Here is art that turns confectionery into both rarefaction and panache.
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Evidence:Aside from the physicists' aforementioned track record, LIGO's gravitational wave "detection" was clearly nothing but electromagnetic phase rarefaction.
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It occurred to me that if I applied to grad school that very night that I'd be a sure bet, given the level of intellectual rarefaction that I had achieved.
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Rarefaction can be easily observed by compressing a spring and releasing it. Instead of seeing compressed loops seeming to move through the spring, spaced-out loops move through it: rarefaction waves.
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In ecology, rarefaction is a technique to assess species richness from the results of sampling. Rarefaction allows the calculation of species richness for a given number of individual samples, based on the construction of so- called rarefaction curves. This curve is a plot of the number of species as a function of the number of samples. Rarefaction curves generally grow rapidly at first, as the most common species are found, but the curves plateau as only the rarest species remain to be sampled.
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The technique of rarefaction was developed in 1968 by Howard Sanders in a biodiversity assay of marine benthic ecosystems, as he sought a model for diversity that would allow him to compare species richness data among sets with different sample sizes; he developed rarefaction curves as a method to compare the shape of a curve rather than absolute numbers of species. Following initial development by Sanders, the technique of rarefaction has undergone a number of revisions. In a paper criticizing many methods of assaying biodiversity, Stuart Hurlbert refined the problem that he saw with Sanders' rarefaction method, that it overestimated the number of species based on sample size, and attempted to refine his methods. The issue of overestimation was also dealt with by Daniel Simberloff, while other improvements in rarefaction as a statistical technique were made by Ken Heck in 1975.
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Rarefaction does not provide an estimate of asymptotic richness, so it cannot be used to extrapolate species richness trends in larger samples.
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Today, rarefaction has grown as a technique not just for measuring species diversity, but of understanding diversity at higher taxonomic levels as well. Most commonly, the number of species is sampled to predict the number of genera in a particular community; similar techniques had been used to determine this level of diversity in studies several years before Sanders quantified his individual to species determination of rarefaction. Rarefaction techniques are used to quantify species diversity of newly studied ecosystems, including human microbiomes, as well as in applied studies in community ecology, such as understanding pollution impacts on communities and other management applications.
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Sound waves are what physicists call longitudinal waves, which consist of propagating regions of high pressure (compression) and corresponding regions of low pressure (rarefaction).
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In 1702 he applied calculus to spring- driven clocks. In 1704, he invented the U-tube manometer, a device capable of measuring rarefaction in gases.
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Etymology is an audio source library recorded in 1995 by Skeleton Crew. It was released by Rarefaction in 1997 in the United States on audio CD and CD-ROM for Macintosh and Windows 95 PCs. The sound files (16-bit AIFF stereo, sampled at 44.1 kHz) are royalty free, and Rarefaction stated that they are free for use in "musical or multimedia project[s]".
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Rarefaction curves are necessary for estimating species richness. Raw species richness counts, which are used to create accumulation curves, can only be compared when the species richness has reached a clear asymptote. Rarefaction curves produce smoother lines that facilitate point-to-point or full dataset comparisons. One can plot the number of species as a function of either the number of individuals sampled or the number of samples taken.
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Furthermore, some materials behave in a non-Newtonian way, which causes their viscosity to change with the rate of shear strain experienced during compression and rarefaction; again, this varies with frequency. Gasses and liquids generally exhibit less hysteresis than solid materials (e.g., sound waves cause adiabatic compression and rarefaction) and behave in a, mostly, Newtonian way. Combined, the resistive and reactive properties of an acoustic medium form the acoustic impedance.
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A natural example of rarefaction occurs in the layers of Earth's atmosphere. Because the atmosphere has mass, most atmospheric matter is nearer to the Earth due to the Earth's gravitation. Therefore, air at higher layers of the atmosphere is less dense, or rarefied, relative to air at lower layers. Thus rarefaction can refer either to a reduction in density over space at a single point of time, or a reduction of density over time for one particular area.
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For sound to exist, a source (something put into vibration) and a medium (something to transmit the vibrations) are necessary. Since sound waves are produced by a vibrating body, the vibrating object moves in one direction and compresses the air directly in front of it. As the vibrating object moves in the opposite direction, the pressure on the air is lessened so that an expansion, or rarefaction, of air molecules occurs. One compression and one rarefaction make up one longitudinal wave.
