Phonemically speaking, may also be (more traditionally) transcribed , or as unvoiced .
|
|
The Serres – Nevrokop dialects have a series of phonemically palatalised consonants.
|
|
Māori has five phonemically distinct vowel articulations, and ten consonant phonemes.
|
|
Back slang is an English coded language in which the written word is spoken phonemically backwards.
|
|
In dialects such as Shanghainese, tone classes are numbered even if they are not phonemically distinct.
|
|
In that interpretation, Italian has only falling diphthongs (phonemically at least, cf. Synaeresis) and no triphthongs.
|
|
The name Seri is an exonym of uncertain origin. (Claims that it is from Opata or from Yaqui were nineteenth-century speculations based on similarity to words in those languages and not with clear evidence.) Their name for themselves is Comcaac (phonemically , phonetically ); singular: Cmiique (phonemically ), phonetically ).Marlett, Moreno & Herrera (2005).
|
|
In the extinct Ubykh, and were phonemically and . A few ancient Indo- European languages like Latin had labiovelar consonants.
|
|
Khowar has a variety of dialects, which may vary phonemically. The following tables lay out the basic phonology of Khowar.
|
|
In London's Cockney accent, a cot–caught merger is possible only in rapid speech. The vowel has two phonemically distinct variants: closer (phonetically ) and more open (phonetically ). The more open variant is sometimes neutralized in rapid speech with the vowel (phonetically ) in utterances such as (phonemically ) for I was four then. Otherwise is still readily distinguished from by length.
|
|
Some speech phenomena may lead to the neutralization of phonemic contrasts, which means that a contrast that exists in the language is not utilized in order to differentiate words due to sound change. For example, due to final-obstruent devoicing, Russian бес ('demon', phonemically /bʲes/) and без ('without', phonemically /bʲez/) are pronounced identically in isolation as [bʲɛs].
|
|
Final-obstruent devoicing can lead to the neutralization of phonemic contrasts in certain environments. For example, Russian ('demon', phonemically ) and ('without', phonemically ) are pronounced identically in isolation as . The presence of this process in Russian is also the source of the seemingly variant transliterations of Russian names into -off (Russian: ), especially by the French, as well as older English transcriptions.
|
|
For instance, sech eens (phonemically ) is pronounced , although this article transcribes it so that it corresponds more closely to the spelling. Similarly, eng interessant Iddi ('an interesting idea').
|
|
Only a few languages contrast voiced and voiceless bilabial trills phonemically – e.g. Mangbetu of Congo and Ninde of Vanuatu.Linguist Wins Symbolic Victory for 'Labiodental Flap'. NPR (2005-12-17).
|
|
Initial assimilation of consonants is usually progressive, and may create new phonemes that are not phonemically contrastive in initial position but do contrast in medial position. A few varieties exhibit regressive assimilation too.
|
|
It is phonemically regular, compact, and designed to be comfortably and quickly written. There are also Quikscript alphabets adapted for other languages, using the same letters for sounds which do not exist in English.
|
|
The only common labiodental sounds to occur phonemically are the fricatives and the approximant. The labiodental flap occurs phonemically in over a dozen languages, but it is restricted geographically to central and southeastern Africa (Olson & Hajek 2003). With most other manners of articulation, the norm are bilabial consonants (which together with labiodentals, form the class of labial consonants). is quite common, but in all or nearly all languages in which it occurs, it occurs only as an allophone of before labiodental consonants such as and .
|
|
A voiced bilabial affricate ( in IPA) is a rare affricate consonant that is initiated as a bilabial stop and released as a voiced bilabial fricative . It has not been reported to occur phonemically in any language.
|
|
A voiced epiglottal affricate ( in IPA) is a rare affricate consonant that is initiated as an epiglottal stop and released as a voiced epiglottal fricative . It has not been reported to occur phonemically in any language.
|
|
A voiceless bilabial affricate ( in IPA) is a rare affricate consonant that is initiated as a bilabial stop and released as a voiceless bilabial fricative . It has not been reported to occur phonemically in any language.
|
|
One blurry area is in segments variously called semivowels, semiconsonants, or glides. On one side, there are vowel-like segments that are not in themselves syllabic, but form diphthongs as part of the syllable nucleus, as the i in English boil . On the other, there are approximants that behave like consonants in forming onsets, but are articulated very much like vowels, as the y in English yes . Some phonologists model these as both being the underlying vowel , so that the English word bit would phonemically be , beet would be , and yield would be phonemically .
|
|
Saraiki's consonant inventory is similar to that of neighbouring Sindhi. It includes phonemically distinctive implosive consonants, which are unusual among the Indo-European languages. In Christopher Shackle's analysis, Saraiki distinguishes up to 48 consonants and 9 monophthong vowels.
|
|
The long diphthongs (or 'double vowels') are phonemically sequences of a free vowel and a non-syllabic equivalent of or : . Both and tend to be pronounced as , but they are spelled differently: the former as , the latter as .
|
|
There is also a non-IPA letter ("l", plus the curl found in the symbols for alveolo-palatal sibilant fricatives ), used especially in Sinological circles. The palatal lateral approximant contrasts phonemically with its voiceless counterpart in the Xumi language spoken in China.
|
|
There are ten vowels: the five oral vowels (, , , , ) and their nasalized counterparts. There is slight variation, both allophonic and dialectal. Vowel length is phonemically distinctive. There are a number of combinations of a vowel with a semivowel or , the semivowel being initial or final.
|
|
The basic word order in Wintu is very flexible. A morphological word is the basic syntactical unit. In some cases a morphological word that is phonemically a single word can be syntactically two different words. A morphological word,can be clitic or non clitic.
|
|
Many languages do not distinguish vowel length phonemically, meaning that vowel length does not change meaning, and the length of a vowel is affected by other factors such as the values of the sounds around it. Languages that do distinguish vowel length phonemically usually only distinguish between short vowels and long vowels. Very few languages distinguish three phonemic vowel lengths, such as Estonian, Luiseño, and Mixe. However, some languages with two vowel lengths also have words in which long vowels appear adjacent to other short or long vowels of the same type: Japanese hōō "phoenix" or Ancient Greek ἀάατος Liddell, H. G., and R. Scott (1996).
|
|
Similar considerations lead to the identification of two additional tones in Vietnamese for syllables ending in , , and . These are not phonemically distinct from the huyền and nặng tones, however, and hence not considered as separate tones by modern linguists and are not distinguished in the orthography.
|
|
In some cases, initial in poetry was pronounced as a long trill (phonemically ), shown by the fact that the previous syllable is counted as heavy: for instance must be pronounced as in Euripides, Electra 772, as in Aristophanes, The Frogs 1059, and as in Iliad 12.159.
