With pack ice closing in, the Rodgers headed south again.
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Both ships became trapped in pack ice in the Canadian Arctic.
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But this early November, the main pack ice is still some 22016 miles away.
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But when we entered an area of pack ice and became surrounded by it, images were needed.
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Traditionally, female walrus and their young rested on drifting pack ice over a shallow offshore feeding area in the Chukchi Sea.
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The pack ice that destroyed those old ships now retreats enough during the summer to allow luxury cruises through Arctic waters.
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Ga boarded the Tara, a vessel specially built to withstand the pressure of Arctic pack ice and drift among the ice floes.
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"It's one of two choices: Stay with the pack ice, or come to shore," Dr. Atwood said of the southern Beaufort bears.
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The lodge's eight-week season begins in June, just as the pack ice that blankets the Northwest Passage begins to fissure and melt.
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Until then the Polarstern will be drifting with the pack ice for hundreds of miles, near the North Pole and across the Arctic.
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Last year, Ever Mejias, 14, quit school, where art was his favorite subject, to pack ice in a factory and help out his family.
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Hundreds of miles later, at the shore of the Arctic Ocean, Mackenzie and his crew were stopped by indomitable pack ice in all directions.
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He traveled by dog sled on the pack ice for an hour, then climbed a mountain looking for tracks and droppings before nabbing three hares.
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AT THIS time of year pack ice grinds the beaches of northern Japan, but in the Ryukyu Islands in the south farmers are cutting sugar cane.
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The pack ice that was once visible from Kaktovik even in summertime has retreated hundreds of miles offshore, well beyond the southern Beaufort's narrow continental shelf.
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During this time, seals are also giving birth on pack ice, which happens can be an easy target for hungry mothers with new bear cubs to feed.
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Bumped and nudged by one another and by melting pack ice, the bergs eventually get caught up in the southbound Labrador Current and sail down Iceberg Alley.
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"Because it was stuck in heavy pack ice, it would have been only a matter of time before it would have been torn apart," Jones told Reuters by telephone.
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The yearlong expedition in the Arctic, known as Mosaic, is centered on a research icebreaker, Polarstern, that has been drifting with the pack ice for the past six months.
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"It's not difficult sailing, it's not difficult piloting, but it's very shallow in a lot of places, lots of islands, lots of things to hit, including pack ice," he said.
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For the Rodgers, however, monitoring the shifting ice that could trap or even scupper it was a matter of life or death: Midnight to 2.20am: Ship in pack ice partially.
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On small-ship cruises to Spitsbergen in northern Norway and Greenland, passengers will have the opportunity to jump in at the edge of Arctic pack ice to view it from below.
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But two consecutive summers of heavy pack ice have prevented Jones and Randy Nungaq, a resident of Resolute Bay, from conducting their annual boat trip to maintain the buoy since 2017.
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By the mid-1700s, all the various straits north of Hudson's Bay had been explored, often with disastrous results, and all had been found full of pack ice even in summer.
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At low speeds, these craft work much as icebreaking ships do, by forcing sections of pack-ice in front of their bows to rise up and detach themselves from the main sheet.
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The edge of the pack ice is now over deep water, where seals are few and far between and the distance to land is a long swim, even for a polar bear.
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"Thanks" to a warming planet and retreating pack-ice in the Arctic Ocean, installation of a 15,000 km undersea fiber-optic cable directly linking Europe and Asia for the first time is now possible.
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KIRUNA, Sweden (Reuters) - A year-long recording of the songs of Beluga whales has been salvaged from the Arctic after the crew of a Swedish icebreaker chanced upon a research buoy adrift in hazardous pack ice.
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Special Bonus: It was 100 years to the month that Shackelton's boat (Endurance) finally went under the Antarctic pack ice (Nov 1915), precipitating his epic traverse of South Georgia, before finding help at nearby Stromness (1916).
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The hope is to use the on-the-ice measurements to calibrate remote data, such as satellite images, and to more deeply understand the complexities of pack ice so as to make climate models even more precise.
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If they see something that is a meaty meal, like potentially a human out on the pack ice or on land in places where polar bears are on land, you definitely have to have a heightened sense of awareness of them.
