Be smart: The parasite this gene variant protects against is called Plasmodium falciparum.
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Plasmodium vivax is to blame for many of the cases of malaria outside sub-Saharan Africa.
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Plasmodium falciparum, found mostly in Africa, is the most deadly parasite as it can cause cerebral malaria.
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Malaria, a disease spread by female mosquitos infected with the Plasmodium virus, potentially affects 3.2 billion people.
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And there's no limit to the number of individuals that can join the collective, called a plasmodium.
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Plasmodium vivax tends to be less deadly but is more prominent throughout the world, including in South America.
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Malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites which are carried by mosquitoes and spread through their blood-sucking bites.
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Malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites, which are carried by mosquitoes and spread through their blood-sucking bites.
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The parasite behind the disease -- Plasmodium falciparum -- infected 22022 million people in 22025, and caused more than 230,20153 deaths.
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The hope is that the vaccine will protect children from the deadliest form of malaria, known as Plasmodium falciparum.
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The Plasmodium falciparum parasite, which causes the severest form of malaria, has become more resistant to current drug regimes.
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And among the malaria strains present here is Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite that causes the most fatal form of the disease.
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Mosquirix (PDF), which is injected into a baby's thigh muscle, is intended to protect against malaria caused by the Plasmodium falciparum parasite.
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In a study published on Monday in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, researchers report that they retrieved DNA from malaria parasites in Dr. Canicio's old blood samples: Plasmodium vivax, found today in Asia, the Middle East, South and Central America, and parts of Africa; and its more virulent cousin, Plasmodium falciparum, which accounts for 90 percent of malaria deaths.
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A mutation of this gene, "makes most Africans less susceptible to a type of malaria caused by [the parasite] Plasmodium vivax," Siwo told CNN.
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Since mosquitoes have gained resistance to many classes of insecticides and the plasmodium parasites also have resistance to antimalarial drugs, other methods are used.
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The number barely budged from the year before, when 446,000 people succumbed to the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, which spreads through infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
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Using a standard finger-prick test, the researchers were able to determine which of these children had the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum in their blood.
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Malaria is caused by the Plasmodium falciparum parasite, carried by anopheles' mosquitoes as they feed on humans and pick up the parasite inside their blood.
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One type of the malaria parasite, known as Plasmodium falciparum, or P. Falciparum, causes half of all malaria cases and around 90 percent of the deaths.
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Switzerland is free of the Anopheles species of mosquito that transmits Plasmodium falciparum, the more deadly variety of malaria which is present in sub-Saharan Africa.
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The plasmodium parasite has many routes of attack, a complicated life cycle with multiple stages of development, and thousands more genes than other disease-causing bugs.
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In the late 2000s, Miguel Soares, a scientist at the Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência in Oeiras, Portugal, began to suspect the plasmodium parasite that causes malaria.
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It clips on a finger, and by shining a red beam of light on the skin it can detect Plasmodium — a malaria-causing parasite — in red blood cells.
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Their data confirm that it was the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, the same one that is spread by mosquitoes today and kills hundreds of thousands of people every year.
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Several mosquito proteins are involved in the cycle that allows the Plasmodium parasite to make its way to the mosquito's salivary gland, where it can the spread to bitten humans.
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"The technical challenges of diagnosing and removing the Plasmodium parasites from blood banks requires further analysis, but we know already that these findings put the next generation at risk," Fiamanya said.
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Winskill and his colleagues analyzed the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite that causes malaria in humans, using a mathematical modeling approach to estimate the impact of PMI funding to date in reducing malaria.
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UK scientists reviewed 26 studies that measured levels of Plasmodium parasites -- which cause malaria -- among blood donors in sub-Saharan Africa between 2000 and 2017 and found that an average of 23.46% tested positive.
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The same deaths then drove the development of the transatlantic slave trade (and the arrival, with the first African slaves, of the particularly virulent malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum , which also decimated the newly arriving Europeans).
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But since there is still no effective vaccine against the plasmodium parasite spread by mosquitoes plans for eliminating malaria often call for eradication of mosquitos, or specifically the Anopheles gambiae species that carry human malaria strains.
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The AI software is built on deep learning algorithms that use an annotated library of microscope images to learn the common features of plasmodium parasites that cause malaria and the bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis that is responsible for tuberculosis.
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Malaria is spread when a female mosquito—specifically an Anophele mosquito—becomes infected with a genus of parasite known as plasmodium, says Ashley Vaughan, a scientist at the Center for Infectious Disease Research and an author of the study.
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In 2014 and 2015, as oil prices collapsed and the government scrambled for money to pay for goods, services and imports, there were long shortages of chloroquine and primaquine, two drugs used for Plasmodium vivax, the most prevalent malaria parasite in the Americas.
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"The spread of artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum [the parasite that causes malaria] and the subsequent loss of partner antimalarial drugs in the Greater Mekong subregion presents one of the greatest threats to the control and elimination of malaria," write the authors of The Lancet letter.
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It is closely related to other 'quartan' Plasmodium species, including Plasmodium coatneyi, Plasmodium cynomolgi, Plasmodium fragile, Plasmodium fieldi, Plasmodium hylobati, Plasmodium simiovale and Plasmodium vivax (which is a 'tertian' Plasmodium species).
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Plasmodium fieldi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium sub genus Plasmodium found in Malaysia. This species is related to Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium simiovale. As in all Plasmodium species, P. fieldi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are primates.
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This species has the potential to be infected by several parasites, including Plasmodium elongatum, Plasmodium forresteri, and Plasmodium gundersi.
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Plasmodium tropiduri is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Lacertaemoba. As in all Plasmodium species, P. tropiduri has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles. This species is closely related to Plasmodium floridense and Plasmodium minasense.
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Plasmodium georgesi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. georgesi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium eylesi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. eylesi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium schwetzi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. schwetzi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium silvaticum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species, P. silvaticum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium georgesi, Plasmodium petersi and Plasmodium gonderi are the only Plasmodium species found to date (2008) in Cercocebus monkeys. P. georgesi infects Cercocebus albigena and Cercocebus galeritus agilis causing a remitting/relapsing form of malaria.
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Plasmodium kentropyxi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba.
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Plasmodium gaboni is 10-fold more diverse than human parasite Plasmodium falciparum, indicating a very recent origin of the latter. Plasmodium gaboni is similar to both Plasmodium falciparum and to Plasmodium reichenowi in microscopic studies, seeming likely that all of these ape Laverania parasites represent morphologically indistinguishable species.
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Plasmodium billbrayi was first described along with Plasmodium billcollinsi by Krief et al. in February 2010, by sequencing the whole Plasmodium mitochondrial genome in chimpanzees.
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Plasmodium venkataramiahii is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. achromaticum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium audaciosum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. audaciosum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium icipeensis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. achiotense has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are lizards.
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Plasmodium forresteri is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. forresteri has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium garnhami is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species, P. garnhami has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium colombiense is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. colombiense has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium tribolonoti is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. tribolonoti has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium gracilis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. gracilis has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium mackerrasae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. mackerrasae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium tanzaniae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. tanzaniae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium japonicum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. japonicum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium tumbayaensis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. tumbayaensis has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium achiotense is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. lacertiliae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium neusticuri is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. neusticuri has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium morulum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. morulum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium gonatodi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. gonatodi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium lagopi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. lagopi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium alaudae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. alaudae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium carmelinoi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. carmelinoi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium capistrani is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. capistrani has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium telfordi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. telfordi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium iguanae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. iguanae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium australis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. australis has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are lizards.
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Plasmodium koreafense is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. koreafense has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium megalotrypa is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. megalotrypa has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium minuoviride is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. minuoviride has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium gemini is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. gemini has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium bigueti is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. bigueti has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium accipiteris is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. accipiteris has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium alloelongatum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. alloelongatum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium pessoai is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. As in all Plasmodium species, P. pessoai has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium tomodoni is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. As in all Plasmodium species, P. tomodoni has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium wenyoni is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. As in all Plasmodium species, P. wenyoni has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium fairchildi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species it has vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts are reptiles. The insect vector is not known.
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Plasmodium gallinaceum is a species of the genus Plasmodium (subgenus Haemamoeba) that causes malaria in poultry.
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Plasmodium matutinum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Haemamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. matutinum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium lutzi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Haemamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. lutzi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium fischeri is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Lacertamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. fischeri has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium hegneri is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all Plasmodium species P. hegneri has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium holaspi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Lacertamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. holaspi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium cyclopsi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. Like all Plasmodium species P. cyclopsi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium gologoense is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Lacertamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. gologoense has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium arachniformis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Lacertamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. arachniformis has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium michikoa is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. michikoa has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium uzungwiense is a parasite of the genius Plasmodium subgenus Lacertamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. uzungwiense has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium coggeshalli is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Haemamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. coggeshalli has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium joyeuxi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in Plasmodium species, P. joyeuxi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium tyrio is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. As in all Plasmodium species, P. tyrio has both vertebrate and insect hosts. Its only known vertebrate host is the Chinese pangolin.
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Plasmodium dissanaikei is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all Plasmodium species P. dissanaikei has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium volans is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Carinamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. volans has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium durae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all Plasmodium species P. durae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium egerniae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. egerniae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium lemuris is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. Like all Plasmodium species P. lemuris has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium bucki is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia.As in all Plasmodium species, P. bucki has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium rhadinurum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Carinamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. rhadinurum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium lygosomae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Carinamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. lygosomae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium fallax is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all Plasmodium species P. fallax has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium gundersi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all Plasmodium species P. gundersi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium pinotti is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all Plasmodium species P. pinotti has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium polare is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Papernaia. Like all Plasmodium species P. polare has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium circumflexum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all Plasmodium species P. circumflexum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium diminutivum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Carinamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. diminutivum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium robinsoni is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. robinsoni has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are lizards.
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Plasmodium brygooi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Lacertamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. brygooi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are lizards.
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Plasmodium octamerium is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all Plasmodium species P. octamerium has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium pulmophilium is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. Like all Plasmodium species, P. pulmophilium has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium lophurae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all Plasmodium species, P. lophurae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium gabaldoni is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all Plasmodium species P. gabaldoni has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium clelandi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Carinamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. clelandi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium scelopori is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Carinamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. scelopori has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium mabuiae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Carinamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. mabuiae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium circularis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. circularis has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium chiricahuae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Paraplasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. chiricahuae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium minasense is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Carinamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. minasense has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are lizards.
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Plasmodium cnemaspi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. cnemaspi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are lizards.
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Plasmodium tejerai is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Haemamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. tejerai has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium uluguruense is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Lacertamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. uluguruense has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium loveridgei is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Lacertamoeba. Like all Plasmodium species P. loveridgei has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium buteonis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all Plasmodium species P. buteonis has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium balli is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species it has vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts are lizards; the insect vector is not yet known.
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Plasmodium hydrochaeri is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. Like all Plasmodium species P. hydrochaeri has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are rodents.
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Plasmodium multivacuolaris is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Novyella Like all Plasmodium species P. multivacuolaris has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Laverania Species in this subgenus infect higher primates (including man) and have characteristic sickle shaped female gametocytes. The type species is Plasmodium falciparum. Plasmodium Species infecting higher primates other than those in the subgenus Laverania are placed in the subgenus Plasmodium. The type species is Plasmodium malariae.
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Plasmodium anomaluri is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. anomaluri has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium torrealbai is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Lacertaemoba. As in all Plasmodium species P. torrealbai has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium giganteum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. As in all Plasmodium species, P. giganteum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium unalis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Novyella. As in all Plasmodium species, P. unalis has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium chabaudi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. chabaudi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are rodents.
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Plasmodium watteni is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. watteni has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium globularis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Novyella. As in all Plasmodium species, P. globularis has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium achiotense is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. As in all Plasmodium species, P. achiotense has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium coulangesi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. coulangesi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium heischi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. As in all Plasmodium species P. heischi, has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium papernai is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Novyella. As in all Plasmodium species, P. papernai has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium diploglossi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. As in all Plasmodium species, P. diploglossi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium melanipherum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. melanipherum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium semnopitheci is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium and subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. semnopitheci has both vertebrate and insect hosts. P. semnopitheci was isolated from a monkey.
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Plasmodium achromaticum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. achromaticum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium bouillize is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. bouillize has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium narayani is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. narayani has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium uilenbergi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. uilenbergi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium percygarnhami is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. percygarnhami has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium maculilabre is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. Like all Plasmodium species P. maculilabre has both vertebrate and insect hosts. In particular, P. maculilabre infects Mabuya maculilabris in the Congo basin.
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Plasmodium marginatum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. As in all Plasmodium species, P. marginatum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium guyannense is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. As in all Plasmodium species, P. guyannense has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium foleyi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. foleyi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium hermani is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Huffia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. hermani has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium brodeni is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. brodeni has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium brumpti is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. As in all Plasmodium species, P. brumpti has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Plasmodium booliati is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. booliati has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium paranucleophilum is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Novyella. As in all Plasmodium species, P. paranucleophilum has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium vinckei is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. vinckei has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are rodents.
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Plasmodium landauae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. landauae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium incertae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium, subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. incertae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium cnemidophori is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. As in all Plasmodium species, P. cnemidophori has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are lizards.
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Plasmodium floridense is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Lacertaemoba. As in all Plasmodium species, P. floridense has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are lizards.
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Plasmodium cephalophi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. cephalophi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium pelaezi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. As in all Plasmodium species P. pelaezi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are lizards.
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Plasmodium pifanoi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Paraplasmodium. As in all Plasmodium species, P. pifanoi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are lizards.
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Plasmodium yoelii is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. yoelii has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are mammals.
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Plasmodium lucens is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Novyella. As in all Plasmodium species, P. lucens has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium parahexamerium is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Novyella. As in all Plasmodium species, P. parahexamerium has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium homonucleophilum is a parasitic apicomplexan of the genus Plasmodium, subgenus Novyella whose parasitic hosts are birds.
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Plasmodium gaboni is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Laverania. P. gaboni was given its name in reference to Gabon, where the parasite was discovered in two wild-borne chimpanzees kept as pets in villages in that country. Plasmodium gaboni is phylogenetically very close to Plasmodium billbrayi.
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Plasmodium traguli is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all Plasmodium species, P. traguli has both vertebrate and insect hosts. This particular species infects mouse deer in Southeast Asia.
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Plasmodium beltrani is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. As in all Plasmodium species, P. beltrani has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are spiny lizards.
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Plasmodium berghei is a species in the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. It is a protozoan parasite that causes malaria in certain rodents. Originally, isolated from thicket rats in Central Africa, P. berghei is one of four Plasmodium species that have been described in African murine rodents, the others being Plasmodium chabaudi, Plasmodium vinckei, and Plasmodium yoelii. Due to its ability to infect rodents and relative ease of genetic engineering, P. berghei is a popular model organism for the study of human malaria.
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Fever occurs after an interval of two days (48-hour periodicity), typical of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale.
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Plasmodium bubalis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium (subgenus Vinckeia) which causes malaria in buffalo in India.
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Plasmodium pessoai' is one of the three species known to infect snakes: the other two are Plasmodium wenyoni and Plasmodium tomodoni. This species infects the rat snake (Spilotes pullatus) and the bush master (Lachesis muta).
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Plasmodium lepidoptiformis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium.Telford S. R. Jr. and Telford S. R. III (2003) Rediscovery and redescription of Plasmodium pifanoi and description of two additional Plasmodium parasites of Venezuelan lizards. J. Parasitol. 89(2) 362–368 Like all Plasmodium species P. lepidoptiformis has both vertebrate and insect hosts.
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Plasmodium megaglobularis is a species of malaria-causing parasite in the genus Plasmodium, subgenus Novyella. As in all Plasmodium species, P. megaglobularis has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium girardi is a malaria parasite affecting lemurs. It was described in Madagascar in 1951 in Eulemur rufus, the red-fronted lemur. It is named after Georges Girard, head of the Institut Pasteur in Antananarivo. It is one of four Plasmodium species described in lemurs before 1975; others were Plasmodium foleyi and Plasmodium lemuris.
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A study of the genera Hepatocystis, Nycteria, Plasmodium and Polychromophilus found that Polychromophilus was basal to the other genera and that Plasmodium and Hepatocystis were sister clades. Another study has shown that Parahaemaproteus and Haemoproteus appear to be distinct genera The same study also shown that Nycteria and Hepatocystis lay within the Plasmodium clade. Plasmodium odocoilei was most closely related to genus Polychromophilus. Haemocystidium appeared to be the genus most closely related to Plasmodium.
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Plasmodium vaughani is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium, and the type species of the subgenus Novyella. As in all Plasmodium species, P. vaughani has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium inui is a species of parasite, one of the species of simian Plasmodium that cause malaria in Old World monkeys.
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Plasmodium agamae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. As in all Plasmodium species, it has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate host is the rainbow lizard (Agama agama). The vectors are Lutzomyia or Culicoides species.
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Plasmodium josephinae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Sauramoeba. It was described in 1967 by Peláez. As in all Plasmodium species, P. josephinae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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The species infecting Old World monkeys (subgenus Plasmodium) seem to form a clade. P. ovale is more closely related to P. malariae than to P. vivax. Plasmodium ovale has recently been shown to consist of two cocirculating species - Plasmodium ovale curtisi and Plasmodium ovale wallikeri. These two species can only be distinguished by genetic means and they separated between and .
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Asexual Stage: A zoospore infects root tissue and becomes a uninucleate plasmodium. This plasmodium undergoes mitotic nuclear division (creates many nuclei within a single cell) and turns into a multinucleate plasmodium. Then, the multinucleate plasmodium forms zoosporangium, which eventually release more zoospores. This process can happen relatively quickly and can act as an important source of secondary inoculum within a field.
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Plasmodium billbrayi is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Laverania. P. billbrayi is phylogenetically very close to Plasmodium gaboni, with both sharing a recent common ancestor. The parasite is named in honour of the distinguished malariologist “Bill” Robert Stow Bray (1923–2008).
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Plasmodium cynomolgi is an apicomplexan parasite that infects mosquitoes and Asian Old World monkeys. This species has been used as a model for human Plasmodium vivax because Plasmodium cynomolgi shares the same life cycle and some important biological features with P. vivax.
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Plasmodium relictum is a species in the genus Plasmodium subgenus Haemamoeba. It is a parasite, and the most common cause of malaria in birds. Like all Plasmodium species, P. biziurae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Plasmodium cercopitheci is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium (subgenus Vinckeia) which infects the monkey Cercopithecis nictitans. The insect host of P. cercopitheci is unknown.
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Garnham created the subgenus Vinckeia of Plasmodium to accommodate the mammalian parasites other than those infecting primates, i.e. Plasmodium species infecting mammals other than primates.
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Ana Rodriguez is a parasitologist and Professor in the Department of Microbiology at New York University School of Medicine. Her research focuses on Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma cruzi and she is known for her work on Plasmodium liver infection, Plasmodium immunity, and T. cruzi drug development.
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Plasmodium anasum is a species of the genus Plasmodium. Like all species in this genus it has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate host are reptiles.
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The female mosquito of the genus Anopheles may carry the malaria parasite. Four different species of protozoa cause malaria: Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium vivax (see Plasmodium). Worldwide, malaria is a leading cause of premature mortality, particularly in children under the age of five, with an estimated 207 million cases and more than half a million deaths in 2012, according to the World Malaria Report 2013 published by WHO. The death toll increased to one million as of 2018 according to the American Mosquito Control Association.
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Study has confirmed the presence of Plasmodium gaboni in wild chimpanzees (subspecies Pan troglodytes troglodytes and Pan troglodytes vellerosus). Due to the close proximity between Plasmodium gaboni and the most virulent agent of malaria, Plasmodium falciparum, it has been considered the possibility of transfer risk of this species to humans.
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Plasmodium caprae is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. Like all Plasmodium species P. caprae has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are domestic goats, Capra aegagrus. The specific epithet for P. caprae, "caprae," comes from the genus name, "Capra," for the goat.
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Plasmodium anasum is a species of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Giovannolaia. Like all species in this genus it has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate host are birds.
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Plasmodium ashfordi is a species of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Papernaia. Like all species in this genus it has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate host are birds.
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Dscam is found to have a role in phagocytosis in insects. The splicing pattern of the gene accompanying the phagocytic activity is specific to the type of infectious pathogen. In mosquitoes, the silencing of the Anopheles gambiae Dscam (AgDscam) disables its capacity to fight Plasmodium. The specificity of the Dscam recognition mechanism allows the mosquitoes of this species to differentiate the infection between bacteria and Plasmodium, and between Plasmodium berghei and Plasmodium falciparum.
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Plasmodium molecular tools are a set of methods for the genetic manipulation of the parasite genus Plasmodium. Plasmodium species have been difficult to scientifically study, partially due to the inability of many standard biological techniques to genetically alter the organism. Recent research has sought to overcome these technical barriers in order to make the parasite more amenable to study. Below is a description of published methods of genetic control within the Plasmodium parasite.
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Plasmodium ovale is a species of parasitic protozoa that causes tertian malaria in humans. It is one of several species of Plasmodium parasites that infect humans including Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax which are responsible for most malarial infection. It is rare compared to these two parasites, and substantially less dangerous than P. falciparum. P. ovale has recently been shown by genetic methods to consist of two subspecies, P. ovale curtisi and P. ovale wallikeri.
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While most phylogenetic trees have tended to agree that Plasmodium has descended from Leukocytozoon or Haemoproteus like species a Bayesian phylogenetic reconstruction suggests that Plasmodium may be the ancestral genus that has given rise to Haemoproteus and other genera. Further study in this area is required. Another Bayesian analysis has suggested the following taxonomy: Mammalian Plasmodium and Hepatocystis are sister clades with Hepatocystis having evolved from within the genus Plasmodium; the bird and reptile species are intermixed and basal to the mammalian Plasmodium/Hepatocystis species; the reptilian/bird Plasmodium species are a sister clade to the genus Polychromophilus; Leukocytozoon and Haemoproteus and sister clades; the Leukocytozoon/Haemoproteus clade is a sister to the Parahaemoproteus clade; and the Parahaemoproteus/Haemoproteus/Leukocytozoon clade is a sister to the reptilian/bird Plasmodium/Polychromophilus clade. This grouping is supported by previous results.
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This species infects snakes. The other two species infecting snakes are Plasmodium pessoai and Plasmodium wenyoni. The original host this species was described from was a Tomodon dorsatus from Brazil.
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Plasmodium azurophilum is a species of the genus Plasmodium. Like all species in this genus it is a parasite of both vertebrates and insects. The vertebrate hosts are anole lizards.
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Plasmodium aegyptensis is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia which infects the Egyptian grass rat (Arvicanthis niloticus). The insect vector(s) for this species is not yet known.
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Plasmodium bambusicolai is a species of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Novyella. As in all species of this genus, it has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate host are birds.
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Plasmodium malariae has been considered to be closely related to Plasmodium brasilianum and Plasmodium rhodiani. These species may be a single species with multiple hosts. Because the number of strains that have examined to date remains small, retirement of the brasilianum and rhodiani species names to junior synonym status should probably be delayed.
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Fusion with more diploid stage cells, and even with other plasmodium of the same species, will continue to increase the size of the plasmodium. These macroscopic forms of the slime mold are the most well-known and best-studied stage of the life cycle. The plasmodium feeds on bacteria, other microorganisms and can even cannibalize other slime molds. The massive cytoplasm contains multiple nuclei, contractile vacuoles, mitochondria and food vacuoles found on the peripheral edge of the plasmodium.
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Laverania is a subgenus of the parasite genus Plasmodium. Infection with these species results in malaria. The subgenus was first described in 1958. The name was first proposed by Welch in 1897 as a genus name for the group now known as Plasmodium but for a variety of reasons the genus name Plasmodium was preferred.
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Plasmodium draconis is a species of apicomplexan parasite in the family Plasmodiidae. Like all Plasmodium species P. draconis has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles.
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Within the Plasmodium clade lay the genera Hepatocystis, Nycteria and Polychromophilus. Plasmodium odocoiliei appeared to be very divergent in the clade. Within the palsmodium clade the reptile species formed one grouping while the subgenera Laverinia, Plasmodium and Vinkeia also formed subgroupings. These results if confirmed suggest that the taxonomy of the group will need substantial revision.
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Biraj Mohan Das Gupta or Dasgupta (Bengali: বিরাজ মোহন দাশগুপ্ত, c. 1889 – 1945) was a Bengali parasitologist, known for his discovery, with Robert Knowles, of the Plasmodium species now known as Plasmodium knowlesi.
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Marchiafava and Celli called the new microorganism Plasmodium. H. vivax was soon renamed Plasmodium vivax. In 1892, Marchiafava and Bignami proved that the multiple forms seen by Laveran were from a single species.
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Plasmodium georgesi has been found in the Central African Republic.
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Plasmodium homonucleophilum was described by Ilgūnas et al. in 2013.
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Plasmodium pulmophilium has only been described in the Ivory Coast.
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Another study of the genera Leucocytozoon, Haemoproteus, Parahaemoproteus, Polychromophilus and Plasmodium found that Leucocytozoon occupied a basal position and that Polychromophilus and Plasmodium were sister clades. A study of Polychromophilus species found that this genus lies within the avian/reptile clade of Plasmodium species. The species infecting the while tail deer - Plasmodium odocoilei - was first described in 1967. A study of mitochondrial, plastid and nuclear genes of this species suggests that this species is actually two species that dierged between and .
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Plasmodium billcollinsi is a species of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Laverania. It is a parasitic protozoan found in chimpanzees in Central Africa. The parasite is named in honour of the malariologist William E. Collins.
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Kentropyx calcarata specimens are sometimes plagued by the parasitic protist, Plasmodium lepidoptiformis.Telford SB Jr, Telford SB III. 2003. Rediscovery and redescription of Plasmodium pifanoi and description of two additional parasites of Venezuelan lizards. J. Parasitol.
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Similar approach has been used to design therapeutic agents Plasmodium falciparum.
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It is also an important vector for Plasmodium vivax in Afghanistan.
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This host switch seems to have been associated with a specialization with a particular genus of mosquito. The ability to store haemozoin appears to have evolved only once in the common ancestor of Haemoproteus, Hepatocystis and Plasmodium. A study of the relationships between Haemocystis, Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium suggests that (1) Leucocytozoon is basal (2) Haemoproteus is a sister clade to the remainder (3) Parahaemoproteus is a sister to Plasmodium and (4) Haemocystis is nested within Plasmodium. As before the bird/lizard species form a distinct clade.
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The prime example for MDR against antiparasitic drugs is malaria. Plasmodium vivax has become chloroquine and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine resistant a few decades ago, and as of 2012 artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum has emerged in western Cambodia and western Thailand. Dondorp, A., Nosten, F., Yi, P., Das, D., Phyo, A., & Tarning, J. et al. (2009). Artemisinin Resistance in Plasmodium falciparum Malaria.
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It has been recently shown that P. ovale is actually two genetically distinct species that coexist. These species are Plasmodium ovale curtisi and Plasmodium ovale wallikeri. These two species separated between 1.0 and 3.5 million years ago. ; Knowlesi Plasmodium knowlesi has a natural reservoir in the macaques of Southeast Asia, and was only in 1965 identified as being transmissible to humans.
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A recently (2009) described species (Plasmodium hydrochaeri) that infects capybaras (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris) may complicate the phylogentics of this genus. This species appears to be most similar to Plasmodium mexicanum a lizard parasite. Further work in this area seems indicated. Unlike other eukaryotes studied to date Plasmodium species have two or three distinct SSU rRNA (18S rRNA) molecules encoded within the genome.
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Singapore Med. J. 6:50 and is named after the malariologist Dr. Don E. Eyles, Father of the Apollo computer engineer Don Eyles. It is believed that this species is related to Plasmodium hylobati, Plasmodium jefferyi and Plasmodium youngi but this putative relationship awaits examination by DNA based methods. The parasite prefers to infect reticulocytes but will infect older erythrocytes.
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Heterokaryosis is most common in fungi, but also occurs in slime molds. This happens because the nuclei in the 'plasmodium' form are the products of many pairwise fusions between amoeboid haploid individuals. When genetically divergent nuclei come together in the plasmodium form, cheaters have been shown to emerge. However, genetic homogeneity among fusing amoeboid serves to maintain the multicellular plasmodium.
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It also appears to play a role in liver invasion by Plasmodium species. CD81 is required for Plasmodium vivax sporozoite entry into human hepatocytes and for Plasmodium yoelii sporozoite entry into murine hepatocytes. HIV gag proteins use tetraspanin enriched microdomains (containing minimally CD81, CD82, CD63) as a platform for virion assembly and release. Purified HIV produced by MOLT\HIV cells contains CD81.
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For infection caused by the other species, which include Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium vivax, and Plasmodium ovale, the WHO recommends Chloroquine or Quinine during the first trimester. Quinine is used as an alternative if chloroquine-resistance is detected. During the second and third trimester, the WHO recommends either ACT or Chloroquine. If chloroquine-resistance is detected, ACT is the treatment of choice.
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Trophozoites of P. ovale in thin blood smears. Schüffner's dots can be seen. Schüffner's dots refers to a hematological finding that is associated with malaria, exclusively found in infections caused by Plasmodium ovale or Plasmodium vivax. Plasmodium vivax induces morphologic alterations in infected host erythrocytes that are visible by light microscopy in Romanowsky-stained blood smears as multiple brick-red dots.
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One species has been identified from Dominican amber - Plasmodium dominicum. The vertebrate host of this species is unknown but it seems likely that it may have been a bird. Nyssorhynchus The type species is Plasmodium dominicum.
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The parasite was first described by de Mello and Paes in 1923. It was originally classified as Laverania caprae. Laverania is now recognised as a subgenus of Plasmodium and the correct current designation is Plasmodium caprae.
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These species appear to be more closely related to Plasmodium malariae than to Plasmodium vivax. The two species appear to differ in their biology with P. ovale wallikeri having a shorter latency period than P. ovale curtisi.
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Telford first described Plasmodium balli in 1969.Telford SR Jr. (1969) A new Saurian malarial parasite Plasmodium balli from Panama. J. Protozool. 16(3):431-437 The host's proerythrocytes and normoblasts are more commonly parasitized than erythrocytes.
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This protein acts as a receptor for the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.
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Parasite species Plasmodium pinotti was named in honor of Dr. Mario Pinotti.
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Plasmodium malariae is a parasitic protozoan that causes malaria in humans. It is one of several species of Plasmodium parasites that infect other organisms as pathogens, also including Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, responsible for most malarial infection. Found worldwide, it causes a so- called "benign malaria", not nearly as dangerous as that produced by P. falciparum or P. vivax. The signs include fevers that recur at approximately three-day intervals – a quartan fever or quartan malaria – longer than the two-day (tertian) intervals of the other malarial parasites.
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Ophidiella is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium created in 1966 by Garnham.Garnham P.C.C. (1966) Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia. Oxford, Blackwell It was created as a subgenus for the then only known species infecting snakes - Plasmodium wenyoni.
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Plasmodium ovale wallikeri is a subspecies of parasitic protozoa that causes tertian malaria in humans. The subspecies was described in 2010 when it was established that the two subspecies of Plasmodium ovale, while morphologically identical are genetically distinct.
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Plasmodium ovale curtisi is a subspecies of parasitic protozoa that causes tertian malaria in humans. The subspecies was described in 2010 when it was established that the two subspecies of Plasmodium ovale, while morphologically identical are genetically distinct.
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The Plasmodium of birds and squamate reptiles all fall within a single clade with evidence for repeated switching between birds and squamate hosts. One study using Bayesian factors to identify the root of the phylogenetic tree has suggested that Plasmodium may be basal to Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, Paraheamoproteus and Polychromophilus. This tree also grouped Hepatocystis with Plasmodium. Rayella is thought to have originated from Hepatocystis.
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It infects lizards of the genera Anolis (Anolis carolinensis,Perkins S.L., Kerwin A.S., Rothschild A.D. (2008) Patterns of infection of the lizard malaria parasite, Plasmodium floridense, in invasive brown anoles (Anolis sagrei) in Southwestern Florida. Parasitol Res.Anolis gundlachi Schall J.J., Pearson A.R., Perkins S.L. (2000) Prevalence of malaria parasites (Plasmodium floridense and Plasmodium azurophilum) infecting a Puerto Rican lizard (Anolis gundlachi): a nine-year study.
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Plasmodium odocoiliei appears to be at least two species with only one name.
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Plasmodium billbrayi infects common chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and Eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii).
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The parasite was first described by Huff in 1937.Huff CG (1937) A new variety of Plasmodium relictum from the robin. J Parasitol 23: 400–404 For some time this species was thought to be a subspecies of Plasmodium relictum.
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The parasite was first described by Lainson et al. in 2001.Lainson R, Landau I, Paperna I. (2001) Plasmodium kentropyxi n.sp. (Apicomplexa: Haemosporina: Plasmodiidae) and a Plasmodium tropiduri-like parasite in the lizard Kentropyx calcarata (Lacertilia: Teiidae) in north Brazil.
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The parasite was first described by Telford in 1979.Telford SR Jr. (1979) A taxonomic reconsideration of some Plasmodium species from iguanid lizards. Ann. Parasitol. Hum. Comp. 54(2):129-144 This species had previously been considered to be Plasmodium tropiduri.
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The parasite was first described by Telford in 1979.Telford SR Jr. (1979) A taxonomic reconsideration of some Plasmodium species from iguanid lizards. Ann. Parasitol. Hum. Comp. 54(2):129-144 This species had previously been considered to be Plasmodium cnemidophori.
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P. schwetzi was first described by Reichenow in 1920 in blood apes in Cameroon.Coatney GR, Collins WE, Warren M, Contacos PG. The primate malarias. 1971. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. The parasite resembles both Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale.
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Ganaplacide (development code KAF156) is a drug in development by Novartis for the purpose of treating malaria. It belongs to the class of the imidazolopiperazines. It has shown activity against the Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax forms of the malaria parasite.
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Although most imported malaria is due to travel by infected humans, airport malaria is specifically caused by the transmission of malaria parasites to a human through the bite of a malaria infected mosquito that has travelled by aircraft on an international flight from a country where malaria is usually found to a country where malaria is usually not found. It occurs at or around the vicinity of the airport. Very few mosquitoes however enter aircraft and of those that do, less than 5% are likely to carry malaria. Of the four different species of the protozoan parasite Plasmodium; Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale, airport malaria is most commonly the falciparum and less commonly the vivax type.
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Within the mammalian species the subgenus Laverinia appears to be basal with the subgenus Plasmodium and the rodent species being sister clades. Hepatocystis appears to have diverged after the separation of the rodent species. The species infecting lemurs may belong in the subgenus Plasmodium instead of their current placement within the subgenus Vinckeia. Within the subgenus Plasmodium, P. vivax groups with an Asian clade which appears to be rooted in Africa.
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Among the species infecting the great apes, Plasmodium schwetzi morphologically appears to be the closest relation to P.ovale. this had not been confirmed by DNA studies. The original species has been shown to be two morphologically identical forms – Plasmodium ovale curtisi and Plasmodium ovale wallikeri – which can be differentiated only by genetic means. Both species have been identified in Ghana, Myanmar, Nigeria, São Tomé, Sierra Leone and Uganda.
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RUF6 is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) present within the plasmodium genome. Bioinformatic studies predicted that RUF6 was present within the plasmodium genome and the expression of this ncRNA was verified by Northern Blot. The location of this ncRNAs was subsequently mapped within the P. falciparum strain 3DF genome by primer extension. This ncRNA was shown to be encoded for by multiple genes that are clustered together within the plasmodium genome.
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The life cycle of P. cynomolgi resembles that of other Plasmodium species, particularly the related human parasite Plasmodium vivax. Like other Plasmodium species, P. cynomolgi infects both an insect host and a vertebrate (generally Old World monkeys). The parasite is transmitted when the mosquito host takes a blood meal from the vertebrate host. During the feeding, motile parasites called sporozoites are injected from the mosquito salivary gland into the host tissue.
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In molecular biology, Duffy binding proteins are found in plasmodia. Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium knowlesi merozoites invade Homo sapiens erythrocytes that express Duffy blood group surface determinants. The Duffy receptor family is localised in micronemes, an organelle found in all organisms of the phylum Apicomplexa. The presence of duffy-binding-like domains defines the family of erythrocyte binding-like proteins (EBL), a family of cell invasion proteins universal among Plasmodium.
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Clinical features for P. ovale wallikeri are described in the article on Plasmodium ovale.
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Clinical features for P. ovale curtisi are described in the article on Plasmodium ovale.
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These compounds displayed moderate antiplasmodial (against Plasmodium falciparum) and trypanocidal (against Trypanosoma cruzi) activities.
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Plasmodium pulmophilium was described from the blood of flying squirrels in the Ivory Coast.
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Plasmodium odocoilei is a species of parasites, that causes malaria in white- tailed deer.
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Like amoebae, the plasmodium can consume whole microbes, but also readily grows axenically in liquid cultures, nutrient agar plates and on nutrient-moistened surfaces. When nutrients are provided uniformly, the nuclei in the plasmodium divide synchronously, accounting for the interest in using P. polycephalum as a model organism to study the cell cycle, or more specifically the nuclear division cycle. When the plasmodium is starved, it has two alternative developmental pathways. In the dark, the plasmodium typically differentiates reversibly into a dormant “sclerotium” (the same term is used for dormant forms of fungal mycelia, but the myxomycete sclerotium is a very different structure).