|
|
The evolutionary origins of speech are unknown and subject to much debate and speculation. While animals also communicate using vocalizations, and trained apes such as Washoe and Kanzi can use simple sign language, no animals' vocalizations are articulated phonemically and syntactically, and do not constitute speech.
|
|
The Nawat phoneme inventory is smaller than that of most languages in the area. Phonemically relevant voice distinctions are generally absent: plosives are normally voiceless (though there exist some voiced allophones), as are fricatives and affricates; liquids, nasals and semivowels are normally voiced (though there exist voiceless allophones).
|
|
Rangi has a seven-vowel system, with a single low vowel and phonemically contrasting front-back pairs at three heights. The vowels are [a], [ɛ], [i], [ɪ], [ɔ], [u] and [ʊ]. Rangi has phonemic vowel length alternation with a distinction attested between long and short vowels. Rangi also exhibits asymmetric vowel height harmony.
|
|
Aguaruna has a pitch accent. This means that in every word, one syllable carries an accent and is pronounced with a higher pitch than the rest of the word. This accent is phonemically contrastive, and many minimal pairs exist. For example, /ʃíki/ is 'to urinate (on something)' and /ʃikí/ means 'draw water.
|
|
In southwest Ethiopia, phonemically distinctive retroflex consonants are found in Bench and Sheko, two contiguous, but not closely related, Omotic languages.Breeze, Mary. 1988. "Phonological features of Gimira and Dizi." In Marianne Bechhaus-Gerst and Fritz Serzisko (eds.), Cushitic - Omotic: papers from the International Symposium on Cushitic and Omotic languages, Cologne, January 6–9, 1986, 473-487.
|
|
Westfalenstadion ()The syllable that carries the primary stress is phonemically disyllabic . In normal speech, assimilates to non-syllabic (because of the preceding ) and attaches to the previous syllable, so that it is pronounced monosyllabically . The pronunciation , with a syllabic is not possible. is a football stadium in Dortmund, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, which is the home of Borussia Dortmund.
|
|
The third way to talk about the language is in the language itself. The pronunciation is best transcribed as [eʋa:v], which cannot be translated for simply being a proper name. Spellings that are used by scholars are Eiwav, Eivav, Ewaw, Ewab, Ewaf, Evav, Ewav and Evaf, for it is arguable whether the two consonants are phonemically distinct or not.
|
|
Back slang is not only restricted to words spoken phonemically backwards. English frequently makes use of diphthongs, which is an issue for back slang since diphthongs cannot be reversed. The resulting fix slightly alters the traditional back slang. An example is trousers and its diphthong ou, which is replaced with wo in the back slang version reswort.
|
|
Merck-Stadion am Böllenfalltor ()The syllable that carries the primary stress in the last word is phonemically disyllabic . In normal speech, assimilates to non-syllabic (because of the preceding ) and attaches to the previous syllable, so that it is pronounced monosyllabically . The pronunciation , with a syllabic is not possible. is a multi-use stadium in Darmstadt, Germany.
|
|
Kalix (; Kalix dialect: Kôlis, , phonemically ; ; ) is a locality and the seat of the Kalix Municipality in Norrbotten County, Sweden. The name Kalix is believed to originate from the Sami word Gáláseatnu, or "Kalasätno", meaning "The cold river" the ancient name of the Kalix River. It had 7,299 inhabitants in 2005, out of 17,300 inhabitants in the municipality of Kalix.
|
|
These sequences alternate dialectally with vowel plus velar nasal. That is, the name ǃXóõ may be dialectally , and this in turn may be phonemically , since does not occur word-finally. However, this cannot explain the short nasal vowels, so Taa has at least 31 vowels. A long, glottalized, murmured, nasalized o with falling tone is written .
|
|
Whistled sibilants occur in speech pathology and may be caused by dental prostheses or orthodontics. However, they also occur phonemically in several southern Bantu languages, the best known being Shona. The whistled sibilants of Shona have been variously described—as labialized but not velarized, as retroflex, etc., but none of these features are required for the sounds.
|
|
It has been reported to occur phonemically in a dialect of Teke, but similar claims in the past have proven spurious. The XiNkuna dialect of Tsonga features a pair of affricates as phonemes. In some other languages, such as Xhosa, affricates may occur as allophones of the fricatives. These differ from the German bilabial- labiodental affricate , which commences with a bilabial p.
|
|
Long (geminate or double) consonants are pronounced exactly like short consonants, they occur between vowels and they are marked with a shaddah if needed, e.g. كَتَّب or kattab "he made (someone) write" vs. كَتَب katab "he wrote". They can occur phonemically at the end of the words as well but they are pronounced as a single consonant not geminated, e.g.
|
|
A few European languages, such as Finnish, have no phonemically voiced obstruents but pairs of long and short consonants instead. Outside Europe, the lack of voicing distinctions is common; indeed, in Australian languages it is nearly universal. In languages without the distinction between voiceless and voiced obstruents, they are realized as voiced in voiced environments, such as between vowels, and voiceless elsewhere.
|
|
The euro is divided into 100 cent, as was the guilder. The Belgian franc was divided into 100 centiemen. The word eurocent is sometimes used to distinguish it from the cents of other currencies, such as the dollarcent, but originally mainly to differentiate it from what used to be 0.01 guilder, also called "cent". Pronunciation: The word euro is phonemically.
|
|
Many characteristics of the Boston accent may be retreating, particularly among younger residents. In the most "old-fashioned" of Boston accents, there may be a lingering resistance to the horse–hoarse merger. In Boston, horse has the phoneme; in other words, the accent features the –– merger, so that tort, tot and taught are phonemically all . It is distinct from the vowel, as in hoarse .
|
|
Word-initial contrast between and is disappearing, with becoming (note that in Onge is not phonemically present). Jarawa words are at least monosyllabic, and content words are at least bimoraic. Maximal syllables are CVC. voices intervocalically in derived environments, syncopates when followed by another vowel across a morpheme boundary, becomes when the next syllable has a round vowel, and whole syllables may be deleted in fast speech.
|
|
The voiceless bidental fricative is a rare consonantal sound used in some languages. The only natural language known to use it is the Shapsug dialect of Adyghe. It is also used for a geminate voiceless glottal fricative (so phonemically ) in the original version of the constructed language Ithkuil,The Phonology of Ithkuil, see section 1.2.3 Allophonic Distinctions its offshoot Ilaksh,The Phonology of Ilaksh, see section 1.2.
