Together, however, they figured that looking at how we reason about supernatural powers might shed light on how we reason about the real world.
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Being emotionally unengaged helps us better reason about the facts.
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There are a few definite effects one can describe and reason about.
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This allows designers' code to reason about inputs at a high level.
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But there seemed to be little rhyme or reason about who would win.
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And many parents now worry, with good reason, about their children playing sports.
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Americans are increasingly concerned, with good reason, about the security of their personal information.
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"We can also reason about others' reactions, even if they're not mentioned," Choi notes.
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Our vehicles have to reason about these kinds of situations and determine how to proceed.
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Where we reason about the meaning of equality and freedom and justice and all the rest.
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Nobody told us that elephants are usually bigger than butterflies, however we can reason about it.
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And so the goal of intelligence is to be able to reason about your sales data model.
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For whatever reason, about twice as many senators — 41 percent — as House members went to elite schools.
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One of the strangest things about the human mind is that it can reason about unreasonable things.
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"But when I was traveling I got curious for some reason about how taxidermy worked," he said.
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Young people's ability to reason about online content can be summed up in a single word: Bleak.
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"There is still a long way to go before deep learning models can reason about time," he says.
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"The ship sank rapidly for an unknown reason about 500 meters from the Marmaris-Bozburun gulf," the official said.
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The photon property onto which information is encoded, polarization, is also not too difficult to manipulate and reason about.
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It's far from obvious how to reason about that kind of uncertainty or pin it down in a formal specification.
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What it needs is a boost—rules that supplement or are built in to help it reason about the world.
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Exaggerated comparisons to the atom bomb will make it harder to reason about the real, complex challenges that AI poses.
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It may be that Aristo's impressive performance is actually due to an ability to extract and reason about scientific concepts.
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Confusion reigns, for good reason, about the many tech inventions that have been heaped upon us over the past 10 years.
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London-based Lifebit is building a cloud-based cognitive system that can reason about DNA data in the same way humans do.
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If you look at mathematics — if you've built the concept structure, when you reason about the problem, you're reasoning in large concepts.
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For this reason, about 38 percent of Washington state workers had to be left out of the study, possibly skewing the calculations.
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There has been much hand-wringing — with good reason — about the plight of plays on Broadway, where audiences tend to favor musicals.
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For some reason, about 30 percent of all humans have Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in their noses, and the remaining 70 percent do not.
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For whatever reason, about 10 men who appear to be Coachella security staff start PUMMELING Belly ... and don't let up for several seconds.
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We work to make sure that governments are informed about the state of AI and can reason about it as correctly as possible.
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But George points out that it doesn't let computers reason about the world, intuit the cause of events, or handle situations outside their past experience.
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His pioneering work in statistics uncovered an immensely powerful mental tool that, if properly used, can drastically improve the way we reason about the world.
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Among Western democracies, Germany is particularly sensitive (and not without good reason) about allowing the proliferation of things like Holocaust denial and racist or bigoted expression.
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A regular fuzzer may tell you when the code crashes, but the AI aspect of the tool allows it to reason about how the software actually works.
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For this reason, about five years earlier, Geeta and her friends had been drawn into the labor force, supplementing their husbands' seasonal earnings as wedding-band musicians.
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The first of these is a representational theory of mind, which involves the ability to represent and reason about the beliefs and goals of yourself and others.
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"Young people's ability to reason about the information on the Internet can be summed up in one word: bleak," the authors wrote in an introduction to the study.
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But for some reason, about an hour after Mr. Bulger was assigned to the cell, and perhaps before he had even set foot in it, he was reassigned.
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The museum also has a room of first ladies in painstakingly reproduced inaugural gowns who are, for some reason, about a third of the size of their husbands.
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Sanders himself might be part of the reason about 40 percent of his supporters don't think Hillary Clinton is the most likely person to become the Democratic Party's nominee.
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Adding up the evidence, the chief justice concluded, as three district court judges had before him, that Mr. Ross's "sole stated reason" about voting rights enforcement didn't hold up.
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Not only does she reason about what she knows, but she reasons about how Bob's friend used quantum theory to arrive at his conclusion about the result of the coin toss.
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According to a recent report from the Institute of Medicine, they can understand other people's intentions, reason about cause and effect and intuit the more basic aspects of addition and subtraction.
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You know, one of the ways that I try to reason about this stuff is take myself out of the position of being CEO of the company, almost like a Rawlsian perspective.
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This feat requires combining natural language understanding, computer vision, and the use of common sense to reason about phrases and their depictions within the constraints of a small vocabulary of possible icons.
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The way the whitepaper lays things out makes it very easy if you're a data scientist to reason about how much you should stake: it naturally ties to how confident you are.
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And the fact that we're talking, for no good reason, about a fragment of Elizabeth Warren's DNA three weeks before an essential midterm is a sign that she shouldn't exactly terrify her rivals yet.
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"One key reason: about 68% of the next goods tariffed will be consumer goods and autos/parts, with more potential for immediate impact to the economy," Morgan Stanley strategist Michael Zezas said in a note.
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Humans, in other words, possess a base of knowledge about the world (fire burns things) mixed with the ability to reason about it (you should try to move away from an out-of-control fire).
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"It became very difficult for even people within Facebook to be able to reason about 'Hey, how is News Feed working?' because there is an ensemble of machine learning models at play," Gade told CNBC.
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Even if robots can't "feel" emotions the way we do (and this is an open question), they may still have to simulate our sensitivity in order to reason about it, and thereby calculate ethical actions.
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A recent study found half of parents of toddlers and preschool-aged children say their kids are afraid of visiting the doctor, with fear of shots being the reason about two-thirds of the time.
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As a vibrant public gathering place for all manner of activists, minorities, and enemies of the state, those who speak out on Twitter worry with good reason about the company's interest in building robust privacy tools.
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From this premise one can deduce how Gorsuch might reason about abortion or end-of-life controversies, but the precise contours of his logic — and the constitutional analysis that must frame it — remain to be seen.
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"While premiums will be part of the reform, they will be essentially meaningless for those before the poverty line, where most benefits cannot be cancelled for non-payment," Peter Suderman wrote for Reason about the expansion.
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" Commenting on the uniqueness of this situation, Segar explains, "What's different about this is there is a really scary reason about why the spaces are so empty that you feel personally as you move around the city.
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Another South African, Sjava, sings fervently in Zulu in "Seasons," a slow soul vamp that makes way for raps from two Californians, Mozzy and Reason, about being trapped in a cycle of institutional racism, poverty and violence.
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We want the axioms to do something useful for us—to help us reason about quantum theory, invent new communication protocols and new algorithms for quantum computers, and to be a guide for the formulation of new physics.
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If successful, the MediFor platform will automatically detect manipulations, provide detailed information about how these manipulations were performed, and reason about the overall integrity of visual media to facilitate decisions regarding the use of any questionable image or video.
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According to a 2017 United Nations report on the state of food security and nutrition, climate change pressures, from worsening droughts to floods, heatwaves and storms, are a key reason about 800 million people still lack access to enough food.
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According to a 2017 United Nations report on the state of food security and nutrition, climate change pressures, from worsening droughts to floods, heatwaves and storms, are a key reason about 800 million people still lack access to enough food.
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The 55-year-old professor at the University of Montreal, who sports bushy gray hair and eyebrows, says deep learning works well in idealized situations but won't come close to replicating human intelligence without being able to reason about causal relationships.
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The researchers are programming their surveillance robots to fuse together all available video data to reason about a scene, and the robots will be connected to the web so they can access more data for when they detect holes in their understanding.
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Other papers have made a convincing case that this form of statistical modeling is an irresponsible way to reason about climate change, and that the dire projections rest on a statistical method that is widely understood to be a bad approach for that question.
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"We are trying to teach robots to follow things of interest, like people, cars and animals, and to reason about what they are seeing, what kind of activity is happening and what the agent might be doing next," Ferrari told Recode in an interview.
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Researchers from Cornell University are building a system for networked coordination between camera robots, drones and mounted smart cameras that can swap information instantly and move around a scene to chase a suspect, change their perspective and even reason about their environment as the machines look for for questionable activity.
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It was that I was being asked to sign off on changing the zoning law over the objection of the would-be next-door neighbor -- and over the objection of the (Common) Council members for that district -- without seeing a compelling reason about why it absolutely had to be there.
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It's an important slice of the pie, but there's lots of other things that go into human intelligence, like our ability to attend to the right things at the same time, to reason about them to build models of what's going on in order to anticipate what might happen next and so forth.
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Much concern has been raised, for good reason, about President TrumpDonald John TrumpTrump pushes back on recent polling data, says internal numbers are 'strongest we've had so far' Illinois state lawmaker apologizes for photos depicting mock assassination of Trump Scaramucci assembling team of former Cabinet members to speak out against Trump MORE's nomination of Gina Haspel to head the Central Intelligence Agency.
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To start, researchers had made big advances in the technology that undergirds formal methods: improvements in proof-assistant programs like Coq and Isabelle that support formal methods; the development of new logical systems (called dependent-type theories) that provide a framework for computers to reason about code; and improvements in what's called "operational semantics"—in essence, a language that has the right words to express what a program is supposed to do.