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A study of DNA sequences suggests that the genus is paraphytic with Hepatocystis being related to the mammalian species and Polychromophilus being related to the reptile species. This study also supports the ancestor of Plasmodium being a Leucocytozoon like species and that Plasmodium is more closely related to the Haemoproteus - specifically the subgenus Parahaemoproteus - than to Leucocytozoon. A paper by Blanquart and Gascuel examined Plasmodium 84 mitochondrial sequences and included Hepatocystis, Haemoproteus and Leukocytozoon sequences. The results agree with the previous analyses showing that Hepatocystis, Haemoproteus and Plasmodium appear to be derived from a Leukocytozoon ancestor.
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The evidence suggests the following evolutionary scenario: Plasmodium evolved from a Leucocystis like ancestor. This ancestor gave rise to the subgenus Parahaemoproteus. Both of these taxa infect birds. Plasmodium evolved from its Parahaemoproteus ancestor when it gained the ability to infect lizards.
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This species was first described by Scorza and Dagert in 1956. It was redescribed in 2003 by Telford.Telford S. R. Jr., Telford S.R. III (2003) Rediscovery and redescription of Plasmodium pifanoi and description of two additional Plasmodium parasites of Venezuelan lizards. J. Parasitol.
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Bouts of fever occurs daily (24-hour periodicity) for few hours, typical of Plasmodium knowlesi.
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Fever occurs after an interval of three days (72-hour periodicity), typical of Plasmodium malariae.
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Although not fungal, the plasmodium of slime molds can form sclerotia in adverse environmental conditions.
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Das Gupta maintained the Plasmodium species by serial passage in monkeys until Knowles returned from leave. In 1932, Knowles and Das Gupta published their description of the Plasmodiium species and their account of how it could be transmitted from monkey to human by blood passage to three human volunteers. The Plasmodium species was named Plasmodium knowlesi by Sinton and Mulligan in 1932. The first natural infection of P. knowlesi in humans was observed in 1965.
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Taxonomy in parasitology until the advent of DNA based methods has always been a problem and revisions in this area are continuing. A number of synonyms have been given for the species infecting humans that are no longer recognised as valid. Since perusal of the older literature may be confusing some currently defunct species names are listed here. Plasmodium shortii and Plasmodium osmaniae are now considered to be junior synonyms of Plasmodium inui.
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Fallisia is a genus of the family Plasmodiidae'' The genus was created by Lainson, Landau and Shaw in 1974. A revision of the genus Plasmodium by Levine in 1985 considered this subgenus to be a synonym of Plasmodium. The description of a new species Plasmodium siamense by Telford in 1986 lead to a resurrection of this as a subgenus. Further revision of its taxonomic status has led to its elevation to genus status.
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Several genera infect mammals: Bioccala, Biguetiella, Dionisia, Hepatocystis, Plasmodium, Polychromophilus, Nycteria, and Rayella. The insect vectors of Hepatocystis, Plasmodium and Polychromophilus are Ceratopogonidae, Culicidae, and Nycteribiidae, respectively. The vectors of Nycteria and Rayella are currently unknown. Bioccala also uses Nycteribiidae as its insect vector.
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As a protist, the plasmodium is a eukaryote of the phylum Apicomplexa. Unusual characteristics of this organism in comparison to general eukaryotes include the rhoptry, micronemes, and polar rings near the apical end. The plasmodium is known best for the infection it causes, malaria.
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This species was discovered in 1967 in Texas and formally named in 1980. It was rediscovered again in North America in 2016. This species is a member of the subgenus Vinckeia of the genus Plasmodium. The genus Plasmodium is most closely related to Polychromophilus.
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Plasmodium ovale wallikeri has been identified in Ghana, Myanmar, Nigeria, São Tomé, Sierra Leone and Uganda.
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Enumeration of Plasmodium parasites (blue) in human red blood cells (pink) to quantify relative parasite load.
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Notable members include marine algae, potato blight, dinoflagellates, Paramecium, brain parasite (Toxoplasma) and malarial parasite (Plasmodium).
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The parasite was first described by Telford et al. in 1979.Telford S.R. Jr., Nayar J.K, Foster G.W., Knight J.W. (1997) Plasmodium forresteri n. sp., from raptors in Florida and southern Georgia: its distinction from Plasmodium elongatum morphologically within and among host species and by vector susceptibility.
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As before Leukocytozoon was basal in this tree. The next clade to diverge was that of the Haemoproteus species. The remaining genera lay within the currently established genus Plasmodium. The authors suggested that the origin of the Plasmodium/Hepatocystis clade was likely to have been in Africa.
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This species was first described in 1952 by Rodhain. Several subspecies have been described since.Carter, R. and Walliker, D. 1975: New observations on the malaria parasites of rodents of the Central African Republic - Plasmodium vinckei petteri subsp. nov. and Plasmodium chabaudi Landau, 1965. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol.
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The parasite was first described by Landau et al. in 2003.Landau I., Chabaud A. G., Bertani S., Snounou G. (2003) Taxonomic status and re-description of Plasmodium relictum (Grassi et Feletti, 1891), Plasmodium maior Raffaele, 1931, and description of P. bigueti n. sp. in sparrows. Parassitologia.
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Hepatocystis appears to be a sister group to the great ape-rodent clade with the lower primate clade being ancestral to all three. In terms of Plasmodium subgenera they suggest that the subgenus Plasmodium is ancestral to both Laverania and Vinckeia. A study of parasites infecting bats found that the bats were infected by species of the genera Hepatocystis, Plasmodium, Polychomophilus and Nycteria. A phylogenetic tree which included these genera along with Haemoproteus and Leukocytozoon species was examined.
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Phylogenetic analyses place it as basal to Plasmodium species. Its inclusion in a phylogenetic tree suggests that the mammalian species are monophytic. A study of 114 mitochondrial genomes from species belonging to four genera - Haemoproteus, Hepatocystis, Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium - has shown that like Plasmodium, Leucocytozoon and Haemoproteus are not monophyletic taxa. The estimated times of the divergence of these genera was after the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary (about ) and coincided with the evolution of the extant avian orders.
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The most likely place of origin of the ticks is Northern Gondwana and most probably within the region that now constitutes Eastern Africa. A molecular Bayesian study of Babesia and Theileria species along with Plasmodium species suggests that Babesia and Theileria are sister clades and that they diverged from Plasmodium ~ (95% credible interval: - ) The dating in this study used a date of for the origin of the genus Plasmodium. The authors also estimated that Theileria evolved (95% credible interval – ) and that Babesia evolved (95% credible interval –) Another analysis suggests that Babesia and Theileria are more closely related to the adeleid species than to Plasmodium. An examination of sequences from Babesiidae, Cryptosporiidae, Eimeriidae, Plasmodiidae, Sarcocystiidae, Theileriidae, a Perkinsus species and 2 dinoflagellates suggests that Plasmodium and Cryptosporidium are sister taxa and that Hepatozoon is basal to them.
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Plasmodium brasilianum is a parasite that infects many species of platyrrhine monkeys in South and Central America.
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This subgenus was created by Telford to refine the classification of species then given as Plasmodium tropiduri.
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Plant Pathology. 5th ed. Academic Press. link. The vegetative form is a multinucleate cell, called a plasmodium.
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After a few days, the plasmodium cleaves into multinucleate portions, each of which develops into a zoosporangium.
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Some antimicrobial peptides in the venom of Mesobuthus eupeus; meucin-13 and meucin-18 have extensive cytolytic effects on bacteria, fungi, and yeasts, while meucin-24 and meucin-25 selectively kill Plasmodium falciparum and inhibit the development of Plasmodium berghei, both malaria parasites, but do not harm mammalian cells.
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The genus was divided into two subgenera — Polychromophilus and Bioccala but the subgenus Bioccala was raised to genus status in 1984. This genus along with Haemoproteus and Hepatocystis appears to be a sister clade to Plasmodium. It appears to have evolved from the avian/saurian clade of Plasmodium.
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Plica plica harbors parasites such the digenea flatworm Mesocoelium monas and several nematodes, such as Oswaldocruzia vitti, Physalopteroides venancioi, Strongyluris oscari, and Physaloptera retusa. The protozoan Plasmodium guyannense was first described from this lizard in 1979.Telford SR (1979). "Reconsideración taxonómica de algunas especies de Plasmodium de lagartijas iguánidas ".
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Nycteria is the sister taxon to the genus Plasmodium. The genome of Haemoproteus tartakovskyi has been sequenced. Its genome (23.2 megabases) is similar in size to those of Plasmodium. Its GC content is 25.4% which is closer to that of P. falciparum (19.3%) than to P. vivax (42.3%).
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This species was first described by Huff and Hoogstraal in 1963 in the black lemur Lemur collaris.Huff C.G.,Hoogstraal H. J. (1963) Plasmodium lemuris N. Sp., from Lemur collaris E. Geoffroy. J. Infect Dis. 112:233-236 This species may belong to the genus Haemoproteus rather than to Plasmodium.
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Plasmodium dominicana is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium. The species is only known from a mosquito fossil, dating from the Cenozoic era, that was found embedded in amber. The mosquito vector was identified as Culex malariager. The fossil was found in what is now the Dominican Republic.
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It has been proposed to rename P. gora and P. gorb as Plasmodium adleri and Plasmodium blacklocki respectively. It has also been proposed that P. billbrayi be considered a junior synonym of P. gaboni. The full genomes of the seven species are now sequenced and available on PlasmoDB.
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Sexual Stage: This stage follows a similar pattern to the asexual stage, but with a few exceptions. It is hypothesized that two zoospores fuse together to form a dikaryotic zoospore (with two separate haploid nuclei, n+n) and then infect the roots. Once the infection occurs, the dikaryotic zoospore develops into a binucleate plasmodium (one pair on nuclei, n+n). Similar to the asexual stage, this plasmodium will also replicate its nucleus to create a multinucleate plasmodium (many pairs of nuclei, n+n).
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RpiA generated attention when the enzyme was found to play an essential role in the pathogenesis of the parasite Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of malaria. Plasmodium cells have a critical need for a large supply of the reducing power of NADPH via PPP in order to support their rapid growth. The need for NADPH is also required to detoxify heme, the product of hemoglobin degradation. Furthermore, Plasmodium has an intense requirement for nucleic acid production to support its rapid proliferation.
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Inoculating mosquitoes with this strain reduced the prevalence of the Malaria causing organism (Plasmodium) by up to 98%.
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It has also been used to study the structure of Plasmodium falciparum, a particularly pathogenic form of malaria.
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Red blood cell infected with malaria The Plasmodium species infecting primates include the parasites causing malaria in humans.
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The parasite was first described by Jong in 1971. On morphological grounds it is related to Plasmodium durae.
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This species separated from its closest known relative - Plasmodium ovale curtisi - between 1.0 and 3.5 million years ago.
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This species separated from its closest known relative, Plasmodium ovale wallikeri, between 1.0 and 3.5 million years ago.
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The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum requires POFUT2 for efficient transmission to mosquitoes and infection of human liver cells.
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Bioactive molecules extracted from its bark have been reported to have antiplasmodial activity in tests with Plasmodium falciparum.
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Malaria involves the cyclical infection of animals (human and non-human) and mosquitoes from the genus Anopheles with a number of Plasmodium species. The Plasmodium parasite is transferred to the mosquito as it feeds on the blood of the infected animal whereupon it begins a sporogenic cycle in the gut of the mosquito that will infect another animal at the next blood meal. There does not seem to be any deleterious effects to the mosquito as a result of the parasitic infection. The Plasmodium brasilianum parasite normally found in primates is morphologically similar to the malarial inducing Plasmodium malariae that is more commonly found in humans and it is contested as to whether the two are actually different species.
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Schall J.J. (2000) Transmission success of the malaria parasite Plasmodium mexicanum into its vector: role of gametocyte density and sex ratio. Parasitol. 121 (6):575-580 Additional species continue to be described.Perkins S.L., Austin C. (2008) Four new species of Plasmodium from New Guinea lizards: Integrating morphology and molecules. J. Parasitol.
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A study of Nycteria suggests that Leukocytozoon is basal, followed by Heamoproteus. The sister group to Plasmodium/Nycteria/Polychromophilus/Hepatocystis is Paraheamaproteus. Hepatocystis appears to be a derived clade arising from with the subgenus Plasmodium. Polychromophilius is more closely related to the bird/lizard group than to the mammal infecting species.
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Plasmodium atheruri is a species of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Vinckeia. As in all members of this genus, it is parasitic on vertebrate and insect hosts. The natural vertebrate host is the African porcupine (Atherurus africanus) but it is possible to infect the large vesper mouse (Calomys callosus) and Meriones unguiculatus.
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Plasmodium brumpti are differentiated from other Plasmodium species by several characteristics. In the blood of the reptile host, parasites in the schizont stage produce 12-22 merozoites. The gametocytes are elongated and ovular. Both schizonts and gametocytes are fairly large, more than twice the size of the host cell nucleus.
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Mutations in this gene have been associated with venous thromboembolism and myocardial infarction, as well as with late fetal loss during pregnancy. The protein is also involved in Plasmodium falciparum malaria as subtypes of the Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) family use EPCR of the host as a receptor.
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Plasmodium juxtanucleare is a species of parasite in the family Plasmodiidae. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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Duration of Plasmodium sporogony and gonotrophic cycle of the vector is reduced that increases the risk of malaria transmission.
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Plasmodium Glutamate dehydrogenase (pGluDH) precipitated by host antibodies An accurate diagnosis is becoming more and more important, in view of the increasing resistance of Plasmodium falciparum and the high price of alternatives to chloroquine. The enzyme pGluDH does not occur in the host red blood cell and was recommended as a marker enzyme for Plasmodium species by Picard-Maureau et al. in 1975. The malaria marker enzyme test is suitable for routine work and is now a standard test in most departments dealing with malaria.
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This species must be differentiated from Plasmodium ashfordi, Plasmodium caloti and Plasmodium vaughani merulae. P. ashfordi produces 7–8 merozoites per schizont but P. alaudae lacks the fan shaped schizonts found in P. ashfordi. P. caloti is unique among the species with 8–10 merozoites per schizont infecting the skylark (Alauda arvensis) in the enlargement of the erythrocyte that it causes. Although P. vaughani may also produce 8 merozoites per schizont, it possesses a bluish refractile globule that is not found in P. alaudae.
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Plasmepsins are a class of at least 10 enzymes ( and ) produced by the Plasmodium falciparum parasite. There are ten different isoforms of these proteins and ten genes coding them respectively in Plasmodium (Plm I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, IX, X and HAP). It has been suggested that the plasmepsin family is smaller in other human Plasmodium species. Expression of Plm I, II, IV, V, IX, X and HAP occurs in the erythrocytic cycle, and expression of Plm VI, VII, VIII, occurs in the exoerythrocytic cycle.
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Maurer's clefts are membranous structures seen in the red blood cell during infection with Plasmodium falciparum. The function and contents of Maurer's clefts are not completely known; however, they appear to play a role in trafficking of Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) and other adhesins to the red blood cell surface.
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Lacertamoeba is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium — all of which are parasites. All species in this subgenus infect reptiles.
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Symptoms of malaria During his days at Public Health Research Institute, Sharma was successful in cloning the knob protein gene of Plasmodium falciparum, one of the protozoan parasites causing malaria, in 1984. At AIIMS, he led a group of researchers who carried out molecular epidemiological studies of the parasites causing malaria and their studies widened the understanding of the parasites' resistance to chloroquine and antifolate drugs. He is credited with the identification of P. falciparum strains in India, isolation of P. falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, another non-cultivable protozoan parasite, as well as the development of a genomic library of Plasmodium vivax. It was his group which reported the first incidence of malaria in humans caused by Plasmodium knowlesi, a primate malarial parasite.
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It is primarily active against Plasmodium falciparum, but also against Plasmodium vivax. Due to the emergence of pyrimethamine-resistant strains of P. falciparum, pyrimethamine alone is seldom used now. In combination with a long-acting sulfonamide such as sulfadiazine, it was widely used, such as in Fansidar, though resistance to this combination is increasing.
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Once inside, the multinucleate plasmodium divides to spread and produce more zoospores. The plasmodium causes the infected host cells to multiply rapidly and enlarge into a gall. This rapid multiplication also produces uninucleate cells that aggregate together as sporosori. The sporosori look like a powdery mass within the gall, which gives this disease its name.
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Plasmodium bertii is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Papernaia.Gabaldon A, Ulloa G (1981) A new species of the subgenus Novyella (Haemosporina, Plasmodiidae) from Aramides cajanea (Gruiformes, Rallidae). In: Canning EV (ed) Parasitological topics. A presentation volume to P. C. C. Garnham on the occasion of his 80th birthday, Special Publication no. 1.
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Anopheles barbirostris is a species complex of mosquito belonging to the genus Anopheles. Larvae found in clean, lotic bodies of water. Females are zoophilic, mainly feed blood on cattle and humans. It is also an important vector for Plasmodium falciparum in Sri Lanka and Timor, for both Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum in Bangladesh.
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Das Gupta maintained the Plasmodium species by serial passage in monkeys until Knowles returned from leave. In 1932, Knowles and Das Gupta published their description of the Plasmodiium species and their account of how it could be transmitted from monkey to human by blood passage to three human volunteers. The Plasmodium species was not given a name by Knowles and Das Gupta but was named Plasmodium knowlesi by Sinton and Mulligan in 1932. Das Gupta was the director of the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine from 1943 until his death in 1945.
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Plasmodium coatneyi was first discovered in 1961 by Dr. Don Eyles in the Malaysian state of Selangor. Plasmodium coatneyi was isolated from an Anopheles hackeri before being found in its primate host species. This was the first occurrence of acquiring a new form of malaria through its vector instead of an infected host specimen. The sample was first thought to be Plasmodium knowlesi due to the morphological similarities of the two species, but was later identified as separate due to having a tertiary periodicity compared to P. knowlesi’s quartan periodicity.
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Duffy antigen/chemokine receptor (DARC), also known as Fy glycoprotein (FY) or CD234 (Cluster of Differentiation 234), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ACKR1 gene. The Duffy antigen is located on the surface of red blood cells, and is named after the patient in whom it was discovered. The protein encoded by this gene is a glycosylated membrane protein and a non-specific receptor for several chemokines. The protein is also the receptor for the human malarial parasites Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium knowlesi and simian malarial parasite Plasmodium cynomolgi.
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Small studies in Slovakia and Spain found no blood parasites, but a larger Spanish survey found some evidence of Plasmodium infection.
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Because the feeding process of the Plasmodium parasites damages red blood cells, malaria is sometimes called "parasitic hemolysis" in medical literature.
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This infection may occur naturally. Their potential role - if any - as a source of human infection is unknown. Two additional species within the subgenus Laverania have been identified on the basis of DNA sequences alone: Plasmodium billbrayi and Plasmodium billcollinsi. and bonobos P. billbrayi was found in two subspecies of chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes troglodytes and Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii).
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This species resembles Plasmodium sasai and Plasmodium tropiduri. It may be distinguished from these species by the following characteristics: P. sasai possess fan-shaped schizonts and its gametocytes are more heavily pigmented P. tropiduri has more variability in shape and greater vacuolation of the gametocytes. Host and geographic differences further support the distinction of these species.
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There was a long debate on the taxonomy. It was only in 1954 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature officially approved the binominal Plasmodium falciparum. The valid genus Plasmodium was created by two Italian physicians Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli in 1885. The species name was introduced by an American physician William Henry Welch in 1897.
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In the spring, resting spores in the soil germinate and produce zoospores. These zoospores swim through the moist soil and enter host plants through wounds or root hairs. A plasmodium is formed from the division of many amoeba-like cells. This plasmodium eventually divides and forms secondary zoospores that are once again released into the soil.
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Primaquine is a medication used to treat and prevent malaria and to treat Pneumocystis pneumonia. Specifically it is used for malaria due to Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale along with other medications and for prevention if other options cannot be used. It is an alternative treatment for Pneumocystis pneumonia together with clindamycin. It is taken by mouth.
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Plasmodium acuminatum is a species in the genus Plasmodium subgenus Lacertamoeba. This species is a protozoan parasite which infects reptiles. Originally described in 1960 infecting Chamaeleo fischeri in Tanzania, this species has not been observed since. As such, little is known about the life cycle and prevalence of the parasite, and its insect host has not been identified.
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Malaria transmission has two peaks, during the rainy season in May and in October/November. Plasmodium falciparum causes the majority of infections.
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Malaria is widespread among both adults and children, with the parasite Plasmodium falciparum involved in 80 to 90 percent of the cases.
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Observations on the life-cycle of Plasmodium malariae. The Australian journal of experimental biology and medical science. 26(Pt. 6): 515–519.
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In 1889 Grassi and Feletti, as an honor to Laveran, proposed the genus name Laverania . It is now a subgenus of Plasmodium.
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In October 1941, H. Levinson joined the Malaria Research Station of the Hebrew University (Director: Prof. Dr. Gideon Mer) in Rosh Pina (Upper Galilee, Palestine) and performed examinations of the mosquito species Anopheles saccharovi, Anopheles sergentii and Anopheles superpictus for availability of the sporozoans Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium vivax or Plasmodium ovale, inhabiting the blood-sucking females of the above mosquito species. He also investigated the suppression of larval populations of Anopheline species in their aquatic breeding sites by either biological, physical or chemical measures. At the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, H. Levinson studied chemistry, microbiology, zoology as well as entomology, and also investigated the development of resistance towards DDT and other organic insecticides in cyclorrhaphous fly species, wherefore he received the degree of M.Sc. in 1954.
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These symptoms are to a certain degree comparable to symptoms of cerebral malaria in patients infected with the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.
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Vinckeia Parasites infecting other mammals including lower primates (lemurs and others) are classified in the subgenus Vinckeia. The type species is Plasmodium bubalis.
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Some of these molecules can inhibit protozoan parasites such as Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, Leishmania and parasitic intestinal worms, and thus have potential in medicine.
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Plasmodium pulmophilium has only been described from the blood of Anomalurus peli. It is not known if it causes disease in this host.
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Close-up of the yellow aethelia Like many slime molds, the cells of this species typically aggregate to form a plasmodium, a multinucleate mass of undifferentiated cells that may move in an ameboid-like fashion during the search for nutrients. F. septica's plasmodium may be anywhere from white to yellow-gray, typically in diameter, and thick. The plasmodium eventually transforms into a sponge-like aethalium, analogous to the spore-bearing fruiting body of a mushroom; which then degrades, darkening in color, and releases its dark-colored spores. F. septica produces the largest aethalium of any slime mold.
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The crown of the tree was formed by the subgenus Plasmodium and the genus Hepatocytis. This tree did not support the inclusion of P. ovale in the subgenus Vinckeia but agreed with previous analyses suggesting that P. malaria is more closely related to the Asian clade than P. ovale is. Several of the bat infecting Plasmodium species appear to be related to the rodent species. Bats appear to have evolved ~ in Africa which - assuming that the phylogenetic tree in Schaer et al is correct - places an upper limit on the date for the evolution of the mammalian species of Plasmodium.
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The presence of Plasmodium dominicana and the related species Vetufebrus ovatus in Dominican amber suggests that this genus was present after the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary (about ). Although Poinar has suggested a date of ~, the precise dating of Dominican amber is controversial so an exact date for these species cannot currently be safely assigned. Another study found that Haemoproteus consists of two taxa and that the genus Plasmodium is paraphyletic with respect to Hepatocystis. The same study also found that Plasmodium species of mammals form a well supported clade and this clade was associated with specialization to Anopheles mosquito vectors.
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The RTS,S vaccine was engineered using genes from the repeat and T-cell epitope in the pre-erythrocytic circumsporozoite protein (CSP) of the Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasite and a viral envelope protein of the hepatitis B virus (HBsAg), to which was added a chemical adjuvant (AS01) to increase the immune system response. Infection is prevented by inducing humoral and cellular immunity, with high antibody titers, that block the parasite from infecting the liver. The T-cell epitope of CSP is O-fucosylated in Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, while the RTS,S vaccine produced in yeast is not.
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Ceratiomyxa is a genus of plasmodial slime mould within the Eumycetozoa, first described by Pier Antonio Micheli. They are widely distributed and commonly found on decaying wood. The plasmodium often appears as white frost-like growth or thin watery layers on wood. Pillar or wall-like sporangia bud from the plasmodium and develop spores that undergo multiple divisions before they release flagellated zoospores.
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The life cycle of slime moulds is very similar to that of fungi. Haploid spores germinate to form swarm cells or myxamoebae. These fuse in a process referred to as plasmogamy and karyogamy to form a diploid zygote. The zygote develops into a plasmodium, and the mature plasmodium produces, depending on the species, one to many fruiting bodies containing haploid spores.
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Avian malaria or Plasmodium relictum affects owls and specifically, 44% of northern and Californian spotted owls harbor 17 strains of the parasite. As mentioned in the niche competition section above, spotted owls and barred owls are in competition so their niche overlap may be resulting in the plasmodium parasite having more hosts in a concentrated area but this is not certain.
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A similar relationship exists between malaria and sickle-cell disease. One theory to explain this is that cells infected with the Plasmodium parasite are cleared more rapidly by the spleen. This phenomenon might give G6PD deficiency carriers an evolutionary advantage by increasing their fitness in malarial endemic environments. In vitro studies have shown that the Plasmodium falciparum is very sensitive to oxidative damage.
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Gametocytes are elongated. The type species is Plasmodium elongatum. Novyella Mature schizonts are either smaller than or only slightly larger than the host nucleus. They contain scanty cytoplasm. Gametocytes are elongated. Sexual stages in this subgenus resemble those of Haemoproteus. A white/blue globule is present in the cytoplasm. Exoerythrocytic schizogony occurs in the mononuclear phagocyte system The type species is Plasmodium vaughani.
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The timing of this event has yet to be established. At present both types of P. vivax circulate in the Americas. The monkey parasite - Plasmodium simium - is related to the Old World strains rather than to the New World strains. A specific name - Plasmodium collinsi - has been proposed for the New World strains but this suggestion has not been accepted to date.
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Human red blood cell infected by the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, showing a residual body with brown hemozoin. During its intraerythrocytic asexual reproduction cycle Plasmodium falciparum consumes up to 80% of the host cell hemoglobin. The digestion of hemoglobin releases monomeric α-hematin (ferriprotoporphyrin IX). This compound is toxic, since it is a pro-oxidant and catalyzes the production of reactive oxygen species.
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They showed that the parasites lived inside blood cell, and that they divide by simple splitting (fission). They were the first to recognize several the stages of development of the malarial parasite in human blood. They called the new microorganism Plasmodium in 1885. Their works helped to differentiate different types of malaria as a result of infection with different species of Plasmodium.
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Thujaplicins are shown to act against Reticulitermes speratus (Japanese termites), Coptotermes formosanus (super termites), Dermatophagoides farinae (dust mites), Tyrophagus putrescentiae (mould mites), Callosobruchus chinensis (adzuki bean weevil), Lasioderma serricorne (cigarette beetle). Hinokitiol has also shown some larvicidal activities against Aedes aegypti (yellow fever mosquito) and Culex pipiens (common house mosquito), and anti-plasmodial activities against Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium berghei.
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The new protein was unable to bind to melanoma cells and present only inside the cell. Hence, they named the earlier protein Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1), to distinguish it from the newly identified Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 2 (PfEMP2). The distinction was confirmed the next year, with an additional information that PfEMP1 is relatively less in number.
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Anopheles is a genus of mosquitoes (Culicidae). Of about 484 recognised species, over 100 can transmit human malaria, but only 30–40 commonly transmit parasites of the genus Plasmodium that cause malaria, which affects humans in endemic areas. Anopheles gambiae is one of the best known, because of its predominant role in the transmission of the deadly species Plasmodium falciparum.
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Thanks to the properties of subtelomeres, Plasmodium falciparum evades host immunity by varying the antigenic and adhesive character of infected erythrocytes (see Subtelomeric transcripts).
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They are found only in mature erythrocytes. Gametocytes are elongated. Exoerythrocytic schizogony occurs in the mononuclear phagocyte system. The type species is Plasmodium circumflexum.
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In 1967, it was reported that a level of immunity to the Plasmodium berghei parasite could be given to mice by exposing them to sporozoites that had been irradiated by x-rays. Subsequent human studies in the 1970s showed that humans could be immunized against Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum by exposing them to the bites of significant numbers of irradiated mosquitos. From 1989 to 1999, eleven volunteers recruited from the United States Public Health Service, United States Army, and United States Navy were immunized against Plasmodium falciparum by the bites of 1001–2927 mosquitoes that had been irradiated with 15,000 rads of gamma rays from a Co-60 or Cs-137 source. This level of radiation is sufficient to attenuate the malaria parasites so that, while they can still enter hepatic cells, they cannot develop into schizonts nor infect red blood cells.
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Plasmodium youngi is a protozoan parasite which can cause malaria in certain primates. It is known to infect and cause severe disease in Malayan gibbons.
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The parasite was first described by Warren et al. in 1965.Warren McW., Bennett G.F., Sandosham A.A. and Coatney G.R. (1965) Plasmodium eylesi sp. nov.
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This species was described by Manawadu in 1972.Manawanu B.R. (1972) A new saurian malaria parasite Plasmodium clelandi sp. n. from Ceylon. J. Euk. Micro.
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The natural vectors of this species are not currently known. One possible is the female Anopheles mosquito which serves as a vector for Plasmodium vivax.
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In stationary plasmodia rubular contractions are spatially organized across the entire plasmodium in a peristaltic wave. Cytoplasmic streaming is likely to contribute to plasmodium migration. Here, contraction patterns are observed to correlate with migration speed. For dumbbell-shaped microplasmodia, often termed Amoeboid plasmodia, stiffening of the cortex in the rear versus the front seem instrumental in breaking the symmetry for the contraction wave to translate into migration.
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Traditionally, Q. amara is used as a digestive, to treat fever, and against hair parasites (lice, fleas) and mosquito larvae in ponds (which has not proven harmful to fish populations). The component Simalikalactone D was identified as an antimalarial. The preparation of a tea out of young leaves is used traditionally in French Guiana. Experiments showed a high inhibition of Plasmodium yoelii yoelii and Plasmodium falciparum.
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Plasmodium falciparum is a unicellular protozoan parasite of humans, and the deadliest species of Plasmodium that causes malaria in humans. The parasite is transmitted through the bite of a female Anopheles mosquito and causes the disease's most dangerous form, falciparum malaria. It is responsible for around 50% of all malaria cases. P. falciparum is therefore regarded as the deadliest parasite in humans, causing 405,000 deaths in 2018.
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FLT3L and its receptor are involved in the mammalian immune response to malaria. In strains of plasmodium, FLT3L was shown to be released from mast cells and cause the expansion of dendritic cells, leading to the activation of CD8+ T cells. The same paper suggested that FLT3L release was caused by stimulation of mast cells with uric acid, produced from a precursor secreted by the plasmodium parasite. .
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An apicoplast is a derived non-photosynthetic plastid found in most Apicomplexa, including Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium falciparum and other Plasmodium spp. (parasites causing malaria), but not in others such as Cryptosporidium. It originated from algae (there is debate as to whether this was a green or red alga) through secondary endosymbiosis. The apicoplast is surrounded by four membranes within the outermost part of the endomembrane system.
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In some taxa the hypothallus may be involved in the formation of the fruit body. In the "epihypothallic" Stemonitida, the hypothallus forms hollow, tubular stems and a columella, up which the remaining plasmodium then rises, producing the spores. In all other myxogastria "subhypothallic" development takes place. Here, the hypothallus produces a layer on the plasmodium, which creates the rooms of the single fruit bodies during fructification.
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This species was later renamed P. reichenowi. The other two species — P. rhodaini and P. schwetzi — have since been placed in the subgenus Plasmodium. The noticeable differences between P. falciparum and the other known Plasmodium species led to the proposal that it be placed in a separate genus Laverania. This suggestion was not accepted but the proposed name is now used as the subgenus.
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The phyogenetic tree suggests that the genus Nycteria belongs in a clade that contains the lizard and bird species, that Polychromophilus form a clade with P. odocoilei and that Hepatocystis species in bats forms a clade with the primate and rodent species. It also suggests that the closest relation to Plasmodium - other than Nycteria, Polychromophilus and Hepatocystis - is the subgenus Parahaemaproteus and that this sugbenus is more closed related to Plasmodium that to the genus Haemoproteus. This study suggests that the subgenus Vinkeia is now in need of revision. Another paper suggests the transfer of the ancestor of Plasmodium from lizards to bats without passage via birds.
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Out of 51 faecal samples from habituated individuals, 25 were shown to have Plasmodium DNA. Laverania, which is a subgenus of the parasitic protozoan genus Plasmodium, was found in these studies. Varying exposure to different Anopheles mosquitoes transmitting Plasmodium species is known to be the origin of malaria in western lowland gorillas. Wild western lowland gorillas are known to consume the seeds of the "grains of paradise" plant, apparently conferring healthy cardiovascular conditions from their consumption — the occasionally poor cardiovascular health of lowland gorillas in zoos has been postulated to be due to the lack of availability of the Aframomum seeds in zoo gorillas' diets.
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She briefly worked in London in the 1960s in the group of Cyril Garnham at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, where she met and begun collaborating with Wallace Peters and Robert Killick-Kendrick. During a research trip to the Central African Republic in 1964/5 Landau isolated and described the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium chabaudi (naming it after her supervisor) from local Thamnomys rutilans thicket rats. She brought these samples with her to London, and together with Killick-Kendrich they isolated and identified another new rodent malaria species. The species was similar to Plasmodium berghei, and it was named Plasmodium yoelii in homage to the malarial researcher Meir Yoeli.
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Plasmodium berghei is found in the forests of Central Africa, where its natural cyclic hosts are the thicket rat (Grammomys surdaster) and the mosquito (Anopheles dureni).
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Allen Press, Lawrence, pp 100–105 Like all Plasmodium species P. bertii has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are birds.
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The sexual phase of the Plasmodium life cycle is completed with the fertilization of a macrogamete by a flagellar microgamete, and the subsequent generation of sporozoites.
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The sexual phase of the Plasmodium life cycle is completed with the fertilization of a macrogamete by a flagellar microgamete, and the subsequent generation of sporozoites.
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"RE: Current research on Plasmodium malariae." Email to Chibuzo Eke. 18 February 2009. In that event, it is possible that the results from Müller-Stöver et al.
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Bennettinia is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium - all of which are parasitic unicellular eukaryotes. The subgenus was created in 1997 by Valkiunas.Valkiunas, G. (1997). Bird Haemosporidia.
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Under conditions of starvation or desiccation, the amoebae differentiate reversibly into dormant spores with cell walls. When immersed in water, amoebae differentiate reversibly into flagellated cells, which involves a major reorganization of the cytoskeleton. The plasmodium is typically diploid and propagates via growth and nuclear division without cytokinesis, resulting in the macroscopic multinucleate syncytium. While nutrients are available, the network-shaped plasmodium can grow to a foot or more in diameter.
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Reticulocyte binding protein homologs (RHs) are a superfamily of proteins found in Plasmodium responsible for cell invasion. Together with the family of erythrocyte binding-like proteins (EBLs) they make up the two families of invasion proteins universal to Plasmodium. The two families function cooperatively. This family is named after the reticulocyte binding proteins in P. vivax, a parasite that only infects reticulocytes (immature red blood cells) expressing the Duffy antigen.
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In 2009, Ollomo et al. published the complete mitochondrial genome of Plasmodium gaboni, which was not yet named at the time. The parasite belongs to the P falciparum/P reichenowi lineage. It has been proposed that Plasmodium gaboni diverged from the P falciparum/P reichenowi lineage about 21 million years ago, leading to the conclusion that the ancestor of this parasite clade could have been already present in hominid ancestors.
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Humans may have originally caught Plasmodium falciparum from gorillas. P. vivax, another malarial Plasmodium species among the six that infect humans, also likely originated in African gorillas and chimpanzees. Another malarial species recently discovered to be transmissible to humans, P. knowlesi, originated in Asian macaque monkeys. While P. malariae is highly host specific to humans, there is some evidence that low level non-symptomatic infection persists among wild chimpanzees.
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Malaria is a global health problem that threatens 300-500 million people and kills more than one million people annually. The chloroquine-based drugs that were used widely in the past have lost effectiveness because the Plasmodium parasite that causes malaria has become resistant to them. Artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone endoperoxide, extracted from Artemisia annua L is highly effective against Plasmodium spp. resistant to other anti-malarial drugs.
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Plasmodium falciparum hemozoin crystals under polarised light. Haemozoin is a disposal product formed from the digestion of blood by some blood-feeding parasites. These hematophagous organisms such as malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.), Rhodnius and Schistosoma digest haemoglobin and release high quantities of free heme, which is the non-protein component of hemoglobin. Heme is a prosthetic group consisting of an iron atom contained in the center of a heterocyclic porphyrin ring.
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This plasmodium stage usually exists from late spring until early fall. Plasmodium will then begin to form fruiting bodies, which will hold the haploid spores. The spores will develop within a walled structure, and when they are mature they will be released to disperse through multiple means. Wind has often been cited as the main means of dispersal, but other modes such as sticking to insect legs have been proposed.
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This subspecies was described by Telford and Telford in 2003.Telford S. R. Jr. and Telford S.R. III (2003) Rediscovery and redescription of Plasmodium pifanoi and description of two additional Plasmodium parasites of Venezuelan lizards. J. Parasitol. 89(2) 362–368 It is characterized by very small, usually fan-shaped, schizonts that average 3.4 × 2.6 micrometres (range: 2.5 – 4.5 × 2.0 – 3.0). The schizonts produce 3.9 (range: 3 – 4) merozoites.
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Sauramoeba is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium, all of which are parasitic eukaryotes. The subgenus was created in 1966 by Garnham. Species in this subgenus infect reptiles.
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Resistance of Plasmodium to anti-malaria drugs, as well as resistance of mosquitos to insecticides and the discovery of zoonotic species of the parasite have complicated control measures.
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This species was described by Telford in 1971.Telford SR Jr. (1971) A malaria parasite, Plasmodium aurulentum sp. nov. from the neotropical forest gecko Thecadactylus rapicaudus. J. Protozool.
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The tetracyclines also have activity against certain eukaryotic parasites, including those responsible for diseases such as dysentery caused by an amoeba, malaria (a plasmodium), and balantidiasis (a ciliate).
