in Halpern, J. (ed.), Theoretical Aspects of Reasoning about Knowledge: Proceedings of the 1986 Conference, Morgan Kaufmann, Los Altos, pp. 99–114. Another approach upholds reductio ad absurdum and thus accepts the conclusion that (K) is both not known and known, thereby rejecting the law of non-contradiction.Priest, G. (1991), 'Intensional Paradoxes', Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic 32, pp. 193–211.
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Upaya (Sanskrit: , expedient means, pedagogy) is a term used in Buddhism to refer to an aspect of guidance along the Buddhist paths to liberation where a conscious, voluntary action "is driven by an incomplete reasoning" about its direction. Upaya is often used with kaushalya (कौशल्य, "cleverness"), upaya- kaushalya meaning "skill in means". Upaya-kaushalya is a concept emphasizing that practitioners may use their own specific methods or techniques that fit the situation in order to gain enlightenment. The implication is that even if a technique, view, etc.
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Although there has been significant progress on the formal analysis of security for integrity and confidentiality, there has been relatively less progress on treating denial-of-service attacks. The lab has explored techniques for doing this based on the shared channel model, which envisions bandwidth as a limiting factor in attacks and focuses on host- based counter-measures such as selective verification, which exploits adversary bandwidth limitations to favor valid parties. It is also developing new formal methods for reasoning about dynamic configuration of VPNs.
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Cognitive robotics views animal cognition as a starting point for the development of robotic information processing, as opposed to more traditional Artificial Intelligence techniques. Target robotic cognitive capabilities include perception processing, attention allocation, anticipation, planning, complex motor coordination, reasoning about other agents and perhaps even about their own mental states. Robotic cognition embodies the behavior of intelligent agents in the physical world (or a virtual world, in the case of simulated cognitive robotics). Ultimately the robot must be able to act in the real world.
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Their papers on unboxed values and removal of intermediate data structures addressed many of the efficiency challenges inherent in lazy evaluation. In 1994, Launchbury relocated to the West Coast of the United States, becoming a full professor at the Oregon Graduate Institute in 2000. His research there addressed the creation and optimization of domain-specific programming languages (DSLs) ranging from fundamental research in combining disparate semantic elements, through embedding DSLs in Haskell, to applied research for modeling and reasoning about very-large scale integration (VLSI) micro-architectures.
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In psychology, internalization is the outcome of a conscious mind reasoning about a specific subject; the subject is internalized, and the consideration of the subject is internal. Internalization of ideals might take place following religious conversion, or in the process of, more generally, moral conversion. Internalization is directly associated with learning within an organism (or business) and recalling what has been learned. In psychology and sociology, internalization involves the integration of attitudes, values, standards and the opinions of others into one's own identity or sense of self.
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Generalized büchi automata is equivalent in expressive power with Büchi automata; a transformation is given here. In formal verification, the model checking method needs to obtain an automaton from a LTL formula that specifies the program property. There are algorithms that translate a LTL formula into a generalized Büchi automaton.M.Y. Vardi and P. Wolper, Reasoning about infinite computations, Information and Computation, 115(1994), 1–37. Y. Kesten, Z. Manna, H. McGuire, A. Pnueli, A decision algorithm for full propositional temporal logic, CAV’93, Elounda, Greece, LNCS 697, Springer–Verlag, 97-109.
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As a result, research into this class of formal systems began to address both logical and computational aspects; this area of research came to be known as modern type theory. Advances were also made in ordinal analysis and the study of independence results in arithmetic such as the Paris–Harrington theorem. This was also a period, particularly in the 1950s and afterwards, when the ideas of mathematical logic begin to influence philosophical thinking. For example, tense logic is a formalised system for representing, and reasoning about, propositions qualified in terms of time.
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Zave's work on finding bugs in the Chord protocolPamela Zave, Using lightweight modeling to understand Chord, ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communications Review 42(2), 2012. and proving a modified version correctPamela Zave, Reasoning about identifier spaces: How to make Chord correct, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering 43(12), 2017. has been credited by engineers in Amazon Web Services for convincing them to start using formal methods on real distributed systems.Chris Newcombe, Tim Rath, Fan Zhang, Bogdan Munteanu, Marc Brooker, and Michael Deardeuff, How Amazon Web Services uses formal methods, Communications of the ACM 58(4), 2015.
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Cox's theorem has come to be used as one of the justifications for the use of Bayesian probability theory. For example, in Jaynes it is discussed in detail in chapters 1 and 2 and is a cornerstone for the rest of the book. Probability is interpreted as a formal system of logic, the natural extension of Aristotelian logic (in which every statement is either true or false) into the realm of reasoning in the presence of uncertainty. It has been debated to what degree the theorem excludes alternative models for reasoning about uncertainty.
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The Journal of Philosophy: Time and Physical Geometry Depending on your philosophy of mathematics, since special relativity is a continuous mathematical model, the experimental confirmation of predicted effects described by the possibly fictional and conceptually-reliable-and-informative theory have implications for an ontology of time, which touches on the metaphysics of time which is intimately tied up with notions of causality and reasoning about cause and effect. Markosian, Ed. (2014). Sanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Time. . And the (for now) indeterminism of quantum physics suggests the possibility of free will in a deterministic reality.
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In 2006, the NICTA group commenced a from-scratch design of a third-generation microkernel, called seL4, with the aim of providing a basis for highly secure and reliable systems, suitable for satisfying security requirements such as those of Common Criteria and beyond. From the beginning, development aimed for formal verification of the kernel. To ease meeting the sometimes conflicting requirements of performance and verification, the team used a middle-out software process starting from an executable specification written in Haskell. seL4 uses capability-based access control to enable formal reasoning about object accessibility.
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Emotional intelligence (EI) is the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions. This form of intelligence allows someone to carry out accurate reasoning about emotions and gives them the ability to use emotions and emotional knowledge to enhance thought. Assessing an individual's EI enhances the prediction and understanding of the outcomes of organization members, such as their job performance and their effectiveness as leaders within an organization.
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In formal verification, finite state model checking needs to find a Büchi automaton (BA) equivalent to a given Linear temporal logic (LTL) formula, i.e., such that the LTL formula and the BA recognize the same ω-language. There are algorithms that translate an LTL formula to a BA.M.Y. Vardi and P. Wolper, Reasoning about infinite computations, Information and Computation, 115(1994), 1–37.Y. Kesten, Z. Manna, H. McGuire, A. Pnueli, A decision algorithm for full propositional temporal logic, CAV’93, Elounda, Greece, LNCS 697, Springer–Verlag, 97-109.
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FBP exhibits "data coupling", described in the article on coupling as the loosest type of coupling between components. The concept of loose coupling is in turn related to that of service-oriented architectures, and FBP fits a number of the criteria for such an architecture, albeit at a more fine-grained level than most examples of this architecture. FBP promotes high-level, functional style of specifications that simplify reasoning about system behavior. An example of this is the distributed data flow model for constructively specifying and analyzing the semantics of distributed multi- party protocols.