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There are several models of how humans reason about causality.
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Causal considerations are integral to how people reason about their environment.Sloman, S. A. (2005). Causal models. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
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If a program is correctly > synchronized, then all executions of the program will appear to be > sequentially consistent (§17.4.3). This is an extremely strong guarantee for > programmers. Programmers do not need to reason about reorderings to > determine that their code contains data races. Therefore they do not need to > reason about reorderings when determining whether their code is correctly > synchronized.
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FP84's semantics are embodied in an underlying algebra of programs, a set of function-level equalities that may be used to manipulate and reason about programs.
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Defendants with high compliance were found to have significantly lower Miranda comprehension and ability to reason about exercising Miranda rights when compared to counterparts with low compliance.
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This creates a cognitive bias that leads humans to reason about objects and processes in agentive terms. This is particularly foundational to beliefs in a god or gods.
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Immutable objects are also useful because they are inherently thread-safe. Other benefits are that they are simpler to understand and reason about and offer higher security than mutable objects.
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The lack of interfaces between crosscutting concerns and other modules makes it hard to represent and reason about the overall architecture of a system. As the concern is not modularized, the interactions between the concern and the top-level components of the system are hard to represent explicitly. Hence, these concerns become hard to reason about because the dependencies between crosscutting concerns and components are not specified. Finally, concerns that are not modularized are hard to test in isolation.
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It is a safety property which ensures that operations do not complete in an unexpected or unpredictable manner. If a system is linearizable it allows a programmer to reason about the system.
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American Scientist. Vol. 88, No. 5. pp. 461-462. The physicist Kenneth R. Foster also positively reviewed the book concluding "Park is an articulate and skeptical voice of reason about science."Kenneth R. Foster. (2000).
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In practice, Bayesian optimization has been shown to obtain better results in fewer evaluations compared to grid search and random search, due to the ability to reason about the quality of experiments before they are run.
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Probability theory and statistical learning models are more recently applied in activity recognition to reason about actions, plans and goals under uncertainty.E. Charniak and R.P. Goldman. "A Bayesian model of plan recognition". Artificial Intelligence, 64:53–79, 1993.
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This draws attention to the location at which the logical inconsistency is detected and can be preferable to the behaviour that would otherwise result. The use of assertions helps the programmer design, develop, and reason about a program.
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Szilard founded Council for a Livable World in 1962 to deliver "the sweet voice of reason" about nuclear weapons to Congress, the White House, and the American public. He died in his sleep of a heart attack in 1964.
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It has been proposed that autistic children do not recognise other people as folk-psychological agents (i.e., agents with their own beliefs, etc.). BDI has been used to develop a rehabilitation strategy to teach autistic children to reason about other people.
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Bennion started his career at Stanford Research Institute (SRI) where he specialized in Magnetic Circuits. He was instrumental in designing the circuitry for Shakey the Robot, which has the distinction of being the first robot to reason about its own actions.
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Ecological yield is a theoretical construct which aggregates information from several physically measurable quantities. It can be used to reason about other ecological indicators such as the footprint. It can also be used as a decision-making tool for governments and corporations.
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Likewise, a domain-specific modeling language for financial services could permit users to specify high-level abstractions for clients, as well as lower-level abstractions for implementing stock and bond trading algorithms. Domain-specific modeling is also helpful to reason about low-level software artifacts.
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The child is able to develop a mental image, hold it in mind, and manipulate it to solve problems, including object permanence problems that are not based solely on perception. The child can now reason about where the object may be when invisible displacement occurs.
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Not all transaction operation types should be included in a schedule, and typically only selected operation types (e.g., data access operations) are included, as needed to reason about and describe certain phenomena. Schedules and schedule properties are fundamental concepts in database concurrency control theory.
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Possible reasons for this are reduced function in the central executive of the working memory, as well as defects in self-reflectivity, organization and reasoning. Self-reflectivity is the ability to recognize and reason about one's own thought process, recognize that one has thoughts, and that those thoughts are one's own and differentiate between cognitive operations. Self- reflectivity has been shown to be one of the biggest deficits faced by schizophrenics and data suggests that verbal memory intrusions are linked to deficits in the ability to identify, organize, and reason about one's own thoughts in patients with schizophrenia. Imagination inflation effects were also common memory errors in patients with schizophrenia.
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I do purposefully try to push myself out of my comfort zone. Which is fairly cliché, but one of those clichés that got there for a reason." About using her full name Kelly Sue DeConnick, she said "I didn't grow up Kelly Sue. I was Kelly.
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A occurs before B.Johnson-Laird, P.N. and Byrne, R.M.J. (1991). Deduction. Hillsdale: Erlbaum Other common tasks include categorical syllogisms, used to examine how people reason about quantifiers such as All or Some, e.g., Some of the A are not B.Johnson-Laird, P.N. (2006). "How we reason".
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In 2006 Barth, Datta, Mitchell and Nissenbaum presented a formal language that could be used to reason about the privacy rules in privacy law. They analyzed the privacy provisions of the Gramm-Leach- Bliley act and showed how to translate some of its principles into the formal language.
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ACM Trans. Database Syst. 4(4): 455-469 (1979). This work has been highly influential: it is used, directly or indirectly, on an everyday basis by people who design databases, and it is used in commercial systems to reason about the consistency and correctness of a data design.
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A cause can be removal (or stopping), like removing a support from a structure and causing a collapse or a lack of precipitation causing wilted plants. Humans can reason about many topics (for example, in social and counterfactual situations and in the experimental sciences) with the aid of causal understanding. Understanding depends on the ability to comprehend cause and effect. People must be able to reason about the causes of others’ behavior (to understand their intentions and act appropriately) and understand the likely effects of their own actions. Counterfactual arguments are presented in many situations; humans are predisposed to think about “what might have been”, even when that argument has no bearing on the current situation.
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At 3:00 p.m. Duncan met Rheta coming home from an errand, and Rheta personally declined Duncan's invitation for the same reason. About 7:00 p.m. Wynekoop called Duncan to inquire if Rheta, who was then missing, was there, explaining that Rheta had left the house after 3:00 p.m.
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Later on, their descendants—called "pardos" by the Spanish—were partially "absorbed" into the general population through intermarriage. For this reason, about 50% of Chileans have a tiny degree of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, and the number of Chileans with considerable contribution of African ancestry is negligible or virtually nonexistent.
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To communicate information clearly and efficiently, data visualization uses statistical graphics, plots, information graphics and other tools. Numerical data may be encoded using dots, lines, or bars, to visually communicate a quantitative message. Effective visualization helps users analyze and reason about data and evidence. It makes complex data more accessible, understandable and usable.
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Children ask "why" to understanding mechanism and causality. The ability to understand and reason about causality at a young age allows children to develop naïve theories about many topics. Causality helps children learn about physics, language, concepts and the behavior of others. There is a developmental pattern to the causal understanding children have.
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Pages 578–584 In a multiple goal model that can reason about user's interleaving goals, a deterministic state transition model is applied.Xiaoyong Chai and Qiang Yang, "Multiple-Goal Recognition From Low- level Signals". Proceedings of the Twentieth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI 2005), Pittsburgh, PA USA, July 2005. Pages 3–8.
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Perrin, M., Mostefaoui, A., & Jard, C. (2016, February). Causal consistency: beyond memory. In Proceedings of the 21st ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on Principles and Practice of Parallel Programming (p. 26). ACM. Since time and ordering are so fundamental to our intuition, it is hard to reason about a system that does not enforce causal consistency.
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One of the most obvious areas in which people employ reasoning is with sentences in everyday language. Most experimentation on deduction has been carried out on hypothetical thought, in particular, examining how people reason about conditionals, e.g., If A then B.Evans, J.St.B.T., Newstead, S. and Byrne, R.M.J. (1993). Human Reasoning: The Psychology of Deduction.
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Cognitive robotics is concerned with endowing a robot with intelligent behavior by providing it with a processing architecture that will allow it to learn and reason about how to behave in response to complex goals in a complex world. Cognitive robotics may be considered the engineering branch of embodied cognitive science and embodied embedded cognition.
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In 1966, SRI's Artificial Intelligence Center began working on "Shakey the robot", the first mobile robot to reason about its actions.Movie Equipped with a television camera, a triangulating rangefinder, and bump sensors, Shakey used software for perception, world-modeling, and acting. The project ended in 1972. SRI's Artificial Intelligence Center marked its 45th anniversary in 2011.
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Relative Timing is a framework for making and implementing arbitrary timing assumptions in QDI circuits. It represents a timing assumption as a virtual causality arc to complete a broken cycle in the event graph. This allows designers to reason about timing assumptions as a method to realize circuits with higher throughput and energy efficiency by systematically sacrificing robustness.
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Citrine uses dynamic scoping instead of lexical scoping. Thus, there is no need for dependency injection or global variables, but it might be harder to reason about than lexical scope. This is similar in programming languages like Emacs Lisp and BASIC. In code blocks the var keyword needs to be used to declare a local variable.