|
|
Yanesha' has three basic vowel qualities, , , and . Each contrasts phonemically between short, long, and "laryngeal" or glottalized forms. Laryngealization generally consists of glottalization of the vowel in question, creating a kind of creaky voice. In pre-final contexts, a variation occurs—especially before voiced consonants—ranging from creaky phonation throughout the vowel to a sequence of a vowel, glottal stop, and a slightly rearticulated vowel: ma'ñorr ('deer') → .
|
|
TIMIT is a corpus of phonemically and lexically transcribed speech of American English speakers of different sexes and dialects. Each transcribed element has been delineated in time. TIMIT was designed to further acoustic-phonetic knowledge and automatic speech recognition systems. It was commissioned by DARPA and corpus design was a joint effort between the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, SRI International, and Texas Instruments (TI).
|
|
Phonemically, Ogea has a 15 vowel system with 17 consonants. Syntactically, Ogea is a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) language, with adjectives following nouns, and deictics following adjectives—the reverse of English. Morphologically, Ogea is a highly inflected, suffixing language, with most of the complexity occurring with verbs. There are over 100 basic verbal suffixes, the number of which is significantly multiplied by allomorphic variants.
|
|
After leaving the Indian subcontinent, Romani was heavily affected by contact with European languages. The most significant of these was Medieval Greek, which contributed lexically, phonemically, and grammatically to Early Romani (10th–13th centuries). This includes inflectional affixes for nouns, and verbs that are still productive with borrowed vocabulary, the shift to VO word order, and the adoption of a preposed definite article. Early Romani also borrowed from Armenian and Persian.
|
|
Latvian Lutheran hymnbook in old orthography. The old orthography was based on that of German and did not represent the Latvian language phonemically. At the beginning, it was used to write religious texts for German priests to help them in their work with Latvians. The first writings in Latvian were chaotic: there were twelve variations of writing Š. In 1631 the German priest Georg Mancelius tried to systematize the writing.
|
|
Languages differ in the length of diphthongs, measured in terms of morae. In languages with phonemically short and long vowels, diphthongs typically behave like long vowels, and are pronounced with a similar length. In languages with only one phonemic length for pure vowels, however, diphthongs may behave like pure vowels. For example, in Icelandic, both monophthongs and diphthongs are pronounced long before single consonants and short before most consonant clusters.
|
|
The voiced retroflex lateral approximant is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `l``. The retroflex lateral approximant contrasts phonemically with its voiceless counterpart in Iaai and Toda. In both of these languages it also contrasts with more anterior , which are dental in Iaai and alveolar in Toda.
|
|
Nasalization as a result of the assimilation of a nasal consonant tends to cause a raising of vowel height; phonemically distinctive nasalization tends to lower the vowel.Beddor, P. S. 1983. Phonological and phonetic effects of nasalization on vowel height In most languages, vowels of all heights are nasalized indiscriminately, but preference occurs in some language, such as for high vowels in Chamorro and low vowels in Thai.Hajek, John. (2013).
|
|
Palatalization /Cʲ/ was phonemically distinct from the onset cluster /Cy/. This produces a contrast between གཡ /gj/ and གྱ /gʲ/, demonstrated by the minimal pair གཡང་ g.yaṅ "sheep" and གྱང་ gyaṅ "also, and". The sounds written with the palatal letters ཅ c, ཇ j, ཉ ny, ཞ zh, and ཤ sh were palatalized counterparts of the phonemic sounds ཙ ts, ཛ dz, ན n, ཟ z, and ས s.
|
|
In Standard Italian, consonant strengthening is usually written with two consonants and it is distinctive. For example, , meaning "he/she drank", is phonemically and pronounced , while ("he/she drinks/is drinking") is , pronounced . Tonic syllables are bimoraic and are therefore composed of either a long vowel in an open syllable (as in ) or a short vowel in a closed syllable (as in ). In varieties with post-vocalic weakening of some consonants (e.g.
|
|
Fricatives are very commonly voiced, though cross-linguistically voiced fricatives are not nearly as common as tenuis ("plain") fricatives. Other phonations are common in languages that have those phonations in their stop consonants. However, phonemically aspirated fricatives are rare. contrasts with in Korean; aspirated fricatives are also found in a few Sino-Tibetan languages, in some Oto-Manguean languages, in the Siouan language Ofo ( and ), and in the (central?) Chumash languages ( and ).
|
|
Nǃaqriaxe vowel qualities are . The front vowels, , are very similar in formant space, as are even more so the back vowels, , but minimal pairs distinguish them. Vowels may be nasalized, pharyngealized (written with a final in the practical orthography), or glottalized. Gerlach (2015) treats long vowels as sequences, in which the nasalized vowels, , occur phonemically only as V2, while the pharyngealized and glottalized vowels, and (and, in one loan word, ) occur only as V1.
|
|
Igbo and Egyptian Arabic, for example, have a close-mid , and Bulgarian has an open-mid , but none of these languages have another phonemic mid front vowel. Kensiu, spoken in Malaysia and Thailand, is claimed to be unique in having true-mid vowels that are phonemically distinct from both close-mid and open-mid vowels, without differences in other parameters such as backness or roundedness.Bishop, N. (1996). A preliminary description of Kensiw (Maniq) phonology.
|
|
Capo (1981) has argued that nasalization in Gbe languages should be analyzed phonemically as a feature relevant to vowels and not to consonants.Cf. Capo (1981). This means that nasal vowels are distinct from oral vowels, while nasal and voiced oral stops are treated as predictable variants. For example, non-syllabic nasal consonants are always followed by a nasal vowel, and syllabic nasal consonants are analyzed as reduced forms of consonant–vowel syllables.
|
|
A yer is one of two letters in Cyrillic alphabets: ъ (ѥръ, jerŭ) and ь (ѥрь, jerĭ). The Glagolitic alphabet used, as respective counterparts, the letters 13px and 13px. They originally represented phonemically the "ultra-short" vowels in Slavic languages, including Old Church Slavonic, and are collectively known as the yers. In all modern Slavic languages, they either evolved into various "full" vowels or disappeared, in some cases causing the palatalization of adjacent consonants.
|
|
Critics have claimed that a consistent phonemically based system would be impractical: for example, phoneme distribution differs between British English and American English; furthermore, while English Received Pronunciation features about 20 vowels, some non-native dialects of English have 10 or even fewer. A phonemic system would therefore not be universal. A number of proposals have been made to reform English spelling. Some were proposed by Noah Webster early in the 19th century.
|
|
One of the main goals of the CLC project is to create a publicly available Croatian corpus that is annotated on multiple levels, i.e. lemmatized, morphologically segmented and morpho-syntactically annotated, phonemically transcribed and syllabified, and syntactically parsed. While the current version of the corpus provides resources from the Croatian language standard, several corpora from different development phases of Croatian are created as well, including the digitizations of manuscripts and Croatian dictionaries.