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Hoare logic, algorithmic logic, weakest preconditions, and dynamic logic are all well suited to discourse and reasoning about sequential behavior. Extending these logics to concurrent behavior however has proved problematic. There are various approaches but all of them lack the elegance of the sequential case. In contrast Amir Pnueli's 1977 system of temporal logic, another variant of modal logic sharing many common features with dynamic logic, differs from all of the above-mentioned logics by being what Pnueli has characterized as an "endogenous" logic, the others being "exogenous" logics.
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Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.
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Before becoming a professor at Cornell University Sirer worked at AT&T; Bell Labs on Plan 9, at DEC SRC, and at NEC. Sirer is best known for his contributions to operating systems, distributed systems, and fundamental cryptocurrency research. He co-developed the SPIN (operating system), where the implementation and interface of an operating system could be modified safely at run-time by type-safe extension code. He also led the Nexus OS effort, where he developed new techniques for attesting to, and reasoning about, the semantic properties of remote programs.
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A frequentist approach rejects the validity of representing probabilities of hypotheses: hypotheses are true or false, not something that can be represented with a probability. Bayesian statistics actively models the likelihood of hypotheses. The p-value does not in itself allow reasoning about the probabilities of hypotheses, which requires multiple hypotheses or a range of hypotheses, with a prior distribution of likelihoods between them, in which case Bayesian statistics could be used. There, one uses a likelihood function for all possible values of the prior instead of the p-value for a single null hypothesis.
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Connascence () is a software quality metric invented by Meilir Page-Jones to allow reasoning about the complexity caused by dependency relationships in object oriented design much like coupling did for structured design. In software engineering, two components are connascent if a change in one would require the other to be modified in order to maintain the overall correctness of the system. In addition to allowing categorization of dependency relationships, connascence also provides a system for comparing different types of dependency. Such comparisons between potential designs can often hint at ways to improve the quality of the software.
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He is an expert in model checking, constraint satisfaction and database theory, common knowledge (logic), and theoretical computer science. Moshe Y. Vardi is the author of over 600 technical papers as well as the editor of several collections. He has authored the books Reasoning About Knowledge with Ronald Fagin, Joseph Halpern, and Yoram Moses, and Finite Model Theory and Its Applications with Erich Grädel, Phokion G. Kolaitis, Leonid Libkin, Maarten Marx, Joel Spencer, Yde Venema, and Scott Weinstein. He is Senior Editor of Communications of the ACM, after serving as its Editor-in-Chief for a decade.
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Amir Pnueli applied temporal logic to computer science, for which he received the 1996 Turing award. Modern temporal logic was developed by Arthur Prior in 1957, then called tense logic. Although Amir Pnueli was the first to seriously study the applications of temporal logic to computer science, Prior speculated on its use a decade earlier in 1967: Pnueli researched the use of temporal logic in specifying and reasoning about computer programs, introducing linear temporal logic in 1977. LTL became an important tool for analysis of concurrent programs, easily expressing properties such as mutual exclusion and freedom from deadlock.
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Internal validity is the extent to which a piece of evidence supports a claim about cause and effect, within the context of a particular study. It is one of the most important properties of scientific studies, and is an important concept in reasoning about evidence more generally. Internal validity is determined by how well a study can rule out alternative explanations for its findings (usually, sources of systematic error or 'bias'). It contrasts with external validity, the extent to which results can justify conclusions about other contexts (that is, the extent to which results can be generalized).
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Centre for Applied Ethics (CAE) at Hong Kong Baptist University was founded in 1992. It is the first of its kind established in China and one of the earliest in Asia. The Centre strives to stimulate critical reasoning about fundamental ethical concerns in contemporary society, to raise awareness of moral values, and to further strengthen the University's commitment to research and whole person education. To accomplish its mission, the Centre has been active in organizing various academic activities, publishing research results in different fields of Applied Ethics and developing a co-operation network with other institutions.
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The learning environment preferences: Exploring the construct validity of an objective measure of the Perry scheme of intellectual development. Journal of College Student Development, 30, 504-514. Perry's Epistemology has also been extended by Baxter Magolda and co-workers who were looking at students' intellectual development and in particular the exposure to the research environment.Quoted in Reshaping Teaching in Higher Education, A. Jenkins, R. Breen, R. Lindsay, [2001] Routledge, Abingdon UK. Knefelkamp and Slepitza (1978) saw the Perry Scheme as a general process model providing a descriptive framework for viewing the development of an individual's reasoning about many aspects of the world.
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A downwards funarg may also refer to a function's state when that function is not actually executing. However, because, by definition, the existence of a downwards funarg is contained in the execution of the function that creates it, the stack frame for the function can usually still be stored on the stack. Nonetheless, the existence of downwards funargs implies a tree structure of closures and stack frames that can complicate human and machine reasoning about the program state. The downwards funarg problem complicates the efficient compilation of tail recursion and code written in continuation- passing style.
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His work in this area was spurred by a visit to Moscow and discussions with Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich and Alexei Starobinsky, whose work showed that according to the uncertainty principle, rotating black holes emit particles. To Hawking's annoyance, his much-checked calculations produced findings that contradicted his second law, which claimed black holes could never get smaller, and supported Bekenstein's reasoning about their entropy. His results, which Hawking presented from 1974, showed that black holes emit radiation, known today as Hawking radiation, which may continue until they exhaust their energy and evaporate. Initially, Hawking radiation was controversial.
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Conceptual blending is closely related to frame-based theories, but goes beyond these primarily in that it is a theory of how to combine frames (or frame-like objects). An early computational model of a process called "view application", which is closely related to conceptual blending (which did not exist at the time), was implemented in the 1980s by Shrager at Carnegie Mellon University and PARC, and applied in the domains of causal reasoning about complex devicesShrager, J. (1987) Theory Change via View Application in Instructionless Learning. Machine Learning 2 (3), 247–276. and scientific reasoning.
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Academic Press (1971). Diagrammatic reasoning has been used before in quantum information science in the quantum circuit model, however, in categorical quantum mechanics primitive gates like the CNOT-gate arise as composites of more basic algebras, resulting in a much more compact calculus. In particular, the ZX-calculus has sprung forth from categorical quantum mechanics as a diagrammatic counterpart to conventional linear algebraic reasoning about quantum gates. The ZX-calculus consists of a set of generators representing the common Pauli quantum gates and the Hadamard gate equipped with a set of graphical rewrite rules governing their interaction.
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Lafont (1993) first showed how intuitionistic linear logic can be explained as a logic of resources, so providing the logical language with access to formalisms that can be used for reasoning about resources within the logic itself, rather than, as in classical logic, by means of non-logical predicates and relations. Tony Hoare (1985)'s classical example of the vending machine can be used to illustrate this idea. Suppose we represent having a candy bar by the atomic proposition , and having a dollar by . To state the fact that a dollar will buy you one candy bar, we might write the implication .