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Analysis made on 1,261 samples revealed that at least six Plasmodium species circulate in great apes in Gabon, with P. billcollinsi being found faecal samples from 791 chimpanzees.
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Paraplasmodium is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium - all of which are parasitic eukaryotes. The subgenus was created by Telford in 1988. Species in this subgenus infect lizards.
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GFP (green) in erythrocytes; visualised using a fluorescence microscope Plasmodium berghei infection of laboratory mouse strains is frequently used in research as a model for human malaria. In the laboratory the natural hosts have been replaced by a number of commercially available laboratory mouse strains, and the mosquito Anopheles stephensi, which is comparatively easily reared and maintained under defined laboratory conditions. Plasmodium berghei is used as a model organism for the investigation of human malaria because of its similarity to the Plasmodium species which cause human malaria. P. berghei has a very similar life-cycle to the species that infect humans, and it causes disease in mice which has signs similar to those seen in human malaria.
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The parasite was first described by Scorza and Dagbert in 1957.Scorza JV & Dagert BC (1957) Sobre un nuevo Plasmodium en Anolis sp. del Estado Bolivar. Acta biol. venez.
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The parasite was first described by Ayala et al. in 1978.Ayala S.C., Moreno-Robles E., Bolaños- Herrera, R. (1978) Plasmodium pessoai sp. n. procedentes de dos serpientes costarricenses.
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The parasite was first described by Garnham in 1965.Garnham P.C. (1965) Plasmodium wenyoni sp. nov., a malaria parasite of a Brazilian snake. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg.
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For example, the hookworm species Necator americanus. Parasites that infect more than one host are said to have a complex or indirect life-cycle. For example, the malaria plasmodium.
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This species was first described by Dionisi in 1899. A subspecies (P. melanipherum monosoma) was later described by Vassal in 1907. P. melanipherum was described to resemble Plasmodium malariae.
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Certain bacteria and many other organisms also express aquaporins. Aquaporins also been discovered in the fungi- Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast), Dictyostelium, Candida and Ustilago and the protozoans- Trypanosoma and Plasmodium.
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Asiamoeba is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium - all of which are parasitic unicellular eukaryotes. The subgenus was created by Telford in 1988. Species in this subgenus infect lizards.
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The parasite was first described by Poinar in 2005. It appears that it may have been a relation of Plasmodium juxtanucleare which would place it in the subgenus Bennettinia.
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Haemocystidium is distinguished from Plasmodium by the absence of an asexual cycle in circulating blood cells It is distinguished from Haemoproteus by meronts that do not form as pseudocytomeres.
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One disadvantage is that dipstick tests are qualitative but not quantitative – they can determine if parasites are present in the blood, but not how many. The first rapid diagnostic tests were using Plasmodium glutamate dehydrogenase as antigen. PGluDH was soon replaced by Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH). Depending on which monoclonal antibodies are used, this type of assay can distinguish between different species of human malaria parasites, because of antigenic differences between their pLDH isoenzymes.
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It has recently (November 2011) been found that basigin is a receptor that is essential to erythrocyte invasion by most strains of Plasmodium falciparum, the most virulent species of the plasmodium parasites that cause human malaria. It is hoped that by developing antibodies to the parasite ligand for Basigin, Rh5, a better vaccine for malaria might be found. Basigin is bound by the PfRh5 protein on the surface of the malaria parasite.
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MMV's project portfolio focuses on delivering efficacious medicines that are affordable, accessible, and appropriate for use in malaria endemic areas. Specifically, the goal is to develop products that will provide: efficacy against drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum, potential for intermittent treatments (infants and pregnancy), safety in small children (less than 6 months old), safety in pregnancy, efficacy against Plasmodium vivax (including radical cure), efficacy against severe malaria, and transmission-blocking treatment.
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Chart of the genus Plasmodium life cycle. The life cycle of P. coatneyi takes the complex form representative of the genus Plasmodium. When a female Anopheles mosquito bites a human, a haploid form of the protozoan called a sporozoite is transferred from the salivary glands into the circulatory system of the human. These motile sporozoites are then taken by the circulatory system to the liver, where they invade the liver cells (hepatocytes).
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Quartan fever is one of the four types of malaria which can be contracted by humans. It is specifically caused by the Plasmodium malariae species, one of the six species of the protozoan genus Plasmodium. Quartan fever is a form of malaria where an onset of fever occurs in an interval of three-four days, hence the name "quartan." It is transmitted by bites of infected female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles.
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Similar to the other human- infecting Plasmodium parasites, Plasmodium malariae has distinct developmental cycles in the Anopheles mosquito and in the human host. The mosquito serves as the definitive host and the human host is the intermediate. When the Anopheles mosquito takes a blood meal from an infected individual, gametocytes are ingested from the infected person. A process known as exflagellation of the microgametocyte soon ensues and up to eight mobile microgametes are formed.
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Plasmodium vivax is a protozoal parasite and a human pathogen. This parasite is the most frequent and widely distributed cause of recurring malaria. Although it is less virulent than Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest of the five human malaria parasites, P. vivax malaria infections can lead to severe disease and death, often due to splenomegaly (a pathologically enlarged spleen). P. vivax is carried by the female Anopheles mosquito; the males do not bite.
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Plasmodium vivax is found mainly in Asia, Latin America, and in some parts of Africa. P. vivax is believed to have originated in Asia, but latest studies have shown that wild chimpanzees and gorillas throughout central Africa are endemically infected with parasites that are closely related to human P. vivax. These findings indicate that human P. vivax is of African origin. Plasmodium vivax accounts for 65% of malaria cases in Asia and South America.
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The secondary infection by the zoospores can infect the first host or surrounding hosts. These secondary zoospores can be transmitted to other fields through farm machinery or water erosion. They form a secondary plasmodium that affects plant hormones to cause swelling in root cells. These cells eventually turn into galls or “clubs”. The secondary plasmodium forms the overwintering resting spores which get released into the soil as the “clubs” rot and disintegrate.
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The program allows users to search through 14 chromosomes of the malaria parasite's genome, enter their own sequence data and notes, and compare findings across species. The Malaria Genome Browser also supports text and sequence based searches that provide quick, precise access to any region of specific interest in the malaria genome. This site contains the reference genome sequence and working draft assembly for Plasmodium falciparum from PlasmoDb, the Plasmodium genome database build 5.0.
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However, a species with an extremely low GC-content is Plasmodium falciparum (GC% = ~20%),Whole genome data of Plasmodium falciparum on NCBI and it is usually common to refer to such examples as being AT-rich instead of GC-poor. Several mammalian species (e.g., shrew, microbat, tenrec, rabbit) have independently undergone a marked increase in the GC-content of their genes. These GC-content changes are correlated with species life-history traits (e.g.
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The parasite was first described by Manwell and Kuntz in 1966.Manwell RD and Kuntz RE. (1966) Plasmodium hegneri n. sp. from the European teal Anas c. crecca in Taiwan.
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The parasite was first described by Telford in 1986.Telford S.R. Jr. (1986) Studies on African saurian malarias: Plasmodium holaspi n. sp. from the flying lacertid Holaspis guentheri. J. Parasitol.
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Little is known about the occurrence of Babesia species in malaria-endemic areas, where Babesia can easily be misdiagnosed as Plasmodium. Human patients with repeat babesiosis infection may exhibit premunity.
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In 1967 she demonstrated that mice could acquire immunity to the Plasmodium berghei parasite by exposing the mice to P. berghei sporozoites that had been inactivated by X-ray irradiation.
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The parasite was first described by Pessoa and Fleury in 1968.Pessoa S.B. and Fleury G.C. (1968) Plasmodium tomodoni sp. n. parasita da serpente Tomodon dorsatus D & B. Rev. Brasil Biol.
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Protozoa such as Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, and Entamoeba, are endoparasitic. They cause serious diseases in vertebrates including humans – in these examples, malaria, sleeping sickness, and amoebic dysentery – and have complex life cycles.
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Like all Plasmodium species P. kentropyxi has both vertebrate and insect hosts. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are reptiles. The only known vertebrate host is the teiid lizard Kentropyx calcarata.
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The parasite was first described by Guindy et al. in 1965. Guindy E., Hoogstraal H., Mohammed Ah. (1965) Plasmodium garnhami sp. nov. from the Egyptian hoopoe (Upupa epops major Brehm) Trans.
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Her research has also included the origins of the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum; determining that P. falciparum was transmitted to humans from gorillas in a single event in West Africa.
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It is likely that the development of extensive agriculture increased mosquito population densities by giving rise to more breeding sites, which may have triggered the evolution and expansion of Plasmodium falciparum.
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Huffia is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium - all of which are parasites. The subgenus was created in 1963 by Corradetti et al.. Species in this subgenus infect birds with malaria.
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The parasite was first described by Perkins and Austin in 2008.Perkins S.L., Austin C. (2008) Four new species of Plasmodium from New Guinea lizards: Integrating morphology and molecules. J. Parasitol.
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The parasite was first described by Perkins and Austin in 2008.Perkins S.L., Austin C. (2008) Four new species of Plasmodium from New Guinea lizards: Integrating morphology and molecules. J. Parasitol.
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The parasite was first described by Perkins and Austin in 2008.Perkins S.L., Austin C. (2008) Four new species of Plasmodium from New Guinea lizards: Integrating morphology and molecules. J. Parasitol.
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PlasmoDB is a biological database for the genus Plasmodium. The database is a member of the EuPathDB project. The database contains extensive genome, proteome and metabolome information relating to malaria parasites.
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Haemamoeba is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium — all of which are parasites. The subgenus was created in 1963 by created by Corradetti et al.. Species in this subgenus infect birds.
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The plasmodium can reach sizes up to a meter across and moves through cytoplasmic streaming. Under favorable conditions, the plasmodium is capable of forming fruiting bodies and spores, which will be released and dispersed to grow into the first amoebic phase. Due to the phase being macroscopic, taxonomy of the Myxomycetes has been more heavily influenced by structures and morphology in the plasmodium than the smaller amoeboid stage. The order Trichiida is considered to be one of the endosporous myxomycetes, meaning that the spores of the organism are produced within fruiting bodies enclosed by a wall. The superorder Lucisporidia, known as the “brightly-spored” or “clear –spored” slime molds lacking a columella, which is an extension of the spore stalk through the structure that holds the spores.
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Golgi observed that all parasites present in the blood divided almost simultaneously at regular intervals and that division coincided with attacks of fever. In 1886 Golgi described the morphological differences that are still used to distinguish two malaria parasite species Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium malariae. Shortly after this Sakharov in 1889 and Marchiafava & Celli in 1890 independently identified Plasmodium falciparum as a species distinct from P. vivax and P. malariae. In 1890, Grassi and Feletti reviewed the available information and named both P. malariae and P. vivax (although within the genus Haemamoeba.) By 1890, Laveran's germ was generally accepted, but most of his initial ideas had been discarded in favor of the taxonomic work and clinical pathology of the Italian school.
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In 2005 Djimdé was awarded a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Fellowship. He is a Wellcome Sanger Institute Fellow. He works at the University of Bamako, where he and his research group are trying to identify how variation of the genome of plasmodium falciparum and anopheles gambiae help malaria to spread. He is involved with several collaborations across the Medical Research Council Centre for Genomics and Global Health, including MalariaGEN and the Plasmodium Diversity Network Africa (PDNA).
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Comparison of Plasmodium Lactate Dehydrogenase (PLDH) Malaria Antibodies P. falciparum lactate dehydrogenase (PfLDH) is a 33 kDa oxidoreductase [EC 1.1.1.27]. It is the last enzyme of the glycolytic pathway, essential for ATP generation and one of the most abundant enzymes expressed by P. falciparum. Plasmodium LDH (pLDH) from P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. ovale) exhibit 90-92% identity to PfLDH from P. falciparum. pLDH levels have been seen to reduce in the blood sooner after treatment than HRP2.
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Due to habitat preferences, coupled with particularly low rates of virus detection, Anopheles walkeri is considered to be an unlikely vector of West Nile virus to humans. In addition, it has not been shown to demonstrate any capacity of transmitting avian malaria (Plasmodium circumflexum and P. polare). However, specimens of A. walkeri in the southern United States have been shown to harbor the human infecting strains of malaria, Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum, albeit infrequently (freq= <0.005).
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CD8+ T cells play a key role in killing Plasmodium developing in liver. Mice or monkeys which received monoclonal antibody to the CD8 lost protection by this type of vaccine. Once the antibody application was stopped, the protection was returned. Plasmodium is injected by infected mosquito into the bloodstream of the host in the form of sporozoites, which travel to the liver and invade liver cells, where sporozoites divide and produce tens of thousands merozoites per one cell.
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Rayner's research interests encompass the origins of Plasmodium parasites, and how their invasion of red blood cells cause all the symptoms of malaria. Working with collaborators such as Beatrice Hahn, he has demonstrated that Plasmodium falciparum is likely to have originated in gorillas, rather than chimpanzees or ancient humans. Together with colleagues at the Sanger Institute, Rayner has identified a key ligand which is essential for erythrocyte invasion by P. falciparum and therefore has significant anti-malarial potential.
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Plasmodium tenue is a parasite of the genus Plasmodium subgenus Novyella. This species is unusual in that the same specific name was used in two distinct papers published in the same year. It is currently thought that the species description by Stephens in man is likely to have been an artifact and that the accepted valid species is the one described from birds. This name still occurs in the literature for species found in humans that look atypical.
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Tafenoquine is used for the treatment of the hypnozoite stages of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale that are responsible for relapse of these malaria species even when the blood stages are successfully cleared. Primaquine for 14 days can also be used for this. The advantage of tafenoquine is that it has a long half-life (2–3 weeks) and therefore a single treatment is sufficient. For this use a single dose of 300 mg is recommended.
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P. falciparum was also once thought to originate from a parasite of birds. Levels of genetic polymorphism are extremely low within the P. falciparum genome compared to that of closely related, ape infecting species of Plasmodium (including P. praefalciparum). This suggests that the origin of P. falciparum in humans is recent, as a single P. praefalciparum strain became capable of infecting humans. The genetic information of Plasmodium falciparum has signaled a recent expansion that coincides with the agricultural revolution.
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The spread of drug-resistant malaria in Africa has encouraged the development of new, low-cost antimalarial drugs. Plasmodium falciparum, one of the Plasmodium species that causes malaria, has developed resistance both to chloroquine and sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine, two of the most common treatments for malaria. Artemisinin, another antimalarial drug, had been developed in the 1980s but was too expensive for large-scale use. This led GlaxoSmithKline to develop Lapdap, a combination drug consisting of chlorproguanil and dapsone.
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Papernaia is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium, all of which are parasitic protozoa. The subgenus was created in 2010 by Landau et al Species in this subgenus infect birds with malaria.
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Some Myxogastria species may produce asexually. These are continuously diploid. There is no meiosis before the germination of the spores and the production of the plasmodium proceeds without germination of two cells.
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Historically the role of this antigen other than its importance as a receptor for Plasmodium protozoa has not been appreciated. Recent work has identified a number of additional roles for this protein.
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The parasite was first described by Sandosham et al. in 1965.Sandosham A.A., Yap L.F., Omar I. (1965) A malaria parasite, Plasmodium (Vinckeia) booliati sp.nov., from a Malayan giant flying squirrel. Med.
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The study of parasitic diseases is called parasitology. Some parasites like Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium spp. can cause disease directly, but other organisms can cause disease by the toxins that they produce.
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A field study on blood parasites found that two individual crimson- backed tanagers (out of twelve tested) bore Plasmodium, with the study concluding the overall rate was low compared with studies done elsewhere.
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The term plasmodium, introduced by Leon Cienkowski,Kuznicki, L. & Dryl, S. (1987). Leon Cienkowski. Acta Protozoologica 26 (1): 1-2, . usually refers to the feeding stage of slime molds; these are macroscopic mycetozoans.
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In 2006, Tufet earned a PhD in cellular and molecular biology from the Faculty of Life Sciences at Imperial College London. Her thesis was titled "Search for Novel Rhoptry Proteins in Plasmodium Berghei".
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"Malaria and Rome" . Robert Sallares. ABC.net.au. 29 January 2003. Plasmodium falciparum became a real threat to colonists and indigenous people alike when it was introduced into the Americas along with the slave trade.
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The grey- cowled wood rail is the type host of Plasmodium bertii, an apicomplexan parasite, meaning that P. bertii was originally discovered on this organism. P. lutzi is also found on this bird.
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It has since been then established that it is most common among people in West Africa. It confers survival benefits as individual with HbC is naturally resistant to malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum.
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In birds the Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon species rarely change transmission area. These parasites are restricted to one resident bird fauna over a long evolutionary time span and are not freely spread between the continents with the help of migratory birds. Lineages of the genus Plasmodium in contrast seem more freely spread between the continents. This suggests that the origin on the genus Plasmodium may have coincided with the ability to transfer between avian hosts more easily than the other genera.
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Plasmodium coatneyi is a parasitic species that is an agent of malaria in nonhuman primates. P. coatneyi occurs in Southeast Asia. The natural host of this species is the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis fascicularis), but there has been no evidence that zoonosis of P. coatneyi can occur through its vector, the female Anopheles mosquito. While P. coatneyi cannot be transmitted to humans, it is similar enough to Plasmodium falciparum to warrant laboratory study as a model species.
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Sanaria is a biotechnology company developing vaccines protective against malaria and now recently COVID-19, as well as related products for use in malaria research. Sanaria’s vaccines are based on the use of the sporozoite (SPZ) stage of the malaria Plasmodium parasite as immunogen. The SPZ stage of the malaria parasite is inoculated into humans by mosquito bite. Sanaria has developed the technology to grow and harvest aseptic, purified Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) SPZ and formulate them for use in vaccines for human use.
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RUF4 is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) present within the plasmodium genome. Bioinformatic studies predicted that RUF4 was present within the plasmodium genome and the expression of this ncRNA was verified by Northern Blot. The location of this ncRNAs was subsequently mapped within the P. falciparum strain 3DF genome by primer extension. RUF4 is a novel RNA of unknown function but has shown to contain some structural similarity with the H/ACA box snoRNA but no known targets have been identified.
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RUF3 is a non-coding RNA(ncRNA) present within the plasmodium genome. Bioinformatic studies predicted that RUF3 was present within the plasmodium genome and the expression of this ncRNA was verified by Northern Blot. The location of this ncRNAs was subsequently mapped within the P. falciparum strain 3DF genome by primer extension. RUF3 is a novel RNA of unknown function but has shown to contain some structural similarity with the H/ACA box snoRNA but no known targets have been identified.
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RUF2 is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) present within the plasmodium genome. Bioinformatic studies predicted that RUF2 was present within the plasmodium genome and the expression of this ncRNA was verified by Northern Blot. The location of this ncRNAs was subsequently mapped within the P. falciparum strain 3DF genome by primer extension. RUF2 is a novel RNA of unknown function but has shown to contain some structural similarity with the H/ACA box snoRNA but no known targets have been identified.
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RUF1 is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) present within the plasmodium genome. Bioinformatic studies predicted that RUF1 was present within the plasmodium genome and the expression of this ncRNA was verified by Northern Blot. The location of this ncRNAs was subsequently mapped within the P. falciparum strain 3DF genome by primer extension. RUF1 is a novel RNA of unknown function but has shown to contain some structural similarity with the H/ACA box snoRNA but no known targets have been identified.
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The characterization of TEP1 and other similar insect immune factors in insects represent new opportunities to prevent the transmission of insect vector borne diseases. Research is currently focusing on vector/parasite interactions, specifically those between Plasmodium and Anopheles mosquitoes, in order to discover novel, improved malaria prevention methods. TEP1 is being explored as a possible target for genetic manipulation. A significant aim of this research is to create mosquito populations resistant to Plasmodium parasites therefore reducing the spread of malaria.
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J. Parasitol. 64(2)330-335 The species is named after Dr Samuel B Pessoa - a parasitologist at the Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil. Morphologically this species appears to be related to Plasmodium aurulentum.
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In biochemistry, dolichylation is the covalent addition of a dolichol group to a protein. This post-translational modification has been shown to occur in a number of eukaryotes, including the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum.
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Some eukaryotic organisms, such as protists and helminths, cause disease. One of the best known diseases caused by protists in the genus Plasmodium is malaria. These can range from 3-200 micrometers in length.
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The parasite was first described by Manwell and Sessler in 1971.Manwell R. D. and Sessler G. J. (1971) Plasmodium paranucleophilum n. sp. from a South American tanager. J. Protozool. 18(4):629-632.
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This species was first described in 1941 by Versiani and Gomes.Versiani, V. & Gomes, B. F. 1941 Sobre um novo hematozoario da galinha: Plasmodium juxtanucleare n.sp. (Nota previa). Revista Brasileira de Biologia 1, 231–233.
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PfATP6, also known as PfSERCA or PfATPase6, is a calcium ATPase gene encoded by the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. The protein is thought to be a P-type ATPase involved in calcium ion transport.
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This species infects crows (Corvus splendens).Rao, T.S.B., Devi, A. & Rao, T.B. (1977): Studies on experimental infection of Plasmodium venkataramiahii of the crow Corvus splendens in the chicks. Abstract, 5th International Congress on Protozoology: 194.
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Protozoan endoparasites, such as the malarial parasites in the genus Plasmodium and sleeping-sickness parasites in the genus Trypanosoma, have infective stages in the host's blood which are transported to new hosts by biting insects.
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Two competing models explaining chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Trends Parasitol. 2007; 23: 332–9. In addition, work with the Lanzer group led to the identification of a candidate gene for quinine and quinidine resistance.
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Fleas that parasitize it include Archaeopsylla and Thaumapsylla, and it has also been documented with the tick Alectorobius camicasi. Internal parasites (endoparasites) are the hemosporidian Plasmodium roussetti, which causes malaria, and the roundworm Nycteridocoptes rousetti.
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The parasite was first described by Ayala and Spain in 1976.Ayala S.C. and Spain J.L. (1976) A population of Plasmodium colombiense sp. n. in the iguanid lizard, Anolis auratus. J. Parasitol. 62:177-189.
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This species is found in Sri Lanka (Ceylon).Jong A.C. (1971) Plasmodium dissanaikei n. sp. a New Avian Malaria Parasite from the Ross-ringed Parakeet of Ceylon, Psittacula krameri manillensis[J]. Ceylon J. med. Sci.
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Betanin extracted from the red beet was used as starting material for the semisynthesis of an artificial betalainic coumarin, which was applied as a fluorescent probe for the live- cell imaging of Plasmodium-infected erythrocytes.
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He has also made important contributions the synthesis of deoxyglycosides and polyhydroxylated natural products, and to the design and synthesis of inhibitors of cysteine proteases targeting important human pathogens (e.g., Trypanosoma, Plasmodium and Entamoeba species).
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Vinckeia is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium — all of which are parasitic alveolates. The subgenus Vinckeia was created by Cyril Garnham in 1964 to accommodate the mammalian parasites other than those infecting the primates.
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Giovanolaia is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium created by Corradetti et al. in 1963. The parasites within this subgenus infect birds. This subgenus was shown on the basis of DNA analysis to be polyphyletic.
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When exposed to light, the starving plasmodium differentiates irreversibly into sporangia that are distinguished from other Physarum species by their multiple heads (hence polycephalum). Meiosis occurs during spore development, resulting in haploid dormant spores. Upon exposure to moist nutrient conditions, the spores develop into amoebae, or, in aqueous suspension, into flagellates. The life cycle is completed when haploid amoebae of different mating types fuse to form a diploid zygote that then develops by growth and nuclear division in the absence of cytokinesis into the multinucleate plasmodium.
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Artemisinin () and its semisynthetic derivatives are a group of drugs used against malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum. It was discovered in 1972 by Tu Youyou, who was co-recipient of the 2015 Nobel Prize in Medicine for her discovery. Treatments containing an artemisinin derivative (artemisinin- combination therapies, ACTs) are now standard treatment worldwide for P. falciparum malaria as well as malaria due to other species of Plasmodium. Artemisinin is isolated from the plant Artemisia annua, sweet wormwood, a herb employed in Chinese traditional medicine.
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Cipargamin was discovered by screening the Novartis library of 12,000 natural products and synthetic compounds to find compounds active against Plasmodium falciparum. The first screen turned up 275 compounds and the list was narrowed to 17 potential candidates. The current spiroindolone was optimized to address its metabolic liabilities leading to improved stability and exposure levels in animals. As a result, cipargamin is one of only a handful of molecules capable of completely curing mice infected with Plasmodium berghei (a model of blood-stage malaria).
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Members of Trichiida (and indeed all the orders of the Myxomycetes) follow the typical slime mold lifecycle without much deviation. The Myxomycete life cycle consists of two trophic phases: the smaller, amoebic phase where the organism has a single nucleus and may or may not also have flagellum for motility. The other phase is the macroscopic plasmodium, which arises from the fusion of multiple cells in the amoebic phase. This plasmodium is essentially a single cell with thousands of nuclei, that divide at the same time.
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Some protists reproduce sexually using gametes, while others reproduce asexually by binary fission. Some species, for example Plasmodium falciparum, have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually. However, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange between different strains of Plasmodium in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely exchange genes with other members of their species. Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5 billion years ago.
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The Duffy antigen is a protein located on the surface of red blood cells, encoded by the FY (DARC) gene. The protein encoded by this gene is a non-specific receptor for several chemokines, and is the known entry-point for the human malarial parasites Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium knowlesi. Polymorphisms in this gene are the basis of the Duffy blood group system. In humans, a mutant variant at a single site in the FY cis-regulatory region abolishes all expression of the gene in erythrocyte precursors.
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Plasmodiocarp of Hemitrichia serpula A plasmodiocarp is a special form of fruit bodies of slime moulds. It is produced if the plasmodium concentrates during the fructification and pull back into the venetion of the plasmodium, from which the fruit body is created. The fruit body traces the process of the venetion, whereby the structure of its subsurface becomes plainly strand- shaped, branched, net or ring-shaped. The production of plasmodiocarps can be generic, or can be also caused by the deranged development of sporocarps or aethalia.
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The parasite was first described by Telford in 1995.Telford S.R. Jr. (1995) Plasmodium spp. (Apicomplexa: Plasmodiidae) of the flying lizard Draco volans (Agamidae) Sys. Parasitol. 31 (1) 53-60 The schizonts produce 4–16 merozoites.
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The parasite was first described by de Mello and Diaz in 1936.de Mello F., Diaz E. (1936) Plasmodium narayani n.sp., parasite of the fish otter Lutea lutra. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. B 3:212-213.
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P. vivax LDH or an antigen sensitive to all plasmodium species which affect humans e.g. pLDH. Such tests do not have a sensitivity of 100% and where possible, microscopic examination of blood films should also be performed.
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Plasmodium brasilianum naturally infects species of primates from all New World monkey families from a large geographic area in Central and South America. The parasite has been found in Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Brazil, and French Guiana.
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However, Mor et al.. (1995) immunized and boosted mice with pDNA encoding the circumsporozoite protein of the mouse malarial parasite Plasmodium yoelii (PyCSP) and found that the initial TH2 response changed, after boosting, to a TH1 response.
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Chavatte J.-M., Grès V., Snounou G., Chabaud A.G. & Landau I. (2009) — Plasmodium (Apicomplexa) of the skylark (Alauda arvensis). Zoosystema 31 (2) 369-383. Trophozoites: the parasites are small and are located at ends of the erythrocyte.
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The Plasmodiidae are a family of apicomplexan parasites, including the type genus Plasmodium, which is responsible for malaria. This family was erected in 1903 by Mesnil and is one of the four families in the order Haemospororida.
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The plasmodial phase feeds by phagocytosis upon bacteria, fungi, moulds, yeasts, inorganic particles and spores. If conditions become too dry, the plasmodium changes into a sclerotium, a dry and dormant state, awaiting the return of wet conditions.
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It has been suggested that accumulation of biliverdin might deter harmful infection by Plasmodium malaria parasites, although no statistically significant correlation has been established. The Cambodian frog, Chiromantis samkosensis, also exhibits this characteristic along with turquoise bones.
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Both P. billcollinsi and P. billbrayi were suggested based on mtDNA and nuclear gene sequences, in addition to having been obtained from chimpanzee samples. Plasmodium billcollinsi is located at the root between P. falciparum and P. reichenowi.
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Cryptosporidium causes cryptosporidiosis, an infection that may present as a diarrhoeal with or without a persistent cough in immunocompetent hosts. Other apicomplexan pathogens include the malaria parasite Plasmodium and the toxoplasmosis parasite Toxoplasma. Unlike Plasmodium, which transmits via a mosquito vector, Cryptosporidium does not use an insect vector, and is capable of completing its lifecycle within a single host, resulting in cyst stages that are excreted in feces or through inhalation of coughed on fomites and are capable of transmission to a new host. A number of Cryptosporidium species infect mammals.
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This has led some to question the use of P. berghei infections in mice as an appropriate model of cerebral malaria in humans. Plasmodium berghei can be genetically manipulated in the laboratory using standard genetic engineering technologies. Consequently, this parasite is often used for the analysis of the function of malaria genes using the technology of genetic modification. Additionally, the genome of P. berghei has been sequenced and it shows a high similarity, both in structure and gene content, with the genome of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.
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These were subsequently placed into the genus Plasmodium although some workers continued to use the genera Laverinia and Proteosoma for P. falciparum and the avian species respectively. The 5th and 6th Congresses of Malaria held at Istanbul (1953) and Lisbon (1958) respectively recommended the creation and use of subgenera in this genus. Laverinia was applied to the species infecting humans and Haemamoeba to those infecting lizards and birds. This proposal was not universally accepted. Bray in 1955 proposed a definition for the subgenus Plasmodium and a second for the subgenus Laverinia in 1958.
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Sixty percent of malaria infections are due to the Plasmodium falciparum parasite, though the Plasmodium vivax parasite is also present. Insecticide resistance among vectors and antimalarial drug resistance have been documented in the country. Although much of Ethiopia remains at risk of malaria, routine surveillance data from the last decade have noted declines in malaria outpatient morbidity and inpatient mortality trends. Prompt access to malaria case management, including laboratory-based diagnosis in remote rural areas, has improved dramatically over the last decade together with surveillance systems that capture malaria morbidity and mortality.
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ELQ-300 is an experimental antimalarial medication. It is the first entry in a new class of antimalarials known as 4-quinolone-3-diarylethers. ELQ-300 acts as an inhibitor of the mitochondrial cytochrome bc1 complex (complex III in the electron transport chain) - A mechanism shared with some of the most potent fungicides known, the strobilurins. In preclinical studies with mice, it was found to be highly active against Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax at all life cycle stages that play a role in the transmission of malaria, and to have good oral bioavailability.
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Recently, studies in malaria-endemic areas suggest that placental malaria (PM) may be associated with a dysregulation in angiopoietins. Increased levels of angiopoietin-1 appear to be associated with a decrease in placental weight and placental barrier thickness in women infected with Plasmodium (the causative agent of malaria). In a mouse model of PM, Plasmodium infection of pregnant mice led to decreased angiopoietin-1, increased angiopoietin-2, and an elevated ratio of angiopoietin-2/angiopoietin-1 in the placenta. This suggests that angiopoietin levels could be clinically significant biomarkers to identify mothers infected with PM.
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Chitnis's work is predominantly in the areas of molecular parasitology and vaccine development for malaria by understanding the molecular and cellular biology aspects of host-parasite interactions. His work has assisted in the development of antibodies against Plasmodium spp. and widened the understanding of the parasite-binding proteins and their interactions with the Duffy blood group antigen of the host red blood cells. Furthermore, his research group is involved in the studies of molecular signaling during the blood stage of Plasmodium falciparum, especially the process of invasion and egress from erythrocytes.
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This is compared to the quartan periodicity shown in some other Plasmodium species, such as P. knowlesi which occurs every three days. P. coatneyi, unlike many other species in the genus Plasmodium, is a cause of cerebral malaria. The symptoms of this severe form of malaria include impaired consciousness such as a coma, seizures, brain swelling, intracranial hypertension, and other neurological abnormalities. While the exact mechanism for cerebral malaria is not known, the most commonly used explanation is the sequestration of the protozoan infected erythrocytes in the microvasculature of the brain.
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KAHRP (knob-associated histidine-rich protein) is a protein expressed by Plasmodium falciparum infecting erythrocytes. KAHRP is a major component of knobs, feature found on Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocytes. It has been suggested that KAHRP may play a role in trafficking or docking PfEMP1, major malarial cytoadherence protein to the erythrocyte membrane; however, these findings were disputed by recent NMR and fluorescence anisotropy studies showing no interaction between PfEMP1 and KAHRP. Instead, KAHRP was shown to interact with Ankyrin, more precisely the D3 subunit of the Membrane-binding domain of Ankyrin type 1.
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About 460 species are recognised; while over 100 can transmit human malaria, only 30–40 commonly transmit parasites of the genus Plasmodium, which cause malaria in humans in endemic areas. Anopheles gambiae is one of the best known, because of its predominant role in the transmission of the most dangerous malaria parasite species (to humans) – Plasmodium falciparum. The name comes from the Ancient Greek word 'useless', derived from , 'not', 'un-' and 'profit'. Mosquitoes in other genera (Aedes, Culex, Culiseta, Haemagogus, and Ochlerotatus) can also serve as vectors of disease agents, but not human malaria.
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Unlike Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax is capable of undergoing sporogonic development in the mosquito at lower temperatures. It has been estimated that 2.5 billion people are at risk of infection with this organism. Although the Americas contribute 22% of the global area at risk, high endemic areas are generally sparsely populated and the region contributes only 6% to the total population at risk. In Africa, the widespread lack of the Duffy antigen in the population has ensured that stable transmission is constrained to Madagascar and parts of the Horn of Africa.
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Laveran's drawing in his 1880 notebook showing different stages of Plasmodium falciparum from fresh blood. In 1880, while working in the military hospital in Constantine, Algeria, he discovered that the cause of malaria is a protozoan, after observing the parasites in a blood smear taken from a patient who had just died of malaria. He found the causative organism to be a protozoan which he named Oscillaria malariae, but later renamed Plasmodium. This was the first time that protozoans were shown to be a cause of disease of any kind.
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He established two types of malaria, tertian and quartan fevers caused by Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium malariae respectively. In 1886, he discovered that malarial fever (paroxysm) was produced by the asexual stage in the human blood (called erythocytic cycle, or Golgi cycle). In 1889–1890, Golgi and Ettore Marchiafava described the differences between benign tertian malaria and malignant tertian malaria (the latter caused by P. falciparum). By 1898, along with Giovanni Battista Grassi, Amico Bignami, Giuseppe Bastianelli, Angelo Celli and Marchiafava, he confirmed that malaria was transmitted by Anopheline mosquito.
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Primaquine is primarily used to prevent relapse of malaria due to Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale. It eliminates hypnozoites, the dormant liver form of the parasite, after the organisms have been cleared from the bloodstream. If primaquine is not administered to patients with proven P. vivax or P. ovale infection, a very high likelihood of relapse exists for weeks or months (sometimes years). Use in combination with quinine or chloroquine each of which is very effective at clearing P. vivax from blood, improves outcomes; they appear to also potentiate the action of primaquine.
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Given with chloroquine or quinine, clindamycin is effective and well tolerated in treating Plasmodium falciparum malaria; the latter combination is particularly useful for children, and is the treatment of choice for pregnant women who become infected in areas where resistance to chloroquine is common. Clindamycin should not be used as an antimalarial by itself, although it appears to be very effective as such, because of its slow action. Patient- derived isolates of Plasmodium falciparum from the Peruvian Amazon have been reported to be resistant to clindamycin as evidenced by in vitro drug susceptibility testing.
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Several mechanisms have been proposed for the production of hemozoin in Plasmodium, and the area is highly controversial, with membrane lipids, histidine-rich proteins, or even a combination of the two, being proposed to catalyse the formation of hemozoin. Other authors have described a Heme Detoxification Protein, which is claimed to be more potent than either lipids or histidine-rich proteins. It is possible that many processes contribute to the formation of hemozoin. The formation of hemozoin in other blood-feeding organisms is not as well-studied as in Plasmodium.
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In vivo assays showed that these two toxins have potential to be insecticidal agents, with MeuNaTxa-12 having 5-fold higher toxicity than MeuNaTxa-13. A number of antimicrobial peptides have also been found in the venom of M. eupeus. Meucin-13 and Meucin-18 exhibited extensive cytolytic effects on bacteria, fungi and yeasts. Furthermore, Meucin-24 and Meucin-25, first identified from genetic sequences expressed in their venom gland, were shown to selectively kill Plasmodium falciparum and inhibit the development of Plasmodium berghei, both malaria parasites, but do not harm mammalian cells.
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Collins was infected twice with Plasmodium during his years of laboratory work. He was the author or coauthor of more than 450 scientific publications. Upon his death he was survived by his widow, two children, and two grandchildren.
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Carinamoeba is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium - all of which are parasitic unicellular eukaryotes. The subgenus was created in 1966 by Garnham.Garnham P.C.C. (1966) Malaria parasttes and other haemospordia. Oxford, Blackwell Species in this subgenus infect reptiles.
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The gametocytes like the schizonts are small. The type species is Plasmodium minasense. Lacertaemoba The schizonts are medium-sized and undergo 3 to 5 nuclear divisions. The gametocytes are medium-sized Paraplasmodium The schizonts are of medium size.
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The gametocytes like the schizonts are large. The asexual stages tend to disappear from the lymphocytes once the gametocytes appear in the lymphocytes. The type species is Plasmodium agamae. Ophidiella The species in this subgenus infect only snakes.
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Initially, the optical mapping system has been used to construct whole-genome restriction maps of bacteria, parasites, and fungi.Lai, Z., et al. "A Shotgun Optical Map of the Entire Plasmodium Falciparum Genome." Nature genetics 23.3 (1999): 309–13.