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According to Lord Rayleigh's criterion for thermoacoustic processes, "If heat be given to the air at the moment of greatest condensation, or be taken from it at the moment of greatest rarefaction, the vibration is encouraged. On the other hand, if heat be given at the moment of greatest rarefaction, or abstracted at the moment of greatest condensation, the vibration is discouraged."Lord Rayleigh (1878) "The explanation of certain acoustical phenomena" (namely, the Rijke tube) Nature, vol. 18, pages 319–321.
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Arriaga therefore, gave up most of the received opinions of the Schools in points of natural philosophy, such as the composition of the continuum, rarefaction, etc. and undertook to defend the innovators in philosophy.
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When played loudly, the reed can spend up to 50% of the time shut. The 'puff of air' or compression wave (around 3% greater pressure than the surrounding air) travels down the cylindrical tube and escapes at the point where the tube opens out. This is either at the closest open hole or at the end of the tube (see diagram: image 1). # More than a 'neutral' amount of air escapes from the instrument, which creates a slight vacuum or rarefaction in the clarinet tube. This rarefaction wave travels back up the tube (image 2).
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Note that since dissipation solely relies on the resistive element it is independent of frequency. In practice however the resistive element varies with frequency. For instance, vibrations of most materials change their physical structure and so their physical properties; the result is a change in the 'resistance' equivalence. Additionally, the cycle of compression and rarefaction exhibits hysteresis of pressure waves in most materials which is a function of frequency, so for every compression there is a rarefaction, and the total amount of energy dissipated due to hysteresis changes with frequency.
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This pulse is created in all exhaust systems each time a change in density occurs, such as when exhaust merges into the collector. For clarification, the rarefaction pulse is the technical term for the same process that was described above in the "head, body, tail" description. By tuning the length of the primary tubes, usually by means of resonance tuning, the rarefaction pulse can be timed to coincide with the exact moment valve overlap occurs. Typically, long primary tubes resonate at a lower engine speed than short primary tubes.
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Rarefaction only works well when no taxon is extremely rare or common[reference needed], or when beta diversity is very high. Rarefaction assumes that the number of occurrences of a species reflects the sampling intensity, but if one taxon is especially common or rare, the number of occurrences will be related to the extremity of the number of individuals of that species, not to the intensity of sampling. The technique does not account for specific taxa. It examines the number of species present in a given sample, but does not look at which species are represented across samples.
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The developing of certain diseases such as renal microvascular disease and capillary rarefaction may relate to this decrease in efficiency of sodium excretion. There is experimental evidence that suggests that renal microvascular disease is an important mechanism for inducing salt-sensitive hypertension.
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Modern construction of guitars is an example of using rarefaction in manufacturing. By forcing the reduction of density (loss of oils and other impurities) in the cellular structure of the soundboard, a rarefied guitar top produces a tonal decompression affecting the sound of the instrument, mimicking aged wood.
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Traffic Continues is an album by composer and guitarist Fred Frith featuring the Ensemble Modern, Zeena Parkins and Ikue Mori, which was released on the Winter & Winter label. The album features a suite dedicated to cellist Tom Cora built around samples of his playing from Etymology (Rarefaction, 1997).
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On computed tomography (CT) or radiograph, VHs can cause rarefaction with vertical striations (often referred to as corduroy pattern) or a coarse honeycomb appearance. A polka-dot appearance on CT scan represents a cross-section of reinforced trabeculae.Slon, V., et al., Vertebral Hemangiomas and Their Correlation With Other Pathologies.
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Since the slapper impacts a wide area - 40 thousandths of an inch (roughly one mm) across - of the explosive, rather than a thin line or point as in an exploding foil or bridgewire detonator, the detonation is more regular and requires less energy. Reliable detonation requires raising a minimum volume of explosive to temperatures and pressures at which detonation starts. If energy is deposited at a single point, it can radiate away in the explosive in all directions in rarefaction or expansion waves, and only a small volume is efficiently heated or compressed. The flier disc loses impact energy at its sides to rarefaction waves, but a conical volume of explosive is efficiently shock compressed.
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The HLLC (Harten-Lax-van Leer-Contact) solver was introduced by Toro. It restores the missing Rarefaction wave by some estimates, like linearisations, these can be simple but also more advanced exists like using the Roe average velocity for the middle wave speed. They are quite robust and efficient but somewhat more diffusive.