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This distinction between properties that are witnessed by objects of types of h-level 1 and structures that are witnessed by objects of types of higher h-levels is very important in the univalent foundations. Types of h-level 2 are called sets. It is a theorem that the type of natural numbers has h-level 2 (isasetnat in UniMath). It is claimed by the creators of univalent foundations that the univalent formalization of sets in Martin-Löf type theory is the best currently- available environment for formal reasoning about all aspects of set- theoretical mathematics, both constructive and classical.
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EMI's output is convincing enough to persuade human listeners that its music is human-generated to a high level of competence. Creativity research in jazz has focused on the process of improvisation and the cognitive demands that this places on a musical agent: reasoning about time, remembering and conceptualizing what has already been played, and planning ahead for what might be played next. Inevitably associated with Pop music automation is Pop music analysis. Projects in Pop music automation may include, but are not limited to, ideas in melody creation and song development, vocal generation or improvement, automatic accompaniment and lyric composition.
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To help overcome these challenges, DARPA launched in 2014 the Cyber Grand Challenge: a two-year competition seeking to create automatic defensive systems capable of reasoning about flaws, formulating patches and deploying them on a network in real time. The competition was split into two main events: an open qualification event to be held in 2015 and a final event in 2016 where only the top seven teams from the qualifiers could participate. The winner of the final event would be awarded $2 million and the opportunity to play against humans in the 24th DEF CON capture the flag competition.
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This notation is used throughout the article below. A more common way in the technical literature for representing such schedule is by a list: :::D = R1(X) W1(X) Com1 R2(Y) W2(Y) Com2 R3(Z) W3(Z) Com3 Usually, for the purpose of reasoning about concurrency control in databases, an operation is modelled as atomic, occurring at a point in time, without duration. When this is not satisfactory, start and end time-points and possibly other point events are specified (rarely). Real executed operations always have some duration and specified respective times of occurrence of events within them (e.g.
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Poe reported in the Broadway Journal in December 1845 that the Nassau Monthly at Princeton College harshly criticized "The Imp of the Perverse". Calling it a "humbug", the reviewer noted that the author's line of reasoning about this philosophical idea was difficult to follow. "He chases from the wilderness of phrenology into that of transcendentalism, then into that of metaphysics generally; then through many weary pages into the open field of inductive philosophy, where he at last corners the poor thing, and then most unmercifully pokes it to death with a long stick."Thomas, Dwight & David K. Jackson.
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His name was Job, son of Mose, son of Razeh, son of Esau, son of Isaac, son of Abraham." Those scholars who traced Job's lineage back to Abraham did so by using the following Qur'anic verse as the basis for their view: > "That was the reasoning about Us which We gave to Abraham (to use) against > his people. We raise whom We will in degree, for thy Lord is full of wisdom > and knowledge. We bestowed upon him [Abraham] Isaac and Jacob, all (three) > We guided; and before him We guided Noah and among his progeny David, > Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses, and Aaron.
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The goal of R-CTA was development of unmanned systems with a set of intelligence-based capabilities sufficient to enable the teaming of autonomous systems with soldiers. This included robotic systems capable of reasoning about their missions, move through the world in a tactically correct way, observe salient events in the world around them, communicate efficiently with soldiers and other autonomous systems, and perform a variety of mission tasks. R-CTA’s objective was to move beyond unmanned systems requiring human supervision such as drones, which were vulnerable due to near-continuous control by a human operator and breakdowns of communications links.
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Viewing events from a self- distanced perspective has the potential to allow people to work through their experiences and provide insight as well as closure to traumatic events. Moreover, it has been shown to promote wise reasoning about interpersonal and political conflicts, attenuating polarized attitudes toward outgroup members, and fostering intellectual humility, open-mindedness, and empathy over time. Rumination is when a person continues to focus on the causes and consequences of their stress. Studies have indicated that rumination delays the amount of time it takes for a person to recover from negative events physiologically because they are continually reliving their past experiences.
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Although there were some figures like Liu Chi, writing in his Lun Tian (Discourse on the Heavens) of 274 AD that supported Wang's theory by arguing the inferior Yin (moon) could never obstruct the superior Yang (sun),Needham, Volume 3, 414-415. Liu was still outside of the mainstream accepted Confucian tradition. The Song Dynasty (960-1279) scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) supported the old theory of a spherical sun and moon by using his own reasoning about eclipses, which he explained were due to the moon and the sun coming into obstruction of one another.Needham, Volume 3, 415–416.
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Hayes has been an active, prolific, and influential figure in Artificial Intelligence for over five decades. He has a reputation for being provocative but also quite humorous. One of his earliest publications, with John McCarthy, was the first thorough statement of the basis for the AI field of logical knowledge representation, introducing the notion of situation calculus, representation and reasoning about time, fluents, and the use of logic for representing knowledge in a computer. Hayes next major contribution was the seminal work on the Naive Physics Manifesto, which anticipated the expert systems movement in many ways and called for researchers in AI to actually try to represent knowledge in computers.
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The 1688 petition was the first American document of its kind that made a plea for equal human rights for everyone.Gross, Leonard and Gleysteen, Jan, "Colonial Germantown Mennonites", Telford, PA: Cascadia, 2007, . It compelled a higher standard of reasoning about fairness and equality that continued to grow in Pennsylvania and the other colonies with the Declaration of Independence and the abolitionist and suffrage movements, eventually giving rise to Lincoln's reference to human rights in the Gettysburg Address. The 1688 petition was set aside and forgotten until 1844 when it was re-discovered and became a focus of the burgeoning abolitionist movement in the United States.
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Largely thanks to the innovative strategies developed by Renee Baillargeon and her colleagues, considerable knowledge has been gained in the about how young infants come to understand natural physical laws. Much of this research depends on carefully observing when infants react as if events are unexpected. For example, if an infant sees an object that appears to be suspended in mid-air, and behaves as if this is unexpected, then this suggests that the infant has an understanding that things usually fall if they are not supported. Baillargeon and her colleagues have contributed evidence, for example, about infants’ understanding of object permanence and their reasoning about hidden objects.
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Epistemic modal logic is a subfield of modal logic that is concerned with reasoning about knowledge. While epistemology has a long philosophical tradition dating back to Ancient Greece, epistemic logic is a much more recent development with applications in many fields, including philosophy, theoretical computer science, artificial intelligence, economics and linguistics. While philosophers since Aristotle have discussed modal logic, and Medieval philosophers such as Avicenna, Ockham, and Duns Scotus developed many of their observations, it was C. I. Lewis who created the first symbolic and systematic approach to the topic, in 1912. It continued to mature as a field, reaching its modern form in 1963 with the work of Kripke.
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Experiments found that when reasoning about preferred vs. non-preferred food proportions, capuchin monkeys were able to make inferences about proportions inferred by sequentially sampled data. Rhesus monkeys were similarly capable of using probabilistic and sequentially sampled data to make inferences about rewarding outcomes, and neural activity in the parietal cortex appeared to be involved in the decision-making process when they made inferences. In a series of 7 experiments using a variety of relative frequency differences between banana pellets and carrots, orangutans, bonobos, chimpanzees and gorillas also appeared to guide their decisions based on the ratios favoring the banana pellets after this was established as their preferred food item.