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Adults go through a complete postnuptial moult that begins at the end of June in northern India. Plasmodium parasites including Haemoproteus have been detected in their blood. Feather mites of the genus Neodectes are found on the species.
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Inactivation of ODC by difluoromethylornithine (eflornithine) is used to treat cancer and facial hair growth in postmenopausal females. ODC is also an enzyme indispensable to parasites like trypanosoma, giardia, and plasmodium, a fact exploited by the drug eflornithine.
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STING-TBK1-IRF mediated type I interferon response is central to the pathogenesis of experimental cerebral malaria in laboratory animals infected with Plasmodium berghei. Laboratory mice deficient in type I interferon response are resistant to experimental cerebral malaria.
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The cytoplasm stains pale blue. The nucleus is about 1 micrometre in diameter. There are no morphological features to distinguish them from any other Plasmodium species. The life cycle in the mosquito has been studied in several species.
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Recently, histone deacetylase inhibitors showed activity against certain Plasmodium species and stages which may indicate they have potential in malaria treatment. It has been shown that HDIs accumulate acetylated histone H3K9/H3K14, a downstream target of class I HDACs.
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The term was first used by Clay G. Huff from the University of Chicago.Huff, Clay G. (1942). Schizogony and gametocyte development in Leucocytozoon simondi and comparisons with Plasmodium and Haemoproteus in studying parasitic diseases. The Journal of Infectious Diseases.
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Poinar G Jr. (2005) Plasmodium dominicana n. sp. (Plasmodiidae: Haemospororida) from Tertiary Dominican amber. Syst. Parasitol. 61(1):47-52. The vertebrate host of this species is unknown but it seems likely that it may have been a bird.
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While at Agnes Scott, MacDougall studied protozoology and cytology. She studied the polyploid and diploid of chilodonella uncinata, as well as mutation inheritances found in them. MacDougall also researched the chromosomes of plasmodium, avian malaria and neuromotors of chlamydodon.
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Purpura fulminans is a presenting feature of severe acute sepsis, such as Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Group A and B Streptococci, and less commonly with Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, or Plasmodium falciparum (malaria) infections, particularly in individuals with asplenia.
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Since all these graphs are nested together they are referred to as the Toussaint hierarchy.A. Adamatzky, "Developing proximity graphs by physarum polycephalum : Does the plasmodium follow the Toussaint hierarchy," Parallel Processing Letters, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2009, pp. 105-127.
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One such species, namely Plasmodium ovale, was first described in 1914 by Stephens in a blood sample taken from a patient in Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh in the autumn of 1913. He married in 1901 and was the father of two sons.
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Dionicia Gamboa is a Peruvian parasitologist and associate professor at Institute of Tropical Medicine Alexander von Humboldt, Cayetano Heredia University. Her research focusses on Plasmodium vivax, a major malaria parasite species in South America (as well as South-East Asia).
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Barbigerone from S. globosus is validated to have significant antioxidant property. Barbigerone exhibits profound antiplasmodial activity against the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum. It is also demonstrated that it has anti-cancer potential as it causes apoptosis of murine lung-cancer cells.
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Plasmodium knowlesi has been known since the 1930s in Asian macaque monkeys and as experimentally capable of infecting humans. In 1965 a natural human infection was reported in a U.S. soldier returning from the Pahang Jungle of the Malaysian peninsula.
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The parasite was first described by Telford in 1979.Telford S.R. Jr. (1979) A malarial parasite of Australian skinks, Plasmodium mackerrasae sp. n. J. Parasitol. 65(3):409-413 Both schizonts and gametocytes parasitize all cells in the erythrocyte series.
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The life cycle is typical of a species of the genus Plasmodium. It has a 72-hour (or quartan) periodicity. Salivary gland sporozoites appear in Anopheles dirus 13 days post feeding. The prepatent period in the vertebrate host is 8 days.
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Apicomplexans are parasites of animals and contain an arrangement of organelles called the apical complex. One example of an apicomplexan is Malaria. Five species of plasmodium cause malaria in animals. Malaria is transmitted by the bite of an infected female mosquito.
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Plasmodium malariae wiki P. malariae is the only human malaria parasite that causes fevers that recur at approximately three- day intervals (therefore occurring every fourth day, a quartan fever), longer than the two-day (tertian) intervals of the other malarial parasites.
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A variety of parasites can affect the lungs, including Toxoplasma gondii, Strongyloides stercoralis, Ascaris lumbricoides, and Plasmodium malariae.Murray and Nadel (2010). Chapter 37. These organisms typically enter the body through direct contact with the skin, ingestion, or via an insect vector.
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Another unconventional function of complex II is seen in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Here, the reversed action of complex II as an oxidase is important in regenerating ubiquinol, which the parasite uses in an unusual form of pyrimidine biosynthesis.
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Mitteilungen aus dem Institut für Allgemeine Botanik in Hamburg 17: 49-55. #Lagerberg,T. 1945: Ett fynd av Brefeldia maxima (Fr.) Rost. Svensk botanisk tidskrift 39: 432-434. #Lister,A. 1888: Notes on the plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis and Brefeldia maxima.
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The expression of a protein named PTEF (after Plasmodium falciparum translation- enhancing factor) has been described to be necessary for the translation machinery to overcome the uORF and produce VAR2CSA protein, but the mechanism behind it remains to be elucidated.
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One statistical model predicts by 2030, the climate of southern Great Britain will be climatically suitable for malaria transmission Plasmodium vivax for 2 months of the year. By 2080 it is predicted that the same will be true for southern Scotland.
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They soon realized that the compound was very insoluble and made it in capsules instead. On 4 October 1971 they successfully treated malaria in experimental mice (infected with Plasmodium berghei) and monkeys (infected with Plasmodium cynomolgi) using the new extract. In August 1972 they reported a clinical trial in which 21 malarial patients were cured. In 1973 the Yunnan scientists and those at the Shandong Institute of Pharmacology independently obtained the antimalarial compound in a crystalline form gave the name huanghaosu or huanghuahaosu, eventually renamed qinghaosu (yet later to be popularised as "artemisinin", after the botanical name).
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The Plasmodium helical interspersed subtelomeric proteins (PHIST) or ring- infected erythrocyte surface antigens (RESA) are a family of protein domains found in the malaria-causing Plasmodium species. It was initially identified as a short four-helical conserved region in the single-domain export proteins, but the identification of this part associated with a DnaJ domain in P. falciparum RESA (named after the ring stage of the parasite) has led to its reclassification as the RESA N-terminal domain. This domain has been classified into three subfamilies, PHISTa, PHISTb, and PHISTc. The PHIST proteins are exported to the cytoplasm of the infected erythrocyte.
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She studies the interactions between hepatocytes (liver cells) and their microenvironment and develops microfabrication tools to improve cellular therapies for liver disease in an approach referred to as hepatic tissue engineering. The goal is to maximize hepatocyte function, facilitate design of effective cellular therapies for liver disease, and improve fundamental understanding of liver physiology and pathophysiology. The approach has been used to study diseases including hepatitis and malaria. Since 2008, with assistance from the Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV), and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation her lab has worked on the development of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax cell- based assays.
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Two main tapetum types are recognised, secretory (glandular) and plasmodial (amoeboid). In the secretory type a layer of tapetal cells remains around the anther locule, while in the plasmodial type the tapetal cell walls dissolve and their protoplasts fuse to form a multinucleate plasmodium. A third, less common type, the invasive non- syncytial tapetum has been described in Canna, where the tapetal cell walls break down to invade the anther locule but do not fuse to form a plasmodium. Amongst the monocots Acorales, the first branching clade has a secretory tapetum, while the other alismatid clade, Alismatales are predominantly plasmodial.
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Although type I IFN is absolutely critical for resistance to viruses, there is growing literature about the negative role of type I interferon in host immunity mediated by STING. AT-rich stem-loop DNA motif in the Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium berghei genome and extracellular DNA from Mycobacterium tuberculosis have been shown to activate type I interferon through STING. Perforation of the phagosome membrane mediated by ESX1 secretion system allows extracellular mycobacterial DNA to access host cytosolic DNA sensors, thus inducing the production of type I interferon in macrophages. High type I interferon signature leads to the M. tuberculosis pathogenesis and prolonged infection.
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He named the parasite Oscillaria malariae (later renamed Plasmodium malariae) and reported his discovery to the French Academy of Medicine in Paris on 23 November and 28 December. For his discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1907.
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Plasmodium circumflexum was found in their blood of a specimen examined in Bangladesh. Three species of parasitic cestode Hymenolepis smythi, H. fista and Retinometra fista are known from hosts of the species. The trematode Cyclocoelum sp. was recorded as a parasite in Queensland.
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Heme ligase (, heme detoxification protein, HDP, hemozoin synthase) is an enzyme with systematic name Fe3+:ferriprotoporphyrin IX ligase (beta-hematin- forming). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : 2 ferriprotoporphyrin IX \rightleftharpoons beta-hematin This heme detoxifying enzyme is found in Plasmodium parasites.
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Myxozoan spores release amoebulae into their hosts for parasitic infection, but also reproduce within the hosts through the pairing of two nuclei within the plasmodium, which develops from the amoebula."Myxozoa ". Tree of Life web project. Ivan Fiala 10 July 2008. Web.
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P. vivax proportionally is more common outside Africa. There have been documented human infections with several species of Plasmodium from higher apes; however, except for P. knowlesi—a zoonotic species that causes malaria in macaques—these are mostly of limited public health importance.
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Protozoa like Plasmodium or Toxoplasma which can cause congenital toxoplasmosis with multiple cysts in the brain and other organs, leading to a variety of neurological deficits. Some cases of schizophrenia may be related to congenital infections though the majority are of unknown causes.
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This ultimately divides to form new spores, which are released when the host's cells burst. Both resting spores and motile zoospores, which generally have two smooth flagella, are produced at different stages. Within the plasmodium, dividing nuclei have a distinctive cross-like appearance.
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Plasmodium parasites and smallpox as well as certain cancers.R. J. Amato, M. Stepankiw: Evaluation of MVA-5T4 as a novel immunotherapeutic vaccine in colorectal, renal and prostate cancer. In: Future oncology (London, England). Band 8, Nummer 3, März 2012, , S. 231–237, , .
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Species of Haemoproteus are known from the blood of mynas and they have also been found to host Plasmodium circumflexum when artificially infected in the lab. Other parasites that have been found in the jungle myna include Dorisa aethiopsaris in the intestine.
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Novyella is a subgenus of the genus Plasmodium - all of which are parasites. The subgenus was created in 1963 by Corradetti et al.. Species in this subgenus infect birds. It unites the avian malaria parasites with small erythrocytic meronts and elongated gametocytes.
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In 2006, forensic and toxicology experts at the University of Florence reported evidence of arsenic poisoning in a study published in the British Medical Journal, but in 2010 evidence of the parasite Plasmodium falciparum, which causes malaria, was found in Francesco's remains.
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The parasite was first described by Perkins and Austin in 2008.Perkins S.L., Austin C. (2008) Four new species of Plasmodium from New Guinea lizards: Integrating morphology and molecules. J. Parasitol. The name is derived from the Latin "to draw green blood".
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Artesunate/amodiaquine, sold under the trade name Camoquin among others, is a medication used for the treatment of malaria. It is a fixed-dose combination of artesunate and amodiaquine. Specifically it recommended for acute uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. It is taken by mouth.
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In Escherichia coli, platensimycin, thiolactomycin, and iodoacetamide are also known inhibitors. Optimal pH range will vary depending on the organism. In Escherichia coli, the range is 5.5–6.1. In Streptoccoccus pneumonia, 6.8–7, in Plasmodium falciparum 7.5, and in Spinacia oleracea, 8.1–8.5.
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A trophozoite (G. trope, nourishment + zoon, animal) is the activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of certain protozoa such as malaria-causing Plasmodium falciparum and those of the Giardia group. (The complement of the trophozoite state is the thick-walled cyst form).
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Hematozoa is a subclass of blood parasites of Apicomplexa clade. Well known examples include Plasmodium spp. causing the human malaria, or Theileria in cattles, but a large number of species are known to infect birds and are transmitted by arthropod vectors.Hematozoa - Aconoidasida at tolweb.org.
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Hemolysis inside the body can be caused by a large number of medical conditions, including many Gram-positive bacteria (e.g., Streptococcus, Enterococcus, and Staphylococcus), some parasites (e.g., Plasmodium), some autoimmune disorders (e.g., drug-induced hemolytic anemia, atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS)), some genetic disorders (e.g.
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Released merozoites either invade other hepatocytes or erythrocytes. Within the erythrocytes the merozoites first become ring forms, then trophozoites and finally gametocytes. The gametocytes are huge and fill the entire erythrocyte. Like those of Plasmodium and unlike those of Hepatozoon their nuclei are Feulgen negative.
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The parasite was first described by Garnham and Telford in 1984.Garnham P.C. and Telford S.R. Jr. (1984) A new malaria parasite Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) heischi in skinks (Mabuya striata) from Nairobi, with a brief discussion of the distribution of malaria parasites in the family Scincidae.
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Morphological comparisons of the Plasmodium (Novyella) species reported from North American birds, with comments on a species from the barred owl Strix varia Barton. Systematic parasitology, 22(1), 17-24. NeodiplostomumLittle, J. W., & Hopkins, S. H. (1939). Trematodes from the barred owl, Strix varia.
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It has been suggested that P. vivax has horizontally acquired genetic material from humans. Plasmodium vivax is not known to have a particular gram stain (negative vs. positive) and may appear as either. There is evidence that P. vivax is itself infected by viruses.
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A map detailing areas where malaria is endemic. Malaria is a parasitic disease transmitted by an Anopheles mosquito to a human host. The parasite that causes malaria belongs to the genus Plasmodium. Once infected, malaria can take a wide variety of forms and symptoms.
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Mutations in cytochrome b primarily result in exercise intolerance in human patients; though more rare, severe multi-system pathologies have also been reported. Single-point mutations in cytochrome b of Plasmodium falciparum and P. berghei are associated with resistance to the anti-malarial drug atovaquone.
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The parasite was first described by Mackerras in 1961 and was designated as Plasmodium giganteum. It was redescribed in 1988 by Telford who recognised it as a separate species.Telford JR 1988. A contribution to the systematics of the reptilian malaria parasites, family Plasmodiidae (Apicomplexa: Haemosporina).
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Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) is a family of proteins present on the membrane surface of red blood cells (RBCs or erythrocytes) that are infected by the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum. PfEMP1 is synthesized during the parasite's blood stage (erythrocytic schizogony) inside the RBC, during which the clinical symptoms of falciparum malaria are manifested. Acting as both an antigen and adhesion protein, it is thought to play a key role in the high level of virulence associated with P. falciparum. It was discovered in 1984 when it was reported that infected RBCs had unusually large-sized cell membrane proteins, and these proteins had antibody-binding (antigenic) properties.
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During World War II, Trager served as a captain in the US Army Sanitary Corps supervising clinical trials with the antimalarial atabrine. After the war, Trager turned his research focus to malaria, investigating the conditions required to grow Plasmodium parasites in culture. He began with work on the bird malaria parasite Plasmodium lophurae, working both on extending the survival of the parasite in culture, and characterizing the nutrients that made birds susceptible to infection. In 1950, Trager moved along with the rest of the Department of Animal and Plant Pathology to the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research campus in New York City, where he would work until his retirement.
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Human genetic resistance to malaria refers to inherited changes in the DNA of humans which increase resistance to malaria and result in increased survival of individuals with those genetic changes. The existence of these genotypes is likely due to evolutionary pressure exerted by parasites of the genus Plasmodium which cause malaria. Since malaria infects red blood cells, these genetic changes are most commonly alterations to molecules essential for red blood cell function (and therefore parasite survival), such as hemoglobin or other cellular proteins or enzymes of red blood cells. These alterations generally protect red blood cells from invasion by Plasmodium parasites or replication of parasites within the red blood cell.
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Tayras prey on tropical forest tinamous. There are over 240 species of bird lice that infest tinamous, with one individual bird recorded as hosting nine species. Blood parasites include louse flies, leeches, nematodes, cestodes, armadillo ticks, mites, and trematodes. Darwin's nothura may carry a malarial plasmodium.
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Jessica Kissinger is a Distinguished Research Professor at the Franklin College of Arts and Sciences, University of Georgia and director of the Institute of Bioinformatics. Her research focus is on the evolution, assembly and data curation of protozoan parasite genomes, particularly Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium.
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110 Chameleons are subject to several protozoan parasites, such as Plasmodium which causes malaria, Trypanosoma which causes sleeping sickness, and Leishmania which causes leishmaniasis. Chameleons are subject to parasitism by coccidia,Le Berre and Bartlett, p. 109 including species of the genera Choleoeimeria, Eimeria, and Isospora.
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Plasmepsin I (, aspartic hemoglobinase I, PFAPG, malaria aspartic hemoglobinase) is an enzyme. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : Hydrolysis of the -Phe33-Leu- bond in the alpha-chain of hemoglobin, leading to denaturation of the molecule This enzyme is present in the malaria organism, Plasmodium.
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This species is found in ChinaHuang Y, Yang Z, Putaporntip C, Miao M, Wei H, Zou C, Jongwutiwes S, Cui L. (2010) Isolation and identification of a South China strain of Plasmodium inui from Macaca fascicularis. Vet Parasitol and also the Celebes, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.
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The continuing work with the plasmepsin associated with P. malariae, plasmepsin 4, by Professor Ben Dunn and his research team from the University of Florida may provide hope for long term malaria control in the near future.Dunn, Ben."RE:Current research on Plasmodium malariae." Email to Chibuzo Eke.
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Wai-Hong Tham is a Malaysian associate professor at the University of Melbourne and the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research (WEHI), and joint head of the division of Infectious Disease and Immune Defense. She researches the molecular biology of the malaria parasite Plasmodium vivax.
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Plasmodium falciparum is a parasite that causes malaria in humans. A serious complication of malaria is cerebral malaria (CM). CM occurs when red blood cells break through the blood–brain barrier, causing microhemorrhages, ischemia and glial cell growth. This can lead to microglial aggregates called Durck's granulomas.
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Prototrichia metallica is a very variable species. The plasmodium is white. The fruit bodies are grouped densely. They are orange brown to dull brown, occasionally pink, short stemmed or are lying on a heavily regenerated edge, rarely plasmodiokarp sporokarps with a diameter from 0.5 to 2.2 mm.
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The eta family of CAs was recently found in organisms of the genus Plasmodium. These are a group of enzymes previously thought to belong to the alpha family of CAs, however it has been demonstrated that η-CAs have unique features, such as their metal ion coordination pattern.
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Ceratiomyxa plasmodia is diploid and can often be found emerging from rotting wood and spreading into a thin layer. The plasmodium then fruits to form sporangia: erect pillar or wall-like structures. The sporangia mature in about six hours. Many small stalks emerge from the sporangia to form protospores.
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Artemether/lumefantrine, sold under the trade name Coartem among others, is a combination of the two medications artemether and lumefantrine. It is used to treat malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum that is not treatable with chloroquine. It is not typically used to prevent malaria. It is taken by mouth.
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Ciliates have cells that contain two nuclei: a macronucleus and a micronucleus. The schizont of apicomplexan parasites is a form of a coenocyte (i.e. a plasmodium in the general sense) as well as the plasmodia of microsporidian (Fungi) and myxosporidian (Metazoa) parasites. The trophont of syndinean (Dinoflagellata) parasites.
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A clade that infect ungulates has been identified. This clade includes species that infect water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and goats (Capra aegagrus hircus). The species infecting goats has been named Plasmodium caprae. This clade includes species that infect North American white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and African antelopes (Cephalophus).
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These reports have not gone unchallenged and the status of this putative species is unclear at present. This unnamed species has been named Plasmodium vivax-like and its genome has been sequenced. It is the closest relative of P. vivax. The species that infects water buffalo is presently unnamed.
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Herbs are usually collected as needed, as they tend to black out and dry poorly. Laboratory studies have shown that the herb contains ingredients that actually moderate the malaria-causing Plasmodium falciparum parasite. An extract from the leaves has been found to inhibit bacterial growth.SAXENA; PANT; JAIN; BHAKUNI.
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Evolutionary Origin and Adaptive Function of Meiosis'. Meiosis. InTech. (See eukaryote reproduction.) Thus, such findings suggest that meiotic sex arose early in eukaryotic evolution. Examples of protozoan meiotic sexuality are described in the articles Amoebozoa, Giardia lamblia, Leishmania, Plasmodium falciparum biology, Paramecium, Toxoplasma gondii, Trichomonas vaginalis and Trypanosoma brucei.
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A review of 22 randomized controlled trials of ITNsLengeler C. (2004) Insecticide-treated bed nets and curtains for preventing malaria. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Issue 2. found (for Plasmodium falciparum malaria) that ITNs can reduce deaths in children by one fifth and episodes of malaria by half.
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MALDI-TOF spectra have been used for the detection and identification of various parasites such as trypanosomatids, Leishmania and Plasmodium. In addition to these unicellular parasites, MALDI/TOF can be used for the identification of parasitic insects such as lice or cercariae, the free-swimming stage of trematodes.
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The parasite was first described by Telford in 1980.Telford, S. R, Jr (1980) The saurian malarias of Venezuela: Plasmodium species from iguanid and teiid hosts. Int. J. Parasitol. 10(5/6): 365-374 The schizonts have 6 to 25 nuclei and are heavily pigmented when in erythrocytes.
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The disease is most commonly spread by an infected female Anopheles mosquito. The mosquito bite introduces the parasites from the mosquito's saliva into a person's blood. The parasites travel to the liver where they mature and reproduce. Five species of Plasmodium can infect and be spread by humans.
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This organism infects the domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and the South American penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus). Morphologically this parasite resembles Plasmodium relictum closely. In the penguin infection may be fatal with splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, hydropericardium and pulmonary oedema. Tissue meronts may occur in the macrophages and endothelial cells of multiple organs.
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Species in the subgenus Paraplasmodium have the following characteristics: The gametocytes are large. The schizonts are medium size. Exoerythrocytic schizonts may be produced in both fixed and wandering host cells. Note: One species (Plasmodium mexicanum) in this genus can undergo normal sporogony in a psychodid fly (Lutzomyia vexatrix).
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Mi-26 heavy-lift helicopter and C-130H Hercules transport at the Dili airfield The results showed that the memory of previous campaigns had faded since the Vietnam War ended in 1975 at every level of command. Officers failed to supervise the chemoprophylaxis regimen, and while most soldiers dutifully took their tablets, some did not. Both Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax are endemic in East Timor, and the prevalence of malaria among the civilian population was much greater than usual in September 2000, due to many people fleeing from the violence into the jungle where there was greater exposure to mosquitoes. There were 64 cases of malaria among ADF personnel in East Timor.
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These have been divided into types A, S and O. Type A is expressed in the asexual stages; type S in the sexual and type O only in the oocyst. Type O is only known to occur in Plasmodium vivax at present. The reason for this gene duplication is not known but presumably reflects an adaption to the different environments the parasite lives within. It has been reported that the C terminal domain of the RNA polymerase 2 in the primate infecting species (other than P. falciparum and probably P. reichenowei) appears to be unusual suggesting that the classification of species into the subgenus Plasmodium may have an evolutionary and biological basis.
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P. cynomolgi is the second-most studied malaria parasite of non- human primates after Plasmodium knowlesi, primarily due to its similarity to the human parasite P. vivax. In particular, P. cynomolgi is used as a model for hypnozoite biology as it (along with P. vivax) is one of the few Plasmodium species known to have this lifecycle stage. P. cynomolgi can infect a variety of monkey species and can be transmitted by several common laboratory-grown mosquitoes. Due to this, P. cynomolgi has been used in research on a broad variety of malaria topics including hypnozoite biology, host immune responses to infection, and to test the efficacy of antimalarial drugs and vaccines.
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Cytoplasmic flows enable long-ranged transport and dispersion of molecules within the cytoplasm. The physical mechanism employed here is Taylor dispersion. Under starvation the organism may reorganize its network morphology and thereby enhance its dispersion capabilities. In fact, the flows are even hijacked to transport signals throughout the plasmodium network.
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Over 90 species and subspecies of Plasmodium infect lizards. They have been reported from over 3200 species of lizard but only 29 species of snake. Three species - P. pessoai, P. tomodoni and P. wenyoni - infect snakes. These species belong to the subgenera Asiamoeba, Carinamoeba, Fallisia, Garnia, Lacertamoeba, Ophidiella, Paraplasmodium and Sauramoeba.
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An analysis of a large number of genera suggested that the taxonomy may need revision. Leucocytozoon appears to be basal to most of the Haemosporidia. The genera Heamoproteus and Parahaemaproteus are the next most basal clade. At least one species in the genus Heamoproteus grouped with the main Plasmodium clade.
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At least one species has been isolated from the mandrill (Mandrillus leucophaeus) that awaits full publication. It is currently known as Plasmodium sp. DAJ-2004. At least one species related to P. ovale appears to be present in chimpanzees. It is known only from a DNA sequence and awaits description.
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Multiple infections like those of Plasmodium falciparum are common with up to six ring forms. Almost immediately on infection the erythrocyte enlarges. Schüffner's dots are rapidly apparent. Pigment is scarce, granular and yellowish-brown. Young schizonts almost fill the host cell except for small areas where Schüffner’s dots may be found.
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Meronts may form large bodies divided into cytomeres. Hemozoin deposits (pigment) are not formed — a useful distinguishing feature for Leucocytozoon from Haemoproteus and Plasmodium. Oocysts develop rapidly in 3–5 days. The oocysts are small and nonexpanding, reaching 13 micrometres in diameter and typically have less than 100 short, thick sporozoites.
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Tafenoquine, sold under the brand name Krintafel among others, is a medication used to prevent and to treat malaria. With respect acute malaria it is used together with other medications to prevent relapse by Plasmodium vivax. It may be used to prevent all types of malaria. It is taken by mouth.
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Like other Plasmodium species, P. bubalis infects the red blood cells of its mammalian host. In the red blood cells, the parasite has several stages. The trophozoite stages begin as amoeboid in shape and measuring 1.2 to 1.8 μm. Larger trophozoites appear spherical and can measure up to 5.0 μm.
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The resulting zygote develops into a ciliated larva that escapes from the mother to seek out new hosts. Once it finds a host, the larva loses its cilia and develops into a syncytial plasmodium larva. This, in turn, breaks up into numerous individual cells that become the next generation of adults.
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The merozoites have scanty cytoplasm and do not exceed the size of the nucleus when fully developed. The schizonts are small and always found juxtaposed to the erythrocyte nucleus. The gametocytes resemble those of Plasmodium relictum and may displace the nucleus. They are of variable shape:oval, round, elongated or even irregular.
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Tandem repeats are ubiquitous in proteomes and occur in at least 14% of all proteins. For example, they are present in almost every third human protein and even in every second protein from Plasmodium falciparum or Dictyostelium discoideum. Tandem repeats with short repetitive units (especially homorepeats) are more frequent than others.
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Extrachromosomal DNA is found in Apicomplexa, which is a group of protozoa. The malaria parasite (genus Plasmodium), the AIDS-related pathogen (Taxoplasma and Cryptosporidium) are both members of the Apicomplexa group. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was found in the malaria parasite. There are two forms of extrachromosomal DNA found in the malaria parasites.
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The plant has been used as an herbal medicine for treatment of rheumatism, dengue and fever. The plant is known to contain barbigerone which is validated to have significant antioxidant property, highly effective against the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum, and with anti-cancer potential as it causes apoptosis of murine lung-cancer cells.
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The first observation of malaria in bats dates to the end of the 19th century when Dionisi described gametocytes in the blood of a bat in 1898. The type species of this genus (Hepatocystis kochi) was described by Laveran in 1899 from the blood of a primate and he named it Plasmodium kochi.
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These protists include strict aerobes, and use photosystems I and II in order to carry out photosynthesis which produces oxygen. Diagram of Plasmodium structure Mixotrophic protists obtain nutrients through organic and inorganic carbon compounds simultaneously. All cells have a plasma membrane. In a protist, the plasma membrane is also known as the plasmalemma.
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Extracts from a number of herbs and dietary plants are efficient inhibitors of NF-κB activation in vitro. Nobiletin, a flavonoid isolated from citrus peels, has been shown to inhibit the NF-κB signaling pathway in mice. The circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium falciparum has been shown to be an inhibitor of NF-κB.
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This species was first described in 1975 by Telford and Forrester in a wild turkeyTelford S.R., Jr. and Forrester D.J. (1975) Plasmodium (Huffia) hermani sp. n. from wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in Florida. J. Euk. Microbiol. 22 (3) 324-328 The presence and degree of pigmentation vary with maturity of the host cell.
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Mosquitos get the parasite by feeding on an infected vertebrate. Inside the mosquito the plasmodium develops in the midgut's wall. Once developed to a zygote the parasite moves to the salivary glands where it can be passed on to a vertebrate species, for example humans. The mosquito acts as a vector for Malaria.
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A French Army physician Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran discovered that malaria was caused by microscopic parasite (now called Plasmodium falciparum) in 1880. But scientists were sceptical until Golgi intervened. It was Golgi who helped him prove that malarial parasite was a microscopic protozoan. From 1885, Golgi studied the malarial parasite and its transmission.
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This species was first described in 2007 by Valkiunas et al. Valkiunas G, Zehtindjiev P, Hellgren O, Ilieva M, Iezhova TA, Bensch S. (2007) Linkage between mitochondrial cytochrome b lineages and morphospecies of two avian malaria parasites, with a description of Plasmodium (Novyella) ashfordi sp. nov. Parasitol Res. The parasite infects erythrocytes.
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These other members may use some other receptor, for example Glycophorin A. The other universal invasion protein is reticulocyte binding protein homologs. Both families are essential for cell invasion, as they function cooperatively. A duffy-binding-like domain is also found in proteins of the family Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1.
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BioOne Retrieved : 2011-11-06 Bonner states that soil invertebrates and rain mainly disperse spores as they are sticky and unlikely to be carried by air currents.Bonner, Page 40 The plasmodium's capillitium amongst moss and wood. The scientific name was designed to be defamatory as the plasmodium was thought to be particularly ugly.
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Glycophorin B acts as a receptor for erythrocyte binding Ligand (EBl-1) of Plasmodium falciparum involved in malaria. Both the Dantu and the S-s-U- cells phenotypes have been shown to be protective against P. falciparum infection while the Henshaw phenotype is not protective. Influenza A and B bind to glycophorin B.
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Many of the bacteria aid in the breaking down of nutrients for the host and, in return, our bodies act as their ecosystem. Parasitism occurs when the pathogen benefits from the relationship while the host is harmed. This can be seen in the unicellular Plasmodium falciparum parasite which causes malaria in humans.
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One end of the axoneme is exposed to the cytoplasm as the other end of the axoneme is formed as compartmentalized cilia. This type of cilia is found in insects. Tertiary cytosolic cilia are axonemes that form directly in the cytoplasm. This type of cilia is found in Plasmodium (the malaria parasite).
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The first non human primate parasites were described by Eduard Reichenow in Cameroon in 1920. He observed three morphologically distinct Plasmodium parasites in the blood of chimpanzees and gorillas in 1917. These finding were later confirmed by other workers. One species closely resembled P. falciparum and was thought to be the same species.
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For example, the genes belonging to the var family in Plasmodium falciparum (agent of malaria) code for the PfEMP1 (Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1), a major virulence factor of erythrocytic stages, var genes are mostly localized in subtelomeric regions. Antigenic variation is orchestrated by epigenetic factors including monoallelic var transcription at separate spatial domains at the nuclear periphery (nuclear pore), differential histone marks on otherwise identical var genes, and var silencing mediated by telomeric heterochromatin. Other factors such as non-coding RNA produced in subtelomeric regions adjacent or within var genes may contribute as well to antigenic variation. In Trypanosoma brucei (agent of sleeping sickness), variable surface glycoprotein (VSG) antigenic variation is a relevant mechanism used by the parasite to evade the host immune system.
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The second is a change in the parasite target due to mutations in corresponding genes (like, at the cytosol level, dhfr and dhps in sulfadoxine- pyrimethamine resistance or, at the mitochondrion level, cytochrome b in atovaquone resistance). Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to the new artemisinin compounds involves a novel mechanism corresponding to a quiescence phenomenon.
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Ersmark, B. Samuelsson, A. Hallberg: Plasmepsins as potential targets for new antimalarial therapy. Medicinal Research Reviews, 26 (2006) 626-666.H. Gutierrez-de-Teran, M. Nervall, K. Ersmark, P. Liu, L. K. Janka, B. Dunn, A. Hallberg, J. Åqvist: Inhibitor binding to the plasmepsin IV aspartic protease from Plasmodium falciparum. Biochemistry, 45 (2006) 10529-10541S.
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The International Agency for Research on Cancer declared them in 2009 as a Group 1 biological carcinogens in humans. Other parasites are also linked to various cancers. Among protozoan parasites, Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium parvum, Trichomonas vaginalis and Theileria are associated with specific cancer cells. Plasmodium falciparum can also be an indirect cause of cancer.
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The institute has research programs in epidemiology, public health, and medical parasitology, covering molecular parasitology, molecular epidemiology, molecular diagnostics, molecular immunology, parasite chemotherapy, biostatistics and epidemiology, health systems research, human and animal health, ecosystem health, and social sciences. One particular research focus of the institute is the biology of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.
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Reticulomyxa is found in aquatic and semi aquatic terrestrial environments. R. filosa has been isolated from lakes, moist soil, decomposing organic matter, and artificial bodies of water. Under different conditions the plasmodium will take on various morphologies. When transferred to an aqueous environment, the plasmodia will dissociate into smaller cell bodies that reform pseudopodia.
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To date, the only definitively characterized product of hematin disposal is the pigment hemozoin. Hemozoin is per definitionem not a mineral and therefore not formed by biomineralization. Heme biocrystallization has been found in blood feeding organisms of great medical importance including Plasmodium, Rhodnius and Schistosoma. Heme biocrystallization is inhibited by quinoline antimalarials such as chloroquine.
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This would place an upper limit of for the evolution of the genus Leucocytozoon. This is in agreement with an estimate of the time of the basal radiation of the genus Plasmodium. This date of origin lies within the range of other estimates suggesting that it is plausible. This suggestion is supported by other analyses.
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Giglioli, G. (1967) Interruption of malaria transmission by chloroquinized salt in Guyana, with observations on a chloroquine-resistant strain of Plasmodium falciparum. Bull. WHO 36 (2), 283-301. The chloroquinized salt was prepared at a state salt plant so as to provide a 0.43% chloroquine concentration. The salt was sold in two pound plastic bags.
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P. malariae can infect several species of mosquito and can cause malaria in humans. P. malariae can be maintained at very low infection rates among a sparse and mobile population because unlike the other Plasmodium parasites, it can remain in a human host for an extended period of time and still remain infectious to mosquitoes.
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Cells seldom host more than one parasite. Band forms, where the parasite forms a thick band across the width of the infected cell, are characteristic of this species (and some would say is diagnostic). Large grains of malarial pigment are often seen in these parasites: more so than any other Plasmodium species, 8 merozoites.
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Giovanni Battista Grassi elucidated the complete transmission from a female anopheline mosquito to humans in 1898. In 1897, William H. Welch created the name Plasmodium falciparum, which ICZN formally adopted in 1954. P. falciparum assumes several different forms during its life cycle. The human-infective stage are sporozoites from the salivary gland of a mosquito.
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The Aphelidium plasmodium then proceeds to divide into uninucleate cells which develop into zoospores, using the cell wall of the host alga as a sporangium. Finally, the uniflagellate zoospores erupt the husk of the host cell via the same puncture made by the infection tube of the parent Aphelidium to seek new green alga hosts.
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If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later. In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms. This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria. Malaria is caused by single-celled microorganisms of the Plasmodium group.
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Similarly to P. falciparum, Plasmodium vivax (P. vivax), another malarial pathogen found primarily in Asia and South America, has also been associated with maternal anaemia and low birthweight. On the contrary, women who live in areas with lower transmission are at a very high risk of adverse malarial outcomes despite their number of pregnancies.
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An account of the effects of eating cinchona bark noted by Oliver Wendell Holmes, published in 1861, failed to reproduce the symptoms Hahnemann reported. Subsequent scientific work showed that cinchona cures malaria because it contains quinine, which kills the Plasmodium falciparum parasite that causes the disease; the mechanism of action is unrelated to Hahnemann's ideas.
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Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1998;92(2):141-50 More recent findings from Tanzania also suggest that IPTp using S/P has reached the end of its lifecycle.Harrington WE, Mutabingwa TK, Muehlenbachs A, Sorensen B, Bolla MC, Fried M, et al. Competitive facilitation of drug-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites in pregnant women who receive preventive treatment.
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Hence, homozygote and heterozygote genotypes for the sickle-cell disease allele show malaria resistance, while the homozygote suffers from severe disease phenotype. The alternative homozygote, which does not carry the sickle cell disease allele, is susceptible to infection by Plasmodium. As a consequence, the heterozygote genotype is selectively favored in areas with a high incidence of malaria.
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MECDP (2-C-methyl-D- erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate) synthetase, an enzyme in the non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid synthesis, isoprenoids being essential in all organisms. Isoprenoids can also be synthesized through the mevalonate pathway. The non- mevolante route is used by many bacteria and human pathogens, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Plasmodium falciparum. This route appears to involve seven enzymes.
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Infection with malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum is classified by IARC as probable (Group 2A) carcinogen. Schistosoma japonicum is a possible (Group 2B) carcinogen. There is a close association between the cat liver fluke Opisthorchis felineus and bile duct cancer among people in Russia. Toxoplasma gondii and eye cancer (intraocular lymphoma) was detected by PCR from two human cases.
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Plasmepsin II (, aspartic hemoglobinase II, PFAPD) is an enzyme. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : Hydrolysis of the bonds linking certain hydrophobic residues in hemoglobin or globin. Also cleaves the small molecule substrates such as Ala-Leu-Glu-Arg-Thr-Phe-Phe(NO2)-Ser-Phe-Pro-Thr This enzyme is present in malaria organism, Plasmodium.