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Abdominal pain is the reason about 3% of adults see their family physician. Rates of emergency department visits in the United States for abdominal pain increased 18% from 2006 through 2011. This was the largest increase out of 20 common conditions seen in the ED. The rate of ED use for nausea and vomiting also increased 18%.
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She wrote the book Beyond Reason about her marriage. On the eve of the 1979 election, in which Pierre Trudeau's party lost the majority of seats in the House of Commons, she was seen dancing at Studio 54 nightclub in New York City. A photo of her at the disco was featured on many front pages across Canada.
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However, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable. In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines. One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach a deadlock. This problem is PSPACE-complete,, Section 19.3. i.e.
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Simon Peyton Jones. Wearing the hair shirt: a retrospective on Haskell. Invited talk at POPL 2003. In addition to purely practical considerations such as improved performance, they note that, in addition to adding some performance overhead, lazy evaluation makes it more difficult for programmers to reason about the performance of their code (particularly its space use).
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Extensions of the -calculus, such as the spi calculus and applied , have been successful in reasoning about cryptographic protocols. Beside the original use in describing concurrent systems, the -calculus has also been used to reason about business processesOMG Specification (2011). "Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) Version 2.0", Object Management Group. p.21 and molecular biology.
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In an experiment where subjects must demonstrate abstract, complex reasoning, researchers have found that humans (as has been seen in other animals) have a strong innate ability to reason about social exchanges. This ability is believed to be intuitive, since the logical rules do not seem to be accessible to the individuals for use in situations without moral overtones.
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Strong strict two-phase locking (SS2PL) is a popular serializability mechanism utilized in most of the database systems (in various variants) since their early days in the 1970s. Serializability theory provides the formal framework to reason about and analyze serializability and its techniques. Though it is mathematical in nature, its fundamentals are informally (without mathematics notation) introduced below.
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A relation network (RN) is an artificial neural network component with a structure that can reason about relations among objects. An example category of such relations is spatial relations (above, below, left, right, in front of, behind). RNs can infer relations, they are data efficient, and they operate on a set of objects without regard to the objects' order.
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Declarative programming languages describe what computation should be performed and not how to compute it. Declarative programs omit the control flow and are considered sets of instructions. Two broad categories of declarative languages are functional languages and logical languages. The principle behind functional languages (like Haskell) is to not allow side effects, which makes it easier to reason about programs like mathematical functions.
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He defined the programming languages Gedanken and Forsythe, known for its use of intersection types. He worked on a separation logic to describe and reason about shared mutable data structures. He had been an editor of journals such as the Communications of the ACM and the Journal of the ACM. In 2001, he was appointed a Fellow of the ACM.
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Director Barry Sonnenfeld agreed to both direct the Beverly Hills Cop pilot and serve as an executive producer. In May 2013, CBS decided to pass on the Beverly Hills Cop TV series. In August 2013, Jackson gave his reason about the pass: > I think we were very edgy for CBS. I think we were the edgiest as you > could've went for CBS.
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The original use of the term knowledge-base was to describe one of the two sub-systems of a knowledge-based system. A knowledge-based system consists of a knowledge-base that represents facts about the world and an inference engine that can reason about those facts and use rules and other forms of logic to deduce new facts or highlight inconsistencies.
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The use of channels for communication is one of the features distinguishing the process calculi from other models of concurrency, such as Petri nets and the actor model (see Actor model and process calculi). One of the fundamental motivations for including channels in the process calculi was to enable certain algebraic techniques, thereby making it easier to reason about processes algebraically.
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MINLOG is a proof assistant developed at the University of Munich by the team of Helmut Schwichtenberg. MINLOG is based on first ordernatural deduction calculus. It is intended to reason about computable functionals, using minimal rather than classical or intuitionistic logic. The primary motivation behind MINLOG is to exploit the proofs-as-programs paradigm for program development and program verification.
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Artificial Intelligence 167:137-169. Hence it may be necessary to explicitly reason about false positive vs false negative tradeoffs, and even calculate the utility of different possible referring expressions in a particular task context.R Turner, Y Sripada, E Reiter (2009) Generating Approximate Geographic Descriptions. Proceedings of the 12th European Workshop on Natural Language Generation (ENLG), pages 42–49, Athens.
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Innateness, however, is a thorny question in philosophy, psychology, and linguistics. To explore why discussions of innate knowledge elicit such strong reactions, Berent has recently begun examining how laypeople reason about human nature. The results suggest that people are systematically and selectively biased against the possibility that knowledge is innate. Berent traces these biases to the collision between two principles of core cognition—Dualism and essentialism. Her forthcoming book (The blind storyteller: How we reason about human nature; Oxford University Press, 2020) explores how core cognition meddles with our understanding of a host of topics, including why we go insane about our brain, why believe that psychiatric disorders like major depression are in our destiny (whereas dyslexia is “just in our heads”), and what we think happens when we die. Berent is also the author of The Phonological Mind (Cambridge, 2013).
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The brain areas that are consistently involved when humans reason about moral issues have been investigated by multiple quantitative large-scale meta-analyses of the brain activity changes reported in the moral neuroscience literature. The neural network underlying moral decisions overlaps with the network pertaining to representing others' intentions (i.e., theory of mind) and the network pertaining to representing others' (vicariously experienced) emotional states (i.e., empathy).
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Pillay, TVR, Kutty MN. Aquaculture: principles and practices. Wiley-Blackwell 2005, p. 50 Full-cycle culture of most grouper species, including the areolate grouper, is not yet possible, although several important advances have been made in recent years. For this reason, about two-thirds of all grouper culture, including culture of E. areolatus , involves the capture of wild grouper eggs which are then grown out in aquaculture.
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Further, static analyses can reason about monitoring aspects more easily than about other forms of program instrumentation, as all instrumentation is contained within a single aspect. Many current runtime verification tools are hence built in the form of specification compilers, that take an expressive high-level specification as input and produce as output code written in some Aspect-oriented programming language (such as AspectJ).
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In C, C++, and D, all data types, including those defined by the user, can be declared `const`, and const-correctness dictates that all variables or objects should be declared as such unless they need to be modified. Such proactive use of `const` makes values "easier to understand, track, and reason about,"Herb Sutter and Andrei Alexandrescu (2005). C++ Coding Standards. p. 30. Boston: Addison Wesley.
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This problem is infamously characterized by the use of database entities, which are responsible for the maintenance of changing data views. Another common optimization is employment of unary change accumulation and batch propagation. Such a solution can be faster because it reduces communication among involved nodes. Optimization strategies can then be employed that reason about the nature of the changes contained within, and make alterations accordingly. e.g.
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The structure of TFNP is often studied through the study of its subclasses. These subclasses are defined by the mathematical theorem by which solutions to the problems are guaranteed. One appeal of studying subclasses of TFNP is that although TFNP is believed not to have any complete problems, these subclasses are defined by a certain complete problem, making them easier to reason about. Diagram of inclusions between subclasses of TFNP.
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I walked out in that longhaired wig and people said, 'Oh, get the fuck out of here! What the hell is this?'" In an interview, Wes Craven also gave a reason about the movie's failure: "That was kind of a screwed-up thing, because I wanted to work with a big star. I suppose it could have been better if it were a horror movie, but it wasn't.
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How we reason about what to do is based on practicality, which is based on our values. In "Logic and Politics" we see the notion of classes, as assembled from members, as individualist, with community interests ignored. The authors suggest we must understand the world through relationships, since individuals only exist in context, such as social contexts. Logic has the tendency to either ignore social realities or create individualist societies.
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Causal reasoning is not unique to humans; animals are often able to use causal information as cues for survival. Rats are able to generalize causal cues to gain food rewards. Animals such as rats can learn the mechanisms required for a reward by reasoning about what could elicit a reward (Sawa, 2009). New Caledonian Crow (Corvus moneduloides) New Caledonian crows have been studied for their ability to reason about causal events.
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Noble's religious convictions were the result of a reaction in his (1796) against Tom Paine's The Age of Reason. About 1798 he encountered Heaven and Hell by Emanuel Swedenborg, in the translation (1778) by William Cookworthy. He attached himself to the preaching of Joseph Proud, at Cross Street, Hatton Garden. Proud had urged Noble to take on the ministry of the New Church by 1801, and he occasionally preached.
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For a human player however, after a number of attempts, one soon begins to suspect that the puzzle may be impossible. One then "jumps out of the system" and starts to reason about the system, rather than working within it. Eventually, one realises that the system is in some way about divisibility by three. This is the "semantic" level of the system — a level of meaning that the system naturally attains.
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The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two different tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word-length effect. Working memory is also the premise for what allows us to do everyday activities involving thought. It is the section of memory where we carry out thought processes and use them to learn and reason about topics.
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He proposed that early education should be derived less from books and more from a child's interactions with the world. Of these, Rousseau is more consistent with slow parenting, and Locke is more for concerted cultivation. Jean Piaget Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes how children represent and reason about the world. This is a developmental stage theory that consists of a Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage, Concrete operational stage, and Formal operational stage.