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While an undergraduate at Calvin College, Wolterstorff was greatly influenced by professors William Harry Jellema, Henry Stob, and Henry Zylstra, who introduced him to schools of thought that have dominated his mature thinking: Reformed theology and common sense philosophy. (These have also influenced the thinking of his friend and colleague Alvin Plantinga, another alumnus of Calvin College). Wolterstorff builds upon the ideas of the Scottish common-sense philosopher Thomas Reid, who approached knowledge "from the bottom-up". Instead of reasoning about transcendental conditions of knowledge, Wolterstorff suggests that knowledge and our knowing faculties are not the subject of our research but have to be seen as its starting point.
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He also criticized his treatment of female infanticide and argued that he neglected "biological insights" that could have benefited his reasoning about sexual behavior. Reilly considered some of Posner's ideas, such as that women have a weaker sex drive than men, controversial, noting that there was uncertainty about the relative importance of biological factors and choice as influences on sexual behavior. She wrote that his arguments about genetic influences on human behavior, especially those concerning "the adaptive purpose of homosexuality and other non-procreative sexual conduct", had angered critics. In her view, his economic analysis of sexual behavior, although original, resembled science fiction and had provoked divided reactions from legal scholars.
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In 17th-century Europe, René Descartes devised systematic rules for clear thinking in his work Regulæ ad directionem ingenii (Rules for the direction of natural intelligence). In Descartes' scheme, intelligence consisted of two faculties: perspicacity, which provided an understanding or intuition of distinct detail; and sagacity, which enabled reasoning about the details in order to make deductions. Rule 9 was De Perspicacitate Intuitionis (On the Perspicacity of Intuition). He summarised the rule as In his study of the elements of wisdom, the modern psychometrician Robert Sternberg identified perspicacity as one of its six components or dimensions; the other five being reasoning, sagacity, learning, judgement and the expeditious use of information.
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This mechanism is similar to the common coding theory between perception and action. Another recent study provides evidence of separate neural pathways activating reciprocal suppression in different regions of the brain associated with the performance of "social" and "mechanical" tasks. These findings suggest that the cognition associated with reasoning about the "state of another person's mind" and "causal/mechanical properties of inanimate objects" are neurally suppressed from occurring at the same time. A recent meta-analysis of 40 fMRI studies found that affective empathy is correlated with increased activity in the insula while cognitive empathy is correlated with activity in the mid cingulate cortex and adjacent dorsomedial prefrontal cortex.
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Rubik's cube: a popular puzzle that involves 3D mental rotationMental rotation is the ability to mentally represent and rotate 2D and 3D objects in space quickly and accurately, while the object's features remain unchanged. Mental representations of physical objects can help utilize problem solving and understanding. For example, Hegarty (2004) showed that people manipulate mental representations for reasoning about mechanical problems, such as how gears or pulleys work. Similarly, Schwartz and Black (1999) found that doing such mental simulations such as pouring water improves people's skill to find the solution to questions about the amount of tilt required for containers of different heights and widths.
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Most studied formal logics have a monotonic consequence relation, meaning that adding a formula to a theory never produces a reduction of its set of consequences. Intuitively, monotonicity indicates that learning a new piece of knowledge cannot reduce the set of what is known. A monotonic logic cannot handle various reasoning tasks such as reasoning by default (consequences may be derived only because of lack of evidence of the contrary), abductive reasoning (consequences are only deduced as most likely explanations), some important approaches to reasoning about knowledge (the ignorance of a consequence must be retracted when the consequence becomes known), and similarly, belief revision (new knowledge may contradict old beliefs).
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Vacuum World, a shortest path problem with a finite state space A state space is the set of all possible configurations of a system. It is a useful abstraction for reasoning about the behavior of a given system and is widely used in the fields of artificial intelligence and game theory. For instance, the toy problem Vacuum World has a discrete finite state space in which there are a limited set of configurations that the vacuum and dirt can be in. A "counter" system, where states are the natural numbers starting at 1 and are incremented over time has an infinite discrete state space.
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After the unveiling of the OnePlus 3 in June 2016 Pei claimed it was the company's most popular smartphone, based on the Net Promoter Score tracked by OnePlus. When asked about the reasoning about releasing the OnePlus 3T only a few months later in November 2016, Pei said the reason for the upgrade from the OnePlus 3 to the OnePlus 3T was because they did not want to wait to improve the hardware. Pei claimed the OnePlus 5 to be the fastest-selling OnePlus device to date shortly after its release in June 2017. Pei left the OnePlus company on October 13, 2020 for new hardware ventures.
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The Turing Guide is divided into eight main parts, covering various aspects of Alan Turing's life and work: # Biography: Biographical aspects of Alan Turing. # The Universal Machine and Beyond: Turing's universal machine (now known as a Turing machine), developed while at King's College, Cambridge, which provides a theoretical framework for reasoning about computation, a starting point for the field of theoretical computer science. # Codebreaker: Turing's work on codebreaking during World War II at Bletchley Park, especially the Bombe for decrypting the German Enigma machine. # Computers after the War: Turing's post-War work on computing, at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) and at the University of Manchester.
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In this paper, Newton determined the area under a curve by first calculating a momentary rate of change and then extrapolating the total area. He began by reasoning about an indefinitely small triangle whose area is a function of x and y. He then reasoned that the infinitesimal increase in the abscissa will create a new formula where (importantly, o is the letter, not the digit 0). He then recalculated the area with the aid of the binomial theorem, removed all quantities containing the letter o and re- formed an algebraic expression for the area. Significantly, Newton would then “blot out” the quantities containing o because terms "multiplied by it will be nothing in respect to the rest".
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After AUVs reached the stage of development allowing commercial application, hydrographic, fishing and oil exploration businesses quickly adapted them for several tasks like bottom mapping or water column measurements. Most of the application, however, involved survey AUVs for data collection. Progress in computational power and techniques, development of underwater navigation systems (like Ultra-short baseline or Sonar), acoustic modems and cameras made it possible to build vehicles which could be controlled precisely enough to execute an intervention mission requiring precise positioning & control and a level of reasoning about the environment. Such missions might include manipulating valves on an oilfield Christmas tree or, at a more advanced stage, retrieving a biological specimen from the seafloor for scientific study.
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Psychological interest in Simpson's paradox seeks to explain why people deem sign reversal to be impossible at first, offended by the idea that an action preferred both under one condition and under its negation should be rejected when the condition is unknown. The question is where people get this strong intuition from, and how it is encoded in the mind. Simpson's paradox demonstrates that this intuition cannot be derived from either classical logic or probability calculus alone, and thus led philosophers to speculate that it is supported by an innate causal logic that guides people in reasoning about actions and their consequences . Savage's sure-thing principle is an example of what such logic may entail.