|
|
A phonetic palindrome is a portion of speech that is identical or roughly identical when reversed. It can arise in context where language is played with, for example in slang dialects like verlan. In French, there is the phrase une Slave valse nue ("a Slavic woman waltzes naked"), phonemically . John Oswald discussed his experience of phonetic palindromes while working on audio tape versions of the cut-up technique using recorded readings by William S. Burroughs.
|
|
In the latter, the British pronunciation of climate is transcribed , though carelessness is transcribed . Affixes such as dis-, in-, -ing and mis- contain in conservative RP as well as General American and Modern RP, so that words such as disloyal or teaching are phonemically and in all three varieties. The suffix -ist is pronounced in RP and in GA. The latter pronunciation is considered to be non-RP, so that machinist is pronounced in RP and in GA.
|
|
The notion of syllable is challenged by languages that allow long strings of obstruents without any intervening vowel or sonorant. By far the most common syllabic consonants are sonorants like , , , or , as in English bottle, church (in rhotic accents), rhythm, button and lock n key. However, English allows syllabic obstruents in a few para-verbal onomatopoeic utterances such as shh (used to command silence) and psst (used to attract attention). All of these have been analyzed as phonemically syllabic.
|
|
And, in 2014 the Department stated "Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial". It goes on to say that "Learners need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)". In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words. The New York Public School system adopted balanced literacy as its literacy curriculum in 2003.
|
|
Other languages use fricative and often trilled segments as syllabic nuclei, as in Czech and several languages in Democratic Republic of the Congo, and China, including Mandarin Chinese. In Mandarin, they are historically allophones of , and spelled that way in Pinyin. Ladefoged and Maddieson call these "fricative vowels" and say that "they can usually be thought of as syllabic fricatives that are allophones of vowels". That is, phonetically they are consonants, but phonemically they behave as vowels.
|
|
The Gbe languages are tonal languages. In general, they have three tone levels, High (H), Mid (M), and Low (L), of which the lower two are not phonemically contrastive. Thus, the basic tonemes of Gbe are 'High' and 'Non- High', where the High toneme may be realised as High or Rising and the Non- High toneme may be realised as Low or Mid. The tones of Gbe nouns are often affected by the consonant of the noun stem.
|
|
Historically, the stress accent has reduced most vowels in unstressed syllables to , as in most other Germanic languages. This process is still somewhat productive, and it is common to reduce vowels to in syllables carrying neither primary nor secondary stress, particularly in syllables that are relatively weakly stressed due to the trochaic rhythm. Weakly stressed long vowels may also be shortened without any significant reduction in vowel quality. For example, politie (phonemically ) may be pronounced , or even .
|
|
In the terminology of phonetics, the former sound has been described as a voiceless linguolabial trill, ,Pike called it a "voiceless exolabio-lingual trill", with the tongue vibrating against a protruding lower lip. and as a buccal interdental trill, . A raspberry (when used with the tongue) is never used in human language phonemically (that is, as a building block of words). However, the bilabial trill (essentially blowing a raspberry with one's lips) is a phoneme in some languages.
|
|
For many languages, such as Albanian, Irish and Russian, velarization is generally associated with more dental articulations of coronal consonants. Thus, velarized consonants, such as Albanian , tend to be dental or denti-alveolar, and non-velarized consonants tend to be retracted to an alveolar position. Sanskrit, Hindustani and all other Indic languages have an entire set of dental stops that occur phonemically as voiced and voiceless and with or without aspiration. The nasal also exists but is quite alveolar and apical in articulation.
|
|
For example, the English word spoon was borrowed into Zulu as isipunu, phonemically . The second syllable si assimilates to the surrounding high tones, raising its pitch, so that it is pronounced sentence-finally. If tone pitch is indicated with numbers, with 1 highest and 9 lowest pitch, then the pitches of each syllable can be denoted as 2-4-3-9.Zulu-English Dictionary, Doke, 1958 The second syllable is thus still lower in pitch than both of the adjacent syllables.
|
|
In Mapos Buang and in the Bai dialects, it contrasts phonemically with a velar nasal. There is also the pre-uvular nasalInstead of "pre-uvular", it can be called "advanced uvular", "fronted uvular", "post-velar", "retracted velar" or "backed velar". For simplicity, this article uses only the term "pre-uvular". in some languages such as Yanyuwa, which is articulated slightly more front compared with the place of articulation of the prototypical uvular nasal, though not as front as the prototypical velar nasal.
|
|
All phonemes (including and , see below) can occur doubled phonemically as a phonetic increase in length. Consonant doubling always occurs at the boundary of a syllable in accordance with the rules of Finnish syllable structure. Some example sets of words: : tuli 'fire'/'s/he came', tuuli 'wind', tulli 'customs' : muta 'mud', muuta 'other' (partitive sg.), mutta 'but', muuttaa 'to change' or 'to move' A double is rare in standard Finnish, but possible, e.g. hihhuli, a derogatory term for a religious fanatic.
|
|
For example, phonemically differentiating the unaspirated denti-alveolar stop // with the aspirated denti-alveolar stop //, as in unaspirated dào or // 道 "way" and aspirated tào or // 套 "sheath; case; cover". Instead of aspiration, English phonology primarily contrasts stop consonants by voicing, that is, the vocal cords vibrate in a voiced sound but not in a voiceless or unvoiced one. The voiced stops (, , and ) are in complementary distribution with voiceless (, , and (). Voiced stops are usually unaspirated and voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated.
|
|
Such allophonically lengthened vowels may be longer than the phonemically long vowels found in stressed syllables. The lengthening does not occur if the following consonant or vowel is part of a suffix (coo-taj, the plural of coo ("shovelnose guitarfish"), is , without lengthening) if the stressed syllable consists of a long vowel and a short vowel (caaijoj, a kind of manta ray, is , without lengthening), or if the stressed vowel is lengthened to indicate intensity. It also does not affect most loanwords.
|
|
Gemination, in the languages where it occurs, is usually indicated by doubling the consonant, except when it does not contrast phonemically with the corresponding short consonant, in which case gemination is not indicated. In Jèrriais, long consonants are marked with an apostrophe: is a long , is a long , and is a long . The phonemic contrast between geminate and single consonants is widespread in Italian, and normally indicated in the traditional orthography: 'done' vs. 'fate, destiny'; 's/he, it fell' vs.