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The concept of common knowledge is central in game theory. For several years it has been thought that the assumption of common knowledge of rationality for the players in the game was fundamental. It turns out (Aumann and Brandenburger 1995) that, in 2-player games, common knowledge of rationality is not needed as an epistemic condition for Nash equilibrium strategies. Computer scientists use languages incorporating epistemic logics (and common knowledge) to reason about distributed systems.
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The Attempto Parsing Engine (APE) translates ACE texts unambiguously into discourse representation structures (DRS) that use a variant of the language of first-order logic. A DRS can be further translated into other formal languages, for instance AceRules with various semantics, OWL, and SWRL. Translating an ACE text into (a fragment of) first-order logic allows users to reason about the text, for instance to verify, to validate, and to query it.
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Bargaining is a hard, error-prone, ambiguous task often performed under time pressure. Information technology has some potential to facilitate negotiation processes which are analyzed in research projects/prototypes such as INSPIRE, Negoisst or WebNS. The third type of negotiation is automated argumentation, where agents exchange not only values, but also arguments for their offers/counter-offers. This requires agents to be able to reason about the mental states of other market participants.
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Boroditsky has also done research on metaphors and their relation to crime. Her work has suggested that some conventional and systematic metaphors influence the way people reason about the issues they describe. For instance, previous work has found that people were more likely to want to fight back against a crime "beast" by increasing the police force but more likely to want to diagnose and treat a crime "virus" through social reform.
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The language was created to teach concepts of programming related to Lisp, a functional programming language. Later, Logo also enabled what Papert called "body-syntonic reasoning", where students could understand, predict and reason about the turtle's motion by imagining what they would do if they were the turtle. There are substantial differences among the many dialects of Logo, and the situation is confused by the regular appearance of turtle graphics programs that call themselves Logo.
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The term theology has been deemed by some as only appropriate to the study of religions that worship a supposed deity (a theos), i.e. more widely than monotheism; and presuppose a belief in the ability to speak and reason about this deity (in logia). They suggest the term is less appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently (i.e., religions without a single deity, or that deny that such subjects can be studied logically).
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Linked data and ontology engineering require 'host languages' to represent entities and the relations between them, constraints between the properties of entities and relations, and metadata attributes. JSON-LD and RDF are two major (and semantically almost equivalent) languages in this context, primarily because they support statement reification and contextualisation which are essential properties to support the higher-order logic needed to reason about models. Model transformation is a common example of such reasoning.
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Formal epistemology uses formal methods from decision theory, logic, probability theory and computability theory to model and reason about issues of epistemological interest. Work in this area spans several academic fields, including philosophy, computer science, economics, and statistics. The focus of formal epistemology has tended to differ somewhat from that of traditional epistemology, with topics like uncertainty, induction, and belief revision garnering more attention than the analysis of knowledge, skepticism, and issues with justification.
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Ezhattumugham is yet to enter the tourist's itinerary for one very good reason. About 13 km away, uphill, lies the majestic Athirappally Falls, which sashayed into celluloid history with Raavan, starring Aishwarya and Abhishek Bachchan. Film crews, both from the north and the south, often camp in its precincts to exploit its raw appeal. Therefore the quiet charm of Ezhattumugham, through which Chalakkudy flows leisurely, remains eclipsed by the glamour of Athirappally.
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During adolescence, formal operations are developing and become more intact and present in thinking processes. According to Piaget, these formal operations allow for "the young person to construct all the possibilities in a system and construct contrary-to-fact propositions". Elkind adds that "they also enable [the adolescent] to conceptualize his own thought, to take his mental constructions as objects and reason about them". These new thinking processes are believed to begin in early adolescences around ages 11–12.
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Hindsight bias in adults and in children share a core cognitive constraint. That constraint is a tendency to be biased on one's current knowledge when, at the same time, attempting to recall or reason about a more naïve cognitive state—regardless of whether the more naïve state is one's own earlier naïve state or someone else's. Children have a theory of mind, which is their mental state of reasoning. Hindsight bias is a fundamental problem in cognitive perspective- taking.
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For example, the same species of fish in two different systems may have significantly different diets. If its diet in one region consists mostly of algae but in another region consists largely of smaller fish, then it will be more expensive for the latter ecosystem to produce the fish. Yield will be correspondingly lower in the second region. This example illustrates the need for ecosystem-specific study and monitoring in order to reason about ecological yield.
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Formal epistemology uses formal tools and methods from decision theory, logic, probability theory and computability theory to model and reason about issues of epistemological interest. Work in this area spans several academic fields, including philosophy, computer science, economics, and statistics. The focus of formal epistemology has tended to differ somewhat from that of traditional epistemology, with topics like uncertainty, induction, and belief revision garnering more attention than the analysis of knowledge, skepticism, and issues with justification.
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Researchers in Runtime Verification recognized the potential for using Aspect-oriented Programming as a technique for defining program instrumentation in a modular way. Aspect-oriented programming (AOP) generally promotes the modularization of crosscutting concerns. Runtime Verification naturally is one such concern and can hence benefit from certain properties of AOP. Aspect-oriented monitor definitions are largely declarative, and hence tend to be simpler to reason about than instrumentation expressed through a program transformation written in an imperative programming language.
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They use multiple relations. During middle adulthood some people become principled reasoners about moral issues; for instance, they used abstract principles to relate systems of rights to systems of duties (Metasystematic stage 12, the second postformal stage). Likewise, Cheryl Armon (1984) found that by middle adulthood, some people could reason about interpersonal relationships at an order of complexity similar to that described by Lawrence Kohlberg. Research on positive adult development grew and expanded upon these early threads in a number of directions.
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DDD has GUI front-end features such as viewing source texts and its interactive graphical data display, where data structures are displayed as graphs. A simple mouse click dereferences pointers or views structure contents, updated each time the program stops. Using DDD, you can reason about your application by watching its data, not just by viewing it execute lines of source code. DDD is used primarily on Unix systems, and its usefulness is complemented by many open source plug-ins available for it.
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While many computer programs can be understood in terms of machine states and transitions (see formal semantics of programming languages), their state spaces may be too large to fully represent and analyse. Modern analysis techniques therefore try to reason about abstract states, which correspond to many concrete states. Often, the abstract states are structured in such a way that by repeatedly following the effect of program steps or by coarsening the abstraction, one obtains a chain of abstractions that is proven to terminate.
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Contemporary discussions of Theory of Mind have their roots in philosophical debate—most broadly, from the time of René Descartes' Second Meditation, which set the groundwork for considering the science of the mind. Most prominent recently are two contrasting approaches in the philosophical literature, to theory of mind: theory-theory and simulation theory. The theory-theorist imagines a veritable theory—"folk psychology"—used to reason about others' minds. The theory is developed automatically and innately, though instantiated through social interactions.
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Various types of temporal logic can be used to help reason about concurrent systems. Some of these logics, such as linear temporal logic and computation tree logic, allow assertions to be made about the sequences of states that a concurrent system can pass through. Others, such as action computational tree logic, Hennessy–Milner logic, and Lamport's temporal logic of actions, build their assertions from sequences of actions (changes in state). The principal application of these logics is in writing specifications for concurrent systems.
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Dan Sperber believes that reasoning in groups is more effective and promotes their evolutionary fitness. A species could benefit greatly from better abilities to reason about, predict and understand the world. French social and cognitive scientists Dan Sperber and Hugo Mercier argue that there could have been other forces driving the evolution of reason. They point out that reasoning is very difficult for humans to do effectively, and that it is hard for individuals to doubt their own beliefs (confirmation bias).
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Asynchronous message passing may be reliable or unreliable (sometimes referred to as "send and pray"). Message-passing concurrency tends to be far easier to reason about than shared-memory concurrency, and is typically considered a more robust form of concurrent programming. A wide variety of mathematical theories to understand and analyze message-passing systems are available, including the actor model, and various process calculi. Message passing can be efficiently implemented via symmetric multiprocessing, with or without shared memory cache coherence.
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The use of a visual design language representing decisions (see ) is an important element of decision intelligence, since it provides an intuitive common language readily understood by all decision participants. A visual metaphor improves the ability to reason about complex systemsLorien Pratt and Mark Zangari: "Leading the way to complex business models", Telecom Asia, August 10, 2009. as well as to enhance collaboration. In addition to visual decision design, there are other two aspects of engineering disciplines that aid mass adoption.
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For instance, we know what it is like to go on a journey in which we experience getting to a destination together and perhaps overcoming obstacles on the way. Many, but not all, languages use the experience physical journeys as the framework in which to understand the experience of love. We say, "Our relationship has come a long way together" and "We have overcome many bumps in the road." We reason about our love relationship in terms of a journey.
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SimpleDB provides eventual consistency, which is a weaker form of consistency, compared to other database management systems. This is often considered a limitation, because it is harder to reason about, which makes it harder to write correct programs that make use of SimpleDB. This limitation is the result of a fundamental design trade-off. By foregoing consistency, the system is able to achieve two other highly desirable properties: # availability – components of the system may fail, but the service will continue to operate correctly.