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This is vanishingly small, leading Arbuthnot that this was not due to chance, but to divine providence: "From whence it follows, that it is Art, not Chance, that governs." This is and other work by Arbuthnot is credited as "the first use of significance tests" the first example of reasoning about statistical significance and moral certainty, and "… perhaps the first published report of a nonparametric test …", specifically the sign test; see details at . The formal study of theory of errors may be traced back to Roger Cotes' Opera Miscellanea (posthumous, 1722), but a memoir prepared by Thomas Simpson in 1755 (printed 1756) first applied the theory to the discussion of errors of observation.
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An important facet of data races is that in some contexts, a program that is free of data races is guaranteed to execute in a sequentially consistent manner, greatly easing reasoning about the concurrent behavior of the program. Formal memory models that provide such a guarantee are said to exhibit an "SC for DRF" (Sequential Consistency for Data Race Freedom) property. This approach has been said to have achieved recent consensus (presumably compared to approaches which guarantee sequential consistency in all cases, or approaches which do not guarantee it at all). For example, in Java, this guarantee is directly specified: > A program is correctly synchronized if and only if all sequentially > consistent executions are free of data races.
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In fact, most single-threaded program > transformations continue to be allowed, since any program that behaves > differently as a result must perform an undefined operation.— end note Note that the C++ draft specification admits the possibility of programs that are valid but use synchronization operations with a memory_order other than memory_order_seq_cst, in which case the result may be a program which is correct but for which no guarantee of sequentially consistency is provided. In other words, in C++, some correct programs are not sequentially consistent. This approach is thought to give C++ programmers the freedom to choose faster program execution at the cost of giving up ease of reasoning about their program.
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Almost all arguments involving the Drake equation suffer from the overconfidence effect, a common error of probabilistic reasoning about low-probability events, by guessing specific numbers for likelihoods of events whose mechanism is not yet understood, such as the likelihood of abiogenesis on an Earth-like planet, with current likelihood estimates varying over many hundreds of orders of magnitude. An analysis that takes into account some of the uncertainty associated with this lack of understanding has been carried out by Anders Sandberg, Eric Drexler and Toby Ord, and suggests that, with very high probability, either intelligent civilizations are plentiful in our galaxy or humanity is alone in the observable universe, with the lack of observation of intelligent civilizations pointing towards the latter option.
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The basic premise of the concept of mundane reason is that the standard assumptions about reality that people typically make as they go about day to day, including the very fact that they experience their reality as perfectly natural, are actually the result of social, cultural, and historical processes that make a particular perception of the world readily available. It is the reasoning about the world, self, and others which presupposes the world and its relationship to the observer; according to Steven Shapin (Shapin 1994:31), it is a set of presuppositions about the subject, the object, and the nature of their relations.Shapin, S. 1994, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
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Naive Set Theory. Unlike axiomatic set theories, which are defined using formal logic, naive set theory is defined informally, in natural language. It describes the aspects of mathematical sets familiar in discrete mathematics (for example Venn diagrams and symbolic reasoning about their Boolean algebra), and suffices for the everyday use of set theory concepts in contemporary mathematics.. "The working mathematicians usually thought in terms of a naive set theory (probably one more or less equivalent to ZF) ... a practical requirement [of any new foundational system] could be that this system could be used "naively" by mathematicians not sophisticated in foundational research" (p. 236). Sets are of great importance in mathematics; in modern formal treatments, most mathematical objects (numbers, relations, functions, etc.) are defined in terms of sets.
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In English the word "praxis" is more commonly used in the sense not of practice but with the meaning given to it by Immanuel Kant, namely application of a theory to cases encountered in experience or reasoning about what there should be as opposed to what there is: this meaning Karl Marx made central to his philosophical ideal of transforming the world through revolutionary activity.Simon Blackburn, Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Oxford University Press 2005 ), pp.287-288 Proponents of Latin American liberation theology have used the word "praxis" with specific reference to human activity directed towards transforming the conditions and causes of poverty. Their "liberation theology" consists then in applying the Gospel to that praxis to guide and govern it.
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If we cannot use univocal language to describe God and argue against simplicity, we are equally handicapped when it comes to the arguments for divine simplicity. If we cannot rely on our usual modes of inference in reasoning about God, we cannot argue for the conclusion that God is not distinct from his properties. Plantinga concludes "This way of thinking begins in a pious and commendable concern for God's greatness and majesty and augustness, but it ends in agnosticism and in incoherence." Plantinga also gives three criticisms of the doctrine of metaphysical simplicity directly, stating that it is exceedingly hard to grasp or construe the doctrine, and it is difficult to see why anyone would be inclined to accept it.
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Morphisms in monoidal categories can also be drawn as string diagrams since a strict monoidal category can be seen as a 2-category with only one object (there will therefore be only one type of planar region) and Mac Lane's strictification theorem states that any monoidal category is monoidally equivalent to a strict one. The graphical language of string diagrams for monoidal categories may be extended to represent expressions in categories with other structure, such as braided monoidal categories, dagger categories, etc. and is related to geometric presentations for braided monoidal categories and ribbon categories. In quantum computing, there are several diagrammatic languages based on string diagrams for reasoning about linear maps between qubits, the most well-known of which is the ZX-calculus.
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Assumption (S) specifies that once an agent has arrived at a probability-1 assignment of a certain outcome for a given measurement, they could never agree to a different outcome for the same measurement. Assumption (C) invokes a consistency among different agents' statements in the following manner: The statement "I know (by the theory) that they know (by the same theory) that x" is equivalent to "I know that x". Assumptions (Q) and (S) are used by the agents when reasoning about measurement outcomes of other agents, and assumption (C) comes in when an agent (W_2) combines other agent's statements with his own. The result is contradictory, and therefore, assumptions (Q), (C) and (S) cannot all be valid, hence the no-go theorem.
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A formal proof of functional correctness was completed in 2009. The proof provides a guarantee that the kernel's implementation is correct against its specification, and implies that it is free of implementation bugs such as deadlocks, livelocks, buffer overflows, arithmetic exceptions or use of uninitialised variables. seL4 is claimed to be the first-ever general-purpose operating-system kernel that has been verified. seL4 takes a novel approach to kernel resource management, exporting the management of kernel resources to user level and subjects them to the same capability-based access control as user resources. This model, which was also adopted by Barrelfish, simplifies reasoning about isolation properties, and was an enabler for later proofs that seL4 enforces the core security properties of integrity and confidentiality.
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Functional assessment of brain activity can be assessed for psychogenic amnesia using imaging techniques such as fMRI, PET and EEG, in accordance with clinical data. Some research has suggested that organic and psychogenic amnesia to some extent share the involvement of the same structures of the temporo-frontal region in the brain. It has been suggested that deficits in episodic memory may be attributable to dysfunction in the limbic system, while self-identity deficits have been suggested as attributable to functional changes related to the posterior parietal cortex. To reiterate however, care must be taken when attempting to define causation as only ad hoc reasoning about the aetiology of psychogenic amnesia is possible, which means cause and consequence can be infeasible to untangle.