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Transcriptomic profiling also provides crucial information on mechanisms of drug resistance. Analysis of over 1000 isolates of Plasmodium falciparum, a virulent parasite responsible for malaria in humans, identified that upregulation of the unfolded protein response and slower progression through the early stages of the asexual intraerythrocytic developmental cycle were associated with artemisinin resistance in isolates from Southeast Asia.
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A new classification for the Leucosphyrus group of Anopheles (Cellia). Mosq. Syst. 21:197–205. closely related and efficient forest-based malaria vectors in Asia. Hence, its geographical distribution is overlapping with areas of high malaria prevalence rates and the occurrence of drug resistant Plasmodium falciparum.Yang TH (1983) A review of literature on Anopheles balabacensis balabacensis.
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Division starts at the anterior end of the cell and produces three daughter cells. The Reticulomyxa plasmodium may encyst for dispersal or in response to adverse environmental conditions. Cysts with and without coverings have been produced by Reticulomyxa. Cysts covered with a thick envelope can withstand harsher conditions and disperse by wind as well as water.
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Haemamoeba Mature schizonts are larger than the host cell nucleus and commonly displace it. Gametocytes are large, round, oval or irregular in shape and are substantially larger than the host nucleus. The type species is Plasmodium relictum. Huffia Mature schizonts, while varying in shape and size, contain plentiful cytoplasm and are commonly found in immature erythryocytes.
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Although over 3200 species of lizard have been identified as hosts to Plasmodium species, only 29 species of snakes have been. All snake infecting species are placed into the subgenus Ophidiella. Asiamoeba The schizonts and gametocytes are greatly disparate in size (4 to 15 times). Carinamoeba The schizonts are small and give rise to 8 or fewer merozoites.
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Anopheles sinensis is a species of mosquito that transmits malaria as well as lymphatic filariasis. It is regarded as the most important vector of these human parasitic diseases in Southeast Asia. It is the primary vector of vivax malaria (Plasmodium vivax) in many regions. In China it also transmits the filalarial parasite (Wuchereria bancrofti), and arthropod roundworm (Romanomermis jingdeensis).
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Some protists are significant parasites of animals (e.g.; five species of the parasitic genus Plasmodium cause malaria in humans and many others cause similar diseases in other vertebrates), plants (the oomycete Phytophthora infestans causes late blight in potatoes)Campbell, N. and Reese, J. (2008) Biology. Pearson Benjamin Cummings; 8 ed. . pp. 583, 588 or even of other protists.
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They are typically found to have 5 nuclei per cell, due to the fusion of preosteoclasts. The chlorarachniophytes form multinucleate cells by fusion, being syncytia and not coenocytes. This syncytia is called plasmodium, in the sense of a multinucleate protoplast without a cell wall which exhibits amoeboid movement.Hoek, C. van den, Mann, D.G. and Jahns, H.M. (1995).
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The second main approach involves ethnobotany, the study of the general use of plants in society, and ethnopharmacology, an area inside ethnobotany, which is focused specifically on medicinal uses. Artemisinin, an antimalarial agent from sweet wormtree Artemisia annua, used in Chinese medicine since 200BC is one drug used as part of combination therapy for multiresistant Plasmodium falciparum.
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The number of nuclear divisions is species specific and even within a single species the number of nuclear divisions can differ depending on the phase of the life cycle. For example, Plasmodium (parasite that can cause malaria) undergoes four different types of schizogony producing anywhere from 8 to over 20,000 nuclei.Impact Malaria Training website. Accessed 4/13/12.
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Anolis sabanus, or the Saban anole, is a species of anole lizard that is endemic to the island of Saba, a Dutch municipality in the Caribbean Lesser Antilles. Males measure from (snout-to-vent), and females measure from .Staats, C. M. and J. J. Schall, 1996. Malarial parasites (Plasmodium) of Anolis lizards: Biogeography in the Lesser Antilles.
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This species was originally described by Celli & Sanfelice in 1891 as Haemoproteus alaudae, and it was first discovered in the blood of the skylark. The species was later transferred to the genus Plasmodium. On reexamination the described species was found to include members of at least one additional species and it was redescribed by Paperna et al. in 2009.
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Unlike those of other Plasmodium species, the gametocytes of P. falciparum are elongated and crescent-shaped, by which they are sometimes identified. A mature gametocyte is 8–12 μm long and 3–6 μm wide. The ookinete is also elongated measuring about 18–24 μm. An oocyst is rounded and can grow up to 80 μm in diameter.
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A micropyle is a pore in the membrane covering the ovum, through which a sperm enters. Micropyles are also found in sporozoites of some digenetic microorganisms such as Plasmodium at the anterior part of the cell that ultimately leads towards the apical cap. Examples of other organisms that have micropyles are the Bombyx mandarina and the Ceratitis capitata.
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According to a recent meta-analysis, there is only one small study that has shown that a combination of dextromethorphan and quinidine alleviates symptoms of easy laughing and crying (pseudobulbar affect) in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis. Although intravenous quinidine is sometimes used to treat Plasmodium falciparum malaria, the future availability of this agent is uncertain.
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Very little molecular research has been done to fully explore the phylogeny and evolution of the slime molds. The majority of the field has relied on morphological features, which often only emphasize the plasmodium life cycle of the organism. Further molecular research into slime mold taxonomy could reveal more information on the family tree and evolution of Hemitrichia.
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He and Ettore Marchiafava correctly described the protozoan parasite that caused malaria and gave it the scientific name Plasmodium in 1885. Understanding the nature of malaria, he was among the first scientists to advocate and work for eradication of insects to prevent infectious diseases. He was elected to the Senate of the Kingdom of Italy in 1892.
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Childhood Diarrhea- is the second leading cause of death in children under 5 years of age, killing 1.5 million children annually. In 2007, Diarrheal Disease was the third leading cause of death in developing countries among infectious diseases. Malaria- is a vector borne blood pathogen called Plasmodium. Each year this disease kills 1-3 million people in developing countries.
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This species was first described by Malagón and Salmeron in 1988.Malagón F. and Salmeron M. (1988) Plasmodium (Sauramoeba) pelaezi n. sp., a malaria parasite of the Mexican iguanid lizard Urosaurus bicarinatus bicarinatus (Dumeril, 1856) (Sauria: Iguanidae) System. Parasitol. 141-148 Schizonts are mostly round with a single mass of pigment and render the host cell nuclei spherical.
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Apicoplasts are a relict, nonphotosynthetic plastid found in most protozoan parasites belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa. Among the most infamous Apicomplexan parasites is Plasmodium falciparum, a causative agent of severe malaria. Because apicoplasts are vital to parasite survival, they provide an enticing target for antimalarial drugs. Specifically, apicoplasts' plant-like properties provide a target for herbicidal drugs.
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The apicoplast is also thought to have a role in isoprenoid synthesis, which are prosthetic groups on many enzymes and also act as precursors to ubiquinones (involved in electron transport) and dolichols (involved in glycoprotein formation). The apicoplast contains the MEP pathway for isoprenoid precursor synthesis and is the sole site for such synthesis in the Plasmodium cell.
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B. murorum produces the secondary metabolites Chaetoxanthone C and D, which cause selective cytotoxicity towards some human protozoan parasitic pathogens, such as Trypanosoma cruzi and Plasmodium falciparum. These metabolites are candidates for antiprotozoal drug. The chemical pigment isocochliodinol and neocochliodinol, unique to B. murorum and its close related fungus C. amygdalisporum, has shown cytotoxic activity towards HeLa cells.
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The parasite was first described by Telford in 1984.Telford, Jr S.R. (1984) Studies on African saurian malarias: Three Plasmodium species from gekkonid hosts J. Parasitol. 70 (3) 343-354 Young schizonts elongate and narrow with acuminate ends. Mature schizonts are polymorphic, are usually larger than host cell nuclei, and give rise to 6-26 merozoites.
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The hypothallus is produced by the plasmodium at the beginning of fructification. Depending on the species, it can be membranous to thick or tender to solid and nearly transparent to brightly coloured. It may surround an individual fruit body, or may form a contiguous connection between multiple fruit bodies. In some rare cases it is missing entirely.
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Some studies suggest that high levels of fetal hemoglobin (HbF) confer some protection against falciparum malaria in adults with Hereditary persistence of fetal hemoglobin.Brenda AkinyiI Webala, "Prevalence of Fetal Hemoglobin and Antibody Responses to Plasmodium falciparum Antigens in Sickle Cell Disease Patients in Western Kenya." Master's thesis, School of Pure and Applied Sciences of Kenyatta University, 2013.
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The molecular sizes of Pit family members are reported to vary from 354 to 681 residues (10-12 TMSs) with the mammalian and Plasmodium proteins exhibiting the largest sizes. The sulfate permease of B. subtilis, CysP, is of 354 residues with 11 putative TMSs. As of early 2016, it appears no crystal structures are available for PiT proteins.
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Two other genera — Halteridium and Simondia — are now considered to be synonyms of Haemoproteus. The protozoa are intracellular parasites that infect the erythrocytes. They are transmitted by blood sucking insects including mosquitoes, biting midges (Culicoides), louse flies (Hippoboscidae) and tabanid flies (Tabanidae). Infection with this genus is sometimes known as pseudomalaria because of the parasites' similarities with Plasmodium species.
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Plasmodium malariae causes a chronic infection that in some cases can last a lifetime. The P. malariae parasite has several differences between it and the other Plasmodium parasites, one being that maximum parasite counts are usually low compared to those in patients infected with P. falciparum or P. vivax. The reason for this can be accounted for by the lower number of merozoites produced per erythrocytic cycle, the longer 72-hour developmental cycle (compared to the 48-hour cycle of P. vivax and P. falciparum), the preference for development in older erythrocytes and the resulting earlier development of immunity by the human host. Another defining feature of P. malariae is that the fever manifestations of the parasite are more moderate relative to those of P. falciparum and P. vivax and fevers show quartan periodicity.
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A Leishman stain showing the schizont stage of Plasmodium vivax malaria parasite Leishman stain, also known as Leishman's stain, is used in microscopy for staining blood smears. It is generally used to differentiate between and identify white blood cells, malaria parasites, and trypanosomas. It is based on a methanolic mixture of "polychromed" methylene blue (i.e. demethylated into various azures) and eosin.
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Like the helicosproidia, they're parasitic, and have a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast. They were once thought to be related to the helicosproidia, but it is now known that the helicosproida are green algae rather than part of the CASH lineage. The apicomplexans include Plasmodium, the malaria parasite. Many apicomplexans keep a vestigial red algal derived chloroplast called an apicoplast, which they inherited from their ancestors.
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In the plasmodium form, members of Trichiida lack a columella but have a well-developed capillitium for spore dispersal. The shape and details of the capillitium are used to define families within the order. Spores are brightly coloured, ranging from clear, white and yellow to pink and red-brown tones. The order currently has 4 families, 14 genera and 174 species.
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Grassi made his first contribution on malaria in 1890, when he (with Raimondo Feletti) discovered Haemamoeba vivax, later renamed Plasmodium vivax. He described Proteosoma praecox, the malaria parasite of birds. In 1891 he performed the first inoculation of malaria parasites from one bird into another. He was the first to compile a comprehensive monograph on the identity and impact of different malarial parasites.
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During this process, the organism is known as a ' or '. Cytokinesis next subdivides the multinucleated schizont into numerous identical daughter cells called merozoites (see glossary below), which are released into the blood when the host cell ruptures. Organisms whose life cycles rely on this process include Theileria, Babesia, Plasmodium, and Toxoplasma gondii. Sporogony is a type of sexual and asexual reproduction.
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Garnham in 1947 described exoerythrocytic schizogony in Hepatocystis (Plasmodium) kochi. In the following year Shortt and Garnham described the liver stages of P. cynomolgi in monkeys. In the same year a human volunteer consented to receive a massive dose of infected sporozoites of P. vivax and undergo a liver biopsy three months later, thus allowing Shortt et al. to demonstrate the tissue stage.
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The genus Plasmodium is a member of the order Haemosporidia. It is the largest genus within this order and currently consists of over 250 species. They cause malaria in many different vertebrates. The species in this genus are entirely parasitic with part of their life cycle spent in a vertebrate host and another in an invertebrate host - usually a mosquito.
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There has been at least one case, however, attributed to Plasmodium vivax. Blackwater fever is a serious complication of malaria, but cerebral malaria has a higher mortality rate. Blackwater fever is much less common today than it was before 1950. It may be that quinine plays a role in triggering the condition, and this drug is no longer commonly used for malaria prophylaxis.
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The parasite was first described by Herman in 1941.Herman C. M. (1941) Plasmodium durae, a new species of malaria parasite from the common turkey. Am. J. Epidemiol. 34, 22-26 Mature gametocytes tend to lie obliquely within the host cell, displace the nucleus to one pole of the cell and possess one or more clumps of clear pigment granules.
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This project failed to reduce malaria incidence and was considered to be a failure. In 1984, MDA was added to the distribution of insecticide-impregnated bed nets (ITNs) in Sabah (Malaysia), but this failed to interrupt malaria transmission. A MDA in Sumatra, Indonesia in 1987 focused on schoolchildren. Eight months after the MDA, Plasmodium falciparum prevalence had decreased from 14% to 1%.
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TLR2 resides on the plasma membrane where it responds to lipid-containing PAMPs such as lipoteichoic acid and di- and tri-acylated cysteine-containing lipopeptides. It does this by forming dimeric complexes with either TLR 1 or TLR6 on the plasma membrane. TLR2 interactions with malarial glycophosphatidylinositols of Plasmodium falciparum was shown and a detailed structure of TLR–GPI interactions was computationally predicted.
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Due to the fact that it is species of Plasmodium which only causes malaria in nonhuman primates, no treatment for this form of malaria has been specifically adapted. However, treatment with subcurative levels of artemether has been shown to reduce symptoms. This used to treat P. falciparum, and is grouped into artemisinin-based combination therapies used most for P. falciparum treatment.
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High expression of glycophorin C has been associated with a poor prognosis for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in the Chinese. Glycophorin C is the receptor for the protein erythrocyte binding antigen 140 (EBA140) of Plasmodium falciparum. This interaction mediates a principal invasion pathway into the erythrocytes. The partial resistance of erythocytes lacking this protein to invasion by P. falciparum was first noted in 1982.
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The first interest was on chángshān, the root extract of Dichroa febrifuga. In the 1940s, Chinese scientists had shown that it was effective against different species of Plasmodium. American scientists isolated febrifugine as its major active antimalarial compound. The project scientists confirmed the antimalarial activity but found it unsuitable for human use due to its overwhelming potency and toxicity, outrivaling that of quinine.
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Borututu bark is claimed to have hepatic healing properties and a general cleansing effect. Borotutu bark pills and herbal teas are sold in health stores. The bark showed activity against the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei in laboratory tests. In Ghana, Borututu bark is locally known as paajawu and added to Shea Butter during the boiling process for a vibrant yellow coloring.
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Without sufficient vector control, the dengue virus has evolved rapidly over time, posing challenges to both government and public health officials. Malaria is caused by a protozoan called Plasmodium falciparum. P. falciparum parasites are transmitted mainly by the Anopheles gambiae complex in rural Africa. In just this area, P. falciparum infections comprise an estimated 200 million clinical cases and 1 million annual deaths.
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Anopheles funestus is an efficient vector of the Plasmodium parasites that cause malaria in humans. This is because of its endophilic and anthropophilic characteristics, and because the adult insect is relatively long-lived. This is a highly adaptable species and many populations have developed resistance to pyrethroid insecticides, resulting in an upsurge of malarial infections in sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s.
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Trophozoites of the Plasmodium vivax (Haemosporidia) parasite among human red blood cells The Haemosporidia have more complex lifecycles that alternate between an arthropod and a vertebrate host. The trophozoite parasitises erythrocytes or other tissues in the vertebrate host. Microgametes and macrogametes are always found in the blood. The gametes are taken up by the insect vector during a blood meal.
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Biology of Myxomycetes includes organization of myxamoeba and its development into plasmodium (Aldrich 1969). Aldrich et al., 2005 was first group to demonstrate a myxomycete Physarum pusillum sporulation on the body of lizard Corytophanes cristatu. In another study Aldrich group elucidated Ultrastructure of insitu anaerobic digester biofilms consisting of methogenic bacteria using scanning and transmission electron microscopy (Robison et al.
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Quinine is a medication used to treat malaria and babesiosis. This includes the treatment of malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum that is resistant to chloroquine when artesunate is not available. While sometimes used for restless legs syndrome, quinine is not recommended for this purpose due to the risk of serious side effects. It can be taken by mouth or intravenously.
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The R5P produced via increased pentose phosphate pathway activity is used to generate 5-phospho-D-ribose α-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP) needed for nucleic acid synthesis. It has been shown that PRPP concentrations are increased 56 fold in infected erythrocytes compared with uninfected erythrocytes. Hence, designing drugs that target RpiA in Plasmodium falciparum could have therapeutic potential for patients that suffer from malaria.
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TEP1 is a central component in the mosquito's immune response against invading parasites such as Plasmodium. Similar to the complement protein C3 in function, TEP1 acts as an opsonin which facilitates extensive parasite killing. TEP1 covalently binds to the surface of invading pathogens, promoting phagocytosis, lysis and melanisation. Through this activity TEP1 is considered an important determinant of Anopheles vector capacity.
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P. juxtanucleare also infects black- footed penguins. Five fatal cases were reported in a Sounth African zoo. Laboratory findings included parasitemia, splenomegaly, pulmonary oedema and schizonts in the reticuloendothelial system.Grim K.C., Van der Merwe E., Sullivan M., Parsons N., McCutchan T.F. and Cranfield M. (2003) Plasmodium juxtanucleare associated with mortality in black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus) admitted to a rehabilitation center.
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Avian pox (Poxvirus avium) and malaria (Plasmodium relictum), spread by mosquitoes, may have also been a factor. However, even before these issues became important, the koa finches were probably already living in marginal habitat due to the loss of lowland koa forest, as evidenced by the extinction of the other koa finch species (which lived on lower-elevation islands) prior to European contact.
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Anopheles mosquito feeding Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease caused by the parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Symptoms may include fever, headaches, chills, and nausea. Each year, there are approximately 500 million cases of malaria worldwide, most commonly among children and pregnant women in developing countries. The WHO African Region carries a disproportionately high share of the global malaria burden.
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This finding has broad impact in biology and also has considerable importance as a major new drug target in malaria. Together with his principle collaborator Alan Cowman, Crabb is also well known for his development of molecular genetic systems in human malaria, having described the first gene knockout in the causative agent Plasmodium falciparum in a paper published in the journal Cell.
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This species was first described by Eyles, Laing and Fong in 1962. The parasite was identified in a pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) that Eyles purchased in peninsular Malaysia in mid-August 1960.Eyles D.E., Laing A.B.G. and Fong Y.L. (1962) Plasmodium fieldi sp. nov., a new species of malaria parasite from the pig-tailed macaque in Malaya. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit.
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Protein phosphatases remove phosphates from proteins, usually on Serine, Threonine, and Tyrosine residues, reversing the action of protein kinases. The PTP family of protein phosphatases is tyrosine-specific, and several other families (PPPL, PPM, HAD) appear to be serine/threonine specific, while other families are unknown or have a variety of substrates (DSPs dephosphorylate any amino acid, while some protein phosphatases also have non-protein substrates). In the human genome, 20 different folds of protein are known to be phosphatases, of which 10 include protein phosphatases. Protein phosphatomes have been cataloged for human and 8 other key eukaryotes, for Plasmodium and Trypanosomes and phosphatomes have been used for functional analysis, by experimentally investing all known protein phosphatases, in the yeast Fusarium, in Plasmodium and in human cancer Large scale databases exist for human and animal phosphatomes Phosphatome.
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On electron microscopy they have an electron-dense matrix due to the high protein content. They are specialized secretory organelles important for host- cell invasion and gliding motility. These organelles secrete several proteins such as the Plasmodium falciparum apical membrane antigen-1, or PfAMA1, and Erythrocyte family antigen, or EBA, family proteins. These proteins specialize in binding to erythrocyte surface receptors and facilitating erythrocyte entry.
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Echinostelium is a genus of slime mould, and the only genus in the family Echinosteliaceae, or Echinosteliidae. It was discovered by Heinrich Anton de Bary in 1855, apparently near Frankfurt am Main. Some species of Echinostelium have a sexual life cycle; others have been shown to be asexual. The plasmodium can divide vegetatively, in a process called plasmotomy, to distinguish it from true cell division.
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The original criterion for inclusion in this genus was the presence of large schizonts giving rise to 12 or more merozoites. The criteria were subsequently revised by Telford in 1988. The type species of this subgenus is Plasmodium diploglossi. Species in the subgenus Sauramoeba have the following characteristics: Large schizonts giving rise to 12 or more merozoites The gametocytes like the schizonts are large.
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Plasmodium berghei was first identified in the thicket rat (Grammomys surdaster). It has also been described in Leggada bella, Praomys jacksoni and Thamnomys surdaster. In research laboratories, various rodents can be infected, such as mice, rats and gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus). The natural insect host of P. berghei is likely Anopheles dureni, however in laboratory conditions it has also been shown to infect Anopheles stephensi.
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Six compounds extracted from the dried leaves and stems of Rhaphidophora decursiva have been shown to possess activity against the malarial agent Plasmodium falciparum. Polysyphorin and rhaphidecurperoxin showed the strongest antimalarial activity, while rhaphidecursinol A, rhaphidecursinol B, grandisin, and epigrandisin were less active. Rhaphidecursinol A and rhaphidecursinol B were determined to be neolignans, a major class of phytoestrogens, while rhaphidecurperoxin is a new benzoperoxide.
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It causes the destruction of starfish ovary and eggs to cause castration (the male gonads are usually unaffected). The stages of the plasmodium develop into more plasmodia by simple fragmentation; at some point, they decide to go sexual. The syncytia are dioecious (either male or female), but young syncytia can fuse to produce both male and female. The males are ciliated and smaller than the females.
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To do this, Niles developed an automated deformability cytometer that can measure the dynamic, mechanical responses of red blood cells. Niles is also interested in how plasmodium falciparum controls heme levels and designed a technique to monitor heme. Heme is a biomolecule that interacts with several malarial drugs. To study this, he created a heme-sensing protein, whose fluorescence diminishes upon binding to heme.
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Reticulomyxa is a heterotroph that can feed on prey of a range of sizes. Previous studies have observed the ingestion of bacteria and other protists, as well as large aquatic zooplankton. The vegetative plasmodium will stay in one location while eating until surrounding food sources have been depleted. Once devoid of food, the cell will excrete waste from the protoplasm and move to a new location.
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Piezo1 is also found in red blood cells, and gain of function mutations in the channels are associated with hereditary xerocytosis or stomatocytosis. Piezo1 channels are pivotal integrators in vascular biology. An allele of Piezo1, E756del, results in a gain-of-function mutation, resulting in dehydrated RBCs and conveying resistance to Plasmodium. This allele has been demonstrated in vitro to prevent cerebral malaria infection.
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Bennettinia Schizonts contain scant cytoplasm, are often round, do not exceed the size of the host nucleus and stick to it. Gametocytes, while varying in shape tend to be round or oval, do not exceed the size of the nucleus and stick to it. The type species is Plasmodium juxtanucleare. Giovannolaia Schizonts contain plentiful cytoplasm, are larger than the host cell nucleus and frequently displace it.
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This species differed immunologically and genetically from then generally recognised species infecting humans. Additional isolates of this putative species were also found in Sepik also in Papua New Guinea, Brazil, Indonesia and Madagascar. The circumsporozoite protein of this species appears to be identical to that of Plasmodium semiovale. At least two species of mosquito Anopheles deaneorum and Anopheles oswaldoi appear to be capable of transmitting this parasite.
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Pseudocnus echinatus has been researched as a possible source of bioactive molecules and has been found to contain a galactose-specific lectin with haemolytic activity. This binds to the exterior of red blood cells, damaging the cell membrane and causing lysis. This lectin has the ability to block the development of Plasmodium, the causal agent of malaria, when it is expressed in genetically modified Anopheles mosquitoes.
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Harmonia axyridis secretes a number of defensive compounds, one of which, (9Z,17R)-9-Octadecene-1,17-diamine (harmonine) has been isolated from its haemolymph. This molecule has been reported to have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity that includes human pathogens. Antibacterial activity is most pronounced against fast-growing mycobacteria and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and the growth of both chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum strains is also inhibited.
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Furthermore, multinucleate cells are produced from specialized cell cycles in which nuclear division occurs without cytokinesis, thus leading to large coenocytes or plasmodia. In filamentous fungi, multinucleate cells may extend over hundreds of meters so that different regions of a single cell experience dramatically different microenvironments. Other examples include, the plasmodia of plasmodial slime molds (myxogastrids) and the schizont of the Plasmodium parasite which causes malaria.
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Research indicates that the active site environment of Plasmodium SHMTs (PSHMTs) differ from that of human cytosolic SHMT quite a bit, allowing for the possibility of selective inhibition of PSHMT and, thus, the treatment of malaria infections. In particular, certain pyrazolopyran molecules have been shown to have a selective nanomolar efficacy against PSHMTs. Poor pharmacokinetics, however, have prevented these pyrazolopyrans from being effective in living models.
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A study carried out by his team in Tübingen of a PfSPZ vaccine showed 100 percent protection, a level consistent with WHO guidelines for worldwide use. Kremsner and his teams in Tübingen and Lambaréné also established a Plasmodium falciparum controlled human malaria infection (CHMI) model. Use of this CHMI model dramatically reduces the time needed for clinical development of malaria vaccine and drug candidates.
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The project concluded that indoor spraying with Propoxur had a very limited impact on malaria and the mass administration of sulfalene- pyrimethamine (in combination with the residual spraying) failed to interrupt the transmission of malaria for any length of time. However, the mathematical model used was found to simulate the epidemiology of Plasmodium falciparum fairly realistically and was considered fit for use in planning control of malaria.
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P. vivax preferentially penetrates young red blood cells (reticulocytes), unlike Plasmodium falciparum which can invade erythrocytes. In order to achieve this, merozoites have two proteins at their apical pole (PvRBP-1 and PvRBP-2). The parasite uses the Duffy blood group antigens (Fy6) to penetrate red blood cells. This antigen does not occur in the majority of humans in West Africa [phenotype Fy (a-b-)].
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The time of appearance of the symptoms from infection (called incubation period) is shortest for P. falciparum among Plasmodium species. An average incubation period is 11 days, but may range from 9 to 30 days. In isolated cases, prolonged incubation periods as long as 2, 3 or even 8 years have been recorded. Pregnancy and co-infection with HIV are important conditions for delayed symptoms.
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The application of propidium iodide staining to the study of the macronucleus and micronuclei in the suctorian Heliophyra sp. Stain Technology 62: 217–220.Taylor, D. W., M. Parra, G. B. Chapman, M. E. Stearns, J. Rener, M. Aikawa, S. Uni, S. B. Aley, L. J. Panton, and R. J. Howard. 1987. Localization of Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 1 in the erythrocyte skeleton under knobs.
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Raimondo Feletti (1851-1927) was an Italian physician and zoologist. Feletti worked at a clinic in Catania where a street is named for him "Via Raimondo Feletti".With Giovanni Batista Grassi he published several works on malarial parasites in birds. They described, and introduced the names Haemamoeba vivax (1890) and H. malariae (1889) for, two of the malaria parasites, soon revising the genus to Plasmodium.
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J. Parasitol. 86(3):511-515 Anolis sabanus,Staats C.M., Schall J.J. (1996) Distribution and abundance of two malarial parasites of the endemic Anolis lizard of Saba Island, Netherlands Antilles. J. Parasitol. 82(3):409-413 Anolis sagreiPerkins S.L., Rothschild A. Waltari E. (2007) Infections of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium floridense, in the invasive anole, Anolis sagrei, in Florida J. Herpetol. 41:750-754.) and Sceloporus undulatus.
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He worked on the healthcare of plantation workers in Senembah Maatschappij, Deli, North Sumatra. He demonstrated malaria control through management of hygiene. He recorded the characteristic red stippling found in red blood cells of patients infected by tertian malaria (Plasmodium vivax) which are now known as Schüffner's dots. From 1916 he was a public health advisor to the colonial government of the Dutch East India Company.
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Within the cytoplasm, the newly synthesized protein is attached to a Golgi-like membranous vesicle called the Maurer's cleft. Inside the Maurer’s clefts is a family of proteins called Plasmodium helical interspersed subtelomeric (PHIST) proteins. Of the PHIST proteins, PFI1780w and PFE1605w bind the intracellular ATS of PfEMP1 during transport to the RBC membrane. The PfEMP1 molecule is deposited at the RBC membrane at the knobs.
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There are four types of plasmepsins, closely related but varying in the specificity of cleavage site. Plasmepsins I and II cleave hemoglobin between residues Phenylalanine 33 and Leucine 34 of α-globin subunit. The name plasmepsin may come from Plasmodium (the organism) and pepsin (a common aspartic acid protease with similar molecular structure). The closest (non-pathogenic) enzymatic equivalent in humans is the beta- secretase enzyme.
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William Trager William Trager (20 March 1910 – 22 January 2005) was an American parasitologist, professor at Rockefeller University, and member of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States. Trager's research focused on developing microbiological culture systems for a variety of eukaryotic pathogens. He is best known for developing a culture system for the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum with James Jensen in the 1970s.
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The plasmodium is orange to scarlet. The fruit bodies are mainly plasmodiocarps, which are worm to net-shaped, beige, ochre or yellow to red-brown coloured and red spotted. The strands are occasionally so closely bound together that they produce pseudo-aethaliae, rarely cushion-form fruit bodies, which have a diameter from and expand over several centimetres wide. The hypothallus is inconspicuous or is missing.
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The parasite was first described by Telford in 1984.Telford, Jr S.R. (1984) Studies on African saurian malarias: Three Plasmodium species from gekkonid hosts J. Parasitol. 70 (3) 343-354 Young schizonts are elongate with blunt ends and become oval or round following the second nuclear division. Mature schizonts are smaller than the host cell nuclei, produce 4-12 merozoites and are usually arranged as a fan.
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Antibody action contributes to premunition. However, premunition is probably much more complex than simple antibody and antigen interaction. In the case of malaria, the sporozoite and merozoite stages of Plasmodium elicit the antibody response which leads to premunition. Immunoglobulin E targets the parasites and leads to eosinophil degranulation which releases major basic protein that damages the parasites, and other factors elicit a local inflammatory response.
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The plasmodium of Physarum aeneum is black. The plasmodiocarps' fruit bodies are mostly expanded over several centimetres and amasses in groups, which can be produced simple, branched or cancellate. They are pink to brown, light olive, grey or bronze-coloured, and have a shiny or iridescent surface and a diameter from 0.3 to 0.4 mm. The plasmodiocarps are first often surrounded by unstiped, nearly round sporangia.
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The plasmodium is sepia-toned, brown-black or black. The fruiting body is usually pseudoaethalioid, occasionally aethalioid or on rare occasions even sporangiate. The fruiting bodies form dense groups which are mainly sessile or, rarely, borne on a stipe. The single sporangia are cylindric and create a spotted to cushion- shaped aethalium with a diameter from and a thickness from 2 to 10 mm.
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The parasite has an approximately 48-hour life cycle and gives rise to a tertian fever. The disease itself appears to be mild with little overt pathology. Its prevalence varies considerably: Wolfe et alWolfe ND, Escalante AA, Karesh WB, Kilbourn A, Spielman A, Lal AA. (1998) Wild primate populations in emerging infectious disease research: the missing link. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 4:14958. found the highest Plasmodium spp.
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Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes. Plasmodium falciparum is the species of the malaria parasite that causes the vast majority of severe disease and death. In 2010, there were about 216 million cases of malaria globally, and about 655,000 deaths – mostly among children in Africa. Yet, malaria is preventable and treatable.
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The discovery of the non-mevalonate pathway in malaria parasites has indicated the use of fosmidomycin and other such inhibitors as antimalarial drugs. Indeed, fosmidomycin has been tested in combination treatment with clindamycin for treatment of malaria with favorable results. It has been shown that an increase in copy number of the target enzyme (DXP reductoisomerase) correlates with in vitro fosmidomycin resistance in the lethal malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum.
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P. polycephalum plasmodium cultivating two "islands" of agar substrate overlying a glass coverslip. Physarum polycephalum growing from an oat flake (center) towards hairy roots of the medicinal plant Valeriana officinalis (left). Physarum polycephalum has been shown to exhibit characteristics similar to those seen in single-celled creatures and eusocial insects. For example, a team of Japanese and Hungarian researchers have shown P. polycephalum can solve the shortest path problem.
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Due to their prevalence on the Plasmodium surface, MSPs have been a key target for vaccine development. Anti-malarial vaccines have been developed to target the merozoite at different stages in its life cycle. Vaccines that target the merozoite in its asexual erythrocytic stage utilize merozoite surface proteins, particularly MSP-1. In addition to vaccines, researchers are developing drugs that bind to MSPs in order to disrupt merozoite replication.
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Koch observed the phenomenon of acquired immunity. On December 26, 1900, he arrived as part of an expedition to German New Guinea, which was then a protectorate of the German Reich. Koch serially examined the Papuan people, the indigenous inhabitants, and their blood samples and noticed they contained Plasmodium parasites, the cause of malaria, but their bouts of malaria were mild or could not even be noticed, i.e. were subclinical.
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The Eduard-Reichenow- Medaille is an award offered by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Protozoologie.Ehrungen - Deutsche Gesellschaft für Protozoologie Eduard- Reichenow-Medaille In 1932 Alfred Kahl named the protozoan genus Reichenowella (family Reichenowellidae) in his honor.Petymol Biographical Etymology of Marine Organism Names. Q & RTaxonomicon Taxon: Genus Reichenowella His name is also associated with Plasmodium reichenowi, a malaria parasite of chimpanzees and gorillas, which Reichenow was the first to document.
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Amblyospora salinaria n. sp. which infects the mosquito Culex salinarius Coquillett, and Amblyospora californica which infects the mosquito Culex tarsalis Coquillett, provide typical examples of transovarial transmission of microsporidia. Microsporidia, specifically the mosquito-infecting Vavraia culicis, are being explored as a possible 'evolution-proof' malaria-control method. Microsporidian infection of Anopheles gambiae (the principal vector of Plasmodium falciparum malaria) reduces malarial infection within the mosquito, and shortens the mosquito lifespan.
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In collaboration with Michael Lanzer, Stein demonstrated that via mutations in the chloroquine resistance transporter (PfCRT), the antimalarial drug chloroquine is transported away from its target, the parasite's digestive vacuole, which does not occur via the wild- type form of PfCRT. Sanchez CP, Rotmann A, Stein WD, Lanzer M. Polymorphisms within PfMDR1 alter the substrate specificity for anti-malarial drugs in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol. 2008 Nov;70(4):786–98.
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Sanchez CP, Liu CH, Mayer S, Nurhasanah A, Cyrklaff M, Mu J, Ferdig MT, Stein WD, Lanzer M. A HECT Ubiquitin-Protein Ligase as a Novel Candidate Gene for Altered Quinine and Quinidine Responses in Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS Genet 2014; 10(5): e1004382. PMCID: PMC4022464. With his son Moshe Hoshen, together with Hoshen's doctoral supervisor, Hagai Ginsburg, Stein also carried out mathematical modeling of artemisinin treatment of malaria.
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Cilia are formed through the process of ciliogenesis. An early step is docking of the basal body to the growing ciliary membrane, after which the transition zone forms. The building blocks of the ciliary axoneme, such as tubulins, are added at the ciliary tips through a process that depends partly on intraflagellar transport (IFT). Exceptions include Drosophila sperm and Plasmodium falciparum flagella formation, in which cilia assemble in the cytoplasm.
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The reproduction of Labyrinthula occurs by zoosporulation, no sexual reproductive cells or structures have been identified yet. First, vegetative cells aggregate inside the ectoplasmic net and form yellow to orange networks in different areas of the net. The cells in these aggregates are compressed together and the boundaries blur, which leads to a plasmodium-like appearance. The vegetative cells then round up and enlarge to form a presporangium.
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In addition, Artesunate potently inhibits the essential Plasmodium falciparum exported protein 1 (EXP1), a membrane glutathione S-transferase. As a result, the amount of glutathione in the parasite is reduced. In 2016, artemisinin has been shown to bind to a large number targets, suggesting that it acts in a promiscuous manner. There is evidence suggesting DHA inhibition of calcium-dependent ATPase on endoplasmic membrane, which disrupts protein folding of parasites.
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In the early twentieth century, before antibiotics, patients with tertiary syphilis were intentionally infected with malaria to induce a fever; this was called malariotherapy. In 1917, Julius Wagner- Jauregg, a Viennese psychiatrist, began to treat neurosyphilitics with induced Plasmodium vivax malaria. Three or four bouts of fever were enough to kill the temperature-sensitive syphilis bacteria (Spirochaeta pallida also known as Treponema pallidum). P. vivax infections were then terminated by quinine.
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Until the 1950s, screening of anti-malarial drugs was carried out on avian malaria. Avian malaria species differ from those that infect humans. The discovery in 1948 of Plasmodium berghei in wild rodents in the Congo and later other rodent species that could infect laboratory rats transformed drug development. The short hepatic phase and life cycle of these parasites made them useful as animal models, a status they still retain.
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Plasmodiocarp of the slime mold Hemitrichia serpula: the living structure contains many nuclei, not separated from each other by cell membranes or cell walls. A plasmodium is a living structure of cytoplasm that contains many nuclei, rather than being divided into individual cells each with a single nucleus. Plasmodia are best known from slime molds, but are also found in parasitic Myxosporea, and some algae such as the Chlorarachniophyta.
