133 Sentences With "parasitise" | Random Sentence Generator

X. peckii is a member of the Strepsiptera, a group of insects that parasitise other insects.

One feature shared by cuckoos, cowbirds and honeyguides is that the shells of their eggs are all thicker than those of the birds they parasitise—sometimes by as much as 30%.

Temperate migratory species like the common cuckoo inhabit a wide range of habitats in order to make maximum use of the potential brood hosts, from reed beds (where they parasitise reed warblers) to treeless moors (where they parasitise meadow pipits).

Townes (1969, 1971), Townes & Townes (1978), Wahl (1999) All banchines are koinobiont endoparasites of Lepidoptera. The Glyptini parasitise Tortricoidea. Atrophini parasitise a wider range of small moths. Species of Lissonota have long ovipositors able to reach deep wood-boring Lepidoptera such as Cossidae.

Two species of the louse suborder Mallophaga, Plegadiphilus eudocimus and Ardeicola robusta, also parasitise the bird.

Other species of isopod known to parasitise fish in this way include Cymothoa borbonica and Ceratothoa imbricata.

Meromenopon is a genus of chewing lice which parasitise birds. The species Meromenopon meropsis is a parasite of bee-eaters.

Leptomonas moramango is a species of monoxenous trypanosomatid. It is known to parasitise Brachycera flies, and was first found in Madagascar.

Crithidia otongatchiensis is a species of monoxenous trypanosomatid. It is known to parasitise Brachycera flies, and was first found in Ecuador.

Crithidia pragensis is a species of monoxenous trypanosomatid. It is known to parasitise Brachycera flies, and was first found in the Czech Republic.

A small number of these fungi are also able to parasitise humans and animals, including species able to colonise human hair shafts (Piedraia hortae).

Cape sparrows are among the main hosts of brood parasitism by the dideric cuckoo in southern Africa, and sometimes parasitise nests of their own species.

Vandelliines usually parasitise ostariophysan fishes such as pimelodids, doradids, and characins. The eyes of Vandelliinae species are relatively large among catfishes, indicating sight may be important in prey detection.

Ceratothoa steindachneri is an ectoparasite known as 'tongue biters'. They parasitise fish in which it attaches to the tongue, causing atrophy. It then sits in the place of the tongue.

Potamotrygonocotyle is a genus of monogeneans that parasitise stingrays of the genus Potamotrygon. From 1981 the genus contained only one member, P. tsalickisi, until four new species were described in 2007.

Slugs are parasitised by several organisms, including acari and a wide variety of nematodes. The slug mite, Riccardoella limacum, is known to parasitise several dozen species of mollusks, including many slugs, such as Agriolimax agrestis, Arianta arbustrum, Arion ater, Arion hortensis, Limax maximus, Milax budapestensis, Milax gagates, and Milax sowerbyi. R. limacum can often be seen swarming about their host's body, and live in its respiratory cavity. Several species of nematodes are known to parasitise slugs.

Nosema is a genus of microsporidian parasites. The genus, circumscribed by Swiss botanist Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli in 1857, contains 81 species. Most parasitise insects and other arthropods, and the best-known Nosema species parasitise honeybees, where they are considered a significant disease by beekeepers, often causing a colony to fail to thrive in the spring as they come out of their overwintering period. Eight species parasitize digeneans, a group of parasitic flatworms, and thus are hyperparasites, i.e.

Terranova is a genus of parasitic nematodes. Species from this genus are known to parasitise sharks, rays, sawfishes, teleosts and crocodilians.Sprent, J.F.A. (1992) "Parasites lost?" International Journal for Parasitology 22(2): 139-151.

Cowbirds sometimes parasitise the nest. Pied water tyrants often bob up and down when perched, and have a fluttering “butterfly” display flight. They forage for insects, their staple diet, in low waterside vegetation.

Once attached to a host, the broomrape robs its host of water and nutrients. Some species are only able to parasitise a single plant species, such as ivy broomrape Orobanche hederae, which is restricted to parasitising ivy; these species are often named after the plant they parasitise. Others can infect several genera, such as the lesser broomrape O. minor, which lives on clover and other related Fabaceae. Branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa), native to central and southwestern Europe but widely naturalised elsewhere, is considered a major threat to crops in some areas.

Its reproductive cycle is typical of other freshwater mussels, requiring a host fish on which its larvae (glochidia) parasitise and metamorphose into juvenile mussels – most commonly the kōaro (Galaxias brevipinnis)."Kākāhi - the mysterious freshwater mussel", Greater Wellington Regional Council.

However, the symbiosis is not mutualistic in all circumstances and may often be parasitic, with a detrimental effect on plant growth. Rarely, some plant species can parasitise the fungi. Spores of Glomus prior to germinating produce an electric current.

The species in this subfamily are cylindroid in shape with a mucron at the anterior end. The trophozoites are solitary. Syzygy occurs late in the life cycle. They parasitise the coelom of earthworms and are spread by the orofaecal route.

According to Emery's rule, social parasites, especially among insects, tend to parasitise species or genera to which they are closely related. For example, the social wasp Dolichovespula adulterina parasitises other members of its genus such as D. norwegica and D. arenaria.

Unlike other honeyguides they do not feed on beeswax. They help in the pollination of plants like Strelitzia, Callistemon (bottle brush), Bombax, Butea monosperma and coral trees (see: ornithophily). They parasitise nests of cisticolas, sunbirds and other dome-nesting bird species.

In New Zealand, Deretrema philippae (=Limnoderetrema minutum) is known to parasitise the intestine (and possibly gall bladder) of the common galaxias. Similarly, the intestinal parasite Steganoderma szidati has been reported from this species' Argentinian population. These are digenean flatworms.(Etchegoin et al. 2002).

Parvilucifera is a genus of marine alveolates that parasitise dinoflagellates. Parvilucifera is a parasitic genus described in 1999 by Norén et al. It is classified perkinsozoa in the supraphylum of Alveolates. This taxon serves as a sister taxon to the dinoflagellates and apicomplexans.

Dendropemon is a genus of hemi-parasitic mistletoes which parasitise trees and shrubs. Plants are "moderate" sized with simple, opposite leaves and stems that are generally rounded or square, but are occasionally winged. Epicortical roots are present in most, if not all species.Kuijt (2011) pp.

Peronosporaceae are a family of water moulds that contains 21 genera, comprising more than 600 species. Most of them are called downy mildews. Peronosporaceae are obligate biotrophic plant pathogens. They parasitise their host plants as an intercellular mycelium using haustoria to penetrate the host cells.