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A probabilistic logic network (PLN) is a conceptual, mathematical and computational approach to uncertain inference; inspired by logic programming, but using probabilities in place of crisp (true/false) truth values, and fractional uncertainty in place of crisp known/unknown values. In order to carry out effective reasoning in real-world circumstances, artificial intelligence software must robustly handle uncertainty. However, previous approaches to uncertain inference do not have the breadth of scope required to provide an integrated treatment of the disparate forms of cognitively critical uncertainty as they manifest themselves within the various forms of pragmatic inference. Going beyond prior probabilistic approaches to uncertain inference, PLN is able to encompass within uncertain logic such ideas as induction, abduction, analogy, fuzziness and speculation, and reasoning about time and causality.
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Melomics, the technology behind Iamus, is able to generate pieces in different styles of music with a similar level of quality. Creativity research in jazz has focused on the process of improvisation and the cognitive demands that this places on a musical agent: reasoning about time, remembering and conceptualizing what has already been played, and planning ahead for what might be played next. The robot Shimon, developed by Gil Weinberg of Georgia Tech, has demonstrated jazz improvisation. Virtual improvisation software based on researches on stylistic modeling carried out by Gerard Assayag and Shlomo Dubnov include OMax, SoMax and PyOracle, are used to create improvisations in real-time by re-injecting variable length sequences learned on the fly from live performer.
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If the core arguments of a transitive clause are termed A (agent of a transitive verb) and P (patient of a transitive verb), active–stative languages can be described as languages that align intransitive S as S = P/O∗∗ ("fell me") or S = A ("I fell"), depending on the criteria described above. Active–stative languages contrast with accusative languages such as English that generally align S as S = A, and to ergative languages that generally align S as S = P/O. Care should be taken when reasoning about language structure, specifically, as reasoning on syntactic roles (S=subject/ O=object) is sometimes difficult to separate from reasoning on semantic functions (A=agent/ P=patient). For example, in some languages, "me fell," is regarded as less impersonal and more empathic.
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Forbes noted that the anti-Darwinian Richard Swan Lull thought the leaf butterfly Kallima inachus's camouflage "too perfect" for natural selection, sparking a long debate. The book looks at the history of camouflage and mimicry, starting with the travels of Henry Walter Bates and Alfred Russel Wallace in the Amazon, looking at butterflies and, like Charles Darwin, reasoning about the struggle for existence implied by such a profusion of life. Bates noticed that many butterflies closely resembled each other, and proposed that some were harmless mimics of others which were distasteful: their coloration was a disguise, a deception aimed at their predators. An extreme case that Forbes celebrates is the bird-dropping spider, which wonderfully if not precisely attractively mimics bird excrement on a leaf, using its body and a film of cobweb.
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The human sex ratio at birth has been an object of study since early in the history of statistics, as it is easily recorded and a large number for sufficiently large populations. An early researcher was John Arbuthnot (1710), who in modern terms performed statistical hypothesis testing, computing the p-value (via a sign test), interpreted it as statistical significance, and rejected the null hypothesis. This is credited as "… the first use of significance tests …" the first example of reasoning about statistical significance and moral certainty, and "… perhaps the first published report of a nonparametric test …"; see details at . Human sex at birth was also analyzed and used as an example by Jacob Bernoulli Ars Conjectandi (1713), where an unequal sex ratio is a natural example of a Bernoulli trial with uneven odds.
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Through the work of Zermelo and others, especially John von Neumann, the structure of what some see as the "natural" objects described by ZFC eventually became clear; they are the elements of the von Neumann universe, V, built up from the empty set by transfinitely iterating the power set operation. It is thus now possible again to reason about sets in a non- axiomatic fashion without running afoul of Russell's paradox, namely by reasoning about the elements of V. Whether it is appropriate to think of sets in this way is a point of contention among the rival points of view on the philosophy of mathematics. Other resolutions to Russell's paradox, more in the spirit of type theory, include the axiomatic set theories New Foundations and Scott-Potter set theory.
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For Goodman and other proponents of mathematical nominalism,Bueno, Otávio, 2013, "Nominalism in the Philosophy of Mathematics" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. {a, b} is also identical to {a, {b} }, {b, {a, b} }, and any combination of matching curly braces and one or more instances of a and b, as long as a and b are names of individuals and not of collections of individuals. Goodman, Richard Milton Martin, and Willard Quine all advocated reasoning about collectivities by means of a theory of virtual sets (see especially Quine 1969), one making possible all elementary operations on sets except that the universe of a quantified variable cannot contain any virtual sets. In the foundations of mathematics, nominalism has come to mean doing mathematics without assuming that sets in the mathematical sense exist.
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20) that "destructive update furnishes the programmer with two important and powerful tools ... a set of efficient array-like data structures for managing collections of objects, and ... the ability to broadcast a new value to all parts of a program with minimal burden on the programmer." Robert Harper, one of the authors of Standard ML, has given his reasons for not using Haskell to teach introductory programming. Among these are the difficulty of reasoning about resource use with non-strict evaluation, that lazy evaluation complicates the definition of data types and inductive reasoning, and the "inferiority" of Haskell's (old) class system compared to ML's module system. Haskell's build tool, Cabal, has historically been criticised for poorly handling multiple versions of the same library, a problem known as "Cabal hell".
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Since 2010, Zhu has collaborated with scholars from cognitive science, AI, robotics, and language to explore what he calls the "Dark Matter of AI"—the 95% of the intelligent processing not directly detectable in sensory input. Together they have augmented the image parsing and scene understanding problem by cognitive modeling and reasoning about the following aspects: functionality (functions of objects and scenes, the use of tools), intuitive physics (supporting relations, materials, stability, and risk), intention and attention (what people know, think, and intend to do in social scene), causality (the causal effects of actions to change object fluents), and utility (the common values driving human activities in video).B. Zheng, Y. Zhao, J. Yu, K. Ikeuchi, and S.C. Zhu (2015), Scene Understanding by Reasoning Stability and Safety, Int'l Journal of Computer Vision, vol. 112, no.
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These theories are somewhat related to Baron-Cohen's earlier theory of mind approach, which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from an inability to ascribe mental states to oneself and others. The theory of mind hypothesis is supported by the atypical responses of children with autism to the Sally–Anne test for reasoning about others' motivations, and the mirror neuron system theory of autism described in Pathophysiology maps well to the hypothesis. However, most studies have found no evidence of impairment in autistic individuals' ability to understand other people's basic intentions or goals; instead, data suggests that impairments are found in understanding more complex social emotions or in considering others' viewpoints. The second category focuses on nonsocial or general processing: the executive functions such as working memory, planning, inhibition.
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Unger's work on law has sought to denaturalize the concept of law and how it is represented through particular institutions. He begins by inquiring into why modern societies have legal systems with distinctions between institutions, such as legislature and court, as well as a special caste of lawyers possessing a method of reasoning about social problems. Whereas thinkers such as Marx and Weber had argued that such legal arrangements were a product of economic necessity to secure property rights and the autonomy of the individual, Unger shows that this liberal legal order emerged in Europe as a result of the indeterminate relations between monarchy, aristocracy, and bourgeoisie. It took the particular form that it did by emerging out of the long tradition of natural law and universality, rather than of necessity.