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A plasmodium is an amoeboid, multinucleate, and naked mass of cytoplasm that contains many diploid nuclei. The resulting structure, a coenocyte, is created by many nuclear divisions without the process of cytokinesis, which in other organisms pulls newlydivided cells apart. In some cases, the resulting structure is a syncytium, created by the fusion of cells after division. Under suitable conditions, plasmodia differentiates and forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips.
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After this Plasmodium diverged into a mammal infecting clade and a bird/lizard infecting clade. Within the bird/lizard clade some species developed the ability to infect bats (Nycteria). Within the mammalian clade a number of species have also developed the ability to infect bats (Hepatocystis). Since Haemoproteus evolved after the evolution of birds this would suggest that an upper limit for the evolution of this genus is approximately .
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Avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) is an introduced disease that is spread by mosquitoes. Iiwi generally survive at higher elevations where temperatures are too cool for mosquitoes. Many disease-susceptible endemic birds, including iiwi and kiwikiu, became rare to absent at lower elevations, even in relatively intact native forest. In a laboratory study, ninety percent of all iiwi exposed to avian malaria died and the other ten percent were weakened but survived.
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Species of genera Aedes, Anopheles and Psorophora transmit equine encephalitis viruses to horses. Culex, Aedes, and Anopheles species of mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium protozoa that cause types of malaria in birds. Culex mosquitoes transmit West Nile virus between birds and horses; they transmit Rift Valley fever virus to livestock species and humans. The nematode worm Dirofilaria immitis that causes heartworm disease in dogs is transmitted by species of Culex and Aedes.
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Babesia species enter red blood cells (erythrocytes) at the sporozoite stage. Within the red blood cell, the protozoa become cyclical and develop into a trophozoite ring. The trophozoites moult into merozoites, which have a tetrad structure coined a Maltese-cross form. This tetrad morphology seen with Giemsa staining of a thin blood smear is unique to Babesia, and distinguishes it from Plasmodium falciparum, a protozoan of similar morphology that causes malaria.
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PfSPZ Vaccine is a candidate malaria vaccine made of non-replicating irradiated whole sporozoites and developed by Sanaria. PfSPZ is the acronym of words: Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) and sporozoites (SPZ). Clinical trials have been promising, but it has been subject to some criticism regarding its ultimate feasibility with regard to large-scale production and delivery in Africa, since it must be stored in liquid nitrogen (at or colder).
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Concentration of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes by discontinuous density gradient centrifugation in Percoll. Percoll is a tool for more efficient density separation in biochemistry that was first formulated by Pertoft and colleagues. It is used for the isolation of cells, organelles, and/or viruses by density centrifugation. Percoll consists of colloidal silica particles of 15–30 nm diameter (23% w/w in water) which have been coated with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP).
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If two cells of the same type meet in this phase, they cross- fertilise to a diploid zygote through the fusion of protoplasms and nuclei. The conditions which trigger this are not known. The diploid zygote becomes a multinucleated plasmodium through multiple nuclear divisions without further cell division. If the resulting cells were peritrichous, they change their shape before the fusion from the peritrichous form to the myxamoeba.
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Also, important details of its fruit bodies were not visible or contradicted the identification. Today it is assumed that the fossil belongs to a lichen similar to the genus Chaenotheca. The only known discovery of a preserved plasmodium was found in Dominican amber, and was then grouped into the Physarida. However, this claim is also considered doubtful as the publication was later classified as insufficient due to lack of evidence.
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M. fragrans is monotypic. It is commonly called Mkilua Mwitu, Kilua and Kiluwa in Swahili, and Kingade in Digo (and Swahili). Volatile oils extracted from its leaves, flowers, and aerial parts have been reported to be repellent to Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes which are vectors for the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Bioactive molecules extracted from its roots have been reported to have antimicrobial activity in tests with Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus.
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An example of a pathogenic protozoan is the malarial parasite (Plasmodium falciparum), which uses one adhesion molecule called the circumsporozoite protein to bind to liver cells, and another adhesion molecule called the merozoite surface protein to bind red blood cells. Pathogenic fungi use adhesion molecules present on its cell wall to attach, either through protein-protein or protein- carbohydrate interactions, to host cells or fibronectins in the extracellular matrix.
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Additionally, the piroplasm is spread by tick bites (Ixodes scapularis, the same tick that spreads Lyme disease), while the malaria protozoans are spread via mosquito. Finally, under the microscope, the merozoite form of the B. microti lifecycle in red blood cells forms a cross-shaped structure, often referred to as a "Maltese cross" or tetrad, in addition to intracellular "ring forms" which are also seen in the malaria parasite (Plasmodium spp.).
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Life cycle of Plasmodium Infection in humans begins with the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. Out of about 460 species of Anopheles mosquito, more than 70 species transmit falciparum malaria. Anopheles gambiae is one of the best known and most prevalent vectors, particularly in Africa. The infective stage called sporozoites released from the salivary glands through the proboscis of the mosquito enter the bloodstream during feeding.
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At 48 hours after infection, Plasmodium-specific CD8+ T cells can be detected in the lymph nodes connected to the skin cells. Most of the sporozites remaining in the skin tissue are subsequently killed by the innate immune system. The sporozoite glycoprotein specifically activates mast cells. The mast cells then produce signalling molecules such as TNFα and MIP-2, which activate cell eaters (professional phagocytes) such as neutrophils and macrophages.
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Artesunate plus mefloquine performs better than mefloquine alone in treating uncomplicated falciparum malaria in low transmission settings. There is limited data to show atovaquone-proguanil is more effective than chloroquine, amodiaquine, and mefloquine in treating falciparum malaria. Azithromycin monotherapy or combination therapy has not shown effectiveness in treating plasmodium or vivax malaria. Amodiaquine plus sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine may achieve less treatment failures when compared to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine alone in uncomplicated falciparum malaria.
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A considerable amount of data on MVA vector vaccines has been accumulated from studies in macaques. In addition, combinations of viral vector vaccines have been employed successfully. Studies in mice show that fowlpox-based and MVA-based vaccines used in combination induce immunity and protection against challenge with Plasmodium parasites. In macaques, DNA-based HIV vaccines can be effectively boosted with recombinant MVA-based vaccines expressing HIV antigens.
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At the age of 29 he became Chair of Military Diseases and Epidemics at the École de Val-de-Grâce. At the end of his tenure in 1878 he worked in Algeria, where he made his major achievements. He discovered that the protozoan parasite Plasmodium was responsible for malaria, and that Trypanosoma caused trypanosomiasis or African sleeping sickness. In 1894 he returned to France to serve in various military health services.
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The leaves may contain agents for prevention of cancers (although they have no demonstrated anticarcinogenic properties) and antioxidants, as well as anticlastogenic characteristics. Extracts of have shown activity against Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine (CQ)-resistant (FcB1) and CQ-sensitive (HB3) strains.Hnawia E, Hassani L, Deharo E, Maurel S, Waikedre J, Cabalion P, Bourdy G, Valentin A, Jullian V, Fogliani B. "Antiplasmodial activity of New Caledonia and Vanuatu traditional medicines". Pharm Biol.
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Codinaeopsin is an antimalarial isolated from a fungal isolate found in white yemeri trees (Vochysia guatemalensis) in Costa Rica. It is reported to have bioactivity against Plasmodium falciparum with an IC50 = 2.3 μg/mL (4.7 μM). Pure codinaeopsin was reported to be isolated with a total yield of 18 mg/mL from cultured fungus. The biosynthesis of codinaeopsin involves a polyketide synthase-nonribosomal peptide synthetase (PKS-NRPS) hybrid.
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A wide range of positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses (e.g. picornaviruses) including many important human pathogens hijack human PI4KB kinase to generate specific PI4P-enriched organelles called membranous webs. These organelles are then used as specific platforms for the effective viral replication within the host cell. Furthermore, PI4KB homologue from the protozoan parasite Plasmodium falciparum has been identified as a target of imidopyrazines, an antimalarial compound class.
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He succeeded Alphonse Laveran as the head of the Laboratory of Institut Pasteur in Paris in 1922. He was appointed Professor of Tropical Medicine at the University of Bologna in 1925. In 1930 he joined the University of Modena, where he founded the Institute of Colonial Pathology which was late renamed the Institute of Tropical and Subtropical Diseases. His best known publication is probably the description of Plasmodium knowlesi in 1927.
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A merosome is a recently described life stage of malaria parasites of the genus Plasmodium. After injection by mosquitoes into the human host, malaria parasites first migrate to liver cells (hepatocytes), where they replicate asexually inside the host cell. Afterwards, they go on to infect red blood cells. This transition is characterised by the 'budding off' of membrane-bound structures called merosomes, first characterised by Sturm and Amino et al.
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They undergo structural development inside the RBCs, becoming trophozoites and schizonts. It is during this period that malarial symptoms are produced. Unlike RBCs infected by other Plasmodium species, P. falciparum-infected RBCs had been known to spontaneously stick together. By the early 1980s, it was established that when the parasite (both the trophozoite and schizont forms) enters the blood stream and infects RBCs, the infected cells form knobs on their surface.
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It was on An. claviger that Giovanni Battista Grassi established the fact that only the female mosquitoes are responsible for transmitting malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum in humans. An. claviger was known for breeding abundantly in the Åland Islands of Finland. As a result, malaria was endemic in the islands for at least 150 years, with severe malaria outbreaks being recorded in the 17th century, and in 1853 and 1862.
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The choughs host bird fleas, including two Frontopsylla species which are Pyrrhocorax specialist. Other parasites recorded on choughs include a cestode Choanotaenia pirinica,(Russian) and various species of chewing lice in the genera Brueelia, Menacanthus and Philopterus. Blood parasites such as Plasmodium have been found in red-billed choughs, but this is uncommon, and apparently does little harm. Parasitism levels are much lower than in some other passerine groups.
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The parasite was first described by Telford in 1984.Telford, Jr S.R. (1984) Studies on African saurian malarias: Three Plasmodium species from gekkonid hosts J. Parasitol. 70 (3) 343-354 The schizonts are usually round, oval or oblong, exceed the host cell nuclei in size and produce 8-20 merozoites. The gametocytes are elongate or oval and have dispersed pigment averaging twice the size of host cell nuclei in size.
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The plasmodium is white, becoming pink to red at maturity. The small- to large-group-forming fruiting bodies are shiny olive to yellow-olive or brown, and bear mainly stalked, rarely sessile sporangia. These are conical to peak-shaped and are up to 3 mm high and 0.6 to 0.8 (rarely up to 1.3) mm wide. The shiny, membraneous hypothallus is wide, and pale to brown in colour.
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The research focus was on protozoan infections, especially the cause of malaria (Plasmodium falciparum), which kill over 500,000 people each year world-wide. By 1992 he had built a group of 60 people, most of whom were using cloning techniques to work on malaria. Some critics have commented that the WEHI group struggled to come to grips with the financial necessities of commercialising their research and funding "big science" projects.
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As the surrounding plasmodium flows in the fruit body, the hypothallus will lie directly on the substrate, shrinking and creating the edge of the mature fruit body. Here, the hypothallus is part of a morphological unit with peridium and stem, which serves as a membranous surface of the whole structure with the spores. Epihypothaly is an autapomorphy of the stemonitida and is, in comparison to subhypothaly, a primitive feature.
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In 1899 they reported the infection of Plasmodium falciparum with the mosquito Anopheles claviger However the practical importance of validating the theory, i.e. control of mosquito vector should be an effective management strategy for malaria, was not realised by the medical community and the public. Hence in 1900 Patrick Manson clinically demonstrated that the bite of infected anopheline mosquitoes invariably resulted in malaria. He acquired carefully reared infected mosquitoes from Bignami and Bastianelli in Rome.
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The most common form of MSPs are anchored to the merozoite surface with glycophosphatidylinositol, a short glycolipid often used for protein anchoring. Additional forms include integral membrane proteins and peripherally associated proteins, which are found to a lesser extent than glycophosphatidylinositol anchored proteins, or (GPI)-anchored proteins, on the merozoite surface. Merozoite surface proteins 1 and 2 (MSP-1 & MSP-2) are the most abundant (GPI)-anchored proteins on the surface of Plasmodium merozoites.
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By genetically engineering fungi like Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana to delay the development of mosquito infectiousness the selection pressure to evolve resistance is reduced. Another strategy is to add proteins to the fungi that block transmission of malaria or remove the Plasmodium altogether. A mushroom has been gene edited to resist browning, giving it a longer shelf life. The process used CRISPR to knock out a gene that encodes polyphenol oxidase.
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Algernon Thomas and Rudolf Leuckart independently made the first discovery of the life cycle of a trematode, the sheep liver fluke, by experiment in 1881–1883. In 1877 Patrick Manson discovered the life cycle of the filarial worms, that cause elephantiatis transmitted by mosquitoes. Manson further predicted that the malaria parasite, Plasmodium, had a mosquito vector, and persuaded Ronald Ross to investigate. Ross confirmed that the prediction was correct in 1897–1898.
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The spores are often yellow but can range anywhere from colourless or white to pink and reddish brown. The capillitium is the defining feature of the order Trichida. It is often described as “decorated” or “ornamental” due to features like spirals, warts, and spines. The development of the capillitium in Trichida is formed through tubular vacuoles within the plasmodium that are organized into the desired shape of the final capillitium, including potential branches and spirals.
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To give a few examples, Morbillivirus (measles) is transmitted from an infected human host to a susceptible host as they are transmitted by respiration through airborne transmission. Campylobacter (campylobacteriosis) is a common bacterial infection that is spread from human or non-human reservoirs by vehicles such as contaminated food and water. Plasmodium falciparum (malaria) can be transmitted from an infected mosquito, an animal (non-human) reservoir, to human host by biological vector transmission.
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Additional subgenera have been created since. The currently recognised subgenera are listed below. Asiamoeba Telford 1988 Bennettinia Valkiūnas 1997Valkiunas G. (1997). Bird Haemosporidia. Institute of Ecology, Vilnius Carinamoeba Garnham 1966 Giovannolaia Corradetti, Garnham & Laird 1963 Haemamoeba Grassi & Feletti 1890 Huffia Garnham & Laird 1963 Lacertaemoba Telford 1988 Laverania Bray 1958 Novyella Corradetti, Garnham & Laird 1963 Nyssorhynchus Poinar 2005 Ophidiella Garnham 1966 Papernaia Landau et al 2010 Paraplasmodium Telford 1988 Plasmodium Bray 1963 emend.
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The current classification scheme was developed prior to the widespread use of DNA sequence based taxonomy and is based on host and morphological criteria. Plasmodium has since been shown to be paraphytic with the genera Haemoproteus and Hepatocystis (vide infra). Revision of this genus will be undertaken once sufficient DNA sequence material is available. This forthcoming reclassification project is not unique to this genus as DNA based taxonomy is revising many traditional groupings of protozoa.
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Morrison has shown using molecular data that the Haemosporidia are nested within the gregarines and that this clade is distinct from the piroplasms. This latter clade is a sister group of the coccidians. Examination of the actin genes suggests that Plasmodium is more closely related to the coccidians than to the Babesia/Theileria clade. It also suggests that Cryptosporium is basal in the Apicomplexa: this latter finding is consistent with other analyses.
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Several deficiencies in the level of activity (not function) of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase have been observed to be associated with resistance to the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum among individuals of Mediterranean and African descent. The basis for this resistance may be a weakening of the red cell membrane (the erythrocyte is the host cell for the parasite) such that it cannot sustain the parasitic life cycle long enough for productive growth.
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While the number of reported malaria cases has dropped in recent years (due in part to a change in case definition), malaria is still a major cause of morbidity and mortality and a high priority for the government. Malaria is endemic throughout Senegal, and the entire population is at risk. Transmission occurs seasonally and is affected by rainfall and persistent flooding, especially in peri-urban areas. Plasmodium falciparum is the major cause of infection.
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Xanthurenic acid, or xanthurenate, is a chemical shown to induce gametogenesis of Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite that causes malaria. It is found in the gut of the Anopheles mosquito. Xanthurenic acid is a metabolic intermediate that accumulates and is excreted by pyridoxine (vitamin B6) deficient animals after the ingestion of tryptophan.Xanthurenic acid at Sigma-Aldrich Xanthurenic acid is suspected to be an endogenous agonist for Group II metabotropic glutamate receptors in humans.
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In 90 percent of cases, Plasmodium falciparum is responsible for serious and fatal forms of malaria. Insecticide resistance is increasing every year, and the resistance of Anopheles gambiae to insecticides including DDT and pyrethroid classes is evident in many parts of the country. Burkina Faso's malaria control approach includes three components: improvements in tracking of human illness, parasite surveillance, and effective resource delivery. Significant efforts have been made to stabilize the antimalarial commodity situation.
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Images from original description of Maurer's clefts in 1902. Images show red blood cells infected with Plasmodium falciparum stained with alkaline methylene blue. Georg Maurer first described the structures now known as Maurer's clefts in 1902, when he described methylene blue-stained spots in red blood cells containing older P. falciparum parasites. He proposed that these spots were due to injury of the host cell and consumption of host cell materials by the parasite.
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Nile crocodiles sometimes attack drinking queleas, and an individual in Ethiopia hit birds out of the vegetation on the bank into the water with its tail, subsequently eating them. Queleas drinking at a waterhole were grabbed from below by African helmeted turtles in Etosha. Among the invertebrates that kill and eat youngsters are the armoured bush cricket (Acanthoplus discoidalis) and the scorpion Cheloctonus jonesii. Internal parasites found in queleas include Haemoproteus and Plasmodium.
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Parasites that are known to induce behavioral changes through central nervous system inflammation in their hosts include Toxoplasma gondii in rats, Trypanosoma cruzi in mice and Plasmodium mexicanum in the Mexican lizard. Toxoplasma gondii induces behavioral changes in rats by infecting central nervous system neurons. While some parasites exploit their hosts' typical immune responses, others seem to alter the immune response itself. For example, the typical immune response in rodents is characterized by heightened anxiety.
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Awandare's research focuses on the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum and the infection it causes in children. His work focuses on both the immune response of the patient to infection, and the pathogenic processes of the parasite itself. In particular, he studies cell-surface receptors that could be potential vaccine targets and his studies use parasites from infected children in Ghana, so that any vaccines developed will be applicable to real- life cases.
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442x442px Free-living Protists occupy almost any environment that contains liquid water. Many protists, such as algae, are photosynthetic and are vital primary producers in ecosystems, particularly in the ocean as part of the plankton. Protists make up a large portion of the biomass in both marine and terrestrial environments. Other protists include pathogenic species, such as the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei, which causes sleeping sickness, and species of the apicomplexan Plasmodium, which cause malaria.
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In a study of this gene among the Hominoidea two finding unique to humans emerged: (1) an excess of non-synonymous divergence among species that appears to be caused solely by accelerated evolution and (2) the ability of the single GYPC gene to encode both the GPC and GPD proteins. The cause for this is not known but it was suggested that these findings might be the result of infection by Plasmodium falciparum.
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In Uganda a vector has been identified - the mosquito Aedes albopictus. Among its vertebrate hosts are the pygmy owl (Glaucidium passerinum), turkeys (Meleagris species) and the helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris). Plasmodium fallax has periods in which the parasite leaves its host cell and travels to find a new host cell. This is very risky because the parasite will become inactive and unable to invade a new cell if it does not quickly find a host.
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The second main different between stages occurs here. The pairs of nuclei (n+n) will fuse by karyogamy, and the plasmodium will quickly divide into numerous resting spores within a sporosori (spore sack, alternatively called cystosori). These resting spores have three- layered walls and are extremely resistant to the environment, allowing them to persist in the soil for longer than 10 years. As a reminder, most of the life cycle is still unclear.
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Classically, TLR4 is said to be the receptor for LPS, however TLR4 has also been shown to be activated by other kinds of lipids. Plasmodium falciparum, a parasite known to cause the most common and serious form of malaria that is seen primarily in Africa, produces glycosylphosphatidylinositol, which can activate TLR4. Two SNPs in TLR4 are co-expressed with high penetrance in African populations (i.e. TLR-4-Asp299Gly and TLR-4-Thr399Ile).
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These Polymorphisms are associated with an increase in TLR4-Mediated IL-10 production—an immunomodulator—and a decrease in proinflammatory cytokines. The TLR-4-Asp299Gly point mutation is strongly correlated with an increased infection rate with Plasmodium falciparum. It appears that the mutation prevents TLR4 from acting as vigorously against, at least some plasmodial infections. The malaria infection rate and associated morbidity are higher in TLR-4-Asp299Gly group, but mortality appears to be decreased.
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The preferable method for diagnosis of P. malariae is through the examination of peripheral blood films stained with Giemsa stain. PCR techniques are also commonly used for diagnoses confirmation as well as to separate mixed Plasmodium infections. Even with these techniques, however, it may still be impossible to differentiate infections, as is the case in areas of South America where humans and monkeys coexist and P. malariae and P. brasilianum are not easily distinguishable.
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Parasitism is an interaction in which one organism, the host, is harmed while the other, the parasite, benefits. Parasitism is a symbiosis, a long-term bond in which the parasite feeds on the host or takes resources from the host. Parasites can live within the body such as a tapeworm. Or on the body's surface, for example head-lice 300px Malaria is a result of a parasitic relationship between a female Anopheles mosquito and ‘’Plasmodium’’.
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The lab showed that the LFA-1 ligand ICAM-1 was a target for pathogen binding, for example the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. The generation of LFA-1 null mice revealed the central role of LFA-1 in leukocyte migration within lymph nodes in vivo. Hogg also first identified and characterised unique Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency- III patients that expressed inactive leukocyte integrins. This integrin malfunction was due to mutation in protein kindlin-3.
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Micrograph of a placenta from a stillbirth due to maternal malaria. H&E; stain. Red blood cells are anuclear; blue/black staining in bright red structures (red blood cells) indicate foreign nuclei from the parasites. Electron micrograph of a Plasmodium falciparum-infected red blood cell (center), illustrating adhesion protein "knobs" Malaria infection develops via two phases: one that involves the liver (exoerythrocytic phase), and one that involves red blood cells, or erythrocytes (erythrocytic phase).
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There are a number of medications that can help prevent or interrupt malaria in travellers to places where infection is common. Many of these medications are also used in treatment. In places where Plasmodium is resistant to one or more medications, three medications—mefloquine, doxycycline, or the combination of atovaquone/proguanil (Malarone)—are frequently used for prevention. Doxycycline and the atovaquone/proguanil are better tolerated while mefloquine is taken once a week.
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These clusters were located in regions that flanked the malaria surface antigens RIFIN and VAR genes or in locations that are known for being recombination hot spots. The function of RUF6 is still unknown but from knowing the location of RUF6 within the plasmodium genome it has been suggested that RUF6 may have a role in the expression or maintenance of the malaria surface antigens but this has yet to be determined.
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Klebs reported that antimalarial drug quinine killed the germ. The discovery was supported by leading malariologists of the time. It was then declared that the malaria problem was solved. When a French Army physician Charles Alphonse Laveran correctly discovered in 1880 that malaria was caused by a protozoan parasite (which he called Oscillaria malariae, now Plasmodium falciparum), the discovery was ignored in preference of the bacillus theory of Klebs and Tommasi-Crudeli.
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Eukaryotic pathogens are often capable of sexual interaction by a process involving meiosis and syngamy. Meiosis involves the intimate pairing of homologous chromosomes and recombination between them. Examples of eukaryotic pathogens capable of sex include the protozoan parasites Plasmodium falciparum, Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma brucei, Giardia intestinalis, and the fungi Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans. Viruses may also undergo sexual interaction when two or more viral genomes enter the same host cell.
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The disease is placed into the uncomplicated category or the severe category. If quickly diagnosed and treated, malaria can be cured. However, some of the more serious symptoms, such as acute kidney failure, severe anemia, and acute respiratory distress syndrome can be fatal if not dealt with swiftly and properly. Certain types of Plasmodium can leave dormant parasites in the liver that can reawaken months or years later, causing additional relapses of the disease.
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On the other hand, nocturnal predators such as raccoons and American mink are not attacked by adults. Coloration of the female could serve to camouflage it , protecting it and its nest when it is incubated. The red-winged blackbird can accommodate ectoparasites such as various Phthiraptera, the Ischnocera Philopterus agelaii and Brueelia ornatissima, and mites hematophagous like the macronísido Ornithonyssus sylviarum, and endoparasites as Haemoproteus quiscalus, Leucocytozoon icteris, Plasmodium vaughani, nematodes, flukes and tapeworms.
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Structure of hemozoin, showing hydrogen bonds between hematin units as dotted lines, and coordinate bonds between iron atoms and carboxylate side chains as red lines Electron micrograph of crystals of hemozoin isolated from the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Magnified 68,490 times. Hemozoin is produced by template mediated crystallization ("biocrystallization"). β-Hematin crystals are made of dimers of hematin molecules that are, in turn, joined together by hydrogen bonds to form larger structures.
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C1QBP has been shown to interact with Protein kinase D1, BAT2, PRKCD, PKC alpha and Protein kinase Mζ. Other interacting partners of C1QBP include protein domains from pathogens such as bacteria, virus and plasmodium falciparum. Plasma proteins including fibrinogen, FXII and HK have been demonstrated to interact with C1QBP in a zinc dependent manner,. Recently, a tumour homing peptide, LyP-1(CGNKRTRGC) has been shown to selectively bind to C1QBP in tumour expressing cells.
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Schnepf, E., Hegewald, E., Soeder, J.. 1971: Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen an Parasiten aus Scenedesmus- Massenkulturen. Archiv für Mikrobiologie. 75(3): 209-299 As the parasite expands within the host cell, it develops into a multinucleate plasmodium which grows to eventually replace the entirety of the host cytoplasm. Now all that remains of the green alga is its cell wall and the residual body, a clump consisting of host cell fragments indigestible to the parasite.
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Various Culicoides species have been shown to be vectors for the following viruses and conditions: Mansonella spp. (M. ozzardi, M. perstans, M. streptocerca), Onchocerca gibsoni and O. cervicalis, Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium agamae, bluetongue virus, Schmallenberg virus, African horse sickness, bovine ephemeral fever (C. osystoma and C. nipponesis), Akabane virus, Queensland itch and epizootic hemorrhagic disease. A typical cycle of transmission of a virus by Culicoides is illustrated in the article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
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Genetic testing for STEVOR, AMA1, or MSP1 genes specific for Plasmodium falciparum revealed indications of malaria tropica in 4 mummies, including Tutankhamun's. This is currently the oldest known genetic proof of the ailment. The team discovered DNA from several strains of the parasite, indicating that he was repeatedly infected with the most severe strain of malaria. His malaria infections may have caused a fatal immune response in the body or triggered circulatory shock.
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Systematic comparison of two methods to measure parasite density from malaria blood smears. Parasitology research. 2006;99(4):500-504 Other parasites residing in the blood of a host could be similarly counted on a blood smear using specific staining methods to better visualize the cells. As technology advances, more modernized methods of parasite quantification are emerging such as hand held automated cell counters, in order to efficiently count parasites such as Plasmodium in blood smears.
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The partial cleavage stimulation factor domain, or partial CstF domain, is a protein domain that occurs in proteins from apicomplexan parasites. Currently (as of 2012), little is known about the function of this domain. However, it is homologous to the amino-terminal part of the cleavage stimulation factor, which is thought to be involved with mRNA maturation in mammals. Proteins with this domain have been detected in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum nucleus.
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They are recorded to have lived up to 18 years in the wild, and 28 years in captivity. Some Native Hawaiians consider the Hawaiian crow an aumakua (family god). The species is known for strong flying ability and resourcefulness, and the reasons for its extirpation are not fully understood. It is thought that introduced diseases, such as Toxoplasma gondii, avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum), and fowlpox, were probably a significant factor in the species' decline.
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TEP1 is now known to be important in the resistance of Anopheles mosquitoes to Plasmodium infection, targeting the malaria parasite during its invasion into the mosquitoes body cavity. Following this discovery insect thioester containing proteins have come under increased scrutiny from the scientific community as possible targets for disease control. TEP1 is coded for by two different alleles TEP1-S and TEP-R which are specific to susceptible and resistant mosquito populations respectively.
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Plasmodium knowlesi hemoglobinase imprint. Zymography is an electrophoretic technique for the detection of hydrolytic enzymes, based on the substrate repertoire of the enzyme. Three types of zymography are used; in gel zymography, in situ zymography and in vivo zymography For instance, gelatin embedded in a polyacrylamide gel will be digested by active gelatinases run through the gel. After Coomassie staining, areas of degradation are visible as clear bands against a darkly stained background.
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While the green hylia has so far not been observed to be affected by this type of habitat clearing, many species with shared habitat requirements are in decline. Parasites in African habitats may affect the species. Plasmodium parahexamerium was identified as infecting the green hylia in 2009, with as yet unclear ramifications. This parasite was thought to only inhabit New World hosts, thus its appearance in an Old World bird is both interesting and concerning.
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It accounts for 80% of malaria deaths. Therefore, mutations that protect against malaria infection and lethality pose a significant advantage. Malaria has placed the strongest known selective pressure on the human genome since the origin of agriculture within the past 10,000 years. Plasmodium falciparum was probably not able to gain a foothold among African populations until larger sedentary communities emerged in association with the evolution of domestic agriculture in Africa (the agricultural revolution).
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EuPathDB was established under the NIH Bioinformatics Resource Centers program as ApiDB, a resource meant to cover Apicomplexan parasites. ApiDB originally consisted of component sites CryptoDB (for Cryptosporidium), PlasmoDB (for Plasmodium), and ToxoDB (for Toxoplasma gondii). As ApiDB grew to focus on eukaryotic pathogens beyond Apicomplexans, the name was changed to EuPathDB to support its broadened scope. EuPathDB was the result of collaboration between many different parasitologists, including David Roos, Jessica Kissinger and Dyann Wirth.
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The honeycreepers are threatened by recently introduced predation, competition, parasitism, degradation of habitat, and infectious disease including mosquito-borne avian malaria. One of the consequences of the invasive birds is the introduction of avian malaria. The pathogen is primarily transmitted via female mosquitoes who will pass on the disease by biting a susceptible individual after having bitten an infected individual. The main mosquito vector (Culex quinquefasciatus) was introduced over a hundred years before the pathogen (Plasmodium r.
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The plasmodium of myxomycetes, and especially that of Physarum polycephalum is known for its cytoplasmic streaming. The cytoplasm undergoes a shuttle flow rhythmically flowing back and forth, changing direction typically every 100 seconds. Flows can reach speeds of up to 1mm/s. Within the tubular network flows arise due to the cross-sectional contractions of the tubes that are generated by the contraction and relaxation of the membranous outer layer of the tubes enriched with acto-myosin cortex.
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Homologes of the protein have been found in Caenorhabditis elegans, Plasmodium falciparum, and in mammals. GOT1 is normally associated closely with Sf2p (encoded by sft2), which is another protein of similar function. In vivo, It has been found that the removal of these two proteins results in defects in endosome-Golgi traffic and ER-Golgi traffic. In vitro, the removal of got1 specifically, results in a defect in ER-Golgi transport in relation to vesicle tethering to Golgi membranes.
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Addition of fucose sugars to serine and threonine residues is an unusual form of O-glycosylation that occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum and is catalysed by two fucosyltransferases. These were discovered in Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii. Several different enzymes catalyse the elongation of the core fucose, meaning that different sugars can be added to the initial fucose on the protein. Along with O-glucosylation, O-fucosylation is mainly found on epidermal growth factor (EGF) domains found in proteins.
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The Viral Storm: The Dawn of a New Pandemic Age by Nathan WolfePlasmodium reichenowi Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute He died in Wuppertal. In 1943 Reichenow and Lilly Mudrow helped solve a long-standing mystery in malaria infections; What is the parasite doing after mosquito bite and before blood-stage infection? Together the two researchers discovered parasite growth in endothelial cells in canaries infected the parasite in the avian malaria species Plasmodium praecox (now classified as P. relictum).
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Two species of the Hippoboscidae – Ornithoica (Ornithoica) podargi and Ornithomya fuscipennis are also common parasites of the tawny frogmouth (Podargus strigoides) of Australia. Pseudolynchia canariensis is commonly found on pigeons and doves, and can serve as the vector of "pigeon malaria" (Haemoproteus columbae'). Louse flies of birds may transmit other parasites such as those in the genus Plasmodium or other Haemoproteus parasites. Some evidence indicates that other Hippoboscidae can serve as vectors of disease agents to mammals.
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Basigin (BSG) also known as extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer (EMMPRIN) or cluster of differentiation 147 (CD147) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BSG gene. This protein is a determinant for the Ok blood group system. There are three known antigens in the Ok system; the most common being Oka (also called OK1), OK2 and OK3. Basigin has been shown to be an essential receptor on red blood cells for the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum.
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In general, hemoglobin levels in individuals with malaria are severely reduced from that of a healthy individual. Reduced levels occur because the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, utilizes human hemoglobin as its major energy source. Filariasis, in combination with severe malaria, actually shows higher hemoglobin levels than in severe malaria alone. In addition, M. perstans did not have adverse effects on those with HIV, as there were actually higher levels of CD4 in HIV patients co-infected with M. perstans.
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Other parasites that increase their host's risk of predation include Euhaplorchis californiensis, Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Myrmeconema neotropicum and Diplostomum pseudospathaceum. The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, carried by the Anopheles gambiae mosquito, changes its host's attraction to sources of nectar in order to increase its sugar intake and enhance the parasite's chance of survival. It also decreases the host's attraction to human blood while gestating, only to increase it when it is ready to transmit to a human host.
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Glycophorin C (GYPC; CD236/CD236R; glycoprotein beta; glycoconnectin; PAS-2) plays a functionally important role in maintaining erythrocyte shape and regulating membrane material properties, possibly through its interaction with protein 4.1. Moreover, it has previously been shown that membranes deficient in protein 4.1 exhibit decreased content of glycophorin C. It is also an integral membrane protein of the erythrocyte and acts as the receptor for the Plasmodium falciparum protein PfEBP-2 (erythrocyte binding protein 2; baebl; EBA-140).
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As part of that effort, Mexico launched the Campaña Nacional para la Erradicación de Paludismo, or the National Campaign for the Eradication of Malaria. By spraying DDT in homes, the Anopheles a genus of mosquitoes known to carry the deadly Plasmodium falciparum was mostly eliminated. As a consequence of this national campaign, other arthropods were either eliminated or significantly reduced in number, including the reduviid bug responsible for Chagas disease (American Trypanosomiasis) and T. penetrans.Ibáñez-Bernal, Sergio.
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P. vivax human infection occurs when an infected mosquito feeds on a human. During feeding, the mosquito injects saliva to prevent blood clotting (along with sporozoites), thousands of sporozoites are inoculated into human blood; within a half-hour the sporozoites reach the liver. There they enter hepatic cells, transform into the trophozoite form and feed on hepatic cells, and reproduce asexually. This process gives rise to thousands of merozoites (plasmodium daughter cells) in the circulatory system and the liver.
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Malaria parasites belong to the genus Plasmodium (phylum Apicomplexa). In humans, malaria is caused by P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale, P. vivax and P. knowlesi. Among those infected, P. falciparum is the most common species identified (~75%) followed by P. vivax (~20%). Although P. falciparum traditionally accounts for the majority of deaths, recent evidence suggests that P. vivax malaria is associated with potentially life-threatening conditions about as often as with a diagnosis of P. falciparum infection.
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With Giuseppe Bastianelli, he discovered that in malarial patients, it was the young (early staged) Plasmodium that caused fevers, but not the old crescent forms (gametocytes), discovered by Alphonse Laveran. Specifically they found that the crescent forms appeared in the second week of fever. Bignami theorised in 1896 that the mosquito can be the vector of the disease. To show this, he captured mosquitoes in areas with high incidence of malaria and had them bite healthy people.
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In its native Puerto Rico, individuals of this species may sometimes contract a type of anole malaria, Plasmodium azurophilum, a unicellular eukaryotic parasite that infects both the white and red blood cells of its victims, and which is thought to be contracted from infected mosquitoes. The disease commonly afflicts another anole species which occurs in the same forests, A. gundlachi, with usually around 30% of that species being infected as opposed to under 1% for A. stratulus.
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Scale bar is 0.5 µm. The malaria parasite, therefore, detoxifies the hematin, which it does by biocrystallization—converting it into insoluble and chemically inert β-hematin crystals (called hemozoin). In Plasmodium the food vacuole fills with hemozoin crystals, which are about 100-200 nanometres long and each contain about 80,000 heme molecules. Detoxification through biocrystallization is distinct from the detoxification process in mammals, where an enzyme called heme oxygenase instead breaks excess heme into biliverdin, iron, and carbon monoxide.
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In 1885 they gave the formal scientific name Plasmodium for these parasites. They also discovered meningococcus as the causative agent of cerebral and spinal meningitis. Marchiafava was the first to describe syphilitic cerebral arteritis and degeneration of brain in an alcoholic patient, which is now eponymously named Marchiafava's disease. He gave a complete description of a genetic disease of blood now known Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria or sometimes Strübing-Marchiafava-Micheli syndrome, in honour of the pioneer scientists.
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In research conducted by W.V. King in 1916, it was discovered that Anopheles female mosquitoes are carriers of Malaria. In A. Crucians, oocyst, the zygote stage of the life cycle, or sporozoites, a stage in the life cycle for the malaria organism, can be found in the species (in some individuals, both can be found). Approximately, 75% of A. Crucians will have plasmodium falciparum, the parasite that will cause malaria in humans when bitten by a carrier.
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A variant of this response presents as venous limb gangrene when warfarin is used to treat deep vein thrombosis associated with cancer. In these situations, warfarin may be restarted at a low dosage to ensure that the protein C deficiency does not present before the vitamin K coagulation factors II, IX and X are suppressed. Activated protein C cleaves Plasmodium falciparum histones which are released during infection: cleavage of these histones eliminates their pro inflammatory effects.
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The relation between these genera is under debate at present and a revision of the taxonomy seems likely to be required. From this study it seems that Plasmodium odocoilei belongs to a clade that is most closely related to Polychromophilus. This study was based on mitochondria, plastid and nuclear genes which makes it likely to have the correct topology. Molecular genetic studies have show that this species is actually at least two separate species that diverged between to .