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A 21-kiloton underwater nuclear weapon test, the Baker shot of Operation Crossroads, showing a Wilson cloud Mushroom cloud with multiple condensation rings from the Castle Union 6.9 Mt hydrogen bomb test A transient condensation cloud, also called Wilson cloud, is observable surrounding large explosions in humid air. When a nuclear weapon or a large amount of a conventional explosive is detonated in sufficiently humid air, the "negative phase" of the shock wave causes a rarefaction of the air surrounding the explosion, but not contained within it. This rarefaction results in a temporary cooling of that air, which causes a condensation of some of the water vapor contained in it. When the pressure and the temperature return to normal, the Wilson cloud dissipates.
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In pulmonic sounds, the airstream is produced by the lungs in the subglottal system and passes through the larynx and vocal tract. Glottalic sounds use an airstream created by movements of the larynx without airflow from the lungs. Click consonants are articulated through the rarefaction of air using the tongue, followed by releasing the forward closure of the tongue.
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The MRI of patients with VWM shows a well defined leukodystrophy. These MRIs display reversal of signal intensity of the white matter in the brain. Recovery sequences and holes in the white matter are also visible. Over time, the MRI is excellent at showing rarefaction and cystic degeneration of the white matter as it is replaced by fluid.
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No. 19,4 (1976) which maintain the fireball and can extend its duration to between 10 and 50 ms as exothermic recombination reactions occur.May L.Chan (2001) Advanced Thermobaric Explosive Compositions. Further damage can result as the gases cool and pressure drops sharply, leading to a partial vacuum. This rarefaction effect has given rise to the misnomer "vacuum bomb".
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Physically, this contradiction is removed by the formation of a shock wave, a tangential discontinuity or a weak discontinuity and can result in non- potential flow, violating the initial assumptions. Characteristics may fail to cover part of the domain of the PDE. This is called a rarefaction, and indicates the solution typically exists only in a weak, i.e. integral equation, sense.
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Rarefaction analysis assumes that the individuals in an environment are randomly distributed, the sample size is sufficiently large, that the samples are taxonomically similar, and that all of the samples have been performed in the same manner. If these assumptions are not met, the resulting curves will be greatly skewed.Newton, Adrian C. Forest Ecology and Preservation: A Handbook of Techniques. Illustrated Edition.
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Thus, two samples that each contain 20 species may have completely different compositions, leading to a skewed estimate of species richness. The technique does not recognize species abundance, only species richness. A true measure of diversity accounts for both the number of species present and the relative abundance of each. Rarefaction is unrealistic in its assumption of random spatial distribution of individuals.
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Dr. van der Knaap used MRI as well as magnetic- resonance spectroscopy and determined that ongoing cystic degeneration of the cerebral white matter and matter rarefaction was more descriptive of the disease rather than hypomyelination and proposed the name vanishing white matter. The name proposed by Dr. Schiffmann in 1994, childhood ataxia with central hypomyelination (CACH) is another commonly accepted name.
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Some luthiers prefer further seasoning for several years. Some guitar manufacturers subject the wood to rarefaction, which mimics the natural aging process of tonewoods. Torrefaction is also used for this purpose, but it often changes the cosmetic properties of the wood. On inexpensive guitars, it is increasingly common to use a product called "Roseacer" for the fretboard, which mimics Rosewood, but is actually a thermally-modified Maple.
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Upon autopsy, the full effect of VWM has been documented. The gray matter remains normal in all characteristics while the white matter changes texture, becoming soft and gelatinous. Rarefaction of the white matter is seen through light microscopy and the small number of axons and U-fibers that were affected can also be seen. Numerous small cavities in the white matter are also apparent.
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Again the slope of these shock waves can be calculated using the same formula vshock = (qD − qU)/(kD−kU). The difference this time is that traffic flow travels along the fundamental diagram not in a straight line across but many slopes between various points on the curved fundamental diagram (see figure d). This causes many lines emanating from point x1 all in a fan shape, called rarefaction (see figure e).
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Substances called vasoconstrictors reduce the caliber of blood vessels, thereby increasing blood pressure. Vasodilators (such as nitroglycerin) increase the caliber of blood vessels, thereby decreasing arterial pressure. In the longer term a process termed remodeling also contributes to changing the caliber of small blood vessels and influencing resistance and reactivity to vasoactive agents. Reductions in capillary density, termed capillary rarefaction, may also contribute to increased resistance in some circumstances.