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Cropper is interested in the relationship of theory to practice in the early modern period, and has been committed to an understanding of the role of literacy among artists, taking seriously their reasoning about their production. Her training at Cambridge with Michael Jaffé and Francis Haskell established a strong sense of the value of studying the historiography of art history: her essays on Mannerism, and on works by such artists as Bronzino and Pontormo follow a fundamental concern with the relationship between history and criticism. Essays on beauty, both male and female, have expanded interpretation of Renaissance portraiture and the depiction of the model in relation to the beholder. The relevance of biography to artistic production is a focus of Cropper's research, whether into the difficult and disorderly life of Artemisia Gentileschi or the stoic persistence of Nicolas Poussin.
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His early interests were in ethics and the philosophy of religion, but he is most widely known for books on modal logic co-authored with his colleague and former student Max Cresswell. In 1968 they published An Introduction to Modal Logic, the first modern textbook in the area. This book, which has been translated into German, Italian, Japanese and Spanish, was influential in introducing many generations of students and researchers to Kripke semantics, a mathematical theory of meaning that revolutionised the study of modal logics and led to applications ranging from the semantics of natural languages to reasoning about the behaviour of computer programs. Vaughan Pratt, the creator of dynamic logic, has written in reference to his own motivation that "a weekend with Hughes and Cresswell convinced me that a most harmonious union between modal logic and programs was possible".
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His recent work has focused on scalable algorithms for constructing predictive models from large, semantically disparate distributed data, learning predictive models from linked open data, big data analytics, analysis and prediction of protein-protein, protein-RNA, and protein-DNA interfaces and interactions, social network analytics, health informatics, secrecy-preserving query answering, representing and reasoning about preferences, and causal inference and meta analysis. Honavar has directly supervised the dissertation research of 34 Ph.D. students, all of whom have gone onto pursue successful research careers in academia, industry, or government. During 1990–2013, Honavar was a professor of computer science at Iowa State University where he led the Artificial Intelligence Research Laboratory which he founded in 1990. From 2006 to 2013, he served as the director of the Iowa State University Center for Computational Intelligence, Learning and Discovery which he founded in 2006.
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Absurdity is cited as a basis for some theological reasoning about the formation of belief and faith, such as in fideism, an epistemological theory that reason and faith may be hostile to each other. The statement "Credo quia absurdum" ("I believe because it is absurd") is attributed to Tertullian from De Carne Christi, as translated by philosopher Voltaire.A Philosophical Dictionary: From the French, Voltaire According to the New Advent Church, what Tertullian said in DCC 5 was "[...] the Son of God died; it is by all means to be believed, because it is absurd."On the Flesh of Christ, Fathers of the Church, New Advent In the 15th century, the Spanish theologian Tostatus used what he thought was a reduction to absurdity arguing against a spherical earth using dogma, claiming that a spherical earth would imply the existence of antipodes.
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Even though most mathematicians do not accept the constructivist's thesis that only mathematics done based on constructive methods is sound, constructive methods are increasingly of interest on non-ideological grounds. For example, constructive proofs in analysis may ensure witness extraction, in such a way that working within the constraints of the constructive methods may make finding witnesses to theories easier than using classical methods. Applications for constructive mathematics have also been found in typed lambda calculi, topos theory and categorical logic, which are notable subjects in foundational mathematics and computer science. In algebra, for such entities as topoi and Hopf algebras, the structure supports an internal language that is a constructive theory; working within the constraints of that language is often more intuitive and flexible than working externally by such means as reasoning about the set of possible concrete algebras and their homomorphisms.
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While the above formulae seem suitable for reasoning about the effects of actions, they have a critical weakness - they cannot be used to derive the non-effects of actions. For example, it is not possible to deduce that after picking up an object, the robot's location remains unchanged. This requires a so-called frame axiom, a formula like: Poss(pickup(o),s)\wedge location(s)=(x,y)\rightarrow location(do(pickup(o),s))=(x,y) The need to specify frame axioms has long been recognised as a problem in axiomatizing dynamic worlds, and is known as the frame problem. As there are generally a very large number of such axioms, it is very easy for the designer to leave out a necessary frame axiom, or to forget to modify all appropriate axioms when a change to the world description is made.
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Four saints, doctors of the Church The writings attributed to Saint Dionysius the Areopagite were highly influential in the West, and their theses and arguments were adopted by Peter Lombard, Alexander of Hales, Saint Albert the Great, Saint Thomas Aquinas and Saint Bonaventure.Joseph Stiglmayr, "Dionysius the Pseudo- Areopagite" in Catholic Encyclopedia According to these writings, mystical knowledge must be distinguished from the rational knowledge by which we know God, not in his nature, but through the wonderful order of the universe, which is a participation in the divine ideas. Through the more perfect mystical knowledge of God, a knowledge beyond the attainments of reason (even when enlightened by faith), the soul contemplates directly the mysteries of divine light. Theoria or contemplation of God is of far higher value than reasoning about God or speculative theology,Merton 2003, p.
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What can we infer about the relation of the second property to the road? The spatial configuration can be formalized in RCC8 as the following constraint network: house1 DC house2 house1 {TPP, NTPP} property1 house1 {DC, EC} property2 house1 EC road house2 { DC, EC } property1 house2 NTPP property2 house2 EC road property1 { DC, EC } property2 road { DC, EC, TPP, TPPi, PO, EQ, NTPP, NTPPi } property1 road { DC, EC, TPP, TPPi, PO, EQ, NTPP, NTPPi } property2 Using the RCC8 composition table and the path-consistency algorithm, we can refine the network in the following way: road { PO, EC } property1 road { PO, TPP } property2 That is, the road either overlaps with the second property, or is even (tangential) part of it. Other versions of the region connection calculus include RCC5 (with only five basic relations - the distinction whether two regions touch each other are ignored) and RCC23 (which allows reasoning about convexity).
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KIDS is an active research group with interests and expertise that span across a number of disciplines including: knowledge representation, reasoning about actions, natural language processing, probabilistic logics, non-montonic logics, argumentation, Bayesian reasoning, statistical machine learning, data science and crowdsourcing. Their overarching research objective is to develop methodologies, algorithms and paradigms that build bridges between logic-based AI and statistical machine learning approaches, as well as finding practical applications in robust real-world applications. UCL Human Informatics (UCLHI) is an interest group within KIDS that collaborating with UCL Psychology and Brain Science explores multidisciplinary aspects of human activities with information systems. KIDS facilitates PhD research in topics related to knowledge organisation, knowledge representation or knowledge-based reasoning, as well as interaction with research communities in the wider profession, including the International Society for Knowledge Organisation, the Universal Decimal Classification Consortium, and the Bliss Classification Association.