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Nafovanny, the largest facility for the captive breeding of nonhuman primates in the world, houses 30,000 macaques . Plasmodium knowlesi, which causes malaria in M. fascicularis, can also infect humans. A few cases have been documented in humans, but for how long humans have been getting infections of this malarial strain is unknown. It is, therefore, not possible to assess if this is a newly emerging health threat, or if just newly discovered due to improved malarial detection techniques.
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Malaria is considered endemic in the Americas from as far north as Mexico to as far south as Argentina, in Africa from Egypt to South Africa, in Asia from Turkey to Indonesia, and in the islands of Oceania. It is estimated that 300 to 500 million people are infected each year with malaria, and over one million people die every year from the disease, predominantly in sub-Saharan Africa. Based on the high prevalence of asymptomatic malaria in sub-Saharan Africa, the CDC recommends that US-bound refugee populations from this region undergo presumptive treatment prior to departure to the US. For those refugee arrivals from sub- Saharan Africa with no pre-departure treatment documentation, the CDC recommends either they receive presumptive treatment on arrival (preferred) or have laboratory screening to detect Plasmodium infection. For refugees from other areas of the world where asymptomatic malaria is not prevalent, the CDC recommends that any refugee with signs or symptoms of malaria should receive diagnostic testing for Plasmodium, and subsequent treatment for confirmed infections, but not presumptive treatment.
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This process produces free radicals that in turn damage susceptible proteins, resulting in the death of the parasite. In 2016 artemisinin was shown to bind to a large number of targets suggesting that it acts in a promiscuous manner. Artemisinin's endoperoxide moiety is however less sensitive to free iron(II) oxide, and therefore more active in the intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum. In contrast, clinical practice shows that unlike other antimalarials, artemisinin is active during all life cycle stages of the parasite.
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IgE's main function is immunity to parasites such as helminths like Schistosoma mansoni, Trichinella spiralis, and Fasciola hepatica. IgE is utilized during immune defense against certain protozoan parasites such as Plasmodium falciparum. IgE may have evolved as a last line of defense to protect against venoms. IgE also has an essential role in type I hypersensitivity, which manifests in various allergic diseases, such as allergic asthma, most types of sinusitis, allergic rhinitis, food allergies, and specific types of chronic urticaria and atopic dermatitis.
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Despite recent progress, malaria in Madagascar remains a major health problem, and severe malaria is among the top five causes of reported overall mortality. Malaria epidemiology varies considerably in different regions of Madagascar; however, the entire population is considered to be at risk for the disease. The majority of cases are caused by the parasite Plasmodium falciparum. In 2017, the 2018-2022 Malaria National Strategic Plan was drafted, stratifying the country into malaria epidemiologic clusters based on the intensity of malaria transmission.
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Overdominance occurs if the heterozygote phenotype has a fitness advantage over both homozygotes (heterozygote advantage, causing heterosis). One example is sickle cell anemia. It is due to a mutation in the hemoglobin gene leading to sickle shape formation of red blood cells, causing clotting in blood vessels, restricted blood flow, and reduced oxygen transport. At the same time, the mutation confers resistance to malaria, caused by Plasmodium parasites, which are passed off in red blood cells after transmission to humans by mosquitoes.
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When the FDA removed his name from a scientific research paper and the development of a medical test he filed a complaint against FDA. Congressman Lamar Smith, Chairman of the US Oversight Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, initiated an inquiry process. After two years, in October 2016, the FDA returned the patent documents to Nyan. Nyan invented a rapid diagnostic test that detects Ebola, HIV, Zika, Plasmodium (Malaria), Yellow Fever virus, Dengue virus, Hepatitis B, C, and E, and West Nile virus.
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Human Proteome Folding - Phase 2 (HPF2) (launched June 23, 2006) was the third project to run on World Community Grid, and completed in 2013. This project, following on from HPF1, focused on human-secreted proteins, with special focus on biomarkers and the proteins on the surface of cells as well as Plasmodium, the organism that causes malaria. HPF2 generates higher- resolution protein models than HPF1. Though these higher-resolution models are more useful, they also require more processing power to generate.
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Artesunate is preferred over parenteral quinine for severe malaria treatment. Artesunate was shown to prevent more deaths from severe malaria than quinine in two large multicentre randomized controlled trials from Africa and Asia. A subsequent systematic review of seven randomized controlled trials found this improvement in survival rates to be consistent across all trials. Artesunate's efficacy is comparable to that of artemether, another artemisinin derivative, in treating adults for severe malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, though artesunate clears more parasites initially.
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Poly- or oligotuftsin derivatives can be used as delivery systems. For example, a 35-40 unit repeat was used as a carrier for the preparation of synthetic immunogens in malaria vaccines against Plasmodium falciparum.Siemion, I. Z. & Kluczyk, A. Tuftsin: On the 30-year anniversary of Victor Najjar’s discovery. Peptides 20, 645–674 (1999) Tuftsin enhances the action of rifampicin-bearing liposomes in the treatment of tuberculosis, and that amphotericin B-bearing liposomes in the treatment of human aspergillosis in mice.
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Artemisinin (from Artemisia annua) and derivatives are a group of compounds with the most rapid action of all current agents used to treat malaria. Treatments containing an artemisinin derivative (artemisinin-combination therapies) are now standard treatment worldwide for malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum. It has been shown that whole leaf Artemisia annua increases artemisinin bioavailability, making it more effective. Administering Artemesia annua as dried whole leaves may cause resistance to develop more slowly than if it is administered as pure artemisenin.
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Also, only mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles carry the malaria-causing parasite of the genus plasmodium.(MicrobiologyBytes, 2009) All of these determining calculations are done using a custom image processing board using software written specifically for this application. Once the software confirms that the insect is of the targeted species and gender, a safety check makes sure that nothing is in the way of the laser and the mosquito. Once this safety check is completed, the lethal laser is given permission to shoot.
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Malaria is a mosquito-borne parasitic disease that infects humans and other animals caused by microorganisms in the Plasmodium family. It begins with a bite from an infected female mosquito, which introduces the parasite through its saliva and into the infected host's circulatory system. It then travels through the bloodstream into the liver where it can mature and reproduce. The disease causes symptoms that typically include fever, headache, shaking chills, anemia, and in severe cases can progress to coma or death.
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The relatively rare Leach phenotype is due either to a deletion in exons 3 and 4 or to a frameshift mutation causing a premature stop codon in the glycophorin C gene, and persons with this phenotype are less susceptible (~60% of the control rate) to invasion by Plasmodium falciparum. Such individuals have a subtype of a condition called hereditary elliptocytosis. The abnormally shaped cells are known as elliptocytes or cameloid cells. The basis for this phenotype was first reported by Telen et al.
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P. falciparum is now generally accepted to have evolved from Laverania (a subgenus of Plasmodium found in apes) species present in gorilla in Western Africa. Genetic diversity indicates that the human protozoan emerged around 10,000 years ago. The closest relative of P. falciparum is P. praefalciparum, a parasite of gorillas, as supported by mitochondrial, apicoplastic and nuclear DNA sequences. These two species are closely related to the chimpanzee parasite P. reichenowi, which was previously thought to be the closest relative of P. falciparum.
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For her work on malaria, Tu Youyou received the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Plasmodium vivax was used between 1917 and the 1940s for malariotherapy—deliberate injection of malaria parasites to induce a fever to combat certain diseases such as tertiary syphilis. In 1927, the inventor of this technique, Julius Wagner-Jauregg, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries. The technique was dangerous, killing about 15% of patients, so it is no longer in use.
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Chloropidae are not of importance in human medicine in the same way as blood sucking parasites such as mosquitoes or Simuliidae. Also, in contrast to specialist pathogens such as Plasmodium or Trypanosoma, the pathogens that Chloropidae transmit are not adapted to particular vectors. However, some Chloropidae are troublesome in that they act as purely mechanical agents of disease transmission. Species that occur in large numbers and are attracted to animal secretions such as tears and dung, sometimes cause serious irritation and infection.
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Conversely, people who have normal hemoglobin tend to succumb to the complications of malaria. The way in which sickle cell protects against Malaria is attributed to several different things. One of the more common explanation is that the sickle hemoglobin inhibits the plasmodium parasite from infecting the red blood cells which reduces the number of malaria parasites to infect the host. Another factor is the production of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) enzyme, which is highly present in the sickle hemoglobin.
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UCSC Malaria Genome Browser is a bioinformatic research tool to study the malaria genome, developed by Hughes Undergraduate Research Laboratory together with the laboratory of Prof. Manuel Ares Jr. at the University of California, Santa Cruz. The web interface and database structure is based on the UCSC Genome Browser. UCSC Malaria Genome Browser brings together on a single screen the full DNA sequences of several species of the malaria parasite (Plasmodium sp.), alongside experimental results and previously discovered genes collected from the literature.
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In the study of infectious diseases and host responses, the mathematical and computer models are a great help. These models were very useful in characterizing the behavior and spread of infectious disease, by understanding the dynamics of the pathogen in the host and the mechanisms of host factors which aid pathogen persistence. Examples include Plasmodium falciparum and nematode infection in ruminants. Much has been done in understanding immune responses to various pathogens by integrating genomics and proteomics with bioinformatics strategies.
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The Wright b antigen (Wrb) is located on glycophorin A and acts as a receptor for the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Cells lacking glycophorins A (Ena) are resistant to invasion by this parasite. The erythrocyte binding antigen 175 of P. falciparum recognises the terminal Neu5Ac(alpha 2-3)Gal-sequences of glycophorin A. Several viruses bind to glycophorin A including hepatitis A virus (via its capsid), bovine parvovirus, Sendai virus, influenza A and B, group C rotavirus, encephalomyocarditis virus and reoviruses.
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In 1880 with Ettore Marchiafava Celli studied a new protozoan discovered by Alphonse Laveran in the blood of malarial patients. Subsequently it was shown to be the causative agent of malaria. He studied the biology and pathogenesis of the malarial plasmodium for years after this, working with Ettore Marchiafava, Amico Bignami, Giovanni Battista Grassi and Giuseppe Bastianelli. They were the first to use proper staining (with methylene blue) to identify malarial parasites as distinct blue-coloured particles in blood cells.
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TEP1 is an antimicrobial peptide which associates with APL1C/LRIM1 heterodimers to act as a pattern recognition receptor (PRR) which identifies and responds to specific patterns on pathogen cell surfaces. Studies have shown TEP1 to be a key molecule in limiting parasite numbers in mosquitoes.RNA interference(RNAi) experiments have illustrated the importance of TEP1 in clearing malaria infections in mosquitoes. RNAi knockdown of TEP1 using dsRNA resulted in a five-fold increase of Plasmodium oocysts in TEP1-S silenced mosquitoes.
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The expression of TEP1 and other genes involved in the mosquito's anti-parasitic response is a highly regulated process. The base level of TEP1 expression is regulated by insect Toll and IMD pathways. These immune pathways limit the expression of TEP1 coding genes through NF-kB/ REL transcription factors. TEP1 interacts with a heterodimeric protein complex made up of two leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain containing proteins: leucine-rich immune molecule 1 (LRIM1) and Anopheles Plasmodium- responsive leucine-rich repeat protein 1 (APL1C).
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170px The akekee is threatened by the introduction of plants like the banana pōka (Passiflora tarminiana), a passionflower vine, that displace the native plants. Feral pigs and feral goats also destroy native growth. The lack of native host plants leads to the decline of the insects on which the akekee feeds. Avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) and fowlpox transmitted by accidentally introduced mosquitoes continues to affect the akekee, limiting its populations to habitat above 1,100 meters ASL, where mosquitoes do not occur.
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However, Plasmodium can change its surface antigens, so the development of an antibody repertoire that can recognize multiple surface antigens is important for premunition to be achieved. Premunition has not been well-studied, and although it likely occurs broadly, it is mainly emphasized for its role in malaria, tuberculosis, syphilis and relapsing fever. Premunization is the artificial induction of premunition. Premunity is progressive development of immunity in individuals exposed to an infective agent, mainly belonging to protozoa and Rickettsia, but not in viruses.
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Echinococcus granulosus Parasites can also infect the liver and activate the immune response, resulting in symptoms of acute hepatitis with increased serum IgE (though chronic hepatitis is possible with chronic infections). Of the protozoans, Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania species, and the malaria-causing Plasmodium species all can cause liver inflammation. Another protozoan, Entamoeba histolytica, causes hepatitis with distinct liver abscesses. Of the worms, the cestode Echinococcus granulosus, also known as the dog tapeworm, infects the liver and forms characteristic hepatic hydatid cysts.
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Gustav Giemsa Gustav Giemsa (; November 20, 1867 – June 10, 1948) was a German chemist and bacteriologist who was a native of Medar-Blechhammer (now part of the city Kędzierzyn-Koźle). He is remembered for creating a dye solution commonly known as "Giemsa stain". This dye is used for the histopathological diagnosis of malaria and parasites such as Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, and Chlamydia. Giemsa studied pharmacy and mineralogy at the University of Leipzig, and chemistry and bacteriology at the University of Berlin.
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Life cycle of the malaria parasite Sharma's research is focused in the field of structural parasitology, and he has carried out advanced research in malaria parasite biology. He led the ICGEB group of scientists who collaborated with the researchers from the Broad Institute who discovered a new compound, bicyclic azetidine, which showed potential against the Plasmodium parasite that caused malaria. His studies have been documented by way of a number of articles. PublicationsList, an online repository of scientific articles, has listed several of them.
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Seeds The proposed mechanism of action of artemisinin involves cleavage of endoperoxide bridges by iron, producing free radicals (hypervalent iron-oxo species, epoxides, aldehydes, and dicarbonyl compounds) which damage biological macromolecules causing oxidative stress in the cells of the parasite. Malaria is caused by apicomplexans, primarily Plasmodium falciparum, which largely reside in red blood cells and itself contains iron-rich heme-groups (in the form of hemozoin). In 2015 artemisinin was shown to bind to a large number targets suggesting that it acts in a promiscuous manner.
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They have a varied repertoire of vocalisations and live in small family groups of a mated pair and their immature offspring. Night monkeys have monochromatic vision which improves their ability to detect visual cues at night. Night monkeys are threatened by habitat loss, the pet trade, hunting for bushmeat, and by biomedical research. They constitute one of the few monkey species that are affected by the often deadly human malaria protozoan Plasmodium falciparum, making them useful as non-human primate experimental subjects in malaria research.
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Genetic engineering can improve virulence, usually by adding more virulent proteins, increasing infection rate or enhancing spore persistence. Many of the disease carrying vectors are susceptible to entomopathogenic fungi. An attractive target for biological control are mosquitos, vectors for a range of deadly diseases, including malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever. Mosquitos can evolve quickly so it becomes a balancing act of killing them before the Plasmodium they carry becomes the infectious disease, but not so fast that they become resistant to the fungi.
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His work on kala azar (leishmaniasis) proved that the disease was transmitted by sandflies and that it could be successfully treated with urea stibamine, an organic antimonial compound. He also investigated the nature of Negri bodies in rabies, the developmental cycle of piroplasma (Babesia canis) in the tick, parasites of monkey malaria, Plasmodium gallinaceum and new species of protozoan parasites of animals. Together with Cyril Garnham he identified the tissue stage of malaria parasites (schizonts) in mammals. His son William was also an Army Officer.
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In 1880, the Commission concluded that the solution of yellow fever causality must await further progress in the new science of bacteriology. Sternberg was soon sent to New Orleans to investigate the conflicting discoveries of Plasmodium malariae by Alphonse Laveran, and of Bacillus malariae by Edwin Klebs and Corrado Tommasi-Crudeli.Edwin Klebs e Corrado Tommasi-Crudeli, Studi sulla natura della malaria, Roma: Salviucci, 1879; Translated by Drummond E. On the Nature of Malaria, Vol. 121. London: Selected Monographs of the New Sydenham Society; 1888. pp.
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1–56 His report (1881) declared that the Bacillus malariae had no part in the causation of malaria. The same year—simultaneously with Louis Pasteur—he announced the discovery of the pneumococcus, eventually recognized as the pathogenic agent of lobar pneumonia. He was the first in the United States to demonstrate the Plasmodium organism as cause of malaria (1885) and to confirm the causitive roles of the bacilli of tuberculosis and typhoid fever (1886). He was the first scientist to produce photomicrographs of the tubercule bacillus.
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P. falciparum has demonstrated the capability, through the development of multiple drug- resistant parasites, for evolutionary change. The Plasmodium species has a very high rate of replication, much higher than that actually needed to ensure transmission in the parasite's life cycle. This enables pharmaceutical treatments that are effective at reducing the reproduction rate, but not halting it, to exert a high selection pressure, thus favoring the development of resistance. The process of evolutionary change is one of the key considerations necessary when considering potential vaccine candidates.
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G6PD deficiency is the second most common human enzyme defect after ALDH2 deficiency, being present in more than 400 million people worldwide. G6PD deficiency resulted in 4,100 deaths in 2013 and 3,400 deaths in 1990. African, Middle Eastern and South Asian people are affected the most, including those who have these ancestries. G-6-PD FAQ section A side effect of this disease is that it confers protection against malaria, in particular the form of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, the most deadly form of malaria.
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Apicomplexans are some of the most successful specific parasites to animals (including the genus Plasmodium, the malaria parasites). Water molds cause several plant diseases - it was the water mold Phytophthora infestans that caused the Irish potato blight that led to the Great Irish Famine. However, many others are vital members of our ecosystem. Diatoms are one of the major photosynthetic producers, and as such produce much of the oxygen that we breathe, and also take in much of the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
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The parasite was first described by Telford and Wellehan in 2005.Telford S.R. Jr, Wellehan J.F. Jr. (2005) Two Plasmodium species of the crocodile skink Tribolonotus gracilis from Irian Jaya, Indonesia. J. Parasitol. 91(1):148-151 Neither the schizonts nor the gametocytes have any effect upon dimensions of host erythrocytes or their nuclei. The schizonts average 4.3 x 3.5 micrometres (range: 3.0 - 6.0 x 3.0 - 5.0) in size. They produce on average 4.9 merozoites (range: 3.0 - 8.0) which are usually arranged as a fan.
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Trophozoite and merozoite growth ruptures the host erythrocyte, leading to the release of vermicules, the infectious parasitic bodies, which rapidly spread the protozoa throughout the blood. It is important to pay attention to particular morphologies of Babesia in blood smears, because of its great similarity to the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum. This has resulted in many patients suffering from babesiosis being misdiagnosed. The few distinguishing factors for Babesia include protozoa with varying shapes and sizes, the potential to contain vacuoles, and the lack of pigment production.
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FTIs can also be used to inhibit farnesylation in parasites such as Trypanosoma brucei (African sleeping sickness) and Plasmodium falciparum (malaria). These parasites seem to be more vulnerable to inhibition of Farnesyltransferase than humans, even though the drugs tested selectively target human FTase. In some cases the reason for this may be the parasites lack Geranylgeranyltransferase I. This vulnerability may pave the way for the development of selective, low toxicity, FTI based anti-parasitic drugs 'piggybacking' on the development of FTIs for cancer research.
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Malaria affects 300-500 million persons each year, mostly children under age five in Africa, causing widespread anemia during a period of rapid brain development and also direct brain damage from cerebral malaria to which children are more vulnerable. A 2006 systematic review found that Plasmodium falciparum infection causes cognitive deficits in both the short- and long-term. Policies aimed at malaria reduction may have cognitive benefits. It has been suggested that the future economic and educational development of Africa critically depends on the eradication of malaria.
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If disturbances occur, malformed spore-bearing fruit bodies are often produced. Woodlouse with myxogastria spores The plasmodium or parts of the fruit bodies can be smaller than one millimetre, in extreme cases they are up to a square metre and weigh up to (Brefeldia maxima). Their shape is often pediculated or unstiped sporangia with non-cellular stems, but can also appear as veined ar netted plasmodiocarps, pincushion-shaped aethaliae or seemingly pincushion-shaped pseudo-aethaliae. The fruit bodies almost always have a hypothallus on the edge.
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Fairley decided to establish a unit in Cairns to investigate malaria. The LHQ Medical Research Unit commenced work in June 1943. Fairley travelled to New Guinea at the end of June 1943 and arranged for Plasmodium falciparum cases to be evacuated to Cairns for treatment. As the flight time from Port Moresby to Cairns was only a few hours, this was considered safe, but since the disease can be fatal if not treated promptly, Fairley was concerned lest the cases be delayed for some reason.
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This makes therapeutic target development extremely difficult – a drug that harms a protist parasite is also likely to harm its animal/plant host. A more thorough understanding of protist biology may allow these diseases to be treated more efficiently. For example, the apicoplast (a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast but essential to carry out important functions other than photosynthesis) present in apicomplexans provides an attractive target for treating diseases caused by dangerous pathogens such as plasmodium. Recent papers have proposed the use of viruses to treat infections caused by protozoa.
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For example, slime molds have a vegetative, multinucleate life stage called a plasmodium. Although not normally viewed as a case of multinucleation, plant cells share a common cytoplasm by plasmodesmata, and most cells in animal tissues are in communication with their neighbors via gap junctions. Multinucleate cells, depending on the mechanism by which they are formed, can be divided into "syncytia" (formed by cell fusion) or "coenocytes" (formed by nuclear division not being followed by cytokinesis). A number of dinoflagellates are known to have two nuclei.
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Malaria was historically endemic to southern Europe, but it was declared eradicated in the mid-20th century, with the exception of rare sporadic cases. The malaria parasite has a complex lifecycle and spends part of it in red blood cells. In a carrier, the presence of the malaria parasite causes the red blood cells with defective haemoglobin to rupture prematurely, making the Plasmodium parasite unable to reproduce. Further, the polymerization of Hb affects the ability of the parasite to digest Hb in the first place.
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Sanaria's primary mission is to develop and commercialize whole-parasite PfSPZ vaccines that confer high-level, long-lasting protection against Plasmodium falciparum, the malaria parasite responsible for more than 95% of malaria-associated severe illness and death world-wide and the malaria parasite for which there is the most significant drug resistance. The overall mission includes developing vaccines that prevent all human malaria and to use those vaccines to immunize entire populations in geographically defined areas to halt malaria transmission and thereby eliminate malaria.
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Failure to detect some P. malariae infections has led to modifications of the species- specific primers and to efforts towards the development of real-time PCR assays. The development of such an assay has included the use of generic primers that target a highly conserved region of the 18S rRNA genes of the four human-infecting species of Plasmodium. This assay was found to be highly specific and sensitive. Although serologic tests are not specific enough for diagnostic purposes, they can be used as basic epidemiologic tools.
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Unlike P. falciparum, P. vivax can populate the bloodstream with sexual-stage parasites--the form picked up by mosquitoes on their way to the next victim--even before a patient shows symptoms. Consequently, prompt treatment of symptomatic patients doesn't necessarily help stop an outbreak, as it does with falciparum malaria, in which fevers occur as sexual stages develop. Even when symptoms appear, because they are usually not immediately fatal, the parasite continues to multiply. Plasmodium vivax can cause a more unusual form of malaria with atypical symptoms.
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Dictyostelids are used as examples of cellular communication and differentiation, and may provide insights into how multicellular organisms develop. Slime molds like Physarum polycephalum are useful for studying cytoplasmic streaming. They have also been used to study the biochemical events that surround mitosis, since all of the nuclei in a medium-sized plasmodium divide in synchrony. It has been observed that they can find their way through mazes by spreading out and choosing the shortest path, an interesting example of information processing without a nervous system.
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Similar strategies to increase the likelihood of transmission have evolved in multiple genera. Polyenergid oocysts and tissue cysts are found in representatives of the orders Protococcidiorida and Eimeriida. Hypnozoites are found in Karyolysus lacerate and most species of Plasmodium; transovarial transmission of parasites occurs in lifecycles of Karyolysus and Babesia. Horizontal gene transfer appears to have occurred early on in this phylum's evolution with the transfer of a histone H4 lysine 20 (H4K20) modifier, KMT5A (Set8), from an animal host to the ancestor of apicomplexans.
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Several major human diseases are caused by the obligate intracellular protozoan parasites in the phylum Apicomplexa. The apicoplast organelle in these organisms is believed to have come from an endosymbiotic event in which an ancestral protozoan engulfed an algal cell. These apicoplasts contain plant-like FNRs that the protozoan uses to generate reduced ferredoxin, which is then used as a reductant in essential biosynthetic pathways. FNRs from two major parasites affecting humans, Plasmodium falciparum, which causes malaria, and Toxoplasma gondii, which causes toxoplasmosis, have been sequenced.
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Free heme is toxic to cells, so the parasites convert it into an insoluble crystalline form called hemozoin. In malaria parasites, hemozoin is often called malaria pigment. Since the formation of hemozoin is essential to the survival of these parasites, it is an attractive target for developing drugs and is much-studied in Plasmodium as a way to find drugs to treat malaria (malaria's Achilles' heel). Several currently used antimalarial drugs, such as chloroquine and mefloquine, are thought to kill malaria parasites by inhibiting haemozoin biocrystallization.
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It is also the site of a significant Late Woodland period settlement known as the Walker Prehistoric Village, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. In 2002, following the diagnosis of two Loudoun County teenagers with malaria, mosquitoes from the island were found to carry the Plasmodium vivax malarial parasite. In 2004, Selden Island was purchased by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute as an addition to the Janelia Farm Research Campus. It was formerly leased as a sod farm.
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This protein contributes to the metabolic acidosis seen in people with severe malaria. His team, however, demonstrated resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to artemisinins in Western Cambodia. New treatments would have to be found to contain efforts against this serious threat to global malaria control. He has highlighted that resistance to artemisinin and piperaquine is a genuine worry, and should malaria become untreatable, would be a significant threat to controlling the spread of malaria from South East Asia to Africa, which is therefore is a "race against time".
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The female lays two purple-marked creamy white eggs, which are incubated by both sexes, in a grass hammock nest low in a tree or shrub. Nests are occasionally plundered by predators, for example smallish mammals like the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), despite the birds' attempts to defend their offspring.de Lyra-Neves et al. (2007) Of a total of 13 birds studied in Colombia—in the Parque Nacional de La Macarena and near Turbo—only one was infected with blood parasites (an undetermined Plasmodium species).
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Nearly 200 parasitic Plasmodium species have been identified that infect birds, reptiles, and other mammals, and about 30 species naturally infect non-human primates. Some malaria parasites that affect non-human primates (NHP) serve as model organisms for human malarial parasites, such as P. coatneyi (a model for P. falciparum) and P. cynomolgi (P. vivax). Diagnostic techniques used to detect parasites in NHP are similar to those employed for humans. Malaria parasites that infect rodents are widely used as models in research, such as P. berghei.
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Pregnancy-associated malaria (PAM) or placental malaria is a presentation of the common illness that is particularly life-threatening to both mother and developing fetus. PAM is caused primarily by infection with Plasmodium falciparum, the most dangerous of the four species of malaria-causing parasites that infect humans. During pregnancy, a woman faces a much higher risk of contracting malaria and of associated complications. Prevention and treatment of malaria are essential components of prenatal care in areas where the parasite is endemic – tropical and subtropical geographic areas.
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Transmission of malaria occurs when humans get bitten by infected mosquitos carrying the parasite known as Plasmodium falciparum. The saliva from the mosquito transfers the P. falciparum into the blood as sporozoites which then travel to the liver where they are converted to the merozite form and further replicated. After undergoing these changes in the liver, the parasite is then able to infect erythrocytes in the bloodstream. It can take 7 to 30 days after being bitten by a mosquito before symptoms start to arise.
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Parasite infection drops noticeably after chimpanzees chew leaves of pith (Vernonia amygdalina), which have anti-parasitic activity against schistosoma, plasmodium and Leishmania. Chimpanzees don't consume this plant on a regular basis, but when they do eat it, it is often in small amounts by individuals that appear ill. Jane Goodall witnessed chimpanzees eating particular bushes, apparently to make themselves vomit. There are reports that chimpanzees swallow whole leaves of particular rough-leaved plants such as Aneilema aequinoctiale; these remove parasitic worms from their intestines.
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Avian malaria is a parasitic disease of birds, caused by Plasmodium relictum, a protist affecting birds in all parts of the world. Usually this disease does not kill birds, however in an isolated habitat such as Hawaii, birds have lost evolutionary resistance and are unable to defend against the novel protist. Its main vector is the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus, introduced to the Hawaiian islands in 1826. This introduction can be attributed to birds club that brought nonnative species to replace birds that fell victim to the Avipoxvirus.
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Increases in the thrombocyte number and total leukocyte and basophil count have been reported.Silveira P., Damatta R.A., Dagosto M. (2009) Hematological changes of chickens experimentally infected with Plasmodium (Bennettinia) juxtanucleare. Vet. Parasitol. The course of the parasitemia showed low levels initially and reaching a peak after 15 days; trophozoites were the most commonly observed form, followed by schizonts (first detected on day 12) and gametocytes (first seen on day 27). The typical distribution after the gametocytes have appeared is trophozoites (80%) schizonts (17%) and gametocytes (3%).
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Mobile populations are a challenge because malaria predominantly affects adult males who move from low to high transmission areas and lack access to malaria services and education, making them more vulnerable to infection. Artemisinin drugs are the first-line treatment for malaria throughout the Greater Mekong Subregion. Plasmodium falciparum resistance to artemisinin drugs was first confirmed in western Cambodia; treatment failures to artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) have been reported from multiple sites on the Thailand-Cambodia border. Currently five ACTs are failing in Cambodia.
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Gyrase is also found in eukaryotic plastids: it has been found in the apicoplast of the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum and in chloroplasts of several plants. Bacterial DNA gyrase is the target of many antibiotics, including nalidixic acid, novobiocin, and ciprofloxacin. The unique ability of gyrase to introduce negative supercoils into DNA at the expense of ATP hydrolysis is what allows bacterial DNA to have free negative supercoils. The ability of gyrase to relax positive supercoils comes into play during DNA replication and prokaryotic transcription.
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These proteins are often used to shut down host defenses. An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to avoid the innate immune system is to hide within the cells of their host (also called intracellular pathogenesis). Here, a pathogen spends most of its life-cycle inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement. Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the food poisoning bacterium Salmonella and the eukaryotic parasites that cause malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) and leishmaniasis (Leishmania spp.).
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Physarum polycephalum, an acellular slime mold or myxomycete, is a protist with diverse cellular forms and broad geographic distribution. The “acellular” moniker derives from the plasmodial stage of the life cycle: the plasmodium is a bright yellow macroscopic multinucleate coenocyte shaped in a network of interlaced tubes. This stage of the life cycle, along with its preference for damp shady habitats, likely contributed to the original mischaracterization of the organism as a fungus. P. polycephalum is used as a model organism for research into motility, cellular differentiation, chemotaxis, cellular compatibility, and the cell cycle.
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In the figure of the P. polycephalum life cycle, the typical haploid-diploid sexual cycle is depicted in the outer circuit and the apogamic cycle in the inner circuit. Note that an apogamic amoeba retains its matA1 mating type specificity and can still fuse sexually with an amoeba of a different mating type to form a diploid heterozygous plasmodium—another characteristic that facilitates genetic analysis. P. polycephalum amoebae growing on lawns of live E. coli. The bacterial cells are approx 1 micron in diameter, amoebae are approx 10 microns in diameter.
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MicroRNAs have also been shown to affect acquired drug resistance in cancer cells and this can be used for therapeutic purposes. Malaria in 2012 has become a resurgent threat in South East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, and drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum are posing massive problems for health authorities. Leprosy has shown an increasing resistance to dapsone. A rapid process of sharing resistance exists among single-celled organisms, and is termed horizontal gene transfer in which there is a direct exchange of genes, particularly in the biofilm state.
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The zeta potential is an electrochemical property of cell surfaces that is determined by the net electrical charge of molecules exposed at the surface of cell membranes of the cell. The normal zeta potential of the red blood cell is −15.7 millivolts (mV).Tokumasu F, Ostera GR, Amaratunga C, Fairhurst RM (2012) Modifications in erythrocyte membrane zeta potential by Plasmodium falciparum infection. Exp Parasitol Much of this potential appears to be contributed by the exposed sialic acid residues in the membrane: their removal results in zeta potential of −6.06 mV.
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Free- living species are common in both salt and freshwater as well as soil, moss and leaf litter. Some live as parasites or symbiotes of other organisms, and some are known to cause disease in humans and other organisms. While the majority of amoebozoan species are unicellular, the group also includes several clades of slime molds, which have a macroscopic, multicellular stage of life during which individual amoeboid cells remain together after mutliple cell division to form a macroscopic plasmodium or, in cellular slime molds, aggregate to form one. Amoebozoa vary greatly in size.
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Jean-Jacques Helesbeux, Damien Peyronnet, Mehdi Labaïed, Philippe Grellier, François Frappier, Denis Seraphin, Pascal Richomme, and Olivier Duval (2002): "Synthesis and antimalarial activity of some new 1,2-doxolane derivatives". Journal of Enzyme Inhibition and Medicinal Chemistry, volume 17, issue 6, pages 431-437. Derek C. Martyn, Armando P. Ramirez, Meaghan J. Beattie, Joseph F. Cortese, Vishal Patel, Margaret A.Rush, K. A. Woerpel, and Jon Clardy (2008): "Synthesis of spiro-1,2-dioxolanes and their activity against Plasmodium falciparum". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters, volume 18, issue 24, pages 6521-6524.
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Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase isoenzymes in Plasmodium falciparum infected Red blood cells Native gels are run in non-denaturing conditions so that the analyte's natural structure is maintained. This allows the physical size of the folded or assembled complex to affect the mobility, allowing for analysis of all four levels of the biomolecular structure. For biological samples, detergents are used only to the extent that they are necessary to lyse lipid membranes in the cell. Complexes remain—for the most part—associated and folded as they would be in the cell.
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Like predation, parasitism is a type of consumer-resource interaction, but unlike predators, parasites, with the exception of parasitoids, are typically much smaller than their hosts, do not kill them, and often live in or on their hosts for an extended period. Parasites of animals are highly specialised, and reproduce at a faster rate than their hosts. Classic examples include interactions between vertebrate hosts and tapeworms, flukes, the malaria-causing Plasmodium species, and fleas. Parasites reduce host fitness by general or specialised pathology, from parasitic castration to modification of host behaviour.
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The structure of the complex between Plasmodium falciparum tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase (Pf-YARS) and tyrosyl-adenylate at 2.2 Å resolution, shows that the overall fold of Pf-YARS is typical of class I synthetases. It comprises an N-terminal catalytic domain (residues 18–260) and an anticodon-binding domain (residues 261–370). The polypeptide loop that includes the KMSKS motif, is highly ordered and close to the bound substrate at the active site. Pf-YARS contains the ELR motif, which is present in H. sapiens mini-YARS and chemokines.
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Koch was appointed as a "neutral arbitrator" in the committee, and as reported, "[He] threw the full weight of his considerable authority in insisting that Grassi did not deserve the honor" (Grassi would later point out flaws in Koch's own methodology on malarial research). Ross was the first to show that malarial parasite was transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes, in his case the avian Plasmodium relictum. But Grassi's work revealed that human malarial parasites were carried only by female Anopheles. He identified the mosquito species correctly, in his case P. claviger.
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In the gut of the host the spore germinates, it builds up osmotic pressure until its rigid wall ruptures at its thinnest point at the apex. The posterior vacuole swells, forcing the polar filament to rapidly eject the infectious content into the cytoplasm of the potential host. Simultaneously the material of the filament is rearranged to form a tube which functions as a hypodermic needle and penetrates the gut epithelium. Once inside the host cell, a sporoplasm grows, dividing or forming a multinucleate plasmodium, before producing new spores.
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Malaria is the number one cause of hospitalization in Zambia and a major cause of morbidity and mortality, with pregnant women and young children at heightened risk. In 2016 there were over 4.8 million cases of malaria reported. Malaria occurs year- round, with the peak during the rainy season from November to April. Although the four main malaria parasite species are present in Zambia, Plasmodium falciparum accounts for 98% of all infections. Malaria prevalence as reported by the Malaria Indicators Surveys decreased from 21.8% in 2006 to 14.9% in 2012.
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The modern understanding of the condition began with the analysis of patients who exhibited sensitivity to primaquine. The discovery of G6PD deficiency relied heavily upon the testing of prisoner volunteers at Illinois State Penitentiary, a type of study which today is considered unethical and cannot be performed. When some prisoners were given the drug primaquine, some developed hemolytic anemia but others did not. In spite of these results, the US military administered the drug widely during the Korean War to prevent the relapsing infection caused by Plasmodium vivax hypnozoites.
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Phomoxanthone A was first identified in a screening for antimalarial compounds. It showed strong antibiotic activity against a multidrug-resistant strain of the main causative agent of malaria, the protozoan parasite Plasmodium falciparum. The same study also reported antibiotic activity of PXA against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and against three animal cell lines, two of which were derived from human cancer cells. These findings not only showed that PXA has antibiotic activity against very diverse organisms, but they also sparked further studies that investigated PXA as a potential antibiotic or anti-cancer drug.
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A physician at the French naval hospital at Toulon, Louis Alexis Normand, in 1876 researching the ailments of French soldiers returning from what is now Vietnam, discovered the only known helminth that, without treatment, is capable of indefinitely reproducing within a host and causes the disease strongyloidiasis. Patrick Manson discovered the life cycle of elephantiasis, caused by nematode worms transmitted by mosquitoes, in 1877. Manson further predicted that the malaria parasite, Plasmodium, had a mosquito vector, and persuaded Ronald Ross to investigate. Ross confirmed that the prediction was correct in 1897–1898.
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By expressing the heme-sening protein in the target plasmodium falciparum parasite, Niles made it possible to monitor the levels of heme through changes in fluorescence. Niles used this to show that malarial parasites contain high levels of labile heme than anticipated. Additionally, Niles demonstrated that CRISPR could be used to disrupt parasite genes, which provides information about how parasites invade and replicate inside red blood cells. The Niles lab collect publicly available genomics and transcriptomics data of these parasites, then builds a sequence of technologies to enter parasites and manipulate when genes are expressed.