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According to metaphysical naturalism, if nature is all there is, just as natural cosmological processes, e.g. quantum fluctuations from a multiverse, lead to the Big Bang, and stellar nucleosynthesis brought upon the earliest chemical elements, the formation of the Solar System and the processes involved in abiogenesis arose from natural causes.Richard Carrier, [The Argument from Biogenesis: Probabilities Against a Natural Origin of Life], Biology and Philosophy 19.5 (November 2004), pp. 739-64. Naturalists reason about how, not if evolution happened.
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Players performing speedruns, called speedrunners, often record their attempts. These recordings are used to entertain others, to verify the completion time, to certify that all rules were followed, and to spot ways to further improve the completion time. To achieve a high level of play, speedrunners often have to reason about the game differently from the way that ordinary players might. Speedruns follow gameplay routes that are planned out carefully and often involve disarranging the intended sequence of events or skipping entire parts of it.
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Aside from the one elevation, the far west of the borough corresponds to the far east of the former Tenochtitlan island. For this reason, about one quarter of the historic center of Mexico City belongs to the borough. It has a semi dry, temperate climate with an average annual temperature of and an average rainfall of . In the parks and other green spaces of the borough, trees such as ash, white cedar, cypress, fig and Indian laurel, various scrubs and grasses can be found.
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A GOLOG interpreter automatically maintains a direct characterization of the dynamic world being modeled, on the basis of user supplied axioms about preconditions, effects of actions and the initial state of the world. This allows the application to reason about the condition of the world and consider the impacts of different potential actions before focusing on a specific action. Golog is a logic programming language and is very different from conventional programming languages. A procedural programming language like C defines the execution of statements in advance.
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Philip convinces Lars and Jozef to organize a trip to Spain "as they do not want to die as a virgin". Of course, they have to convince their parents but are afraid to tell them the real reason about the trip. That's why they deceive them and tell them that they are only going to visit some wine gardens in France and Spain. As Lars already made a well-organized plan about the trip and found a tour guide who is specialized in "holidays for people with a handicap" the parents eventually agree.
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Qualitative reasoning creates non-numerical descriptions of physical systems and their behavior, preserving important behavioral properties and qualitative distinctions. The goal of qualitative reasoning research is to develop representation and reasoning methods that enable computer programs to reason about the behavior of physical systems, without precise quantitative information. An example is observing pouring rain and the steadily rising water level of a river, which is sufficient information to take action against possible flooding without knowing the exact water level, the rate of change, or the time the river might flood.
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The modeling language represents a task structure so that an intelligent agent can reason about its potential actions in the context of its working environment. The intelligent agent needs to determine what goals can and should be achieved, and what actions are needed to achieve those goals. This includes determining the implications of those actions, and of actions performed by other agents in the environment. The modeling language represents a task structure including the quantitative representation of complex task interrelationships, with the task structure model divided into generative, objective, and subjective viewpoints.
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The five levels postulated by the van Hieles describe how students advance through this understanding. The five van Hiele levels are sometimes misunderstood to be descriptions of how students understand shape classification, but the levels actually describe the way that students reason about shapes and other geometric ideas. Pierre van Hiele noticed that his students tended to "plateau" at certain points in their understanding of geometry and he identified these plateau points as levels. In general, these levels are a product of experience and instruction rather than age.
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She also identified basic level categories: categories that have prototypes that are easily visualized (such as a chair) and are associated with basic physical motions (such as "sitting"). Prototypes of basic level categories are used to reason about more general categories. Prototype theory has been used to explain human performance on many different cognitive tasks and in a large variety of domains. George Lakoff argues that prototype theory shows that the categories that people use are based on our experience of having a body and have no resemblance to logical classes or types.
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Folk biology or folkbiology is the cognitive study of how people classify and reason about the organic world. Humans everywhere classify animals and plants into obvious species-like groups. The relationship between a folk taxonomy and a scientific classification can assist in understanding how evolutionary theory deals with the apparent constancy of "common species" and the organic processes centering on them. From the vantage of evolutionary psychology, such natural systems are arguably routine "habits of mind", a sort of heuristic used to make sense of the natural world.
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Before Lisp had macros, it had so-called FEXPRs, function-like operators whose inputs were not the values computed by the arguments but rather the syntactic forms of the arguments, and whose output were values to be used in the computation. In other words, FEXPRs were implemented at the same level as EVAL, and provided a window into the meta-evaluation layer. This was generally found to be a difficult model to reason about effectively. In 1963, Timothy Hart proposed adding macros to Lisp 1.5 in AI Memo 57: MACRO Definitions for LISP.
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Lowness is particularly valuable in relativization arguments, where it can be used to establish that the power of a class does not change in the "relativized universe" where a particular oracle machine is available for free. This allows us to reason about it in the same manner we normally would. For example, in the relativized universe of BQP, PP is still closed under union and intersection. It's also useful when seeking to expand the power of a machine with oracles, because lowness results determine when the machine's power remains the same.
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Baillargeon expresses contrasting ideas to those of her mentor Elizabeth Spelke. Although both Baillargeon and Spelke believe that children are born with some understanding of the world, Baillargeon claims that this understanding comes in the form of innate learning mechanisms while Spelke argues that infants are born with substantive knowledge regarding objects. Baillargeon claims that infants learn to reason about novel physical phenomena by forming an all or nothing concept, adding discrete and continuous variables that seem to affect the event, and lastly they reason qualitatively and quantitatively.
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Larch Prover, or LP for short, is an interactive theorem proving system for multisorted first-order logic. It was used at MIT and elsewhere during the 1990s to reason about designs for circuits, concurrent algorithms, hardware, and software. Unlike most theorem provers, which attempt to find proofs automatically for correctly stated conjectures, LP is intended to assist users in finding and correcting flaws in conjectures — the predominant activity in the early stages of the design process. LP works efficiently on large problems, has many important user amenities, and can be used by relatively naïve users.
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Downgrade attacks are often implemented as part of a man-in-the-middle attack (MITM), and may be used as a way of enabling a cryptographic attack that might not be possible otherwise. Downgrade attacks have been a consistent problem with the SSL/TLS family of protocols; examples of such attacks include the POODLE attack. Downgrade attacks in the TLS protocol take many forms. Researchers have classified downgrade attacks with respect to four different vectors, which represents a framework to reason about downgrade attacks as follows: There are some recent proposals that exploit the concept of prior knowledge to enable TLS clients (e.g.
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After the end of the war, Dahl studied numerical mathematics at the University of Oslo. Dahl became a full professor at the University of Oslo in 1968 and was a gifted teacher as well as researcher. Here he worked on Hierarchical Program Structures, probably his most influential publication, which appeared co-authored with C.A.R. Hoare in the influential book Structured Programming of 1972 by Dahl, Edsger Dijkstra and Hoare, perhaps the best-known academic book concerning software in the 1970s. As his career progressed, Dahl became increasingly interested in the use of formal methods, to rigorously reason about object-orientation for example.
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The plethora of research approaches is not surprising given the multitude of variables, (e.g. group identity, group status, group threat, group norms, intergroup contact, individual beliefs and context) that need to be considered when assessing children's intergroup attitudes. While most of this research has investigated two-dimensional relationships between each of the three components: stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination (e.g., role of stereotypes in intergroup prejudice, use of stereotypes to reason about intergroup discrimination, how prejudices manifest into discrimination), very few have addressed all three aspects of intergroup attitudes and behaviors together (McKown, 2004).McKown, C. (2004).
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"Ultra-weak" proofs require a scholar to reason about the abstract properties of the game, and show how these properties lead to certain outcomes if perfect play is realized. By contrast, "strong" proofs often proceed by brute force—using a computer to exhaustively search a game tree to figure out what would happen if perfect play were realized. The resulting proof gives an optimal strategy for every possible position on the board. However, these proofs are not as helpful in understanding deeper reasons why some games are solvable as a draw, and other, seemingly very similar games are solvable as a win.
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His systematic inversion of vitality drains his favourite characters of life's essence or its principal characteristics, even as it imbues their environment with ominous animation, after the manner of French Symbolists. Uncharacteristically for a writer of crime fiction, Cook expressly and primarily identifies his authorial persona with the murder victim. Accordingly, his detective plays the part of the difficult reader favoured by the Symbolists. In response to Staniland's taped lesson in forensic pathology, he recalls another underappreciated artist: > I switched the player off and began thinking for no apparent reason about a > friend I had once when I was a young man.
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Once the determination that the code is correctly synchronized > is made, the programmer does not need to worry that reorderings will affect > his or her code. A program must be correctly synchronized to avoid the kinds > of counterintuitive behaviors that can be observed when code is reordered. > The use of correct synchronization does not ensure that the overall behavior > of a program is correct. However, its use does allow a programmer to reason > about the possible behaviors of a program in a simple way; the behavior of a > correctly synchronized program is much less dependent on possible > reorderings.