Both sexes incubate the typical clutch of two or three creamy-white eggs, which are marked with a few brown spots. Cowbirds often parasitise the nest. This bird is not considered threatened by the IUCN. Local populations may disappear however due to declining habitat quality.

The main host of this species in Europe is D. saxonica but it will also parasitise D. norwegica. This species produces no workers, the eggs laid in the host's nest produce queens and males which are nurtured by the workers of the host species.

Skrjabinema is a genus of nematodesChemical Institute of Canada. 1934 within the Oxyuridae family. Species of this genus typically parasitise ruminants. For example the nematode Skrjabinema ovis invades the intestinal tract of the guanaco, Lama guanicoe, subsequent to the ingestion of eggs of this worm.

Sometine hyperparasitism is shown, with the species in the genus Eutetrastichus (now synonymised with Baryscapus) in particular being hyperparasites, and hyperparasitism may be obligate but it can also occur opportunistically in response to circumstance. Some species are highly host specific while other species appear to be able to vary their hosts, this may be due to otherwise cryptic taxa which have not yet been identifies or described. The most common hosts are insects but arachnids are also hosts for some taxa. Some of the groups within the Tetrastchinae all share similar hosts, such as the genus Tamarixia which parasitise Psylloidea while the majority of the species in Aprostocetus solely parasitise Cecidomyiidae.

Tamarixia is a genus of hymenopteran insects of the family Eulophidae, they are parasitoids of Jumping plant lice or psyllids of the superfamily Psylloidea, although some species will parasitise aphids. Most species appear to be ectoparasitoids but at least one species has been recorded as an endoparasitoid.

These eggs hatch in autumn, but the spiderlings overwinter in the sac and emerge during the spring. The egg sac is composed of multiple layers of silk and protects its contents from damage; however, many species of insects have been observed to parasitise the egg sacs.

Wallaceina raviniae is a species of monoxenous trypanosomatid. It is known to parasitise Brachycera flies, and was first found in Ecuador. Comparison and phylogenetic analysis of 18S ribosomal RNA and glycosomal glyceraldehyde-3-phosphatedehydrogenase sequences of trypanosomatid taxa suggest Wallaceina raviniae be reassigned to the newly proposed genus Wallacemonas.

Mites, however commonly parasitise this species and are found on the anterior part of the two sections that the spider in divided into (cephalothorax). Several species of Cantuaria have been found carrying the parasite nematode species Aranimermis giganteus in the abdomen, C. dendyi may also carry this parasitic nematode.

Skrjabinema ovis is a nematode species of the genus SkrjabinemaChemical Institute of Canada. 1934 within the Oxyuridae family. This species typically parasitise ruminants. As an example of paratisation, Skrjabinema ovis is known to invade the intestinal tract of the Guanaco, Lama guanacoe, after ingestion of eggs of this worm.

Acarophenacidae is a family of mites in the order Trombidiformes that parasitise beetles or thrips. It contains six genera and around 30 species. They have a reduced life cycle, in which the larvae complete their development within their mother; the entire life cycle can take only 4–5 days.

Female Sphecodes gibbus can be found between April and September; early season females search for nests of their host species to parasitise, while late season females search for mates and subsequently for an overwintering site. The males are in flight from July to September. The females are cleptoparasites on larger bees of the genera Halictus and Lasioglossum, entering the hosts' nests when the cells are completed, consuming the host egg and laying its own, with the new generation emerging in late summer to mate and overwinter. It has been confirmed as using Halictus quadricinctus, H. rubicundus, H. sexcintus, H. simplex and H. maculatus as hosts, while it is also likely to parasitise Lasioglossum malachurum.

Both sexes incubate during the day, but only the female at night. The male feeds the female, but holds the prey items while the female tears off pieces. Lesser honeyguides and greater honeyguides parasitise up to a quarter of nests. This species is usually monogamous, but polyandry has been recorded.

Calliobothrium is a genus of cestodes in the order Tetraphyllidea. Most, or possibly all, of the known species are parasites found within the intestines of members of the shark family Triakidae. It is known that in some instances at least two different species of Calliobothrium can parasitise the same species of shark.

The pyralid moth Chalcoela has been used in biological control of the wasp Polistes in the Galapagos Islands. Parasitism is rare in the Trichoptera (caddisflies), but it is found among the Hydroptilidae (purse-case caddisflies), probably including all 10 species in the Orthotrichia aberrans group; they parasitise the pupae of other trichopterans.

The eggs hatch and the larvae parasitise the flowers in which they were laid. After four to seven weeks (in F. aurea), adult wasps emerge. Males emerge first, mate with the females, and cut exit holes through the walls of the fig. The male flowers mature around the same time as the female wasps emerge.

Female wasps generally lay their eggs in the short-styled flowers, while longer- styled flowers were more likely to be pollinated. The eggs hatch and the larvae parasitise the flowers in which they were laid. Pollinated flowers which have not been parasitised give rise to seeds. Male wasps mature and emerge before the females.

Menacanthus is a genus of chewing lice which parasitise birds. The taxonomy of this genus is highly uncertain. Most taxonomies have given this genus as having over a hundred species, but recent studies have synonymised dozens of species and found other names to be invalid. Some Menacanthus species remain to be discovered, or are synonymised in error.

The adult female mites are mostly parasitic on insects. Their host range includes many holometabolous insects such as honeybees, bark-boring beetles, moths and stored product pests. They parasitise various development stages of their host species but mostly it is the larvae which are attacked. They pierce the host with their chelicerae and suck out the haemolymph.

The five marine species of nematomorph are contained in Nectonematoida.Pechenik, 'Biology of the Invertebrates, 2010, pg 457. Adults are planktonic and the larvae parasitise decapod crustaceans, especially crabs. They are characterized by a double row of natotory setae along each side of the body, dorsal and ventral longitudinal epidermal cords, a spacious and fluid-filled blastocoelom and singular gonads.

Mammomonogamus is a genus of parasitic nematodes of the family Syngamidae that parasitise the respiratory tracts of cattle, sheep, goats, deer, cats, orangutans, and elephants. The nematodes can also infect humans and cause the disease called mammomonogamiasis.Anderson RC, Chabaud AG, Willmott S. CIH keys to the nematode parasites of vertebrates, no 7. Keys to genera of superfamily Strongyloidea.