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The overall approach in EDIN is to mathematically characterize the rich interactions between composite networks (which may comprise multiple networks with varying levels of coupling between them), and the dynamics that occur within each network or across networks. Examples of key technical approaches within EDIN include the development of formal models for reasoning about interacting networks; development of a theory of composite graphs for modeling interacting networks; modeling and analysis of group behaviors using techniques ranging beyond traditional graph theory; development of community discovery algorithms; characterization of temporal graph properties; development of mathematically tractable tactical mobility models; development of theories of co-evolution of interacting networks, etc. Modeling the evolution and dynamics of a network entails understanding both the structural properties of dynamic networks and understanding the dynamics of processes (or behaviors) of interest embedded in the network. Typically, the dynamics of network structure impacts certain processes (e.g.
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Each formula in the monadic predicate calculus is equivalent to a formula in which quantifiers appear only in closed subformulas of the form :\forall x\,P_1(x)\lor\cdots\lor P_n(x)\lor eg P'_1(x)\lor\cdots\lor eg P'_m(x) or :\exists x\, eg P_1(x)\land\cdots\land eg P_n(x)\land P'_1(x)\land\cdots\land P'_m(x), These formulas slightly generalize the basic judgements considered in term logic. For example, this form allows statements such as "Every mammal is either a herbivore or a carnivore (or both)", (\forall x\, eg M(x)\lor H(x)\lor C(x)). Reasoning about such statements can, however, still be handled within the framework of term logic, although not by the 19 classical Aristotelian syllogisms alone. Taking propositional logic as given, every formula in the monadic predicate calculus expresses something that can likewise be formulated in term logic.
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Bastiaan Heeren, Daan Leijen, and Arjan van IJzendoorn in 2003 also observed some stumbling blocks for Haskell learners: "The subtle syntax and sophisticated type system of Haskell are a double edged sword – highly appreciated by experienced programmers but also a source of frustration among beginners, since the generality of Haskell often leads to cryptic error messages." To address these, researchers from Utrecht University developed an advanced interpreter called Helium, which improved the user- friendliness of error messages by limiting the generality of some Haskell features, and in particular removing support for type classes. Ben Lippmeier designed Disciple as a strict-by-default (lazy by explicit annotation) dialect of Haskell with a type-and-effect system, to address Haskell's difficulties in reasoning about lazy evaluation and in using traditional data structures such as mutable arrays.Ben Lippmeier, Type Inference and Optimisation for an Impure World, Australian National University (2010) PhD thesis, chapter 1 He argues (p.
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Aside from the intuitive motivations suggested above, it is necessary to justify that additional IST axioms do not lead to errors or inconsistencies in reasoning. Mistakes and philosophical weaknesses in reasoning about infinitesimal numbers in the work of Gottfried Leibniz, Johann Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Augustin-Louis Cauchy, and others were the reason that they were originally abandoned for the more cumbersome real number-based arguments developed by Georg Cantor, Richard Dedekind, and Karl Weierstrass, which were perceived as being more rigorous by Weierstrass's followers. The approach for internal set theory is the same as that for any new axiomatic system - we construct a model for the new axioms using the elements of a simpler, more trusted, axiom scheme. This is quite similar to justifying the consistency of the axioms of non-Euclidean geometry by noting they can be modeled by an appropriate interpretation of great circles on a sphere in ordinary 3-space.
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This is vanishingly small, leading Arbuthnot that this was not due to chance, but to divine providence: "From whence it follows, that it is Art, not Chance, that governs." In modern terms, he rejected the null hypothesis of equally likely male and female births at the p = 1/282 significance level. This and other work by Arbuthnot is credited as "… the first use of significance tests …" the first example of reasoning about statistical significance, and "… perhaps the first published report of a nonparametric test …", specifically the sign test; see details at . The same question was later addressed by Pierre-Simon Laplace, who instead used a parametric test, modeling the number of male births with a binomial distribution: The p-value was first formally introduced by Karl Pearson, in his Pearson's chi-squared test, using the chi- squared distribution and notated as capital P. The p-values for the chi- squared distribution (for various values of χ2 and degrees of freedom), now notated as P, was calculated in , collected in .
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This is mainly prelude to the "probability of causes", where Hume distinguishes three "species of probability": (1) "imperfect experience", where young children haven't observed enough to form any expectations, (2) "contrary causes", where the same event has been observed to have different causes and effects in different circumstances, due to hidden factors, and (3) analogy, where we rely on a history of observations that only imperfectly resemble the present case. He focuses on the second species of probability (specifically reflective reasoning about a mixed body of observations), offering a psychological explanation much like that of the probability of chances: we begin with the custom-based impulse to expect that the future will resemble the past, divide it across the particular past observations, and then (reflecting on these observations) reunite the impulses of any matching observations, so that the final balance of belief favors the most frequently observed type of case. Hume's discussion of probability finishes with a section on common cognitive biases, starting with recency effects. First, the more recent the event whose cause or effect we are looking for, the stronger our belief in the conclusion.
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Corry, Renn, and Stachel authored a joint reply to Winterberg, which they claimed Zeitschrift für Naturforschung refused to publish without "unacceptable" modifications, and unable to find a publisher elsewhere, they made it available on the internet. The reply accused Winterberg of misrepresenting the reason why Science would not publish his paper (it had to do with the section of the journal it was scheduled to appear in), and also misrepresenting that the paper published in Zeitschrift für Naturforschung was the same paper he had submitted to Science, and had in fact been "substantially altered" after Winterberg had received their comments on an earlier draft. Actually, Winterberg in his Final Comment had clearly stated that the paper submitted to Science had been a previous version. They then argue that Winterberg's interpretation of the Hilbert paper was incorrect, that the lost part of the page was unlikely to have been consequential, and that much of Winterberg's reasoning about what could be in the missing piece was incorrect (down to noting Winterberg claims that 1/3 of the page was removed, when actually over half a page is missing total from the two cut off pages) and internally inconsistent.
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Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., 234, 1–36 (1988) that the discord arose from inadequate treatments of both the history of star formation in the Galaxy and of the rate of infall of pristine metal- free gas onto the young Milky Way, compounded by a prevailing but erroneous technique for computation of the radioactive abundances within interstellar gas. Reasoning that interstellar gas contains a higher concentrations of shorter-lived radioactive nuclei than do the stars, Clayton invented in 1985 new mathematical solutions for the simplified differential equations of galactic abundance evolution that for the first time rendered these relationships understandable,Donald Clayton, “Galactic chemical evolution and nucleocosmochronology: A standard model”, in Challenges and New Developments in Nucleosynthesis, W. D. Arnett, W. Hillebrandt, and J. W. Truran, eds., University of Chicago Press, 65–88 (1984); “Nuclear cosmochronology within analytic models of the chemical evolution of the solar neighborhood”, Mon. Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., 234, 1–36 (1988); “Isotopic anomalies: Chemical memory of galactic evolution”, Astrophys. J., 334, 191–195, (1988) ending decades of poor reasoning about radioactive abundances. Clayton then calculated an age of 13-15 billion years for the oldest galactic nuclei, which would necessarily approximate the long-sought age of our galaxy.
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