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Over 10 years, malariacontrol.net has produced 30 peer-reviewed articles. In 2008, among the studies performed were the effectiveness of different types of Malaria vaccines in high and low malaria transmission settings, effectiveness of Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine in preventive treatment of malaria in infants, and using individual-based stochastic simulations in Plasmodium falciparum control. In 2012, Malaria Control has studied the effectiveness of using RTS,S malaria vaccine in World Health Organization's Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) in different malarial transmission settings and reported that such programme only has modest benefits over 14 years period.
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Each chromosome has two subtelomeres immediately adjacent to the long (TTAGGG)n repeats. Subtelomeres are considered to be the most distal (farthest from the centromere) region of unique DNA on a chromosome and they are unusually dynamic and variable mosaics of multichromosomal blocks of sequence. The subtelomeres of such diverse species as Humans, Plasmodium falciparum, Drosophila melanogaster or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, are structurally similar in that they are composed of various repeated elements, but the extent of the subtelomeres and the sequence of the elements vary greatly among organisms. In yeast (S.
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VSG expression is exclusively subtelomeric and occurs either by in situ activation of a silent VSG gene or by DNA rearrangement that inserts an internal silent copy of a VSG gene into an active telomeric expression site. To contrast with Plasmodium falciparum, in Trypanosoma brucei, antigenic variation is orchestrated by epigenetic and genetic factors. In Pneumocystis jirovecii major surface glycoprotein (MSG) gene family cause antigenic variation. MSG genes are like boxes at chromosome ends and only the MSG gene at the unique locus UCS (upstream conserved sequence) is transcribed.
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Cowman's research focus has been on protozoan infections, especially the cause of malaria (Plasmodium falciparum), which kill over 500,000 people each year world-wide. He made significant advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms which the malaria parasites use to take over human cells, and how they evade the body's natural defenses. Cowman found that once the malaria parasites takes over red blood cells, it remodels them in such a way that they can reproduce without triggering the patient's immune system. He also investigated how the parasites build resistance to antimalarial drugs.
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Artemether is a methyl ether derivative of artemisinin, which is a peroxide-containing lactone isolated from the antimalarial plant Artemisia annua. It is also known as dihydroartemisinin methyl ether, but its correct chemical nomenclature is (+)-(3-alpha,5a-beta,6-beta,8a-beta, 9-alpha,12-beta,12aR)-decahydro-10-methoxy-3,6,9-trimethyl-3,12-epoxy-12H-pyrano(4,3-j)-1,2-benzodioxepin. It is a relatively lipophilic and unstable drug, which acts by creating reactive free radicals in addition to affecting the membrane transport system of the plasmodium organism.
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Since the discovery of the Plasmodium parasites which cause it, research attention has focused on their biology, as well as that of the mosquitoes which transmit the parasites. References to its unique, periodic fevers are found throughout recorded history beginning in the first millennium BC in Greece and China.The Su Wen of the Huangdi Neijing (Inner Classic of the Yellow Emperor) For thousands of years, traditional herbal remedies have been used to treat malaria. The first effective treatment for malaria came from the bark of the cinchona tree, which contains quinine.
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The parasite was first described by Telford and Wellehan in 2005.Telford S.R. Jr, Wellehan J.F. Jr. (2005) Two Plasmodium species of the crocodile skink Tribolonotus gracilis from Irian Jaya, Indonesia. J. Parasitol. 91(1):148-151 The parasites infect proerythrocytes and have no effect upon dimensions of host cells or their nuclei. The schizonts are round or oblong and measure 6.1 x 5.3 micrometres (range: 5 - 7 x 4 - 7). They produce on average 14.3 merozoites (range: 10 - 21) The gametocytes average 7.2 x 6.3 micrometres (range 6.5 - 9.0 x 5.5 - 7.5) in size.
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Colobine and macaque monkeys migrated from Africa into the Eurasian continent 10 and 6 millions of years ago respectively and became the ancestors of the extant Asian Old World monkey species. Asian Old World monkey malaria parasite species infect both colobine and macaque monkeys. The existing divergence between the Asian and African clade of this subgenus seems likely to have been caused by intercontinental allopatric speciation along with that of their hosts. Malaria parasites of the lemurs are not traditionally grouped with the subgenus Plasmodium being placed rather within subgenus Vinckeia.
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P. vivax strains can be separated into two distinct types depending on the organisation of the A and S rRNA genes. A gene conversion occurred in an Old World strain and this mutated strain give rise to a new calde of parasites in the New World. The Old World strains were subsequently re introduced - possibly via the slave trade - and these are related to the monkey parasite P. simium. The specific name Plasmodium collinsi has been proposed for the New World strains but this has not yet been accepted.
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Malaria remains a major public health problem in Kenya and accounts for an estimated 16 percent of outpatient consultations. Malaria transmission and infection risk in Kenya are determined largely by altitude, rainfall patterns, and temperature, which leads to considerable variation in malaria prevalence by season and across geographic regions. Approximately 70 percent of the population is at risk for malaria, with 14 million people in endemic areas, and another 17 million in areas of epidemic and seasonal malaria. All four species of Plasmodium parasites that infect humans occur in Kenya.
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The PV prevents the acidification of the compartment, the mechanism by which the lysosomes of the host cell would normally destroy an invading parasite. Parasites that form a parasitophorous vacuole as part of their infection process include Plasmodium falciparum, which causes malaria and Toxoplasma gondii, which causes toxoplasmosis. The parasitophorous vacuole is formed during cell invasion, when the parasite uses part of the membrane of the host cell to form a parasitophorous vacuolar membrane (PVM). The PVM surrounds the intracellular parasite, creating a separate bubble of cytoplasm-filled plasma membrane within the host cell.
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In 1990 she founded the Malaria Group at the university, which was the first to report on cases of Plasmodium ovale (a rare species in Colombia) and human Babesiosis (disease transmitted by ticks). Together with her research group, Silvia Blair travelled to different regions of Colombia such as the Pacific Coast, Urabá Antioqueño and the Bajo Cauca, to collect data on the plants used by locals to treat malaria. They reported species such as Solanum nudum and Austroeupatorium inulifolium as effective treatments for this disease.Silvia Blair Trujillo IMBIOMED.
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Eisen together with Nick Barton, Derek E.G. Briggs, David B. Goldstein, and Nipam H. Patel is an author of the undergraduate textbook, Evolution, that integrates molecular biology, genomics, and human genetics with traditional evolutionary studies. According to Google Scholar his most cited peer-reviewed papers are on the genome sequence of Plasmodium falciparum, sequencing the Sargasso Sea and a paper on the genome of Thermotoga maritima. Prior to working at UC Davis he was an Investigator at The Institute for Genomic Research. Eisen and his work is routinely discussed in the scientific and popular press.
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Each species of slime mold has its own specific chemical messenger, which are collectively referred to as acrasins. These chemicals signal that many individual cells aggregate to form a single large cell or plasmodium. One of the earliest acrasins to be identified was cAMP, found in the species Dictyostelium discoideum by Brian Shaffer, which exhibits a complex swirling- pulsating spiral pattern when forming a pseudoplasmodium. The term acrasin was descriptively named after Acrasia from Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene, who seduced men against their will and then transformed them into beasts.
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While females can live longer than a month in captivity, most do not live longer than one to two weeks in nature. Their lifespans depend on temperature, humidity, and their ability to successfully obtain a blood meal while avoiding host defenses. In a study by the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine researchers found that female mosquitoes carrying malaria parasites are significantly more attracted to human breath and odours than uninfected mosquitoes. The research team infected laboratory-raised Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes with Plasmodium parasites, leaving a control group uninfected.
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The high mortality and morbidity caused by P. falciparum has placed great selective pressure on the human genome. Several genetic factors provide some resistance to Plasmodium infection, including sickle cell trait, thalassaemia traits, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, and the absence of Duffy antigens on red blood cells. E. A. Beet, a doctor working in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) had observed in 1948 that sickle-cell disease was related to a lower rate of malaria infections. This suggestion was reiterated by J. B. S. Haldane in 1948, who suggested that thalassaemia might provide similar protection.
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Usually organisms that have a higher rate of reproduction than their competitors have an evolutionary advantage. Consequently, organisms can evolve to become simpler and thus multiply faster and produce more offspring, as they require fewer resources to reproduce. A good example are parasites such as Plasmodium – the parasite responsible for malaria – and mycoplasma; these organisms often dispense with traits that are made unnecessary through parasitism on a host. A lineage can also dispense with complexity when a particular complex trait merely provides no selective advantage in a particular environment.
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The AP2-Coincident Domain mainly at the Carboxy-terminus, or ACDC domain, is a protein domain that occurs in proteins from apicomplexan parasites. It is found exclusively in apicomplexan proteins that also contain AP2 (Apetala 2-integrase) DNA binding domains (ApiAP2 proteins). In 8 of 9 known examples in the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum it is near the carboxy terminus, with the remaining one being at the amino terminus. As yet, beyond its identification and the observation that it occurs only in ApiAP2 proteins, the function of the ACDC domain is unknown.
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The sickle cell trait provides a survival advantage against malaria fatality over people with normal hemoglobin in regions where malaria is endemic. The trait is known to cause significantly fewer deaths due to malaria, especially when Plasmodium falciparum is the causative organism. This is a prime example of natural selection, evidenced by the fact that the geographical distribution of the gene for hemoglobin S and the distribution of malaria in Africa virtually overlap. Because of the unique survival advantage, people with the trait become increasingly numerous as the number of malaria-infected people increases.
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Irène Landau is a French parasitologist and professor emeritus at the National Museum of Natural History, France (MNHN) and Centre national de la recherche scientifique. Landau initially studied medicine, obtaining her medical qualifications in Paris in 1958 and a certificate in tropical medicine in 1963. She changed to focus on parasitology research, joining the lab of Lucien Brumpt in 1964 as a research assistant, and a year later relocating to Alain Chabaud's group at the MNHN. She was promoted in 1966 to senior lecturer and made group head of studying the Plasmodium genus.
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It seems still efficacious as an IV antimalarial against Plasmodium falciparum. This electrolyte dependent agent also increases action potentials and prolongs the QT interval. Quinidine also blocks the slowly inactivating, tetrodotoxin-sensitive Na current, the slow inward calcium current (ICa), the rapid (IKr) and slow (IKs) components of the delayed potassium rectifier current, the inward potassium rectifier current (IKI), the ATP-sensitive potassium channel (IKATP) and Ito. At micromolar concentrations, quinidine inhibits Na+/K+-ATPase by binding to the same receptor sites as the digitalis glycosides such as ouabain.
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A number of different proteins on the surface of Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasites help the invaders bind to red blood cells. But once attached to host blood cells, the parasites need to shed the 'sticky' surface proteins that would otherwise interfere with entrance into the cell. The Sheddase enzyme, specifically called PfSUB2 in this example, is required for the parasites to invade cells; without it, the parasites die. The sheddase is stored in and released from cellular compartments near the tip of the parasite, according to the study.
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Helenalin has a variety of observed effects in vitro including anti-inflammatory and antitumour activities. Helenalin has been shown to selectively inhibit the transcription factor NF-κB, which plays a key role in regulating immune response, through a unique mechanism. In vitro, it is also a potent, selective inhibitor of human telomerase—which may partially account for its antitumor effects—has anti-trypanosomal activity, and is toxic to Plasmodium falciparum. Animal and in vitro studies have also suggested that helenalin can reduce the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and reduce the severity of S. aureus infection.
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These amoeboflagellates also contain a single nucleus, which at this stage in the life cycle is haploid. Under adverse conditions, such as a poor environment, overcrowding or the presence of toxins, these cells can encyst into small, walled cysts that can return to the amoeboflagellate form if conditions improve. The amoeboflagellated stage will undergo sexual reproduction, as two cells fuse to create a diploid cell. This cell will then undergo many rounds of nuclear division without any cellular division, resulting in a rapidly growing, membrane-bound cell with multiple nuclei known as the plasmodium.
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As climate change is caused by a variety of activities, the effect that climate change has on bird extinction is immense. Due to the rapid changes in temperature and climate the bio diverse earth can not progress with these factors. Severe weather conditions and long seasons, as well as a chemical atmosphere within their surroundings, makes it difficult for many species of birds to keep up with. In Hawai'i, climate change is responsible for the decline in the population in Hawaiian forest birds and is resulting in an increase of avian malaria (plasmodium relictum).
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It is a vector for Avipoxvirus, Newcastle disease virus, Falconid herpesvirus 1 (and possibly other Herpesviridae), and some mycoses and bacterial infections. Endoparasites include Plasmodium relictum (usually not causing malaria in the peregrine falcon), Strigeidae trematodes, Serratospiculum amaculata (nematode), and tapeworms. Known peregrine falcon ectoparasites are chewing lice, Ceratophyllus garei (a flea), and Hippoboscidae flies (Icosta nigra, Ornithoctona erythrocephala). In the Arctic Peregrine falcons chasing away small rodent predators from their nesting territory and Rough-legged Hawks (Buteo lagopus) could use these hot spots as a nesting territory.
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These are all larger-sized generalist parasites which can infect numerous more or less related hosts. In its native Puerto Rico, individuals of this species may sometimes contract a type of anole malaria, Plasmodium azurophilum, a unicellular eukaryotic parasite that infects both the white and red blood cells of its victims, and which is thought to be contracted from infected mosquitoes. The disease commonly afflicts another anole species which occurs in the same forests, A. gundlachi, with usually around 30% of that species being infected as opposed to under 1% for A. cristatellus.
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Within the apicoplast's stroma is a 35 kb long circular DNA strand that codes for approximately 30 proteins, tRNAs and some RNAs. Particles suspected to be bacterial ribosomes are present. The plastid, at least in the Plasmodium species, also contains "tubular whorls" of membrane that bear a striking resemblance to the thylakoids of their chloroplast relatives. The import of proteins into the apicoplast through the four membranes occurs through translocation complexes that originate from the algal plastid (for example: ) or from a duplication of the Endoplasmic- reticulum-associated protein degradation (for example: ).
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With the loss of Neu5Gc gene and gain of excess Neu5Ac, it should have affected the interactions of pathogens and humans. Humans should have been less susceptible to Neu5Gc-binding pathogens and more susceptible to Neu5Ac-binding pathogens. It is suggested that human ancestors lacking Neu5Gc production survived a then-prevailing malaria epidemic. However, with the rise of Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite that causes malaria today, humans were once again endangered as this new strain of the malaria had a binding preference to the Neu5Ac-rich erythrocytes in humans.
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In 2009, together with other researchers, he participated in the finding of positive selection of G6PD (glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase) and its effect on Plasmodium vivax (one of the six species of malaria parasites that commonly infect humans) density. The work challenges the former belief that G6PD mutations were selected by P. falciparum and highlights the significant effect of P. vivax on human health, one hitherto neglected. His recent research has shown that both gene-gene and gene-environmental interactions play a significant role in susceptibility to malaria and dengue.
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During the late stages of parasite replication red cells are adherent to venous endothelium, and inhibiting this attachment could suppress replication. Sickle hemoglobin induces the expression of heme oxygenase-1 in hematopoietic cells. Carbon monoxide, a byproduct of heme catabolism by heme oxygenase-1(HO-1), prevents an accumulation of circulating free heme after Plasmodium infection, suppressing the pathogenesis of experimental cerebral malaria. Other mechanisms, such as enhanced tolerance to disease mediated by HO-1 and reduced parasitic growth due to translocation of host micro-RNA into the parasite, have been described.
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The first description of this genus was in 1890 by Kruse who described Haemoproteus columbae in the blood of the pigeon Columba livia. McCallum in 1897 showed that the process of exflagellation was part of sexual reproduction in these parasites and thought it probable that the same process occurred in Plasmodium. The first record of a haemoproteid parasite in a reptile was by Simond in 1901 who gave it the name Haemamoeba metchnikovi. The Sergent brothers in 1906 showed that the ectoparasitic fly Pseudolynchia canariensis was the vector of Haemoproteus columbae.
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Giuseppe Franchini published in 1927 what is generally believed to be the first description of the Plasmodium species now known as P. knowlesi. At the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, in 1931 H. G. M. Campbell detected P. knowlesi in a macaque imported from Singapore. Campbell showed his discovery to his supervisor L. Everard Napier, who injected the strain into three monkeys, one of which developed symptoms of malaria. Aware of the Protozoological Department's search for a monkey malaria strain, Napier and Campbell gave the infected monkey to the physician Biraj Mohan Das Gupta, working under Knowles.
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To build more realistic models, more data about the slime mold's network construction needs to be gathered. To this end, researchers are analysing the network structure of lab-grown P. polycephalum. In a book and several preprints that have not been scientifically peer reviewed, it has been claimed that because plasmodia appear to react in a consistent way to stimuli, they are the "ideal substrate for future and emerging bio-computing devices". An outline has been presented showing how it may be possible to precisely point, steer and cleave plasmodium using light and food sources, especially Valerian root.
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Moreover, it has been reported that plasmodia can be made to form logic gates, enabling the construction of biological computers. In particular, plasmodia placed at entrances to special geometrically shaped mazes would emerge at exits of the maze that were consistent with truth tables for certain primitive logic connectives. However, as these constructions are based on theoretical models of the slime mold, in practice these results do not scale to allow for actual computation. When the primitive logic gates are connected to form more complex functions, the plasmodium ceased to produce results consistent with the expected truth tables.
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In 1911, Bass discovered an in vitro method of culturing the plasmodium organism responsible for malaria, a breakthrough in finding cures for the disease. He applied this method during a 1912 series of investigations into the cause of malaria during the Panama Canal project, a part of the efforts of Colonel William C. Gorgas to provide safe and hygienic conditions in the project.International Congress of Hygiene and Demography, Washington, DC, September 23–28, 1912. Hookworm organism Around the same time, he succeeded in isolating the ova of the uncinaria, or hookworm, by isolating them in pure form from intestinal excreta.
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Bafilomycin has been shown to be active against Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of malaria. Upon infection of red blood cells, P. falciparum exports a membrane network into the red blood cell cytoplasm and also inserts several of its own proteins into the host membrane, including its own V-ATPase. This proton pump has a role in maintaining the intracellular pH of the infected red blood cell and facilitating the uptake of small metabolites at equilibrium. Treatment of the parasitized red blood cell with bafilomycin prevents the extracellular acidification, causing a dip in intracellular pH around the malarial parasite.
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Merozoite surface proteins are both integral and peripheral membrane proteins found on the surface of a merozoite, an early life cycle stage of a protozoan. Merozoite surface proteins, or MSPs, are important in understanding malaria, a disease caused by protozoans of the genus Plasmodium. During the asexual blood stage of its life cycle, the malaria parasite enters red blood cells to replicate itself, causing the classic symptoms of malaria. These surface protein complexes are involved in many interactions of the parasite with red blood cells and are therefore an important topic of study for scientists aiming to combat malaria.
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The challenge faced when developing vaccines is the complexity and variation of these proteins. In merozoites of the same genus and species, the sequences encoding proteins such as MSP-1 vary depending on the region they are found. For example, the Combination B vaccine utilizes antigens of MSP-1 and MSP-2 but has limited efficacy based primarily on the MSP-2 alleles used. In an attempt to increase the efficiency of vaccines produced, constant regions such as MSP-119 which remain on the surface of the Plasmodium after the merozoite stage are becoming a key focus for vaccine studies.
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While the restrictive laws put into place by CITES are aiding in the reduction of these numbers, 4 out of 9 countries, show deficiencies in maintaining the standards outlined by CITES Increased attention and enforcement of these laws will be imperative for the sustainability of night monkey populations. Use in biomedical research poses another threat to night monkey biodiversity. Species such as Nancy Ma's night monkey, like human beings, are susceptible to infection by the Plasmodium falciparum parasite responsible for malaria. This trait caused them to be recommended by the World Health Organization as test subjects in the development of malaria vaccines.
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Mendis was awarded a National Presidents Award for Outstanding Citizens in 1983. In 1988 Mendis established the Malaria Research Unit within the Department of Parasitology of the University of Colombo, and she led them for 17 years. Mendis won the 1991 Chalmers Medal from the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygeine, and the 1993 Bailey K. Ashford Medal from the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. In 1993 the labs of Mendis and Dyann Wirth published the first successful use of the electroporation method to insert new DNA sequence into a malaria cell, in this case Plasmodium gallinaceum.
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Hoshen proposed a model in which artemisinin resistance is based on a dormancy stage during which the parasite waits out toxic concentrations of this antimalarial drug.Hoshen MB, Na-Bangchang K, Stein WD, Ginsburg H. Mathematical modelling of the chemotherapy of Plasmodium falciparum malaria with artesunate: postulation of 'dormancy', a partial cytostatic effect of the drug, and its implication for treatment regimens. Parasitology. 2000 Sep;121 (Pt 3):237–46. . Fundamental to these studies was the mathematical modeling on transport of antimalarial drugs, collaborations with Ginsburg at Hebrew University, that led to a series of joint publications.
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The majority of infections are caused by Plasmodium falciparum. Between 2011 and 2018, Guinea’s malaria program achieved many major milestones: two universal coverage campaigns with long- lasting insecticide-treated nets (ITNs), decreased stockouts of artemisinin- based combination therapies, the rollout of rapid diagnostic tests, and the recent parasitemia estimates that noted a significant decrease of the prevalence of malaria in children under 5 years of age between the 2012 Demographic and Health Survey (44 percent) and 2016 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (15 percent). The national malaria strategy involves free continuous distribution of ITNs through antenatal care, vaccination clinics, schools, and mass campaigns.
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This structure with repeated sequences is responsible for frequent duplication events (which create new genes) and recombination events, at the origin of combination diversity. These peculiar properties are mechanisms that generate diversity at an individual scale and therefore contribute to adaptation of organisms to their environments. For example, in Plasmodium falciparum during interphase of erythrocytic stage, the chromosomic extremities are gathered at the cell nucleus periphery, where they undergo frequent deletion and telomere position effect (TPE). This event in addition to expansion and deletion of subtelomeric repeats, give rise to chromosome size polymorphisms and so, subtelomeres undergo epigenetic and genetic controls.
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Subtelomeric transcripts are pseudogenes (transcribed genes producing RNA sequences not translated into protein) and gene families. In humans, they code for olfactory receptors, immunoglobulin heavy chains, and zinc-finger proteins. In other species, several parasites such as Plasmodium and Trypanosoma brucei have developed sophisticated evasion mechanisms to adapt to the hostile environment posed by the host, such as exposing variable surface antigens to escape the immune system. Genes coding for surface antigens in these organisms are located at subtelomeric regions, and it has been speculated that this preferred location facilitates gene switching and expression, and the generation of new variants.
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Plasmodium cynomolgi in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were used in the 1960s to test drugs active against P. vivax. Growth of the liver stages in animal-free systems was achieved in the 1980s when pre-erythrocytic P. berghei stages were grown in wI38, a human embryonic lung cell line (cells cultured from one specimen). This was followed by their growth in human hepatoma line HepG2. Both P. falciparum and P. vivax have been grown in human liver cells; partial development of P. ovale in human liver cells was achieved; and P. malariae was grown in chimpanzee and monkey liver cells.
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Examination of the protease gene (SERA) in 18 species has shown that the ancestral state had only a single gene and that gene duplications have occurred in the extant species. This paper confirms the groupings found elsewhere with an Asian clade. The rodent species seem to be more closely related to the Laverania subgenus than does the subgenus Plasmodium. A deletion mutation of ~100 base pairs including part of the LS1 rRNA gene is found in the sequences of two African species - P. gonderi and an undescribed parasite taken from a mandrill - and 2 Asian species - P. cynomolgi and P. simiovale.
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The cause of hemolytic crises in this disease is unknown (mainly due to intravascular haemolysis). There is rapid and massive destruction of red blood cells resulting in hemoglobinemia (hemoglobin in the blood, but outside the red blood cells), hemoglobinuria (hemoglobin in urine), intense jaundice, anuria (passing less than 50 milliliters of urine in a day), and finally death in the majority of cases. The most probable explanation for blackwater fever is an autoimmune reaction apparently caused by the interaction of the malaria parasite and the use of quinine. Blackwater fever is caused by heavy parasitization of red blood cells with Plasmodium falciparum.
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The rationale for creating AMI was and still remains the need to provide and invest in targeted activities to improve malaria control in the Amazon basin countries where 88% of malaria cases in Latin America and the Caribbean are reported. The Americas also where medication used to treat P. falciparum malaria are being reported to be ineffective. Nearly 95% of the malaria burden in the Americas is located in the Amazon basin region, as well as 98% of the Plasmodium falciparum infection. When AMI first launched the initial participating countries included Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Bolivia, and Venezuela.
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Apetala 2 (AP2) is a gene and a member of a large family of transcription factors, the AP2/EREBP family. In Arabidopsis thaliana AP2 plays a role in the ABC model of flower development. It was originally thought that this family of proteins was plant-specific; however, recent studies have shown that apicomplexans, including the causative agent of malaria, Plasmodium falciparum encode a related set of transcription factors, called the ApiAP2 family. In the A. thaliana transcription factor RAV1 the N-terminal AP2 domain binds 5'-CAACA-3' sequence, while the C-terminal highly conserved B3 domain binds 5'-CACCTG-3' sequence.
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However, many children do not receive proper immunization from measles and polio. Malaria: Among all diseases, malaria is the primary cause of death in Mali, especially for children who are under 5 years old. The prevalence of malaria among children under five years of age was 36% as of 2015. Plasmodium falciparum is the main cause of infection. The entire population of Mali is at risk for malaria, although transmission varies across the country’s five geo-climatic zones. The disease is endemic in the central and southern regions where more than 90 percent of the population lives and epidemic in the north.
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They made their first international publication in 1982 in The Lancet, in which they reported the comparative efficacy of artemisinin and mefloquine on chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum. Arnold was among those who developed mefloquine in 1979 and was planning to test the new drug in China. He and his wife Moui became the most important people in translating the historical account of the Project 523 and bringing it to international recognition. The Division of Experimental Therapeutics at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, under the United States Army, was the first to produce artemisinin and its derivatives outside China.
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In 2007, he graduated with a PhD in Infectious Diseases and Microbiology from the School of Public Health, with a thesis on severe malarial anemia. . Following his doctoral studies, he spent three years at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (Maryland, USA), where he continued studying malaria, focusing on the Plasmodium falciparum parasite. He returned to the University of Ghana in 2010 to establish his own research group . Without start-up funding, he used US credit cards to support his work whilst applying for grants, and two years later received funding from both the Royal Society and the National Institutes of Health.
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While more closely related to Plasmodium vivax than to P. falciparum, P. coatneyi has been used as a model organism for P. falciparum in a model organism for humans, rhesus macaques. This is due to the several similarities that P. coatneyi and P. falciparum have in common. These similarities includes having a tertiary periodicity, causing cerebral malaria, causing knob protrusion on the surface of infected red blood cells, and adhering the red blood cells to the same sites of the endothelium. Because of these similarities, experiments have been run to further research the mechanism(s) for cerebral malaria.
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Ivermectin is being studied as a potential antiviral agent against chikungunya and yellow fever. In 2013, this antiparasitic drug was demonstrated as a novel ligand of farnesoid X receptor (FXR), a therapeutic target for Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Ivermectin is also of interest in the prevention of malaria, as it is toxic to both the malaria plasmodium itself, and the mosquitos that carry it. Use of ivermectin at higher doses necessary to control malaria is probably safe, though large clinical trials have not yet been done to definitively establish the efficacy and safety of ivermectin for prophylaxis or treatment of malaria.
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The house finch may be infected by a number of parasites including Plasmodium relictum and Mycoplasma gallisepticum, which caused the population of house finches in eastern North America to crash during the 1990s. The mite Pellonyssus reedi is often found on house finch nestlings, particularly for nests later in the season. The brown-headed cowbird, a brood parasite, will lay its eggs in house finch nests, although the diet house finches feed their young is inadequate for the young cowbirds, which rarely survive. The beak is short and deep, similar to other passerine species adapted to crush seeds.
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Wolbachia also inhibits the secretion of West Nile virus (WNV) in cell line Aag2 derived from A. aegypti cells. The mechanism is somewhat novel, as the bacteria actually enhances the production of viral genomic RNA in the cell line Wolbachia. Also, the antiviral effect in intrathoracically infected mosquitoes depends on the strain of Wolbachia, and the replication of the virus in orally fed mosquitoes was completely inhibited in wMelPop strain of Wolbachia. Wolbachia infection can also increase mosquito resistance to malaria, as shown in Anopheles stephensi where the wAlbB strain of Wolbachia hindered the lifecycle of Plasmodium falciparum.
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Thus, from 1917 to the mid 1940s, malaria induced by the least aggressive parasite, Plasmodium vivax, was used as treatment for tertiary syphilis because it produced prolonged and high fevers (a form of pyrotherapy). This was considered an acceptable risk because the malaria could later be treated with quinine, which was available at that time. This discovery earned him the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1927. His main publication was a book titled Verhütung und Behandlung der progressiven Paralyse durch Impfmalaria (Prevention and treatment of progressive paralysis by malaria inoculation) in the Memorial Volume of the Handbuch der experimentellen Therapie, (1931).
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During the 1990s, scientists demonstrated it could kill the most common cause of dysentery, Entamoeba histolytica, and species of Salmonella and Shigella bacteria that cause diarrhea.. A greater amount of evidence is required to prove the efficacy of Simarouba. The main biologically active compounds found in S. amara are the quassinoids, a group of triterpenes including ailanthinone, glaucarubinone, and holacanthone. These have been reported to kill protozoa, amoeba, Plasmodium (the cause of malaria). The antimalarial properties were first investigated by scientists in 1947; they found that in chickens, 1 mg of bark extract per 1 kg of body weight had strong antimalarial activity.
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Given the slower pre-erythrocytic development and longer incubation period compared to the other malaria causing Plasmodium species, the researchers hypothesized that the anti-malarials may not be effective enough against the pre-erythrocytic stages of P. malariae. They thought that further development of P. malariae can occur when plasma concentrations of the anti-malarials gradually decrease after the anti-malarial medications are taken. According to Dr. William E. Collins from the Center of Disease Control (CDC), chloroquine is most commonly used for treatment and no evidence of resistance to this drug has been found.Collins, William.
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Dr. William Collins doubts that anyone is currently looking for possible vaccines for P. malariae and given the complexity of the parasite it can be inferred why. He states that very few studies are conducted with this parasite, perhaps as a result of its perceived low morbidity and prevalence. Collins cites the great restrictions of studies with chimpanzees and monkeys as a sizeable barrier. Since the Plasmodium brasilianium parasite that infects South American monkeys is thought to be an adapted form of P. malariae, more research with P. brasilianium may hold valuable insight into P. malariae.
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Rufigallol or 1,2,3,5,6,7-hexahydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone is an organic compound with formula , which can be viewed as a derivative of anthraquinone through the replacement of six hydrogen atoms (H) by hydroxyl groups (OH). The compound is soluble in dioxane, from which it crystallizes as red needles that sublime without melting at 365 °C. It can be obtained by treating gallic acid with concentrated sulfuric acid and then with sodium hydroxide. Rufigallol is particularly toxic to the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum and has a synergistic effect in combination with the antimalarial drug exifone, which has structural similarities to rufigallol.
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Although unlikely to significantly impact on large, healthy populations of birds in the wild, PBFD may pose a high risk to smaller stressed populations. A white cockatoo and a sulphur-crested cockatoo were found to be infected with the protozoon Haemoproteus and another sulphur- crested cockatoo had the malaria parasite Plasmodium on analysis of faecal samples at Almuñecar ornithological garden in Granada in Spain. Like amazon parrots and macaws, cockatoos frequently develop cloacal papillomas. The relationship with malignancy is unknown, as is the cause, although a parrot papilloma virus has been isolated from a grey parrot with the condition.
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C. elegans Intraflagellar transport or IFT is a bidirectional motility along axonemal microtubules that is essential for the formation (ciliogenesis) and maintenance of most eukaryotic cilia and flagella. It is thought to be required to build all cilia that assemble within a membrane projection from the cell surface. Plasmodium falciparum cilia and the sperm flagella of Drosophila are examples of cilia that assemble in the cytoplasm and do not require IFT. The process of IFT involves movement of large protein complexes called IFT particles or trains from the cell body to the ciliary tip and followed by their return to the cell body.
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The merozoites infect red blood cells, where they develop into ring forms, trophozoites and schizonts that in turn produce further merozoites. Sexual forms are also produced, which, if taken up by a mosquito, infect the insect and continue the life cycle. In the life cycle of Plasmodium, a female Anopheles mosquito (the definitive host) transmits a motile infective form (called the sporozoite) to a vertebrate host such as a human (the secondary host), thus acting as a transmission vector. A sporozoite travels through the blood vessels to liver cells (hepatocytes), where it reproduces asexually (tissue schizogony), producing thousands of merozoites.
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Mortality rates in that area never declined to the same dramatic extent, and now constitute the bulk of malarial deaths worldwide, especially following the disease's resurgence as a result of resistance to drug treatments and the spread of the deadly malarial variant caused by Plasmodium falciparum. Eradication was abandoned in 1969 and attention instead focused on controlling and treating the disease. Spraying programs (especially using DDT) were curtailed due to concerns over safety and environmental effects, as well as problems in administrative, managerial and financial implementation. Efforts shifted from spraying to the use of bednets impregnated with insecticides and other interventions.
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Biomedical research on these parasites is challenging because it is often difficult, if not impossible, to maintain live parasite cultures in the laboratory and to genetically manipulate these organisms. In recent years, several of the apicomplexan species have been selected for genome sequencing. The availability of genome sequences provides a new opportunity for scientists to learn more about the evolution and biochemical capacity of these parasites. The predominant source of this genomic information is the EuPathDB family of websites, which currently provides specialised services for Plasmodium species (PlasmoDB), coccidians (ToxoDB), piroplasms (PiroplasmaDB), and Cryptosporidium species (CryptoDB).
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Mutations in this gene or its regulatory regions cause ahaptoglobinemia or hypohaptoglobinemia. This gene has also been linked to diabetic nephropathy, the incidence of coronary artery disease in type 1 diabetes, Crohn's disease, inflammatory disease behavior, primary sclerosing cholangitis, susceptibility to idiopathic Parkinson's disease, and a reduced incidence of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Since the reticuloendothelial system will remove the haptoglobin-hemoglobin complex from the body, haptoglobin levels will be decreased in case of intravascular hemolysis or severe extravascular hemolysis. In the process of binding to free hemoglobin, haptoglobin sequesters the iron within hemoglobin, preventing iron-utilizing bacteria from benefiting from hemolysis.
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Ronald Ross Ronald Ross was awarded a Nobel Prize for his discovery of the life cycle of malarial parasite in birds. He did not build his concept of malarial transmission in humans, but in birds. Ross was the first to show that malarial parasite was transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes, in his case the avian Plasmodium relictum. In 1897, an Italian physician and zoologist Giovanni Battista Grassi, along with his colleagues, had established the developmental stages of malaria parasites in anopheline mosquitoes; and they described the complete life cycles of P. falciparum, P. vivax and P. malariae the following year.
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GSH is a key cellular antioxidant and plays a major role in the phase 2 metabolic clearance of electrophilic xenobiotics. The importance of the GSH pathway and enzymes that affect this delicate balance is gaining an increased level of attention in recent years. Although glutathione reductase has been an attractive target for many pharmaceuticals, there have been no successful glutathione reductase related therapeutic compounds created to date. In particular, glutathione reductase appears to be a good target for anti-malarials, as the glutathione reductase of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has a significantly different protein fold than that of mammalian glutathione reductase.
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Quinine is used for its toxicity to the malarial pathogen, Plasmodium falciparum, by interfering with the parasite's ability to dissolve and metabolize hemoglobin. As with other quinoline antimalarial drugs, the precise mechanism of action of quinine has not been fully resolved, although in vitro studies indicate it inhibits nucleic acid and protein synthesis, and inhibits glycolysis in P. falciparum. The most widely accepted hypothesis of its action is based on the well-studied and closely related quinoline drug, chloroquine. This model involves the inhibition of hemozoin biocrystallization in the heme detoxification pathway, which facilitates the aggregation of cytotoxic heme.
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Depending on the parasitic species in question, various methods of quantification allow scientists to measure the numbers of parasites present and determine the parasite load of an organism. Quantifying the parasite depends on what type of parasite is in question as well as where it resides in the host body. For example, intracellular parasites such as the protozoan genus Plasmodium which causes Malaria in humans, are quantified through performing a blood smear and counting the number of white blood cells infected by viewing the smear through a microscope.Prudhomme O'Meara W, Remich S, Ogutu B, et al.
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Dhar's research history starts during his graduate studies when he worked on Entamoeba histolytica, the protozoan which causes amoebiasis, focusing on its ribosomal DNA circle. Later at Harvard Medical School, his post-doctoral studies were centered on mammalian DNA replication which assisted him to identify the ORC6 (origin recognition complex subunit six) and its role in viral DNA replication. He also identified geminin, a replication inhibitor, as a blocking factor of viral DNA replication, a discovery which earned him a US patent. Later, he studied the human pathogens, Helicobacter pylori and Plasmodium falciparum and their DNA replication and cell cycle regulation.
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Acidocalcisomes are rounded electron-dense acidic organelles, rich in calcium and polyphosphate and between 100 nm and 200 nm in diameter. Acidocalcisomes were originally discovered in Trypanosomes (the causing agents of sleeping sickness and Chagas disease) but have since been found in Toxoplasma gondii (causes toxoplasmosis), Plasmodium (malaria), Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (a green alga), Dictyostelium discoideum (a slime mould), bacteria and human platelets. Their membranes are 6 nm thick and contain a number of protein pumps and antiporters, including aquaporins, ATPases and Ca2+/H+ and Na+/H+ antiporters. They may be the only cellular organelle that has been conserved between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
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