These smaller species are known for an alleged tendency to invade and parasitise the human urethra; however, despite ethnological reports dating back to the late 19th century, the first documented case of the removal of a candiru from a human urethra did not occur until 1997, and even that incident has remained a matter of controversy.

Homalometron pallidum can parasitise mummichogs, pictured Homalometron pallidum has a complex life cycle involving several host species. The adult worm lives in the gut of a small fish, the mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus). Eggs are ejected from the host fish in its faeces and are ingested by a small aquatic snail, Hydrobia minuta. This acts as a secondary host.

D. sylvestris is also affected by parasites that influence the individual. These include both fungi and roundworms. In particular, the fungus Paecilomyces farinosus and the mermithid roundworm, Pheromermis pachysoma are known to parasitise the tree wasp. P. farinosus most often infects wasps and nests after death and therefore does not majorly influence the health of the colony.

Dolichovespula adulterina is a species of parasitic social wasp. D. adulterina lives in the Palearctic and Nearctic regions but parasitise different host species depending on which region it inhabits. D. adulterina feeds on a variety of foods including insects, spiders, arthropods, meat, molluscs, fruit, nectar and larval secretions. D. adulterina is synonymous with D. arctica from the Palearctic region.

The larvae of some Mantispidae, subfamily Symphrasinae, are parasitoids of other arthropods including bees and wasps. Although nearly all Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are herbivorous, a few species are parasitic. The larvae of Epipyropidae feed on Homoptera such as leafhoppers and cicadas, and sometimes on other Lepidoptera. The larvae of Cyclotornidae parasitise first Homoptera and later ant brood.

Five specimens were examined, all female, and all but one adults. The specific epithet ' is from the Latin meaning "full of mounds", referring to the surface texture of the animal's back. N. tumulosa is the only species in the genus to parasitise animals other than clawed lobsters of the family Nephropidae (Homarus gammarus and species of Metanephrops).

They are then coughed up and swallowed into the gut, where they parasitise the intestinal mucosa of the duodenum and jejunum. In the small intestine, they molt twice and become adult female worms. The females live threaded in the epithelium of the small intestine and, by parthenogenesis, produce eggs, which yield rhabditiform larvae. Only females will reach reproductive adulthood in the intestine.

The approximately 320 remaining species are distributed between two families, comprising seven genera, within order Gordioida. Gordioidean adults are free-living in freshwater or semiterrestrial habitats and larvae parasitise insects, primarily orthopterans. Unlike nectonematiodeans, gordioideans lack lateral rows of setae, have a single, ventral epidermal cord and their blastocoels are filled with mesenchyme in young animals but become spacious in older individuals.

T. pretiosum is the most widely distributed species in North America. It is a more generalized parasitoid, able to parasitise a range of different species. It has been the focus of many research studies and has been successfully reared on 18 genera of Lepidoptera. T. pretiosum was introduced into Australia in the 1970s as part of the Ord River Irrigation Area IPM scheme.

Different lineages cultivate fungi on different substrates, those that evolved earlier do so on a wide range of plant matter, whereas leaf cutter ants are more selective, mainly using only fresh leaves and flowers. The fungi are members of the families Lepiotaceae and Pterulaceae. Other fungi in the genus Escovopsis parasitise the gardens and antibiotic-producing bacteria also inhabit the gardens.

As well as providing food and protection to the wasp larvae, the galls provide shelter for several inquiline species of gall wasp including Synergus gallaepomiformis and Synergus umbraculus. These share the tissues that provide food for the wasp larvae. About twenty other species of gall wasps are hyperparasites and live inside the gall and parasitise the rightful owners, the Biorhiza pallida larvae.

Citellina is a genus of nematodes within the Oxyuridae family. Species of this genus typically parasitise marmots and ground squirrels of holarctic distribution. It was initially defined by Prendel in 1928, with the type species Citellina dispar Citellina triradiata has been recovered from the Spotted Ground Squirrel (Xerospermophilus spilosoma), and Citellina undulata is described from the Long-tailed Ground Squirrel (Urocitellus undulatus).

Vidua orientalis has often been considered a subspecies of eastern paradise whydah, Vidua paradisea, since both birds parasitise the green-winged pytilia, Pytilia melba, a common species of estrildid finch. However, the finch has two subspecies, nominate melba and citerior, which are sometimes treated as separate species. The ranges of these two taxa correspond well to those of V.paradisea and V. orientalis.

Lathrolestes luteolator is a species of wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. it is native to North America and is a parasitoid of various species of sawfly larvae. In the 1990s, it started to parasitise the larvae of the invasive amber-marked birch leaf miner in Alberta. When this pest spread to Alaska, the wasp was used in biological pest control.

Flying insects that parasitise common starlings include the louse-fly Omithomya nigricornis and the saprophagous fly Camus hemapterus. The latter species breaks off the feathers of its host and lives on the fats produced by growing plumage.Rothschild & Clay (1953) p. 222. Larvae of the moth Hofmannophila pseudospretella are nest scavengers, which feed on animal material such as faeces or dead nestlings.

Other arthropods may make use of the antlion larva's ability to trap prey. The larva of the Australian horsefly (Scaptia muscula) lives in antlion (for example Myrmeleon pictifrons) pit traps and feeds on the prey caught, and the female chalcid wasp (Lasiochalcidia igiliensis) purposefully allows itself to be trapped so that it can parasitise the antlion larva by ovipositing between its head and thorax.

Crithidia is a genus of trypanosomatid Euglenozoa. They are parasites that exclusively parasitise arthropods, mainly insects. They pass from host to host as cysts in infective faeces and typically, the parasites develop in the digestive tracts of insects and interact with the intestinal epithelium using their flagellum. They display very low host-specificity and a single parasite can infect a large range of invertebrate hosts.

In South Africa the breeding season is September to December. Red-chested cuckoos will parasitise the nests of white-starred robins. White-starred robins are territorial breeders, with the territories varying in size from 0.5 to 0.75 ha. The nest is unusual for the family in that it is a domed construction, built out of dead leaves, rootlets, moss and tendrils, and lined with leaf skeletons and fine plant material.

The praniza is usually a replete, haematophagous phase while the zuphea is an unfed benthic dweller phase. Adults can be found in groups with a single male and up to 43 females and immature specimens. The free-living adults do not feed and are usually hidden in a cavity or sponge where reproduction will occur. The larvae of gnathiid isopods are known to parasitise a large variety of intertidal fish worldwide.