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Longitudinal waves cause the medium to vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. It consists of multiple compressions and rarefactions. The rarefaction is the farthest distance apart in the longitudinal wave and the compression is the closest distance together. The speed of the longitudinal wave is increased in higher index of refraction, due to the closer proximity of the atoms in the medium that is being compressed.
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If the acoustic intensity is sufficiently high, the bubbles will first grow in size and then rapidly collapse. Hence, inertial cavitation can occur even if the rarefaction in the liquid is insufficient for a Rayleigh-like void to occur. High-power ultrasonics usually utilize the inertial cavitation of microscopic vacuum bubbles for treatment of surfaces, liquids, and slurries. The physical process of cavitation inception is similar to boiling.
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He adduced common observations (the wine stealer) to demonstrate that air was a substance and a simple experiment (breathing on one's hand) to show that it could be altered by rarefaction and condensation.Lloyd (1970), pp. 21–3. Heraclitus of Ephesus (about 535–475 BC), then maintained that change, rather than any substance was fundamental, although the element fire seemed to play a central role in this process.Lloyd (1970), pp. 36–7.
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Following Zeno, Chrysippus determined fiery breath or aether to be the primitive substance of the universe. Objects are made up of inert formless matter and an informing soul, "pneuma", provides form to the undifferentiated matter. The pneuma pervades all of substance and maintains the unity of the universe and constitutes the soul of the human being. The classical elements change into one another by a process of condensation and rarefaction.
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Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called compression waves. It requires a medium to propagate. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal waves and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves (in solids) are waves of alternating shear stress at right angle to the direction of propagation.
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Click consonants are articulated through the rarefaction of air using the tongue, followed by releasing the forward closure of the tongue. Vowels are syllabic speech sounds that are pronounced without any obstruction in the vocal tract. Unlike consonants, which usually have definite places of articulation, vowels are defined in relation to a set of reference vowels called cardinal vowels. Three properties are needed to define vowels: tongue height, tongue backness and lip roundedness.
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Interestingly, the Old Testament features a similar analogy to the founding of the world and creation of man, but Anaximenes did not recognize a creator of the universe and did not think of the pneuma as a creator to guide man. The choice of air may seem arbitrary, but Anaximenes based his conclusion on naturally observable phenomena in the processes of rarefaction and condensation.Guthrie, W.K.C. "The Milesians: Anaximenes." A History of Greek Philosophy.
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As the universe cools and expands, the energy in photons begins to redshift away, particles become non-relativistic and ordinary matter begins to dominate the universe. Eventually, atoms begin to form as free electrons bind to nuclei. This suppresses Thomson scattering of photons. Combined with the rarefaction of the universe (and consequent increase in the mean free path of photons), this makes the universe transparent and the cosmic microwave background is emitted at recombination (the surface of last scattering).
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He returns to the elemental theory, but this time posits air, rather than water, as the arche and ascribes to it divine attributes. He was the first recorded philosopher who provided a theory of change and supported it with observation. Using two contrary processes of rarefaction and condensation (thinning or thickening), he explains how air is part of a series of changes. Rarefied air becomes fire, condensed it becomes first wind, then cloud, water, earth, and stone in order.Daniel.W.Graham.
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Non ideal compressible fluid dynamics, abbreviated as NICFD, is a branch of fluid mechanics studying the actual characteristics of dense vapors, supercritical flows and compressible two-phase flows, namely whereby the thermodynamic behavior of the fluid differs considerably from that of a perfect gas. At high reduced pressure and temperature, close to the saturation curve the speed of sound is largely sensitive to density variations along isentropes. Consequently, the fluid flow departs from the ideality assumption and under particular conditions may even exhibit non classical gas dynamic phenomena, whose nature is governed by the value of the fundamental derivative of gas-dynamics Γ. A non-monotonic Mach number trend along an expansion is typical for 0 < Γ < 1, while for Γ < 0 values admit the occurrence of inverse gas-dynamics phenomena such as rarefaction shock waves , splitting waves or even composite waves. Inverse gas-dynamics behavior has been theoretically predicted for heavy complex molecules in the vapor region,and a recent study discovered that two-phase rarefaction shock waves are physically realizable close to the critical point.
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When these membranes vibrate and are deflected upward (rarefaction phase of sound wave), the stereocilia of the OHCs are deflected toward the tallest stereocilia. This causes the tip links of the OHC hair bundle to open allowing inflow of Na+ and K+ which depolarize the OHC. Upon depolarization, the OHC can then begin its process of amplification through positive feedback. This positive feedback mechanism is achieved through a somatic motor and a hair bundle motor which operate independently of one another.