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There the Polarstern will churn through the pack ice and sidle up to an ice floe — a large expanse of intact ice, chosen on the spot after analysis of satellite radar images and other information — and cut its engine, allowing itself to be fully frozen in place.
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Over the next half-century, search parties found skeletal remains, interviewed Inuit witnesses and pieced together the story: Caught by pack ice and stranded for two straight winters, the survivors set out to walk hundreds of miles to the nearest outpost, but all died far short of the goal.
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It was easy to pinpoint when the obsession had started: at prep school, in the library, as he read of the great explorers and stared, with amazement, at Frank Hurley's photographs of Shackleton's ship Endurance listing, like the ghost ship in "The Ancient Mariner", among towering pack-ice in the Weddell Sea.
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Temperature, as hard-pack ice cream should be pliable to allow scooping and ready for consumption, between zero and 5 degrees Fahrenheit Paying careful attention to temperature during delivery is key, because if ice cream melts and refreezes during distribution and storage, this can damage the air cell structure and create large ice crystals, which can negatively affect the texture of ice cream, Young explained.
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Having just left base camp, the six men stood atop a 40-foot-high wall of ice at the edge of the Arctic Ocean and looked at what lay ahead: stretching over the horizon, an unending moonscape of ice boulders, crevices and pack ice contorted by vast floes whose constant motion created steep pressure ridges and black stretches of open water known as leads.
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Another noted inspiration is the book after which Kelly named his own, and which he carries with him on multiple voyages to the International Space Station: "Endurance," by Alfred Lansing, about Ernest Shackleton's historic expedition to the South Pole, during which his crew cheated death after their ship became trapped in a polar pack ice, overcoming 850 miles of heavy seas on small lifeboats.
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It remained there imprisoned by the pack ice until February 8, 1903.
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Pack ice of the Arctic Ocean accumulates off Cape Columbia. The twin otter machine stands on the fast ice between the stacked pack ice (right) and the mainland Ice pressure ridges of the Arctic Ocean off Cape Columbia As the northernmost mainland point of Canada, Cape Columbia is exposed to the ice drift of the Arctic pack ice. The approximately 2 meter thick pack ice of the Arctic Ocean moves several hundred meters per hour from east to west. As a result, mighty ice pressure ridges can be piled up at Cape Columbia.
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The pack ice provides natural cave-like features which the krill uses to evade their predators. In the years of low pack ice conditions the krill tend to give way to salps, a barrel-shaped free-floating filter feeder that also grazes on plankton.
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Flaw lead is an oceanographic term for a waterway opening between pack ice and fast ice. Flaw lead occurs annually at the time when central pack ice drifts from coastal ice, thereby creating the flaw. The process begins in autumn. Flaw leads can have interconnected polynyas.
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While icebergs are composed of fresh water, pack ice is frozen sea water. The severity of ice varies considerably, depending on the strength and direction of the wind and air temperature. Most of the pack ice off Newfoundland's northern and eastern shores originates off Labrador. While some of the pack ice off the west coast also comes from the sea off Labrador via the Strait of Belle Isle, most of it originates in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
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Auklets from the northern Bering Sea must move further south because of pack ice surrounding colonies during the winter.
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Killer whales also appear to regularly occur off the Galápagos Islands. In the Antarctic, killer whales range up to the edge of the pack ice and are believed to venture into the denser pack ice, finding open leads much like beluga whales in the Arctic. However, killer whales are merely seasonal visitors to Arctic waters, and do not approach the pack ice in the summer. With the rapid Arctic sea ice decline in the Hudson Strait, their range now extends deep into the northwest Atlantic.
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In the spring, krill can scrape off the green lawn of ice algae from the underside of the pack ice.
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MacDonald, S. D. 1976.Phantoms of the polar pack ice. Audubon Magazine 78(3):2–19. Morgan, J. P. 1979.
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Temperature and pack ice area over time, after data compiled by Loeb et al. 1997. The scale for the ice is inverted to demonstrate the correlation; the horizontal line is the freezing point—the oblique line the average of the temperature. A possible decline in Antarctic krill biomass may have been caused by the reduction of the pack ice zone due to global warming. Antarctic krill, especially in the early stages of development, seem to need the pack ice structures in order to have a fair chance of survival.