|
|
Guaracy, Jandyra, Mayara – though placenames and loanwords derived from indigenous origins had the letter substituted for over time e.g. Nictheroy became Niterói. Usual pronunciations are , , and (the two latter ones are inexistent in European and Brazilian Portuguese varieties respectively, being both substituted by in other dialects). The letters and are regarded as phonemically not dissimilar, though the first corresponds to a vowel and the latter to a consonant, and both can correspond to a semivowel depending on its place in a word.
|
|
In 1996 the California Department of Education took an increased interest in using phonics in schools. And in 1997 the department called for grade one teaching in concepts about print, phonemic awareness, decoding and word recognition, and vocabulary and concept development. Then, in 2014 the Department stated "Ensuring that children know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade is crucial". It goes on to say that "Learners need to be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)".
|
|
Preaspiration is comparatively uncommon across languages of the world, and is claimed by some to not be phonemically contrastive in any language. note that, at least in the case of Icelandic, preaspirated stops have a longer duration of aspiration than normally aspirated (post-aspirated) stops, comparable to clusters of +consonant in languages with such clusters. As a result, they view preaspiration as purely a distributional feature, indistinguishable phonetically and phonologically from clusters with , and prefer to notate preaspirated stops as clusters, e.g. Icelandic kappi "hero" rather than .
|
|
As a result, even most native English speakers are unable to syllabify words according to established rules without consulting a dictionary or using a word processor. Schools usually do not provide much more advice on the topic than to consult a dictionary. In addition, there are differences between British and US syllabification and even between dictionaries of the same English variety. In Finnish, Italian, Portuguese and other nearly phonemically spelled languages, writers can in principle correctly syllabify any existing or newly created word using only general rules.
|
|
Dônđäc has 20 oral vowel qualities, plus many nasal and rhotic ones. According to a Fudan University research that was published in the journal Science, Dônđäc has the largest oral vowel quality inventory in the world (phonemically speaking), and ranks highest in overall phonemic diversity among all languages studied in the research. According to linguist Qian Nairong, who spent eight years teaching in Fengxian and studying its dialects, the reason Dônđäc has so many vowels is because Jinhui is the place where five isoglosses intersect.
|
|
Vav can be used as a mater lectionis for an o vowel, in which case it is known as a ', which in pointed text is marked as vav with a dot above it. It is pronounced (phonemically transcribed more simply as ). The distinction is normally ignored, and the HEBREW POINT HOLAM (U+05B9) is used in all cases. The vowel can be denoted without the vav, as just the dot placed above and to the left of the letter it points, and it is then called '.
|
|
In phonology, affricates tend to behave similarly to stops, taking part in phonological patterns that fricatives do not. Kehrein analyzes phonetic affricates as phonological stops.Kehrein (2002) Phonological Representation and Phonetic Phasing A sibilant or lateral (and presumably trilled) stop can be realized phonetically only as an affricate and so might be analyzed phonemically as a sibilant or lateral stop. In that analysis, affricates other than sibilants and laterals are a phonetic mechanism for distinguishing stops at similar places of articulation (like more than one labial, coronal, or dorsal place).
|
|
The voiced palatal fricative is a very rare sound, occurring in only 7 of the 317 languages surveyed by the original UCLA Phonological Segment Inventory Database. In Kabyle, Margi, Modern Greek, and Scottish Gaelic, the sound occurs phonemically, along with its voiceless counterpart, and in several more, the sound occurs a result of phonological processes. There is also the voiced post-palatal fricativeInstead of "post- palatal", it can be called "retracted palatal", "backed palatal", "palato- velar", "pre-velar", "advanced velar", "fronted velar" or "front-velar". For simplicity, this article uses only the term "post-palatal".
|
|
The phonology of Danish is similar to that of the other closely related Scandinavian languages, Swedish and Norwegian, but it also has distinct features setting it apart. For example, Danish has a suprasegmental feature known as stød which is a kind of laryngeal phonation that is used phonemically. It also exhibits extensive lenition of plosives, which is noticeably more common than in the neighboring languages. Because of that and a few other things, spoken Danish is rather hard to understand for Norwegians and Swedes, although they can easily read it.
|
|
Before a word-final nasal, this rearticulated vowel may be realized as a syllabic quality of said nasal. Also, although not as long as a phonemically long vowel, laryngeal vowels are generally longer than short ones. When absolutely word-final, laryngealized vowels differ from short ones only by the presence of a following glottal stop. Each vowel varies in its phonetic qualities, having contextual allophones as well as phones in free variation with each other: is the short phoneme consisting of phones that are front and close to close-mid.
|
|
Portuguese has seven or eight vowels in stressed syllables (a, ɐ, ɛ, e, i, ɔ, o, u). The vowels a and ɐ, which are not phonemically distinct in all dialects, merge in unstressed syllables. In most cases, unstressed syllables may have one of five vowels (a, e, i, o, u), but there is a sometimes unpredictable tendency for e to merge with i and o to merge with u. For instance some speakers pronounce the first syllable of dezembro ("December") differently from the first syllable of dezoito ("eighteen"), with the latter being more reduced.
|
|
A linguolabial trill is not known to be used phonemically, but occurs when blowing a raspberry. Snoring typically consists of vibration of the uvula and the soft palate (velum), which may be described as an ingressive velic trill.University of Hawaii Working Papers in Linguistics, 1969, Volume 1, Parts 4–6, Page 115.'Velic' is the term in Pike (1948) for velopharyngeal: articulation between the upper surface of the velum and the back wall of the naso-pharynx (Bertil Malmberg & Louise Kaiser, 1968, Manual of phonetics, North-Holland, p.
|
|
The voiced velar affricate is a type of consonantal sound, used in very few spoken languages. The symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represent this sound are and , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is `g_G`. The tie bar may be omitted, yielding in the IPA and `gG` in X-SAMPA. The voiced velar affricate has not been reported to occur phonemically in any language, but it is reported as an allophone of /g/ (usually realized as a voiced velar plosive) in some dialects of English English.
|
|
In the few cases where fricatives do occur, they developed recently through the lenition (weakening) of stops, and are therefore non-sibilants like rather than sibilants like which are common elsewhere in the world. Some languages also have three rhotics, typically a flap, a trill, and an approximant; that is, like the combined rhotics of English and Spanish. Besides the lack of fricatives, the most striking feature of Australian speech sounds is the large number of places of articulation. Nearly every language has four places in the coronal region, either phonemically or allophonically.
|
|
Like Standard Japanese, Hachijō syllables are (C)(j)V(C), that is, with an optional syllable onset, optional medial glide /j/, and an optional coda /N/ or /Q/. The coda /Q/ can only be present word- medially, and the syllable nucleus V can be a short vowel, a long vowel, or a diphthong. The medial glide /j/ represents palatalization of the consonant it follows, which for certain consonants also involves a change in place or manner of articulation. Like in Japanese, these changes can also be analyzed phonemically using separate sets of palatalized and non-palatalized consonants.