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It is often seen in aged individuals, but sometimes in young adults. On MRI, leukoaraiosis changes appear as white matter hyperintensities (WMHs). On CT scans, leukoaraiosis appears as hypodense periventricular white-matter lesions. The term "leukoaraiosis" was coined in 1986 by Hachinski, Potter, and Merskey as a descriptive term for rarefaction ("araiosis") of the white matter, showing up as decreased density on CT and increased signal intensity on T2/FLAIR sequences (white matter hyperintensities) performed as part of MRI brain scans.
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In his Dictionnaire Historique et Critique, Pierre Bayle praises him as one of the greatest academics of his time. Arriaga exerted a strong influence on the Czech physician Jan Marek Marci, on the Italian scholar Valeriano Magni and on the Spanish philosopher and scientist Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz. The German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz used his works extensively. It can also be assumed that Descartes's treatment of the problems of rarefaction and condensation (Principia II, 5-6) is influenced by Arriaga.
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The acoustic pressure wave method analyses the rarefaction waves produced when a leak occurs. When a pipeline wall breakdown occurs, fluid or gas escapes in the form of a high velocity jet. This produces negative pressure waves which propagate in both directions within the pipeline and can be detected and analyzed. The operating principles of the method are based on the very important characteristic of pressure waves to travel over long distances at the speed of sound guided by the pipeline walls.
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Sound is a pressure wave, which consists of alternating periods of compression and rarefaction. A noise- cancellation speaker emits a sound wave with the same amplitude but with inverted phase (also known as antiphase) to the original sound. The waves combine to form a new wave, in a process called interference, and effectively cancel each other out – an effect which is called destructive interference. Modern active noise control is generally achieved through the use of analog circuits or digital signal processing.
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Other changes that commonly occur with age include the development of leukoaraiosis, which is a rarefaction of the white matter that can be correlated with a variety of conditions, including loss of myelin pallor, axonal loss, and diminished restrictive function of the blood–brain barrier. White matter lesions on magnetic resonance imaging are linked to several adverse outcomes, such as cognitive impairment and depression. White matter hyperintensity are more than often present with vascular dementia, particularly among small vessel/subcortical subtypes of vascular dementia.
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Besides metagenome analysis, MG-RAST can also be used for data discovery. The visualization or comparison of metagenomes profiles and data sets can be implemented in a wide variety of modes; the web interface allows to select data based on criteria like composition, sequences quality, functionality or sample type and offers several ways to compute statistical inferences and ecological analyses. The profiles for the metagenomes can be visualized and compared by using barcharts, trees, spreadsheet-like tables, heatmaps, PCoA, rarefaction plots, circular recruitment plot, and KEGG maps.
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'The Doctrine of Flux and the Unity of Opposites' in the 'Heraclitus' entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy was seen by both Hegel and Vladimir Lenin as the central feature of a dialectical understanding of things: The second law Hegel took from Ancient Greek philosophers, notably the paradox of the heap, and explanation by Aristotle, and it is equated with what scientists call phase transitions. It may be traced to the ancient Ionian philosophers, particularly Anaximenesc.f. a fascination with transitions between rarefaction and condensation. Guthrie, W. K. C. "The Milesians: Anaximenes".
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In a solid, the amount of compression generally depends on the direction x, and the material may be under compression along some directions but under traction along others. If the stress vector is purely compressive and has the same magnitude for all directions, the material is said to be under isotropic or hydrostatic compression at that point. This is the only type of static compression that liquids and gases can bear. In a mechanical longitudinal wave, or compression wave, the medium is displaced in the wave's direction, resulting in areas of compression and rarefaction.
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This produces a note a twelfth above the original note. Most instruments overblow at two times the speed of the fundamental frequency (the octave), but as the clarinet acts as a closed pipe system, the reed cannot vibrate at twice its original speed because it would be creating a 'puff' of air at the time the previous 'puff' is returning as a rarefaction. This means it cannot be reinforced and so would die away. The chalumeau register plays fundamentals, whereas the clarion register, aided by the register key, plays third harmonics (a perfect twelfth higher than the fundamentals).