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The pack ice was moving all the time, so he had no way of knowing where he was without longitudinal observations.
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Beginning in January the pack ice begins to advance south, borne by the Labrador Current until (usually) in April the rate of melting overtakes the rate of advance and the ice retreats northward. The leading edge of the pack ice is known as "The Front" and is important to the annual seal hunt off Newfoundland's north coast.
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Two days after leaving South Georgia, Endurance encountered polar pack ice and progress slowed to a crawl. For weeks Endurance worked its way through the pack, averaging less than per day. By 15 January 1915, Endurance was within of her destination, Vahsel Bay. By the following morning, heavy pack ice was sighted and in the afternoon a gale developed.
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Climate change is potentially the most serious threat to ringed seal populations since much of their habitat is dependent upon pack ice.
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Nonetheless, ocean currents and fierce Antarctic winds can drive pack ice north into the Ross Sea, temporarily producing areas of open water.
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Snow petrels feed mainly on fish, some cephalopods, mollusks, and krill, as well as carrion in the form of seal placentas, dead/stillborn seals, whale carcasses, and dead penguin chicks. During the winter, they disperse to the pack ice, ice floes, and the open sea. Flocks are characteristically seen sitting on icebergs. Only very rarely are they observed north of the pack ice.
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Commonly, a shore lead is navigable by surface vessels. An opening ("lead") between pack ice and fast ice is referred to as a flaw lead.
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The sea surrounding these islands is covered with pack ice with some polynias in the winter and there are many ice floes even in the summer.
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Ice cover, both land-fast ice and pack ice, is common for nine months of the year. A shore lead system ensures there are ice-free water areas.
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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 360. () is the strait between Spitsbergen and Nordaustlandet in Svalbard, Norway. It is long and wide. The strait is difficult to pass because of pack ice.
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She was stuck fast in the pack ice of the Beaufort Sea between Point Barrow and Icy Cape, in the Chukchi Sea off the northwestern Alaskan coast. Baychimos ultimate fate is unknown.
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In flight Ivory gulls migrate only short distances south in autumn, most of the population wintering in northern latitudes at the edge of the pack ice, although some birds reach more temperate areas.
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By July 7, the pack ice was dense enough to compel the Advance to tow the Rescue to prevent the vessels from becoming separated. The crews were periodically sent onto the ice to 'bore' a passage by hand, using crowbars, ice anchors and boathooks. For 21 days the ships were held nearly fast, only heaved slowly forward by efforts of the crew. Finally freed of the pack ice on July 28, the expedition sailed across Melville Bay, amid persistent ice bergs.
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12 Driven by winds and currents, sea ice may ultimately develop into pressure ridges, a pile-up of ice fragments, or rubble, making up long, linear features. These are a very common source of seabed gouges. Pressure ridges are often enclosed inside expanses of drifting pack ice, such that gouging activity from sea ice ridge keels is closely related with pack ice motion. Stamukhi are also pile-ups of broken sea ice but they are grounded and are therefore relatively stationary.
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After the winter the ship left the Falklands on November 5 heading back to the Antarctic Peninsula by way of Ushuaia for supplies. On December 29 Antarctic was trapped in pack ice near Hope Bay, and some of the crew was put ashore. Antarctic later broke free and continued towards Paulet Island; on the way the ship once again was trapped in pack ice on January 3, 1903. On February 3 the ship again broke free but was now damaged and leaking.
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They result from the interaction between fast ice and the drifting pack ice. Stamukhi can penetrate the seabed to a considerable depth, and this also poses a risk to subsea pipelines at shore approaches.
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During winter pack ice and small icebergs pushed forth by the East Greenland Current ram against the northeastern coast, blocking the narrow strait and facilitating the freeze of the much wider Torsuut Tunoq sound.
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It is notable by giant plates (up to 50 km and more), similar to pack ice, but possibly pieces of lava crust. Gaps between the plates contain spiral-shaped geological features, probably lava coils.