The host remains alive until the parasitoid larvae pupate or emerge as adults. The Ichneumonidae are specialized parasitoids, often of Lepidoptera larvae deeply buried in plant tissues, which may be woody. For this purpose, they have exceptionally long ovipositors; they detect their hosts by smell and vibration. Some of the largest species, including Rhyssa persuasoria and Megarhyssa macrurus, parasitise horntails, large sawflies whose adult females also have impressively long ovipositors.

Some wasps are kleptoparasites. They may open the nests of other A. urnaria wasps, remove their eggs and lay their own on the caterpillars stored there. Some have also been observed to parasitise the nest burrows of other species of wasp, Ammophila kennedyi and Podalonia robusta. George and Elizabeth Peckham were American ethologists and entomologists and described in 1898 how they watched a female A. urnaria wasp provisioning her burrow.

This difference may be as little as 50 billionths of a second, but it is enough to allow the fly to home in directly on a singing male cricket and parasitise it.Piper, Ross (2007), Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals, Greenwood Press. Simpler structures allow other arthropods to detect near-field sounds. Spiders and cockroaches, for example, have hairs on their legs which are used for detecting sound.

Members of the tribe Orthognatheliini (sometimes, incorrectly, called Groteini) parasitize solitary bees; Labium wasps are known to parasitise ground-nesting, solitary bees, while Grotea are known parasitoids of cavity- nesting, solitary bees. Species of Poecilocryptus are thought to be phytophagous, due to adaptations of the larval head capsule. However, as with much of the Ichneumonidae, knowledge of many labenine species' ecology, biology, and evolution is extremely limited or completely lacking.

Ormia depleta has been used for biological pest control of mole crickets in Florida. The mole crickets make shallow burrows in pastures, golf courses and lawns and do considerable damage to the turf. During the period 1987 to 1992, researchers from the University of Florida released adult Ormia depleta. The flies can travel considerable distances while looking for mole crickets to parasitise, so a large number of flies is not needed.

No doubt their lack of a persistent root system dooms any Cassytha plants whose hosts supply insufficient water and mineral nutrients. The effects of Cassytha on host plants varies. They are not very selective and they parasitise hosts from many plant families, often overwhelming a host so drastically as to kill it. Even when host plants survive, a heavy infestation commonly causes drastic reduction in vigour and reproductive capacity.

T C Jerdon noted that it may not always evict the host and that young birds may be seen along with young babblers. When moving with a flock of babblers the chick makes a grating kee-kee call to beg for food and the foster parents within the group may feed it. The predominant host species in India are Turdoides striatus and Turdoides affinis. Hawk-cuckoos also parasitise the large grey babbler Turdoides malcolmi.

The black house spider (Badumna insignis), the cellar spider (Pholcus phalangioides) and the giant daddy-long-legs spider (Artema atlanta) are known to prey on the redback spider, and redbacks are often absent if these species are present in significant numbers. Agenioideus nigricornis, a spider wasp, is a parasitoid of the adult redback. Other wasps of the families Eurytomidae and Ichneumonidae parasitise redback eggs, and mantid lacewings (Neuroptera and Mantispidae) prey on redback eggs.

The female starts to breed after feeding on haemolymph. The eggs are retained inside the opisthosoma (body) behind the two rear pairs of legs, and this part of the body becomes grossly swollen while the larvae complete their development inside. The males emerge first and feed by puncturing their mother's opisthosoma. They copulate with the new-borne females when they emerge; this stimulates the females to crawl away and find new hosts to parasitise.

Polyergus mexicanus is a species of slave-making ant in the subfamily Formicinae. It is the most widely distributed species of Polyergus in North America. It is an obligatory social parasite, unable to feed itself or look after the colony and reliant on ants of another species, Formica, to undertake these tasks. The parasitic ants are known as "dulotics" (from the Greek δοῦλος doulos, meaning a slave) and the ants they parasitise are the "hosts".

Female adults then require a further blood meal of up to ten days before dropping off to lay up to 3000 eggs in leaf litter. Male adults will search for females on the host for mating, and to parasitise the females for blood meals. This life cycle takes around a year to complete (average 365 days, minimum 135 days, maximum 437 days). Larvae have 3 pairs of legs and the nymphs and adults 4 pairs.

The Echinostomida are members of the class Trematoda, the flukes. The fluke differs from most species that parasitise large mammals, in that they inhabit the gut rather than the liver as Fasciola species do. Fasciolopsis buski generally occupies the upper region of the small intestine, but in heavy infestations can also be found in the stomach and lower regions of the intestine. Fasciolopsis buski is the cause of the pathological condition fasciolopsiasis.

Polyergus lucidus is a species of slave-making ant in the subfamily Formicinae endemic to the eastern United States. It is an obligatory social parasite, unable to feed itself or look after its brood and reliant on ants of another species of the genus Formica to undertake these tasks. Parasitic ants are known as "dulotics" (from the Greek δοῦλος doulos, meaning a slave) and the ants they parasitise are known as "hosts".

Various species of Ergasilidae parasitise hosts in various habitats, mostly freshwater, but some attack marine species, especially euryhaline fishes such as mullet. Because the best-known species are adapted to attack the gill filaments of the fishes, Ergasilidae are known by common names such as gill lice. However, some species have been found infesting, and presumably causing, external skin lesions of fish. Immature instars and mature males of Ergasilidae are fairly typical free-living planktonic copepods.

Lichens growing on leaves may have the appearance of being parasites on the leaves, but they are not. However, some lichens, notably those of the genus Diploschistes are known to parasitise other lichens. Diploschistes muscorum starts its development in the tissue of a host Cladonia species. In the arctic tundra, lichens, together with mosses and liverworts, make up the majority of the ground cover, which helps insulate the ground and may provide forage for grazing animals.

An Apanteles species has been found to parasitise the caterpillars in cane fields in Central Java, Indonesia, and another perhaps in the Philippines. An Elasmus species has been found on caterpillars in cane fields in Taiwan (1934) and Indonesia (pre-1953). Macrocentrus jacobsoni and Shirakia yokohamensis have been found on caterpillars in cane fields in Taiwan (pre-1953). Two relatively recent studies found Cotesia flavipes as a parasitoid of the caterpillars in respectively the Philippines and Thailand.

Baeoentedon balios is a parasitoid of whitefly, specifically ficus whiteflies. The type specimen was reared from Pealius spina which had been collected on Ficus religiosa. These wasps develop through six distinct stages from the egg through three larval instars, a pupa like stage and an imago and this takes 19–24 days at room temperature. They are able to parasitise whitefly nymphs in the first, second and third instars but they appear to prefer the second instar.