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Rather, they suggest biases develop through learning strategies instead of existing as built-in constraints. For instance, the whole object bias could be explained as a strategy that humans use to reason about the world; perhaps we are prone to thinking about our environment in terms of whole objects, and this strategy is not specific to the language domain. Additionally, children may be exposed to cues associated with categorization by shape early in the word learning process, which would draw their attention to shape when presented with novel objects and labels. Ordinary learning could, then, lead to a shape bias.
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Sunstein argued that attribute substitution is pervasive when people reason about moral, political, or legal matters. Given a difficult, novel problem in these areas, people search for a more familiar, related problem (a "prototypical case") and apply its solution as the solution to the harder problem. According to Sunstein, the opinions of trusted political or religious authorities can serve as heuristic attributes when people are asked their own opinions on a matter. Another source of heuristic attributes is emotion: people's moral opinions on sensitive subjects like sexuality and human cloning may be driven by reactions such as disgust, rather than by reasoned principles.
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Szilard spent his last years as a fellow of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in the La Jolla community of San Diego, California, which he had helped to create. Szilard founded Council for a Livable World in 1962 to deliver "the sweet voice of reason" about nuclear weapons to Congress, the White House, and the American public. He was appointed a non-resident fellow there in July 1963, and became a resident fellow on April 1, 1964, after moving to San Diego in February. With Trude, he lived in a bungalow on the property of the Hotel del Charro.
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Practical attempts to building GOFAI soon run into asymptotic increases in algorithmic complexity, so-called 'complexity explosions'. They arise from the control paradigm assumed by GOFAI practitioners, which views governance (= feedforward command + feedback control) as modeling. In other words, for a GOFAI system to 'reason' about the world, it must first build an internal symbolic model of that world upon which it can apply sequences of symbolic manipulations in accord with the principles of Turing and Von Neumann abstract machines. Even small changes in the world must be updated by the GOFAI program, in case they might be critical to its logical output.
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The following code contains two assertions, `x > 0` and `x > 1`, and they are indeed true at the indicated points during execution: x = 1; assert x > 0; x++; assert x > 1; Programmers can use assertions to help specify programs and to reason about program correctness. For example, a precondition—an assertion placed at the beginning of a section of code—determines the set of states under which the programmer expects the code to execute. A postcondition—placed at the end—describes the expected state at the end of execution. For example: `x > 0 { x++ } x > 1`.
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After completing her Master's in 2013, Chu conducted a summer internship at Honda Research Institute and then pursued her graduate training at Georgia Tech. Chu conducted her PhD in Robotics and worked under the mentorship of Andrea L. Thomaz in the Socially Intelligent Machines Lab and under the mentorship of Sonia Chernova in the Robot Autonomy and Interactive Learning Lab. Her graduate work focused on building algorithms that enable robots to reason about action effects and interact with their environments in an adaptable way. Chu was inspired by a talk in developmental psychology discussing how children learn to interact with their environments.
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"The Emperor's Old Clothes". 1980 Turing Award Lecture Exception handling is often not handled correctly in software, especially when there are multiple sources of exceptions; data flow analysis of 5 million lines of Java code found over 1300 exception handling defects. Citing multiple prior studies by others (1999–2004) and their own results, Weimer and Necula wrote that a significant problem with exceptions is that they "create hidden control-flow paths that are difficult for programmers to reason about". Go was initially released with exception handling explicitly omitted, with the developers arguing that it obfuscated control flow.
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In situations where A trusts B and B trusts C, transitivity concerns the extent to which A trusts C. Without transitivity, trust metrics are unlikely to be used to reason about trust in more complex relationships. The intuition behind transitivity follows everyday experience of 'friends of a friend' (FOAF), the foundation of social networks. However, the attempt to attribute exact formal semantics to transitivity reveals problems, related to the notion of a trust scope or context. For example,Josang, A., and Pope, S. (2005) Semantic Constraints for Trust Transitivity Second Asia-Pacific Conference on Conceptual Modelling (APCCM2005).
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The first of Russell's two concerns above is that autonomous AI systems may be assigned the wrong goals by accident. Dietterich and Horvitz note that this is already a concern for existing systems: "An important aspect of any AI system that interacts with people is that it must reason about what people intend rather than carrying out commands literally." This concern becomes more serious as AI software advances in autonomy and flexibility. For example, in 1982, an AI named Eurisko was tasked to reward processes for apparently creating concepts deemed by the system to be valuable.
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Commonsense reasoning is one of the branches of artificial intelligence (AI) that is concerned with simulating the human ability to make presumptions about the type and essence of ordinary situations they encounter every day. These assumptions include judgments about the physical properties, purpose, intentions and behavior of people and objects, as well as possible outcomes of their actions and interactions. A device that exhibits commonsense reasoning will be capable of predicting results and drawing conclusions that are similar to humans' folk psychology (humans' innate ability to reason about people's behavior and intentions) and naive physics (humans' natural understanding of the physical world).
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This work has been highly influential: it is used, directly or indirectly, on an everyday basis by people who design databases, and it is used in commercial systems to reason about the consistency and correctness of a data design. New applications of the chase in meta-data management and data exchange are still being discovered. In the 1980s, Mendelzon began an important line of work on graphical query languages. His work has been called prescient as it began before the World Wide Web, and nonetheless established many of the scientific principles required for designing languages to query the Web.
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Retrieved on 2011-03-21. From an AI perspective, language use is regarded as a manifestation of intelligent behaviour by an active agent. The emphasis in AI- based approaches to language and communication is on the computational infrastructure required to integrate linguistic performance into a general theory of intelligent agents that includes, for example, learning generalizations on the basis of particular experience, the ability to plan and reason about intentionally produced utterances, the design of utterances that will fulfill a particular set of goals. Such work tends to be highly interdisciplinary in nature, as it needs to draw on ideas from such fields as linguistics, cognitive psychology, and sociology.
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Instead, he suggested that his geometric systems were representations of reality but in a more fundamental way that transcends what one can perceive about reality. Jevons claimed that there was a flaw in Helmholtz's argument relating to the concept of infinitesimally small. This concept involves how these creatures reason about geometry and space at a very small scale, which is not necessarily the same as the reasoning that Helmholtz assumed on a more global scale. Jevons claimed that the Euclidean relations could be reduced locally in the different scenarios that Helmholtz created and hence the creatures should have been able to experience the Euclidean properties, just in a different representation.
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Thus, if the original graph has n vertices and m edges then at depth d of the tree each subproblem is on a graph of at most n/4d vertices. Also the tree has at most log4n levels. Left paths of a binary tree are circled in blue To reason about the recursion tree let the left child problem be the subproblem in the recursive call in step 3 and the right child problem be the subproblem in the recursive call in step 5. Count the total number of edges in the original problem and all subproblems by counting the number of edges in each left path of the tree.
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Dragons of a Fallen Sun, p. 441. Her protagonism increases near the end of the first book when she becomes the first character to discover that the souls of dead people are draining the magic from clerics, mages, and dragons, giving the reader the first solid reference of the reason about why magic has been weakening in the world of Krynn. Dragons of a Fallen Sun, Chapter 27, "The Touch of the Dead", p. 516. The initial shock is replaced with the unexplained urge of following the River of Souls, also referred as the river of the dead, the continuous stream of wandering souls moving towards an unknown meeting location.
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Legal scholar Cass Sunstein has argued that attribute substitution is pervasive when people reason about moral, political or legal matters. Given a difficult, novel problem in these areas, people search for a more familiar, related problem (a "prototypical case") and apply its solution as the solution to the harder problem. According to Sunstein, the opinions of trusted political or religious authorities can serve as heuristic attributes when people are asked their own opinions on a matter. Another source of heuristic attributes is emotion: people's moral opinions on sensitive subjects like sexuality and human cloning may be driven by reactions such as disgust, rather than by reasoned principles.
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Polyhedral frameworks are designed to support compilers techniques for analysis and transformation of codes with nested loops, producing exact results for loop nests with affine loop bounds and subscripts ("Static Control Parts" of programs). They can be used to represent and reason about executions (iterations) of statements, rather than treating a statement as a single object representing properties of all executions of that statement. Polyhedral frameworks typically also allow the use of symbolic expressions. Polyhedral frameworks can be used for dependence analysis for arrays, including both traditional alias analysis and more advanced techniques such as the analysis of data flow in arrays or identification of conditional dependencies.
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She developed the second framework in her book, The Oocyte Economy: The Changing Meaning of Human Eggs in Fertility, Assisted Reproduction and Stem Cell Research. In this framework, she has focused on gender, consumption and reproductive tissues, considering the ways that women increasingly resort to reproductive medical services, particularly oocyte and embryo banking and fertility tourism to manage key aspects of their life course, including credentialing and family formation, kinship relations, and fertility and aging. This work draws in particular on Raymond Williams’ proposals around ‘the structure of feeling’, as a way to account for the deeply felt, historically complex way women value and reason about their oocytes.