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The fish lives close to the sea floor at depths of 15 to 40 m, but it sometimes enters estuaries, and may also be found under pack ice. The species is of minor commercial value.
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July 12, 2005. Accessed June 14, 2009. A pipeline was thus the only viable system for transporting the oil to the nearest port free of pack-ice, almost 800 miles (1,300 km) away at Valdez.
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In March, when a female is ready to whelp, she will enlarge one of the breathing holes that has snow over it, creating a small "igloo" where she whelps one or two pups. Within three weeks the pups are in the water and swimming. In summer, ringed seals keep to a narrow territory about along the shoreline. If pack ice moves in, they may venture out and follow the pack ice, dragging themselves up on an ice floe to take advantage of the sun.
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But the ship became stuck again and drifted in the general direction of the pack ice toward the Bering Strait. By the end of November it became obvious that the Cheliuskin would not break free from the pack ice and would have to winter on the Chukchi Sea. Eventually the ship was squeezed by large ice floes and was in danger of sinking. Captain Voronin ordered the crew to unload equipment from the ship and set up a camp site astern of the ship.
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McClintock's observations of persistent pack ice in Victoria Strait confirmed the hopelessness of Franklin's attempts to push south through the unexplored passage.Griffiths, Franklyn (December 31, 1987). Politics of the Northwest Passage. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 31\. .
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Crabeater seals, one of the most numerous mammals on Earth, live and reproduce in the pack ice zone around Antarctica. Snow petrels fly many miles into the island to find rock on which to lay their eggs.
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Resolute continued to move slowly eastward in the pack ice, and one year later in the autumn of 1855 she was 1200 miles away from the place where she had been abandoned. In September 1855 an American whaler named James Buddington, from New London, Connecticut saw Resolute adrift in the pack ice off Cape Walsingham in Davis Strait. He split his crew and sailed her back to New London, arriving home on Christmas Eve. Buddington's ship, George Henry, had preceded Resolute, and many were beginning to wonder if Buddington was still alive.
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This created an opening for Borchgrevink, who met Bull in Melbourne and persuaded him to take him on as a deck-hand and part-time scientist. Henryk Bull's ship Antarctic in the pack ice During the following months, Antarctic's sealing activities around the subantarctic islands were successful, but whales proved difficult to find. Bull and Kristensen decided to take the ship further south, to areas where the presence of whales had been reported by earlier expeditions. The ship penetrated a belt of pack ice and sailed into the Ross Sea, but whales were still elusive.
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She arrived at New London on 19 September 1928 after having traveled and taken observations at 191 oceanographic stations with some 2,000 observations of temperature and salinity. Numerous bottom samples had been taken and soundings were added to the charts of the area.Johnson, p 122 The Marion expedition observations demonstrated that pack ice had a direct influence on the drift of icebergs. Heavy pack ice along the Newfoundland and Labrador shelf waters prevented icebergs from being carried to shore and forced them to enter shipping lanes to the south.
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Two days later, she saw her first icebergs—visible evidence that she was entering the polar latitudes. She sighted the northern limit of the Antarctic pack ice on the 28th and spent the next two days investigating ice conditions. She fueled from south of Scott Island, Antarctica, purportedly becoming the first ship to conduct an underway refueling below the Antarctic Circle. After threading her way through the pack ice over the ensuing weeks, Yancey finally arrived at Bay of Whales, Antarctica, mooring at the shelf ice on 18 January 1947.
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A year's worth of provisions were brought on deck in anticipation of the ship being crushed by the pack ice. The dangerously drifting pack finally ground to a halt on 23 September. At times violently shifted by the grinding pack ice, Investigator endured just south of Princess Royal Island, the pack becoming less violent by 27 September 1850. On the last day of September, the temperature fell below for the first time, as the top-gallant masts were taken down for the winter and the last birds were observed.
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They had covered 295 miles (475 km) and floundered on the pack ice. The expedition was well equipped for travelling on the ice (three sledges and a boat) and had supplies for three months; also there were three deposits in northern Svalbard and one in Franz Josef Land. They set off eastbound for the latter, but after a week they had moved west due to the currents which moved the ice. They then changed direction towards northern Svalbard; movement was slowed down by ice drift and by the craggy surface of the pack ice.