|
|
Test of Word Efficiency Second Edition or commonly known as TOWRE - 2 is a kind of reading test developed to test the efficiency of reading ability of children from age 6–24 years. It generally seeks to measure an individual's accuracy and fluency regarding two efficiencies; Sight Word Efficiency (SWE) and Phonemic Decoding Efficiency (PDE). SWE measures ability of pronouncing words that are printed and PDE assesses the quantity of pronouncing phonemically regular non-words. TOWRE - 2 is a very simple test which can be administered by teachers and aides, and it only takes five minutes to complete the procedure.
|
|
For instance, the [] of the word hand is affected by the following nasal consonant. In most languages, vowels adjacent to nasal consonants are produced partially or fully with a lowered velum in a natural process of assimilation and are therefore technically nasal, but few speakers would notice. That is the case in English: vowels preceding nasal consonants are nasalized, but there is no phonemic distinction between nasal and oral vowels (and all vowels are considered phonemically oral). However, the words "huh?" and "uh-huh" are pronounced with a nasal vowel, as is the negative "unh-unh".huh.
|
|
A morphophoneme is a theoretical unit at a deeper level of abstraction than traditional phonemes, and is taken to be a unit from which morphemes are built up. A morphophoneme within a morpheme can be expressed in different ways in different allomorphs of that morpheme (according to morphophonological rules). For example, the English plural morpheme -s appearing in words such as cats and dogs can be considered to be a single morphophoneme, which might be transcribed (for example) or , and which is realized as phonemically after most voiceless consonants (as in cats) and as in other cases (as in dogs).
|
|
Qiyang dialect is quite unusual in that it is reported to have two "double contour" tones, high and low fall–rise–fall, or perhaps high fall – low fall and low fall – high fall: the entering tones yin qu (陰去) (4232) and yang qu (陽去) (2142). However, phonetically the pitch of a syllable depends on the voicing of the initial consonant, so these are phonemically a single tone. Moreover, the final fall of the yin qu tone is "not perceptually relevant", so it may be that 'dipping' (for yin qu) and 'peaking' (for yang qu) are a sufficient categorization.
|
|
However, is the usual form for the relative particle in these two villages, with a variant , where Bakh'a always uses . Among the velar consonants, the traditional voiced pair of has collapsed into , while /ɡ/ still remains a phoneme in some words. The unvoiced velar fricative, , is retained, but its plosive complement , while also remaining a distinct phoneme, has in its traditional positions in Aramaic words started to undergo palatalization. In Bakh'a, the palatalization is hardly apparent; in Maaloula, it is more obvious, and often leads to ; in Jubb'adin, it has become , and has thus merged phonemically with the original positions of .
|
|
Schwa, , is the most common reduced vowel in English. It may be denoted orthographically by any of the vowel letters, as the a in about, the e in synthesis, the o in harmony, the u in medium, the i in decimal and the y in syringe (although the last two are pronounced as a near-close vowel by some speakers – see the following section). In many rhotic dialects, an r-colored schwa, , occurs in words such as water and standard. Non-rhotic dialects simply have schwa in these positions, except where the dialect has linking R. The r-colored schwa can be analyzed phonemically as .
|
|
It is considered a single letter in many Austronesian languages (Māori, Tagalog, Tongan, Gilbertese, Tuvaluan, Indonesian, Chamorro), the Welsh language, and Rheinische Dokumenta, for velar nasal ; and in some African languages (Lingala, Bambara, Wolof) for prenasalized (). :For the development of the pronunciation of this digraph in English, see NG-coalescence and G-dropping. :The Finnish language uses the digraph 'ng' to denote the phonemically long velar nasal in contrast to 'nk' , which is its "strong" form under consonant gradation, a type of lenition. Weakening produces an archiphonemic "velar fricative", which, as a velar fricative does not exist in Standard Finnish, is assimilated to the preceding , producing .
|
|
Proto-Edoid is reconstructed as having a contrast between oral and nasal consonants and oral and nasal vowels typical for the region. However, in some Edoid languages nasal vowels have been reanalyzed as allophones of oral vowels after nasal consonants, and in others nasal consonants have been reanalyzed as allophones of oral consonants before nasal vowels, reducing the number of phonemically nasal consonants. Urhobo retains three nasals, , and has five oral consonants with nasal allophones, ; in Edo this is reduced to one phonemic nasal, , but eight additional consonants with nasal allophones, ; and in Ukue there are no indisputably phonemic nasals and only two consonants with nasal allophones, .
|
|
A serious deficiency of the system is that it does not provide for facial expression, mouthing, eye gaze, and body posture, as Stokoe had not worked out their phonemics in ASL.Kyle & Woll 1988:29 Verbal inflection and non-lexical movement is awkward to notate, and more recent analyses such as those of Ted Supalla have contradicted Stokoe's set of motion phonemes. There is also no provision for representing the relationship between signs in their natural context, which restricts the usefulness of the notation to the lexical or dictionary level. Nonetheless, Stokoe demonstrated for the first time that a sign language can be written phonemically just like any other language.
|
|
All known languages use only a small subset of the many possible sounds that the human speech organs can produce, and, because of allophony, the number of distinct phonemes will generally be smaller than the number of identifiably different sounds. Different languages vary considerably in the number of phonemes they have in their systems (although apparent variation may sometimes result from the different approaches taken by the linguists doing the analysis). The total phonemic inventory in languages varies from as few as 11 in Rotokas and Pirahã to as many as 141 in !Xũ. The number of phonemically distinct vowels can be as low as two, as in Ubykh and Arrernte.
|
|
An approach which attempts to separate these two is provided by Peter Ladefoged, who states that it is possible to describe English with only one degree of stress, as long as unstressed syllables are phonemically distinguished for vowel reduction. In this approach, the distinction between primary and secondary stress is regarded as a phonetic or prosodic detail rather than a phonemic feature – primary stress is seen as an example of the predictable "tonic" stress that falls on the final stressed syllable of a prosodic unit. For more details of this analysis, see Stress and vowel reduction in English. For stress as a prosodic feature (emphasis of particular words within utterances), see below.
|
|
Phoneticians such as Peter Ladefoged have noted that it is possible to describe English with only one degree of stress, as long as unstressed syllables are phonemically distinguished for vowel reduction. According to this view, the posited multiple levels, whether primary–secondary or primary–secondary–tertiary, are mere phonetic detail and not true phonemic stress. They report that often the alleged secondary (or tertiary) stress in English is not characterized by the increase in respiratory activity normally associated with primary stress in English or with all stress in other languages. In their analysis, an English syllable may be either stressed or unstressed, and if unstressed, the vowel may be either full or reduced.