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In a similar vein, Wolfram also demonstrates many simple programs that exhibit phenomena like phase transitions, conserved quantities, continuum behavior, and thermodynamics that are familiar from traditional science. Simple computational models of natural systems like shell growth, fluid turbulence, and phyllotaxis are a final category of applications that fall in this theme. Another common theme is taking facts about the computational universe as a whole and using them to reason about fields in a holistic way. For instance, Wolfram discusses how facts about the computational universe inform evolutionary theory, SETI, free will, computational complexity theory, and philosophical fields like ontology, epistemology, and even postmodernism.
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Along with training individuals in the practice of medicine, medical education will influence the norms and values of those people who pass through it. This occur through explicit training in medical ethics, or implicitly through "hidden curriculum" a body of norms and values that students will come to understand implicitly but is not formally taught. The hidden curriculim and formal ethics curriculum will often contradict one another. The aims of medical ethics training are to give medical doctors the ability to recognise ethical issues, reason about them morally and legally when making clinical decisions, and be able to interact to obtain the information necessary to do so.
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Note that the analysis does not purport to explain how we make causal judgements or how we reason about causation, but rather to give a metaphysical account of what it is for there to be a causal relation between some pair of events. If correct, the analysis has the power to explain certain features of causation. Knowing that causation is a matter of counterfactual dependence, we may reflect on the nature of counterfactual dependence to account for the nature of causation. For example, in his paper "Counterfactual Dependence and Time's Arrow," Lewis sought to account for the time- directedness of counterfactual dependence in terms of the semantics of the counterfactual conditional.
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In computer science, DPLL(T) is a framework for determining the satsfiability of SMT problems. The algorithm extends the original SAT-solving DPLL algorithm with the ability to reason about an arbitrary theory T. At a high level, the algorithm works by transforming an SMT problem into a SAT formula where atoms are replaced with Boolean variables. The algorithm repeatedly finds a satisfying valuation for the SAT problem, consults a theory solver to check consistency under the domain-specific theory, and then (if a contradiction is found) refines the SAT formula with this information. Many modern SMT solvers, such as Microsoft's Z3 Theorem Prover, use DPLL(T) to power their core solving capabilities.
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A security type system is a kind of type system that can be used by software developers in order to check the security properties of their code. In a language with security types, the types of variables and expressions relate to the security policy of the application, and programmers may be able to specify the application security policy via type declarations. Types can be used to reason about various kinds of security policies, including authorization policies (as access control or capabilities) and information flow security. Security type systems can be formally related to the underlying security policy, and a security type system is sound if all programs that type-check satisfy the policy in a semantic sense.
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Lawvere, Quantifiers and Sheaves ;Internal languages: This can be seen as a formalization and generalization of proof by diagram chasing. One defines a suitable internal language naming relevant constituents of a category, and then applies categorical semantics to turn assertions in a logic over the internal language into corresponding categorical statements. This has been most successful in the theory of toposes, where the internal language of a topos together with the semantics of intuitionistic higher-order logic in a topos enables one to reason about the objects and morphisms of a topos "as if they were sets and functions". This has been successful in dealing with toposes that have "sets" with properties incompatible with classical logic.
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Atran has experimented on the ways scientists and ordinary people categorize and reason about nature, on the cognitive and evolutionary psychology of religion, and on the limits of rationality in understanding and managing deep-seated cultural and political conflict. His work has been widely published internationally in the popular press, and in scientific journals in a variety of disciplines. He has briefed members of the US Congress and the National Security Council staff with documents and presentations including "The Devoted Actor versus the Rational Actor in World Conflict", "Comparative Anatomy and Evolution of Global Network Terrorism" and "Pathways to and from Violent Extremism". He was an early critic of U.S. intervention in Iraq and of deepening involvement in Afghanistan.
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Animation of the missing square puzzle, showing the two arrangements of the pieces and the "missing" square Both "total triangles" are in a perfect 13×5 grid; and both the "component triangles", the blue in a 5×2 grid and the red in an 8×3 grid. The missing square puzzle is an optical illusion used in mathematics classes to help students reason about geometrical figures; or rather to teach them not to reason using figures, but to use only textual descriptions and the axioms of geometry. It depicts two arrangements made of similar shapes in slightly different configurations. Each apparently forms a 13×5 right-angled triangle, but one has a 1×1 hole in it.
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At the preoperational stage, children will respond that the amount is not the same, with either the taller glass or the wider glass containing more liquid. Once the child has reached the concrete operational stage, however, the child will conclude the amount of liquid is still the same. Here, centration is demonstrated in the fact that the child pays attention to one aspect of the liquid, either the height or the width, and is unable to conserve because of it. With achievement of the concrete operational stage, the child is able to reason about the two dimensions simultaneously and recognize that a change in one dimension cancels out a change in the other.
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X-ray crystallography allows the researcher to precisely determine the position of peak electron density and to reason about the placement of nuclei based on this information. This approach works without any problems for heavy (non-hydrogen) atoms, whose inner shell electrons contribute to the density function to a far greater degree then outer shell electrons. However, hydrogen atoms possess a feature unique among all the elements - they possess exactly one electron, which additionally is located on their valence shell and therefore is involved in creating strong covalent bonds with atoms of various other elements. While a bond is forming, the maximum of the electron density function moves significantly away from the nucleus and towards the other atom.
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In the previous example, an ideal editor should for instance be able to suggest the createSurvey service as a valid value when the developer edits the target attribute in the Form definition. An environment which could reason about artifacts from different languages would also be able to help the developer identify program states where there was local but not global consistency. Such a situation can arise when a model is well-formed and hence locally consistent but at the same time violates an inter-language constraint. Guidance or intelligent assistance in the form of proposals on how to complete a model would be useful for setups with multiple languages and complex consistency constraints.
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Brief definitions of these terms are as follows: # Statistical literacy is being able to read and use basic statistical language and graphical representations to understand statistical information in the media and in daily life. # Statistical reasoning is being able to reason about and connect different statistical concepts and ideas, such as knowing how and why outliers affect statistical measures of center and variability. # Statistical thinking is the type of thinking used by statisticians when they encounter a statistical problem. This involves thinking about the nature and quality of the data and, where the data came from, choosing appropriate analyses and models, and interpreting the results in the context of the problem and given the constraints of the data.
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This phenomenon of ontology becoming stronger over time parallels observations in folk taxonomy about taxonomy: as a society practices more labour specialization, it tends to become intolerant of confusions and mixed metaphors, and sorts them into formal professions or practices. Ultimately, these are expected to reason about them in common, with mathematics, especially statistics and logic, as the common ground. On the World Wide Web, folksonomy in the form of tag schemas and typed links has tended to evolve slowly in a variety of forums, and then be standardized in such schemes as microformats as more and more forums agree. These weak ontology constructs only become strong in response to growing demands for a more powerful form of search engine than is possible with keywording.
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At least in Midwestern America, the "balance of nature" idea was shown to be widely held by both science majors and the general student population. In a study at the University of Patras, educational sciences students were asked to reason about the future of ecosystems which suffered human-driven disturbances. Subjects agreed that it was very likely for the ecosystems to fully recover their initial state, referring to either a 'recovery process' which restores the initial 'balance', or specific 'recovery mechanisms' as an ecosystem's inherent characteristic. In a 2017 study, Ampatzidis and Ergazaki discuss the learning objectives and design criteria that a learning environment for non-biology major students should meet to support them challenge the "balance of nature" idea.
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Logo is an educational programming language, designed in 1967 by Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert, and Cynthia Solomon. Logo is not an acronym: the name was coined by Feurzeig while he was at Bolt, Beranek and Newman, and derives from the Greek logos, meaning word or thought. A general-purpose language, Logo is widely known for its use of turtle graphics, in which commands for movement and drawing produced line or vector graphics, either on screen or with a small robot termed a turtle. The language was conceived to teach concepts of programming related to Lisp and only later to enable what Papert called "body-syntonic reasoning", where students could understand, predict, and reason about the turtle's motion by imagining what they would do if they were the turtle.
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However, states that the assertion symbol in Gentzen-system sequents, which he denotes as ' ⇒ ', is part of the object language, not the metalanguage., defines sequents to have the form U ⇒ V for (possibly non-empty) sets of formulas U and V. Then he writes: : "Intuitively, a sequent represents 'provable from' in the sense that the formulas in U are assumptions for the set of formulas V that are to be proved. The symbol ⇒ is similar to the symbol ⊢ in Hilbert systems, except that ⇒ is part of the object language of the deductive system being formalized, while ⊢ is a metalanguage notation used to reason about deductive systems." According to Prawitz (1965): "The calculi of sequents can be understood as meta-calculi for the deducibility relation in the corresponding systems of natural deduction.".
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Through the work of Zermelo and others, especially John von Neumann, the structure of what some see as the "natural" objects described by ZFC eventually became clear; they are the elements of the von Neumann universe, V, built up from the empty set by transfinitely iterating the power set operation. It is thus now possible again to reason about sets in a non- axiomatic fashion without running afoul of Russell's paradox, namely by reasoning about the elements of V. Whether it is appropriate to think of sets in this way is a point of contention among the rival points of view on the philosophy of mathematics. Other resolutions to Russell's paradox, more in the spirit of type theory, include the axiomatic set theories New Foundations and Scott-Potter set theory.