An Asian koel being fed by a black- collared starling. In Bangladesh, they parasitise long-tailed shrike (Lanius schach), common myna (Acridotheres tristis) and house crows (Corvus splendens) at about 35.7, 31.2 and 10.8% rates respectively. Host nests at low heights and nearer to fruit trees tended to be preferred by koels. In southern Thailand and the Malay Peninsula, koels have shifted host from crows to mynas (Acridotheres sp.) as the latter became more common in the late 1900s.

Filarioidea all are specialised parasites and the definitive host is always a vertebrate, a mammal, bird, reptile or amphibian, but not a fish. The intermediate host is always an arthropod. Most of Filarioidea parasitise wild species, birds in particular, but some, especially in the family Onchocercidae, attack mammals, including humans and some domestic animals. Conditions that result from parasitism by Onchocercidae include some of the most troublesome diseases of the warmer regions, including river blindness and elephantiasis.

The 260 species of hyperiid amphipods are large-eyed and planktonic amphipods, whereas gammarid amphipods have smaller eyes and tend to live on the sea floor. The handful of species of the genus Themisto are the most abundant of all amphipods. Unlike other hyperiids, which parasitise gelatinous animals such as salps and jellyfish, Themisto swims free in the plankton, and is much sleeker and more streamlined than other amphipods. Themisto often forms dense swarms, similar to krill swarms.

The larvae primarily parasitise the nests of solitary bees, although they have been recorded in a colony of social bees in Poland. After fertilized eggs have been laid, the first instar larvae hatch after 24 hours. The larvae climb to the top of a nearby blade of grass or a flower and remain immobile until they are able to attach to a passing bee with their mouthparts. The larvae puncture the bee's intersegmental membrances to feed on the haemolymph.

Some parasites can be generalists, feeding on a wide range of hosts, but many parasites, and the majority of protozoans and helminths that parasitise animals, are specialists and extremely host-specific. An early basic, functional division of parasites distinguished microparasites and macroparasites. These each had a mathematical model assigned in order to analyse the population movements of the host–parasite groupings. The microorganisms and viruses that can reproduce and complete their life cycle within the host are known as microparasites.

Eggs (mostly nematodes) from stools of wild primates Nematodes that commonly parasitise humans include ascarids (Ascaris), filarias, hookworms, pinworms (Enterobius), and whipworms (Trichuris trichiura). The species Trichinella spiralis, commonly known as the 'trichina worm', occurs in rats, pigs, bears, and humans, and is responsible for the disease trichinosis. Baylisascaris usually infests wild animals, but can be deadly to humans, as well. Dirofilaria immitis is known for causing heartworm disease by inhabiting the hearts, arteries, and lungs of dogs and some cats.

Microcotyle visa was described and illustrated by Bouguerche et al., based on and 31 specimens (including three with molecular information), from the gills of the bluespotted seabream Pagrus caeruleostictus (Sparidae) collected at Bouharoune off the Algerian coast. The analysis of the cytochrome oxydase 1 gene of Microcotyle visa revealed only minor intraspecific variation (1.4%), clearly lower than the distance between this species and other Microcotyle species (10–15 %). This monogenean is the fourth member of the genus known to parasitise a sparid host.

Like all figs, the fruit is in the form of a syconium, an inverted inflorescence with the flowers lining an internal cavity. F. rubiginosa is exclusively pollinated by the fig wasp species Pleistodontes imperialis, which may comprise four cryptospecies. The syconia are also home to another fourteen species of wasp, some of which induce galls while others parasitise the pollinator wasps, and at least two species of nematode. Many species of bird, including pigeons, parrots and various passerines, eat the fruit.

No doubt the female needs the plentiful fat and protein of the victim to produce eggs, much as many blood-sucking female insects need a blood meal before they can lay eggs. An adequately nourished female will parasitise the bagworm with several stings, perhaps dozens. Paralysed hosts remain fresh for months, long enough for the wasp larvae. The bagworm routinely infests the large local wattle plantations, which cover more than half a million acres (2,000 km2) in South Africa, primarily in Natal.

The full complement of denticles is restored by synthesis of new denticles from the outer edge of the cell, working inwards. Trichodinids are typically found on the gills, skin and fins of fishes, though some species parasitise the urogenital system. A range of invertebrates is also host to trichodinid infections, including the surfaces of copepods and the mantle cavity of molluscs. Transmission occurs by direct contact of infected and uninfected hosts, and also by active swimming of trichodinids from one host to another.

Striga witchweeds (white, centre, attached to roots of host) are economically important pests of the crop plants that they parasitise. Parasitic behavior evolved in angiosperms roughly 12-13 times independently, a classic example of convergent evolution. Roughly 1% of all angiosperm species are parasitic, with a large degree of host dependence. The taxonomic family Orobanchaceae (encompassing the genera Tryphysaria, Striga, and Orobanche) is the only family that contains both holoparasitic and hemiparasitic species, making it a model group for studying the evolutionary rise of parasitism.

Ricinus is a genus of chewing lice which parasitise birds. It is the largest genus of chewing lice found parasitizing Passeriformes. Bernard C. Nelson (1972): A Revision of the New World Species of Ricinus (Mallophaga). Occurring on Passeriformes (Aves), University of California Publications in Entomology Volume 68, University of California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles, PDF The genus Ricinus, including Ricinus communis, the castorbean plant, also exists in botany - this is possible, since the names of animals and plants are ruled by different nomenclature codes.

After several days the fruiting body of the fungus grows from the ant's head and ruptures, releasing the fungus's spores. Several species of fly in the family Phoridae parasitise fire ants. The fly injects an egg into the ant's thorax; upon hatching, the larva migrates into the ant's head, where it feeds on the ant's haemolymph, muscle and nerve tissue. During this period some larvae direct the ant up to 50 meters away from the nest and towards a moist, leafy place where they can hatch safely.

Yellowback puller, the host fish Both adult and juvenile Anilocra pomacentri parasitise the yellowback puller (Chromis nitida), a small reef damselfish. It seems that the juvenile isopod, known as a manca, latches onto the skin of the fish when both are small and the size of the parasite increases as the fish grows. Anilocra pomacentri is a sequential hermaphrodite. It starts its life as a male and specimens between in telson length bear the "appendix masculina" (part of the second pleopod) characteristic of the male stage.