|
|
In Ladefoged's approach, our examples are transcribed phonemically as cóunterintélligence , with two stressed syllables, and cóunterfoil , with one. In citation form, or at the end of a prosodic unit (marked ), extra stress appears from the utterance that is not inherent in the words themselves: cóunterin _tél_ ligence and _cóun_ terfoil . To determine where the actual lexical stress is in a word, one may try pronouncing the word in a phrase, with other words before and after it and without any pauses between them, to eliminate the effects of tonic stress: in the còunterintèlligence commúnity, for example, one can hear secondary (that is, lexical) stress on two syllables of counterintelligence, as the primary (tonic) stress has shifted to community.
|
|
A common phonological process which occurs in rapid speech is vowel contraction, which generally results from the loss of an intervocalic glide. Vowel contraction results in phonetic long vowels (phonemically a sequence of two identical vowels), with falling pitch if the first underlying vowel is stressed, and rising pitch if the second underlying vowel is stressed: kê: (falling tone), "he said that", from ; hǎ:pi (rising tone), "clothing", from . If one of the vowels is nasalized, the resulting long vowel is also nasalized: čhaŋ̌:pi, "sugar", from . When two vowels of unequal height contract, or when feature contrasts exist between the vowels and the glide, two new phonetic vowels, and , result: iyæ̂:, "he left for there", from ; mitȟa:, "it's mine", from .
|
|
These letters have a dual function since they are also used as pure consonants. The Proto-Sinaitic or Proto-Canaanite script and the Ugaritic script were the first scripts with a limited number of signs, in contrast to the other widely used writing systems at the time, Cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Linear B. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script and it contained only about two dozen distinct letters, making it a script simple enough for common traders to learn. Another advantage of Phoenician was that it could be used to write down many different languages, since it recorded words phonemically. Illustration from Acta Eruditorum, 1741 The script was spread by the Phoenicians across the Mediterranean.
|
|
Ubykh, or Ubyx, is an extinct Northwest Caucasian language once spoken by the Ubykh people (who originally lived along the eastern coast of the Black Sea before migrating en masse to Turkey in the 1860s). The Ubykh language was ergative and polysynthetic, with a high degree of agglutination, with polypersonal verbal agreement and a very large number of distinct consonants but only two phonemically distinct vowels. With around eighty consonants, it had one of the largest inventories of consonants in the world,Charles King, The Ghost of Freedom (2008) p 15 the largest number for any language without clicks. The name Ubykh is derived from (), its name in the Abdzakh Adyghe language.
|
|
English-speakers are able to hear the difference between, for example, "great ape" and "grey tape", but phonemically, the two phrases are identical: .O'Connor, J.D and Tooley, O. (1964) "The perceptibility of certain word-boundaries" in Abercrombie, D. et al In Honour of Daniel Jones, Longman, pp. 171-176 The difference between the two phrases, which constitute a minimal pair, is said to be one of juncture. At the word boundary, a "plus juncture" /+/ has been posited and said to be the factor conditioning allophones to allow distinctivity: in this example, the phrase "great ape" has an diphthong shortened by pre-fortis clipping and, since it is not syllable-initial, a with little aspiration (variously , , , , etc.
|
|
The main differences in language are between generations, with youth language being particularly innovative. Danish has a very large vowel inventory consisting of 27 phonemically distinctive vowels, and its prosody is characterized by the distinctive phenomenon stød, a kind of laryngeal phonation type. Due to the many pronunciation differences that set apart Danish from its neighboring languages, particularly the vowels, difficult prosody and "weakly" pronounced consonants, it is sometimes considered to be a "difficult language to learn, acquire and understand", and some evidence shows that children are slower to acquire the phonological distinctions of Danish compared to other languages. The grammar is moderately inflective with strong (irregular) and weak (regular) conjugations and inflections.
|
|
German script and German-influenced orthography The old orthography was based on that of German and did not represent the Latvian language phonemically. At the beginning it was used to write religious texts for German priests to help them in their work with Latvians. The first writings in Latvian were chaotic: there were as many as twelve variations of writing Š. In 1631 the German priest Georg Mancelius tried to systematize the writing. He wrote long vowels according to their position in the word — a short vowel followed by h for a radical vowel, a short vowel in the suffix and vowel with a diacritic mark in the ending indicating two different accents.
|
|
In General and Broad, this vowel is split between a more front realisation ( in General, in Broad) and a more central realisation ( in General, or in Broad). More front variants are used in contact with velar and palatal consonants, whereas more central realisations are used in other environments (and therefore are more common), with an even more retracted being possible before the velarised allophone of , so that pill (phonemically ) can be realised as , close to pull . The Cultivated variety lacks this split, and uses a lax front in every position. John Wells analyses the front variants as and the central variants as , which makes one of the stressable vowels in South African English.
|
|
Schanidse (1982:26) lists a number of words which are written with Ⴅ 〈v〉 instead of the expected ႭჃ 〈oü〉. This seems to be an orthographical convention, as in all cited examples w is followed by a vowel and l (ႠႣႥႨႪႨ 〈advili〉 adwili "easy", ႷႥႤႪႨ 〈q’veli〉 q’weli "cheese", etc.), with just one exception (ႰႥႠ 〈rva〉 rwa "eight"). Romanized transcriptions of Old georgian conventionally reflect the different spellings of w, for example chwen, gwrit’i, tovli, veli. ;Semivowel y The initial vowel i- of a case suffix is realized as y- after a vowel, and this allophonic y has its own letter in the alphabet, for example ႣႤႣႠჂ ႨႤႱႭჃჂႱႠ 〈deday iesoüysa〉 deda-y iesu-ysa , phonemically /deda-i iesu-isa/ (mother-NOM Jesus-GEN) "the mother of Jesus".
|
|
Of Uralic languages, Estonian (and transcriptions to Finnish) use Š/š and Ž/ž, and Karelian and some Sami languages use Č/č, Š/š and Ž/ž. Dž is not a separate letter. (Skolt Sami has more: see below.) Č is present because it may be phonemically geminate: in Karelian, the phoneme 'čč' is found, and is distinct from 'č', which is not the case in Finnish or Estonian, for which only one length is recognized for 'tš'. (Incidentally, in transcriptions, Finnish orthography has to employ complicated notations like mettšä or even the mettshä to express Karelian meččä.) On some Finnish keyboards, it is possible to write those letters by typing s or z while holding right Alt key or AltGr key.