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A study by Susan Birch and Paul Bloom involving Yale University undergraduate students used the curse of knowledge concept to explain the idea that the ability of people to reason about another person's actions is compromised by the knowledge of the outcome of an event. The perception the participant had of the plausibility of an event also mediated the extent of the bias. If the event was less plausible, knowledge was not as much of a "curse" as when there was a potential explanation for the way the other person could act. However, a recent replication study found that this finding was not reliably reproducible across seven experiments with large sample sizes, and the true effect size of this phenomenon was less than half of that reported in the original findings.
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In the case of previous knowledge-based systems, the knowledge was primarily for the use of an automated system, to reason about and draw conclusions about the world. With knowledge management products, the knowledge was primarily meant for humans, for example to serve as a repository of manuals, procedures, policies, best practices, reusable designs and code, etc. In both cases the distinctions between the uses and kinds of systems were ill-defined. As the technology scaled up it was rare to find a system that could really be cleanly classified as knowledge-based in the sense of an expert system that performed automated reasoning and knowledge-based in the sense of knowledge management that provided knowledge in the form of documents and media that could be leveraged by us humans.
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An example of a theoretical formal analysis framework for the verification and profiling of the control-flow aspects of scientific workflows and their data flow aspects for the Discovery Net system is described in the paper, "The design and implementation of a workflow analysis tool" by Curcin et al. The authors note that introducing program analysis and verification into the workflow world requires detailed understanding of execution semantics of workflow language, including execution properties of nodes and arcs in the workflow graph, understanding functional equivalencies between workflow patterns, and many other issues. Doing such analysis is difficult, and addressing these issues requires building on formal methods used in computer science research (e.g. Petri nets) and building on these formal methods to develop user-level tools to reason about the properties of both workflows and workflow systems.
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Many papers were written in the 1950s that spoke of a logic of knowledge in passing, but it was Finnish philosopher von Wright's paper An Essay in Modal Logic from 1951 that is seen as a founding document. It was not until 1962 that another Finn, Hintikka, would write Knowledge and Belief, the first book-length work to suggest using modalities to capture the semantics of knowledge rather than the alethic statements typically discussed in modal logic. This work laid much of the groundwork for the subject, but a great deal of research has taken place since that time. For example, epistemic logic has been combined recently with some ideas from dynamic logic to create dynamic epistemic logic, which can be used to specify and reason about information change and exchange of information in multi-agent systems.
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Taylor, The Great Pyramid: Why Was It Built and Who Built It?, 1859 The above two lengths are about and , respectively. The ratio of these lengths is the golden ratio, accurate to more digits than either of the original measurements. Similarly, Howard Vyse reported the great pyramid height , and half-base , yielding 1.6189 for the ratio of slant height to half-base, again more accurate than the data variability. Eric Temple Bell, mathematician and historian, claimed in 1950 that Egyptian mathematics would not have supported the ability to calculate the slant height of the pyramids, or the ratio to the height, except in the case of the 3:4:5 pyramid, since the 3:4:5 triangle was the only right triangle known to the Egyptians and they did not know the Pythagorean theorem, nor any way to reason about irrationals such as or .
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Having players participate in instances tends to spread out populations of players, instead of concentrating them, which may reduce or level the workload for both the server and client by limiting the number of potential interactions between players and objects. Because the player characters in the instance do not need to be updated on all the information going on outside the instance, and vice versa for the characters outside the instance, there is an overall decrease in demands on the network, with the net result being less lag for the players. This also reduces the demands on each player's computer, as the number of objects to be processed can be more easily limited by the game's developer. The developer can better reason about the worst-case performance requirements in an instance because they do not have to consider scenarios such as hundreds of players descending on any location at any time.
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Since, for each method of type Queue, type Stack provides a method with a matching name and signature, this check would succeed. However, clients accessing a Stack object through a reference of type Queue would, based on Queue's documentation, expect FIFO behavior but observe LIFO behavior, invalidating these clients' correctness proofs and potentially leading to incorrect behavior of the program as a whole. This example violates behavioral subtyping because type Stack is not a behavioral subtype of type Queue: it is not the case that the behaviors allowed by Stack are also allowed by Queue. In contrast, a program where both Stack and Queue are subclasses of a type Bag, whose specification for get is merely that it removes some element, does satisfy behavioral subtyping and allows clients to safely reason about correctness based on the presumed types of the objects they interact with.
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Perceptual systems detect affordances in objects in the world, directing attention towards information about an object in terms of the possible uses it affords an organism. The individual sensory systems of the body are only parts of these broader perceptual ecologies, which include the physical apparatus of sensation, the environment being sensed, as well as both learned and innate systems for directing attention and interpreting the results. These systems represent and enact the information (as an influence which leads to a transformation) required to perceive, identify or reason about the world, and are distributed across the very design and structures of the body, in relation to the physical environment, as well as in the concepts and interpretations of the mind. This information varies according to species, physical environment, and the context of information in the social and cultural systems of perception, which also change over time and space, and as an individual learns through living.
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With the grand production title and boasted a very impressive casts, TVB Had spent the amount of money and highly promotion into the production, likely to granted out Anniversary Series as well as set out to create a 1930s version of successful's War and Beauty but returned the disappoint rating then they been expected due to the various of reason about viewers' taste and the way the drama portray different so far from War's Darken plot,of “war and beauty” making the grand production which failed. Began with 27 average point and minor growth in the following, praised the cast and producer an unhopeful high rating already. The Drama ended up with a bit better result with 32 average point with highest peak at 36 although it still couldn't compare to War and Beauty's final rating. Despite the loss in the terms of rating, The Charm Beneath pressed out with a majority of positive reviews, began critical acclaims.
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However, Everett being a student of Wigner's, it is clear that they must have discussed it together at some point. In contrast to his teacher Wigner, who held the consciousness of an observer to be responsible for a collapse, Everett understands the Wigner's friend scenario in a different way: Insisting that quantum states assignments should be objective and nonperspectival, Everett derives a straightforward logical contradiction when letting F and W reason about the laboratory's state of S together with F. Then, the Wigner's Friend scenario shows to Everett an incompatibility of the collapse postulate for describing measurements with the deterministic evolution of closed systems. In the context of his new theory, Everett claims to solve the Wigner's Friend paradox by only allowing a continuous unitary time evolution of the wave function of the universe. Measurements are modelled as interactions between subsystems of the universe and manifest themselves as a branching of the universal state.
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The ability to describe situations in which a social emotion will be experienced emerges at around age 7, and, by adolescence, the experience of social emotion permeates everyday social exchange. Studies using fMRI have found that different brain regions are involved in different age groups when performing social-cognitive and social- emotional tasks. While brain areas such as medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), superior temporal sulcus (STS), temporal poles (TP) and precuneus bordering with posterior cingulate cortex are activated in both adults and adolescents when they reason about intentionality of others, the medial PFC is more activated in adolescents and the right STS more in adults. Similar age effects were found with younger participants, such that, when participants perform tasks that involve theory of mind, increase in age is correlated with an increase in activation in the dorsal part of the MPFC and a decrease in the activity in the ventral part of the MPFC were observed.
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The massacre further worsened the image of the Byzantines in the West, and although regular trade agreements were soon resumed between Byzantium and Latin states, the underlying hostility would remain, leading to a spiraling chain of hostilities: a Norman expedition under William II of Sicily in 1185 sacked Thessalonica, the Empire's second largest city, and the German emperors Frederick Barbarossa and Henry VI both threatened to attack Constantinople. The worsening relationship culminated with the brutal sack of the city of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, which led to the permanent alienation of Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholics. The massacre itself however remains relatively obscure, and Catholic historian Warren Carroll notes that "Historians who wax eloquent and indignant—with considerable reason—about the sack of Constantinople ... rarely if ever mention the massacre of the Westerners in ... 1182." The Italian-born translator and Byzantine chancery official Leo Tuscus was among the Latins who survived the massacre.
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To compare the constraint-based polyhedral model to prior approaches such as individual loop transformations and the unimodular approach, consider the question of whether we can parallelize (execute simultaneously) the iterations of following contrived but simple loop: for i := 0 to N do A(i) := (A(i) + A(N-i))/2 Approaches that cannot represent symbolic terms (such as the loop-invariant quantity N in the loop bound and subscript) cannot reason about dependencies in this loop. They will either conservatively refuse to run it in parallel, or in some cases speculatively run it completely in parallel, determine that this was invalid, and re-execute it sequentially. Approaches that handle symbolic terms but represent dependencies via direction vectors or distance vectors will determine that the i loop carries a dependence (of unknown distance), since for example when N=10 iteration 0 of the loop writes an array element (A(0)) that will be read in iteration 10 (as A(10-10)) and reads an array element (A(10-0)) that will later be overwritten in iteration 10 (as A(10)). If all we know is that the i loop carries a dependence, we once again cannot safely run it in parallel.
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