Predation of a larva by the scorpionfly Panorpa germanica has been observed in the field. The tachinid genus Macquartia exclusively parasitizes Chrysolmelid beetles and one species of which, Macquartia dispar, may parasitise C. graminis directly. The adult fly deposits fully incubated eggs or newly hatched larvae into the vicinity of the host larvae. Larvae of other Chrysomelids are predated by birds, coccinellids, predatory bugs, lacewing larvae, syrphid larvae, carabids, ants, wasps, spiders and harvestmen, all of which are common on the tansy around the York population.

It is a generalist species that can parasitise a wide range of fish species, including the shortnose greeneye (Chlorophthalmus agassizi), lesser weever fish (Echiichthys vipera), red porgy (Pagrus pagrus), comber (Serranus cabrilla), painted comber (Serranus scriba), Brown comber (Serranus hepatus), Annular seabream (Diplodus annularis), and the common two- banded sea bream (Diplodus vulgaris). Ceratothoa steindachneri has also been reported on Raja asterias, R. polystigma, and R. albas. However, these records are to be confirmed as they are most likely the result of trawl transfers.

Trissolcus oenone is very common in Australia where it is known to parasitise the eggs of Biprorulis bibax, Cermatulus nasalis, Cuspicona privata, Nezara viridula, Oechalia consocialis, Oechalia schellenbergii, and Plautia affinis. In New Zealand, T. oenone has been recorded from native species Cermatulus nasalis and Glaucias amyoti, and the introduced species Cuspicona simplex, Dictyotus caenosus, Monteithiella humeralis, and Oechalia schellenbergii. Female parasitoids lay an egg into a host egg, and the emerging wasp larva develops inside the host egg. The length of development depends on the host species and temperature.

The females can delay feeding and egg laying for several weeks until the host reaches an appropriate developmental stage, they will even wait in empty cells until the host uses them. M. australica is totally dependent on the host wasps for food, the females feed on the host before oviposition and the larvae consume the host. Adult males probably do not feed. The primary hosts are solitary wasps and bees but it will also parasitise inquilines of other insect orders where these are present in the host's nest.

Males may parasitise the female ticks by piercing their cuticle with their mouth parts to feed on the haemolymph (up to 3-4 males have been found feeding on one female tick). Adult male ticks rarely blood-feed on a host. The outside surface, or cuticle, of hard ticks actually grows to accommodate the large volume of blood ingested, which, in adult ticks, may be anywhere from 200 to 600 times their unfed body weight.Sonenshine, DE: Biology of Ticks, 2 volumes: Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford, 1991.

Any variation in non-captive laying is in accordance to water-levels and hence abundance of food, a fact in contrast to Frith's description of reproduction being tied to the months between September to November. Clutch size ranges from 3 to 12, the most common being 5 to 6, according to Marchant and Higgins. Large clutch sizes indicate two females laying eggs in the one nest. It appears that a female will sometimes parasitise another's efforts at incubation, described as “facultative parasitism”, by laying “dump clutches” in nests other than her own.

Photographed at Capertee Valley, NSW, Australia The main diet of the Horsfield's bronze cuckoo is insects and they are nomadic, travelling to different regions of Australia to breed and find food. Small insects are taken from leaves, branches, caught on the wing and in breeding season, Horsfield's bronze cuckoos feed each other in a courtship ritual. The Horsfield's bronze-cuckoo is known as a brood parasite, this means that they lay their eggs in a host species nest. They mainly parasitise the fairy-wrens in the genus Malurus.

These parasitise target the living tissues of the mature tree, hastening senility and death, and survive in the soil and decaying roots after the tree has died. Putting a young traumatised tree with an immature root system into this 'broth' of pathogens can be too much for an infant tree to cope with. Any new root growth is rapidly and heavily colonised, so that shoot growth is virtually zero. This is especially true if it is on a dwarfing rootstock, which by its nature will be relatively inefficient.

The larvae of some species grow in the flesh of their hosts, while others grow within the hosts' alimentary tracts. The word "bot" in this sense means a maggot. A warble is a skin lump or callus such as might be caused by an ill-fitting harness, or by the presence of a warble fly maggot under the skin. The human botfly, Dermatobia hominis, is the only species of botfly whose larvae ordinarily parasitise humans, though flies in some other families episodically cause human myiasis and are sometimes more harmful.

This species is found on a wide variety of plants, flying between flowers and consuming floral parts, showing a preference for the legume family and Watsonia species. It has a body length of some 12 mm while its elytra are black with yellow spots, and head, antennae and legs are black. Adults of the Meloidae are vegetarian, flying unhurriedly between plants, protected by their aposematic colours which warn of poison. Their larvae, though, parasitise or prey on locust egg packets, or consume the eggs, pollen and honey of bees.

General anatomy Fasciolopsis buski is commonly called the giant intestinal fluke, because it is an exceptionally large parasitic fluke, and the largest known to parasitise humans. Its size is variable and a mature specimen might be as little as 2 cm long, but the body may grow to a length of 7.5 cm and a width of 2.5 cm. It is a common parasite of humans and pigs and is most prevalent in Southern and Southeastern Asia. It is a member of the family Fasciolidae in the order Plagiorchiida.

Lemon tree borer parasite (Xanthocryptus novozealandicus)The main natural predators of lemon tree borers are solitary parasitoid wasps, two ichneumond wasp species (Xanthocryptus novozealandicus and Campoplex sp.) and one braconid wasp species (Apsicolpus hudsoni). The parasitic ichneumonid wasp Xanthocryptus novozealandicus is native to New Zealand and being researched as a potential biological control agent. The female wasps parasitise wood-boring beetles, including lemon tree borer, by injecting an egg into the larvae which then grows and consumes the slowly dying grub. Females do this by piercing through the wood with their ovipositor.

As well as the degree of relatedness of a potential host to the flea's original host, it has been shown that avian fleas that exploit a range of hosts, only parasitise species with low immune responses. In general, host specificity decreases as the size of the host species decreases. Another factor is the opportunities available to the flea to change host species; this is smaller in colonially nesting birds, where the flea may never encounter another species, than it is in solitary nesting birds. A large, long-lived host provides a stable environment that favours host-specific parasites.

It has been well documented that the superb fairy-wren (Malurus cyaneus) and the splendid fairy-wren (Malurus splendens) are the two main species to bear host to the Horsfield's bronze-cuckoo, although they may also parasitise other small Passeriformes including thornbills, warblers and scrub-wrens that can be utilised as a secondary host in certain locations. Although the behavioural attributes of a host species may play a role in parasitism, it is thought that the female selects its host through imprinting, remembering the species that it was raised by and ultimately using that species to raise its brood.