|
|
The Elbasan alphabet exhibited a nearly one-to-one correspondence between sounds and letters, with only three exceptions, of which two were restricted to Greek loanwords. The modern Albanian alphabet, based on Latin, is phonemically regular for the standard pronunciation but it is not one-to-one because of the use of ten consonant digraphs. Dots are used on three characters as inherent features to indicate varied pronunciation found in Albanian: single r represents the alveolar tap but with a dot it becomes an alveolar trill , whereas a dotted l becomes velarized and a dotted d becomes prenasalized into nd. (Today this nd has become a sequence of two separate phonemes; Modern Greek has undergone somewhat similar development.) Elsie says that the script generally uses Greek letters with a line on top as numerals.
|
|
There is some confusion as to the nature of murmured phonation. The IPA and authors such as Peter Ladefoged equate phonemically contrastive murmur with breathy voice in which the vocal folds are held with lower tension (and further apart) than in modal voice, with a concomitant increase in airflow and slower vibration of the glottis. In that model, murmur is a point in a continuum of glottal aperture between modal voice and breath phonation (voicelessness). Others, such as Laver, Catford, Trask and the authors of the Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS), equate murmur with whispery voice in which the vocal folds or, at least, the anterior part of the vocal folds vibrates, as in modal voice, but the arytenoid cartilages are held apart to allow a large turbulent airflow between them.
|
|
The character version of General Chinese uses distinct characters for any traditional characters that are distinguished phonemically in any of the control varieties of Chinese, which consist of several dialects of Mandarin, Wu, Min, Hakka, and Yue. That is, a single syllabic character will correspond to more than one logographic character only when these are homonyms in all control dialects. In effect, General Chinese is a syllabic reconstruction of the pronunciation of Middle Chinese, less distinctions which have been dropped nearly everywhere. The result is a syllabary of 2082 syllables, about 80% of which are single morphemes—that is, in 80% of cases there is no difference between GC and standard written Chinese, and in running text, that figure rises to 90–95%, as the most common morphemes tend to be uniquely identified.
|
|
With a few exceptions for sentence particles は, を, and へ (normally ha, wo, and he, but instead pronounced as wa, o, and e, respectively), and a few other arbitrary rules, Japanese, when written in kana, is phonemically orthographic, i.e. there is a one-to-one correspondence between kana characters and sounds, leaving only words' pitch accent unrepresented. This has not always been the case: a previous system of spelling, now referred to as historical kana usage, differed substantially from pronunciation; the three above-mentioned exceptions in modern usage are the legacy of that system. There are two hiragana pronounced ji (じ and ぢ) and two hiragana pronounced zu (ず and づ), but to distinguish them, particularly when typing Japanese, sometimes ぢ is written as di and づ is written as du.
|
|
An example from the history of English is the lengthening of vowels that happened when the voiceless velar fricative and its palatal allophone were lost from the language. For example, in the Middle English of Chaucer's time the word night was phonemically ; later the was lost, but the was lengthened to to compensate, causing the word to be pronounced . (Later the became by the Great Vowel Shift.) Both the Germanic spirant law and the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law show vowel lengthening compensating for the loss of a nasal. Non-rhotic forms of English have a lengthened vowel before a historical post-vocalic : in Scottish English, girl has a short followed by a light alveolar , as presumably it did in Middle English; in Southern British English, the has dropped out of the spoken form and the vowel has become a "long schwa" .
|
|
It seems likely that in the distant past, Vietnamese shared more characteristics common to other languages in the Austroasiatic family, such as an inflectional morphology and a richer set of consonant clusters, which have subsequently disappeared from the language. However, Vietnamese appears to have been heavily influenced by its location in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, with the result that it has acquired or converged toward characteristics such as isolating morphology and phonemically distinctive tones, through processes of tonogenesis. These characteristics have become part of many of the genetically unrelated languages of Southeast Asia; for example, Tsat (a member of the Malayo- Polynesian group within Austronesian), and Vietnamese each developed tones as a phonemic feature. The ancestor of the Vietnamese language is usually believed to have been originally based in the area of the Red River Delta in what is now northern Vietnam.
|
|
In English, for example, the words bat and pat form a minimal pair, in which the distinction between and differentiates the two words, which have different meanings. However, each language contrasts sounds in different ways. For example, in a language that does not distinguish between voiced and unvoiced consonants, the sounds and (if they both occur) could be considered a single phoneme, and consequently, the two pronunciations would have the same meaning. Similarly, the English language does not distinguish phonemically between aspirated and non-aspirated pronunciations of consonants, as many other languages like Korean and Hindi do: the unaspirated in spin and the aspirated in pin are considered to be merely different ways of pronouncing the same phoneme (such variants of a single phoneme are called allophones), whereas in Mandarin Chinese, the same difference in pronunciation distinguishes between the words 'crouch' and 'eight' (the accent above the á means that the vowel is pronounced with a high tone).
|
|
Cremonese (Cremunés) is a dialect of Western Lombard language group spoken in the city and province of Cremona in Lombardy, Italy (with the exception of Crema and the area of Soresina, where an Eastern Lombard dialect is spoken, and the area of Casalmaggiore, where is spoken Emiliano-Romagnolo). Being at the crossroad between the core areas of different Lombard varieties, it shows some elements of both Western Lombard and Eastern Lombard and a few which are typical of dialects spoken in the nearby region of Emilia-Romagna, it is best classified as belonging to the Southwestern Lombard group of dialects. Vowels The Cremonese dialect of the Lombard language shows 9 vowel qualities, which can be either long or short phonemically, without any difference in quality. The following 18 phonemes all occur in stressed environments: /i/ /iː/ /y/ /yː/ /e/ /eː/ /ø/ /øː/ /ɛ/ /ɛː/ /a/ /aː/ /ɔ/ /ɔː/ /o/ /oː/ /u/ /uː/.
|
|
Due to budget constraints, producers of student films and stage plays, showcase theater and slimly financed independent films and web series may avoid hiring a dialect coach, and instead substitute the services of a low-paid or volunteer native speaker model in hopes that the actors will be able to learn mimetically, retain the accent and act in it without expert guidance or monitoring. In some such cases, cast members may themselves pay a coach, sometimes in consultation with the director, though employing crew is not normally regarded as a cast member's responsibility. In other cases, actors may attempt to self-study the dialect using commercially available training materials or web-based voice archives which host native-speaker recordings of oral histories or interviews or other scripted speech. The majority of such archives also provide native-speaker recordings of phonemically balanced narrative passages, especially Comma Gets a Cure, which is structured around the lexical sets of English and other phonological patterns of potential interest to the student of dialect.
|
|