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As preparation, she trained as an air force pilot at Guidonia Montecelio airport. On 20 June 1935, Carina took off from the Guidonia Montecelio base on a Caproni biplane equipped with a Pegasus 1110 engine, taking with her a heated jacket and oxygen cylinder. Due to air rarefaction and low temperature at high altitude (down to -35 °C), her medical staff did not expect her to fly beyond an altitude of 11,000 metres. However, despite a state of daze (that she referred to as euphoria), through sheer determination she reached 12,043 metres (39,402 feet),Cited in Centennialofflight.
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The first kind is simple and is called the vibrating or oscillating piston. Examples of this type of sound generator include the soundboard of a piano, the surfaces of drums and cymbals, the diaphragm of loudspeakers, etc. The forward movement of something through the atmosphere causes an immediate increase in air pressure (compression) or condensation in the air adjacent to the piston. A complete cycle, or one complete soundwave, consists of an increase of pressure in the air, a subsequent decrease of pressure so that the pressure is back to normal, and a following decrease in air pressure called rarefaction.
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Since language and communication were very limited in his time, Anaximenes's analogies were key in explaining the uncertain through the certain. For example, he knew for certain that blowing air on his hand with his mouth wide open produced hot air, while blowing on his hand with half-closed lips produced cold air. These observations were key in his postulate that the hot air was due to rarefaction and expansion, whereas the cold air was due to condensation and compression. Although in modern times it is known that this is actually the opposite, Anaximenes was key in arriving at this conclusion.
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Research performed by Sondhauss in 1850 is known to be the first to approximate the modern concept of thermoacoustic oscillation. Sondhauss experimentally investigated the oscillations related to glass blowers. Sondhauss observed that sound frequency and intensity depends on the length and volume of the bulb. Lord Rayleigh gave a qualitative explanation of the Sondhauss thermoacoustic oscillations phenomena, where he stated that producing any type of thermoacoustic oscillations needs to meet a criterion: "If heat be given to the air at the moment of greatest condensation or taken from it at the moment of greatest rarefaction, the vibration is encouraged".
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A. Bird, Molecular Gas Dynamics and the Direct Simulation of Gas Flows, Claredon, Oxford (1994) Emeritus Professor of Aeronautics, University of Sydney. DSMC is a numerical method for modeling rarefied gas flows, in which the mean free path of a molecule is of the same order (or greater) than a representative physical length scale (i.e. the Knudsen number Kn is greater than 1). In supersonic and hypersonic flows rarefaction is characterized by Tsien's parameter, which is equivalent to the product of Knudsen number and Mach number (KnM) or M^2/Re, where Re is the Reynolds number.
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The main output from the QIIME pipeline is a feature table, which describes the abundances of each OTU or sequence variant in each sample. Additional tools that are relevant to ecological aspects of the samples being investigated are also provided within the pipeline, including rarefaction, alpha diversity and beta diversity calculations, visualizations such as principle coordinates analysis (PCoA) and much more. QIIME presents a very modular approach and allows multiple methods to be applied in many stages of the analysis. For example, the stage of sequences clustering can be performed using either UCLUST, CD-HIT, BLAST and more.
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Umdat as-Salik wa 'Uddat an-Nasik (Reliance of the Traveller and Tools of the Worshipper, also commonly known by its shorter title Reliance of the Traveller) is a classical manual of fiqh for the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence. The author of the main text is 14th-century scholar Shihabuddin Abu al-'Abbas Ahmad ibn an-Naqib al-Misri (AH 702-769 / AD 1302–1367). Al- Misri based his work on the previous Shafi'i works of Imam Nawawi and Imam Abu Ishaq as-Shirazi, following the order of Shirazi's al-Muhadhdhab (The Rarefaction) and the conclusions of Nawawi's Minhaj at-Talibin (The Seeker's Road).
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Gérard Albert Mourou (; born 22 June 1944) is a French scientist and pioneer in the field of electrical engineering and lasers. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physics in 2018, along with Donna Strickland, for the invention of chirped pulse amplification, a technique later used to create ultrashort- pulse, very high-intensity (petawatt) laser pulses. In 1994, Mourou and his team at the University of Michigan discovered that the balance between the self-focusing refraction (see Kerr effect) and self-attenuating diffraction by ionization and rarefaction of a laser beam of terawatt intensities in the atmosphere creates "filaments" which act as waveguides for the beam, thus preventing divergence.