As well as the pollinating fig wasp, Pleistodontes froggatti, syconia of the Moreton Bay fig are host to several species of non-pollinating chalcidoid wasps including Sycoscapter australis (Pteromalidae), Eukobelea hallami (Sycophaginae) and Meselatus sp. (Epichrysomallinae). The nematode species Schistonchus macrophylla and Schistonchus altermacrophylla are found in the syconia, where they parasitise P. froggattii. The thrips species Gynaikothrips australis feeds on the underside of new leaves of F. macrophylla, as well as those of F. rubiginosa and F. obliqua. As plant cells die, nearby cells are induced into forming meristem tissue and a gall results, and the leaves become distorted and curl over.

Ammophila sabulosa, the red-banded sand wasp, is a species of the subfamily Ammophilinae of the hunting wasp family Sphecidae. Found in northern Europe, the wasp is notable for the mass provisioning behaviour of the females, hunting caterpillars mainly on sunny days, paralysing them with a sting, and burying them in a burrow with a single egg. The species is also remarkable for the extent to which females parasitise their own species, either stealing prey from nests of other females to provision their own nests, or in brood parasitism, removing the other female's egg and laying one of her own instead.

Bell's vireos often use dense shrubbery including willows (Salix spp.), mulefat (Baccharis glutinosa), California wild rose (Rosa californica), mugwort (Artemisia douglasiana), Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii), and Western poison oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum) shrubs or vines as nesting locations. Bell's vireos make a well-camouflaged nest but when found they will stand its ground against intruders. As with many other North American songbirds, brown-headed cowbirds parasitise Bell's vireo nests, letting the vireos raise their young. Historically, the least Bell's vireo was a common to locally abundant species in lowland riparian habitat, ranging from coastal southern California through the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys as far north as Red Bluff in Tehama County.

In Indonesia Tetrastichus schoenobii infects eggs in sugarcane fields. A Stenobracon species was found to parasitise the caterpillars in cane fields in Lampung, Sumatra, Indonesia. Stenobracon trifasciatus has been recorded a number of times as a parasite of the caterpillars of this species in sugarcane fields in Taiwan and Indonesia. There are pre-1950s reports from cane fields of Kriegeria heptazonata, Gambroides dammermani, Meganura famulus and Rhaconotus schoenobivorus parasitising an unknown stage of life of the moth in the Philippines, from Myanmar Melcha ornatipennis (unknown), and from India Mesostenus longicornis (unknown) and the generalist parasitoid of pupae Xanthopimpla predator, and from both the Philippines and Indonesia Gambroides javensis (unknown).

In other genera it is the ecological or behavioural traits of the host which are important, the Minotetrastichus species parasitise leaf miners whether these are Coleoptera, Hymenoptera or Lepidoptera; while other groups target galls irrespective of the nature of the gall former. In many species reproduction is solely through thelytoky, i.e. female eggs are produced by parthenogenesis, while in others varying proportions of males are produced from unfertilised eggs while females are produced from fertilised eggs. This can differ within species, for example there are no records of males in North American specimens of Tetrastichus asparagi but are recorded in small numbers in European samples.

A gall provides the developing gall wasp with a safe refuge for the most vulnerable stage of its life cycle, but many other wasps have found a way to penetrate this defence and parasitise the larva(e) within. Some of these parasitoids use their long, hardened egg-laying tube (ovipositor) to bore into the gall and lay an egg on the helpless gall maker. A bedeguar or robin's pincushions gall, collected before the autumn and kept cool, may result in at least one species of parasitoid emerging instead of the gall maker. These wasps, such as Eurytoma rosae, are beautiful, metallic insects with long ovipositors.

An arrival from Australia, pittosporum shield bug – Monteithiella humeralis – as well as the endemic pittosporum psyllid – Trioza vitreoradiata – feed only on Pittosporum species, by attaching themselves to a suitable part of the plant and feeding on its sap. The psyllid leaves a trail of characteristic “beads” behind. Cottony cushion scale – Icerya purchase –, an Australian bug, soft wax scale – Ceroplastes destructor –, an import from overseas and the Australian green shield bug – Glaucias amyoti –, native to New Zealand despite its name also parasitise the Pittosporum species, but have a more varied range of hosts. All attach themselves to a suitable part of the plant and feed on its sap.

The small, dark flower of Kōhūhū There are over 50 insect species listed in the Plant-SyNZ database that either feed on or parasitise kōhūhū – wasps, sucking bugs, flies, moths, butterflies, thrips, mites and beetles. There are also more than a dozen beetles that feed on the dead plant material. Below are some species of interest, organised by feeding habits: Pittosporum flower weevil – Aneuma rubricale –, a native insect, lays its eggs on the flower of kōhūhū; interestingly, only kōhūhū is chosen for this, even if the weevil feeds on other types of Pittosporum. As soon as the weevil’s larvae hatch, they start feeding on the stamens and ovaries of the flowers, switching to the leaves once they reach adulthood.

The small (1.5- to 2.0-mm-long) phorid fly, Apocephalus paraponerae, is a parasite of injured workers of P. clavata, of which the supply is constant because frequent aggressive encounters occur between neighbouring colonies, resulting in maimed workers. The flies are able to parasitise healthy ants if the ants are artificially restrained, but healthy ants are agile and able to repel them. Both male and female flies are attracted by the scent of injured ants; the females lay eggs, as well as feed, and the males feed and possibly mate with the females. The flies are attracted to a crushed ant within two to three minutes and 10 or more flies may be attracted to each ant.

The nymph's body turns a dark brown colour and becomes "mummified". The T radiata pupa extrudes silk which is used to adhere the excavated host's body to the twig where the nymph was feeding and sometimes the silk can be seen around a nymph with a T. radiata pupa within The larvae then pupates within the remains of the host and the adult wasp emerges through a hole, visible to the naked eye, in the nymph's thorax or head. The wasps will parasitise any age of host nymph but prefer the fifth instar nymphs. Under laboratory conditions, the development time from oviposition to the emergence of the adult from the host can take 11.4 days.

Social parasites take advantage of interspecific interactions between members of social animals such as ants, termites, and bumblebees. Examples include the large blue butterfly, Phengaris arion, its larvae employing ant mimicry to parasitise certain ants, Bombus bohemicus, a bumblebee which invades the hives of other bees and takes over reproduction while their young are raised by host workers, and Melipona scutellaris, a eusocial bee whose virgin queens escape killer workers and invade another colony without a queen. An extreme example of interspecific social parasitism is found in the ant Tetramorium inquilinum, an obligate parasite which lives exclusively on the backs of other Tetramorium ants. A mechanism for the evolution of social parasitism was first proposed by Carlo Emery in 1909.