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Sound is the perceptual result of mechanical vibrations traveling through a medium such as air or water. Through the mechanisms of compression and rarefaction, sound waves travel through the air, bounce off the pinna and concha of the exterior ear, and enter the ear canal. The sound waves vibrate the tympanic membrane (ear drum), causing the three bones of the middle ear to vibrate, which then sends the energy through the oval window and into the cochlea where it is changed into a chemical signal by hair cells in the organ of Corti, which synapse onto spiral ganglion fibers that travel through the cochlear nerve into the brain.
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Thomas of Cantimpré writes his first 'autonomous' hagiography, even if it is already his second female portrait (after that of Marie of Oignies), on the life of Christina of St. Trond, a Belgian mystic (died 1224) known as Cristina the Astonishing:See the profile of 'Cristina l’Ammirabile' (1150–1224) in Scrittrici mistiche, pp. 152–185. Thomas writes the work around 1232See Scrittrici mistiche, p. 152. starting from direct testimonies of those who had known it. In the figure of Cristina, he again wants to represent an ideal, in this case an "extreme and rarefaction model of perfection, [which] reproposes, after a millennial pause, the mystical horizons of holy madness".
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A Riemann problem, named after Bernhard Riemann, is a specific initial value problem composed of a conservation equation together with piecewise constant initial data which has a single discontinuity in the domain of interest. The Riemann problem is very useful for the understanding of equations like Euler conservation equations because all properties, such as shocks and rarefaction waves, appear as characteristics in the solution. It also gives an exact solution to some complex nonlinear equations, such as the Euler equations. In numerical analysis, Riemann problems appear in a natural way in finite volume methods for the solution of conservation law equations due to the discreteness of the grid.
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The balance between the self-focusing refraction and self-attenuating diffraction by ionization and rarefaction of a laser beam of terawatt intensities, created by chirped pulse amplification, in the atmosphere creates "filaments" which act as waveguides for the beam thus preventing divergence. Competing theories, that the observed filament was actually an illusion created by an axiconic (bessel) or moving focus instead of a "waveguided" concentration of the optical energy, were put to rest by workers at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1997. Though sophisticated models have been developed to describe the filamentation process, a model proposed by Akozbek et al.N Aközbek, CM Bowden, A Talebpour, SL Chin, Femtosecond pulse propagation in air: Variational analysis, Phys. Rev.
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The sample-based approach accounts for patchiness in the data that results from natural levels of sample heterogeneity. However, when sample-based rarefaction curves are used to compare taxon richness at comparable levels of sampling effort, the number of taxa should be plotted as a function of the accumulated number of individuals, not accumulated number of samples, because datasets may differ systematically in the mean number of individuals per sample. One cannot simply divide the number of species found by the number of individuals sampled in order to correct for different sample sizes. Doing so would assume that the number of species increases linearly with the number of individuals present, which is not always true.
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In such cases the approximations are within 10% of experimental or detailed numerical results over a wide range of metal mass (M) to explosive charge mass (C) ratios (0.1 < M/C < 10.0). This is due to offsetting errors in the simplified model. Ignoring rarefaction waves in the detonation gases causes the calculated velocity to be too high; the assumption of an initial constant gas density rather than the actual one of the gases being densest next the accelerated layer causes the value to be low, cancelling each other out. In consequence attempts to improve the accuracy of the Gurney model by making more realistic assumptions about one aspect or another may not actually improve the accuracy of the result.
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Tubes that are too small will create exhaust flow resistance which the engine must work to expel the exhaust gas from the chamber, reducing power and leaving exhaust in the chamber to dilute the incoming intake charge. Since engines produce more exhaust gas at higher speeds, the header(s) are tuned to a particular engine speed range according to the intended application. Typically, wide primary tubes offer the best gains in power and torque at higher engine speeds, while narrow tubes offer the best gains at lower speeds. Many headers are also resonance tuned, to utilize the low-pressure reflected wave rarefaction pulse which can help scavenging the combustion chamber during valve overlap.
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Plane pressure pulse wave Longitudinal waves are waves in which the displacement of the medium is in the same direction as, or the opposite direction to, the direction of propagation of the wave. Mechanical longitudinal waves are also called compressional or compression waves, because they produce compression and rarefaction when traveling through a medium, and pressure waves, because they produce increases and decreases in pressure. The other main type of wave is the transverse wave, in which the displacements of the medium are at right angles to the direction of propagation. Transverse waves, for instance, describe some bulk sound waves in solid materials (but not in fluids); these are also called "shear waves" to differentiate them from the (longitudinal) pressure waves that these materials also support.
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Putin Urged to Act on Summary Executions: Deaths of Sixteen More Civilians Confirmed, Total now Thirty-Eight, Human Rights Watch, February 10, 2000Civilian killings in Staropromyslovski district of Grozny, Human Rights Watch / United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees report, February 2000 The bombing of Katyr-Yurt occurred on 4–6 February 2000. The 1999–2000 siege and bombardments of Grozny caused thousands of civilians to perish. The Russian armed forces also used imprecise Fuel-Air Explosive bombs, also known as "vacuum bombs", which destroy shelters, buildings and bunkers, making it impossible to protect the civilians from their destructive nature in the populated areas. Their pressure wave kills through a subsequent rarefaction, a vacuum, which ruptures the lungs or causes people to suffocate.
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The sediments of the Bostobe Formation consist mainly of clays and sandstones, and correspond to floodplain and estuarine environments in a subtropical to tropical climate. These different biotopes were located on the west coast of the Asian continent of the time, on the edge of the ancient Turgai Sea which connected the Tethys to the Arctic Ocean. The shallow marine waters west of this fluvial coastal plain were the site of intense organic productivity due to upwelling conditions caused by strong winds from the mainland. These winds were also the cause of a significant aridification of the climate in this region during the Santonian and early Campanian, causing a change in the flora of angiosperms, with a rarefaction of broad-leaved forms and a proliferation of small and narrow-leaved species of the family Ulmaceae.
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The four Merton ‘Calculators’ were not only well versed in the current issues of philosophy during the fourteenth century; they actually initiated new groundbreaking scientific postulations. John of Dumbleton was no exception. Because he concurred with many of the positions held by William Ockham (1288–1348)—especially the idea that is commonly referred to as Ockham’s razor, which states that the most simplistic explanations are ideal—he may have learned how to succinctly formulate his scientific conjectures. Of Dumbleton’s many scientific theories there is one in particular that is worth mentioning here. By making the assumption that bodies are finite, Dumbleton was able to conjecture that contraction or expansion, as in cases of condensation or rarefaction, does not eliminate any parts of a body; rather, a “denumerable number of parts” always exists.
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Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be thought; a thing which is, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz. the space into which it moves), the One or Being cannot move, since this would require that "space" both exist and not exist.Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 68. While this doctrine is at odds with ordinary sensory experience, where things do indeed change and move, the Eleatic school followed Parmenides in denying that sense phenomena revealed the world as it actually was; instead, the only thing with Being was thought, or the question of whether something exists or not is one of whether it can be thought.
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While his predecessors Thales and Anaximander proposed that the archai (singular: arche, meaning the underlying material of the world) were water and the ambiguous substance apeiron, respectively, Anaximenes asserted that aer (“mist”, “vapor”, “air”) was this primary substance of which all natural things are made. By rejecting his teacher's theory based on the concept of discontinuity, Anaximenes took a more empirical approach to understanding the underlying processes of genesis and change on two assumptions: (1) origination retains properties of the apeiron, but it has an actually tangible state of existence as air that can evolve other substances, and (2) genesis and change depend on a cohesive, mechanistic process known as condensation and rarefaction. Anaximenes believed that air was infinite and divine. He was the first to use the word pneuma (“breath of life”) as a synonym for air. One of the only surviving quotes by Anaximenes reads: “Just as our soul...being air holds us together, so pneuma and air encompass [and guard] the whole world.” The analogy compared atmospheric air as the divine and human air as souls that animate people.
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In humans, sound waves funnel into the ear via the external ear canal and reach the eardrum (tympanic membrane). The compression and rarefaction of these waves set this thin membrane in motion, causing sympathetic vibration through the middle ear bones (the ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes), the basilar fluid in the cochlea, and the hairs within it, called stereocilia. These hairs line the cochlea from base to apex, and the part stimulated and the intensity of stimulation gives an indication of the nature of the sound. Information gathered from the hair cells is sent via the auditory nerve for processing in the brain. The commonly stated range of human hearing is 20 to 20,000 Hz.20 to 20,000 Hz corresponds to sound waves in air at 20°C with wavelengths of 17 meters to 1.7 cm (56 ft to 0.7 inch). Under ideal laboratory conditions, humans can hear sound as low as 12 Hz and as high as 28 kHz, though the threshold increases sharply at 15 kHz in adults, corresponding to the last auditory channel of the cochlea.
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