Nomada marshamella is most frequently a univoltine species, but where the host used is the bivoltine Andrena trimmerana, then N. marshamella will also be bivoltine. The univoltine form is associated primarily with Andrena scotica, and sometimes A. nigroaenea, and it flies from early April to late June while the bivoltine form's normal host is A. trimmerana, and sometimes late nesting A. nigroaenae flying from late June into September. N. marshamella is known to cleptoparasitise the nests of A. scotica and they have been recovered from such nests. It is also thought that N.marshamella may parasitise Andrena ferox, A. stragulata, A. trimmerana, A. nigroaenea and A. haemorrhoa, in the Czech Republic A. rosae has also been recorded as a host of N. marshamella.

" In 1921, Pike went to work for old friend Harry Bruce Wolfe at British Instructional Films on the single-reel series Secrets of Nature series. His inaugural film for the series was The Cuckoo's Secret (1922), commissioned by Edgar Chance, which changed public perception of how common cuckoos reproduce by providing the first proof that they lay their eggs directly in the nests of the species they parasitise rather than laying them on the ground and carrying them to the nest. Over the course of the next 11 years, Smith blended "nature photography with painstaking laboratory work," on the series, "providing an atmospheric account of British wildlife," which filmmaker, historian and critic Paul Rotha described in 1930 as "the sheet anchor of the British film industry.

As a brood parasite, the Horsfield's bronze-cuckoo does not build its own nest but will use a host species' nest to lay its eggs. The breeding season for the Horsfield's bronze cuckoo relies on their host and they will lay one to mimic that of the fairy wren or thornbill's egg, an elongated pinkish-white egg, that is speckled with red-brown spots. The breeding season for the superb fairy-wren is between September and February and a female may have three consecutive broods in this time, allowing the cuckoo multiple attempts to parasitise this species. The female cuckoo may choose a breeding site with a high density of hosts, which allows extra opportunity for her success in parasitising a nest successfully.

Studies have shown at one site a female did not parasitise a territory with less than 23 breeding pairs of their primary host (Malurus cyaneus). The egg of a Horsfield's bronze-cuckoo is small for its size, evolving over time to mimic those of their host in what can be described as an evolutionary arms race between parasite and host. Also, the smaller the host for the cuckoo, the likelihood of successfully raising multiple broods thus the energy and nutrients needed to produce more smaller eggs than few larger eggs can be utilised more efficiently. Egg laying is very fast for the Horsfield's bronze cuckoo; it is able to lay an egg in under 6 seconds typically in the morning shortly after the host has laid.

From the point of view of the farmer or horticulturalist, the most important groups are the ichneumonid wasps, which prey mainly on caterpillars of butterflies and moths; braconid wasps, which attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including greenfly; chalcid wasps, which parasitise eggs and larvae of greenfly, whitefly, cabbage caterpillars, and scale insects; and tachinid flies, which parasitize a wide range of insects including caterpillars, adult and larval beetles, and true bugs. Commercially, there are two types of rearing systems: short-term seasonal daily output with high production of parasitoids per day, and long-term year-round low daily output with a range in production of 4–1000 million female parasitoids per week, to meet demand for suitable biological control agents for different crops.

Encarsia formosa, an endoparasitic chalcid wasp, bred commercially to control whitefly in greenhousesTrioxys complanatus, (Aphidiidae) ovipositing into a spotted alfalfa aphid, a commercial pest in Australia. Parasitoid wasps are considered beneficial as they naturally control the population of many pest insects. They are widely used commercially (alongside other parasitoids such as tachinid flies) for biological pest control, for which the most important groups are the ichneumonid wasps, which prey mainly on caterpillars of butterflies and moths; braconid wasps, which attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including greenfly; chalcid wasps, which parasitise eggs and larvae of greenfly, whitefly, cabbage caterpillars, and scale insects. One of the first parasitoid wasps to enter commercial use was Encarsia formosa, an endoparasitic chalcid.

LLU is generally opposed by the ILECs, which in most cases are either former investor-owned (North America) or state- owned monopoly enterprises forced to open themselves to competition. ILECs argue that LLU amounts to a regulatory taking, that they are forced to provide competitors with essential business inputs, that LLU stifles infrastructure- based competition and technical innovation because new entrants prefer to 'parasitise' the incumbent's network instead of building their own and that the regulatory interference required to make LLU work (e.g., to set the LLU access price) is detrimental to the market. New entrants, on the other hand, argue that since they cannot economically duplicate the incumbent's local loop, they cannot actually provide certain services, such as ADSL without LLU, thus allowing the incumbent to monopolise the respective potentially competitive market(s) and stifle innovation.

The thick-billed cuckoo is a specialised brood parasite of helmetshrikes, being known to almost exclusive parasitise three species in the red-billed and chestnut-fronted helmetshrike in its eastern range and the chestnut-bellied helmetshrike in West Africa, so limiting its breeding range to closed canopy forest habitat of the host in this region. In the case of the well-studied red-billed helmetshrike, the thick-billed cuckoo has caused probably the most dramatic reduction in nesting success by any brood parasitic bird, with one group of helmetshrikes unable to rear any of their own nestlings for five years and ten breeding attempts, with overall between 35 and 55 percent of nests parasitised. It is almost certain that the extinct Malagasy subspecies parasitised vangas, which are related to the helmetshrikes. This species’ parasitism of the helmetshrikes may complement the similarly sized black cuckoo which exclusively parasitises bush shrikes.

The human botfly, Dermatobia hominis (Greek δέρμα, skin + βίος, life, and Latin hominis, of a human), is one of several species of flies, the larvae of which parasitise humans (in addition to a wide range of other animals, including other primates). It is also known as the torsalo or American warble fly, though the warble fly is in the genus Hypoderma and not Dermatobia, and is a parasite on cattle and deer instead of humans. Dermatobia fly eggs have been shown to be vectored by over 40 species of mosquitoes and muscoid flies, as well as one species of tick; the female captures the mosquito and attaches its eggs to its body, then releases it. Either the eggs hatch while the mosquito is feeding and the larvae use the mosquito bite area as the entry point, or the eggs simply drop off the muscoid fly when it lands on the skin.