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113-164, in: The Coast and Shelf of the Beaufort Sea, J.C. Reed and J.E. Sater (Eds.), Arlington, Va.: U.S.A. Unlike drift (or pack) ice, fast ice does not move with currents and winds. The width (and the presence) of this ice zone is usually seasonal and depends on ice thickness, topography of the sea floor and islands. It ranges from a few meters to several hundred kilometers. Seaward expansion is a function of a number of factors, notably water depth, shoreline protection, time of year and pressure from the pack ice.
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Its length is 15 km and its maximum width 10 km. The sea surrounding Sverdrup Island is covered with pack ice with some polynias in the long winter and there are many ice floes even in the summer.
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Pack ice in the Denmark Strait The Denmark Strait () or Greenland Strait (, 'Greenland Sound') is an oceanic strait between Greenland to its northwest and Iceland to its southeast. The Norwegian island of Jan Mayen lies northeast of the strait.
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Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany. but this, too, is considered a likely underestimate. An international effort, the Antarctic Pack Ice Seal initiative, is currently underway to evaluate systematically collected survey data and obtain reliable estimates of all Antarctic seal abundances.
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Around 1997, an emperor penguin colony was discovered just south of Snowhill Island in the Weddell Sea. As the Weddell Sea is often clogged with heavy pack-ice, strong ice-class vessels equipped with helicopters are required to reach this colony.
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On the other side of the pole, the Aurora would take out the Ross Sea party, which would lay down depots on the route of the Transcontinental party and go south to assist that party. The Transcontinental party would take magnetic and meteorological observations during the journey. Other parties of the expedition would be engaged in scientific work, studying the geology and meteorological conditions; the ships would be equipped for hydrographic work. The book describes the progress of the Endurance through pack ice in the Weddell Sea; the ship was eventually held in pack ice and drifted with it.
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The coast of Coats Land, discovered by the SNAE in March 1904, photographed in 1915 during Shackleton's expedition Scotia headed south-east, towards the eastern waters of the Weddell Sea, in calm weather. No pack ice was encountered before they were south of the Antarctic Circle, and they were able to proceed smoothly until, on 3 March, heavy pack ice stopped the ship at 72°18'S, 17°59'W. A sounding was taken, revealing a sea-depth of , compared to the which had been the general measurement up to that date. This suggested that they were approaching land.
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Hansa, crushed in the pack ice As the supply ship, the Hansa followed the Germania until 19 July, when Hegemann misread a flag signal by Koldewey and went ahead; the ship disappeared in the fog and got separated. The agreement was to meet in such a situation at Sabine Island. After unsuccessful attempts to get there, Hansa was inescapably stuck in the pack ice by mid-September 1869. During the next month, the ship was slowly milled by the ice and finally sank on 22 October at a position 70° 32’N, 21° W approximately 10 km from the East Greenland coast.
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This island group belongs to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation. The sea surrounding the Mona Islands is covered with pack ice in the winter, which is long and bitter. There are numerous ice floes even in the summer.
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All these factors led him to change his plan at the end of January. Bouvet Island was abandoned in favour of a more southerly course that brought them to the edge of the pack ice on 4 February.Wild, pp. 88–91, 98.
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Coastal features include Amundsen Bay, Casey Bay and Cape Monakov. Mountain ranges or sub-ranges being crests above pack ice (escarpments), are the Scott Mountains, the Tula Mountains, and the Napier Mountains. The highest peak is Mount Elkins at Above Ordnance Datum (conventional sea level).
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The Canadian government's Circumpolar Flaw Lead System Study, through the University of Manitoba examines the physical changes and their effects on biological processes with flaw leads. A similar opening ("lead") can exist between pack ice and the shore, referred to as a shore lead.
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Also included in the picture are Shackleton (left background), Adams (smoking curved pipe), and Wild (working on the sledge). Nimrod left New Zealand on 1 January 1908, and as a fuel-saving measure was towed towards the Antarctic pack ice by the tug Koonya.
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The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914, led by Ernest Shackleton, set out to cross the continent via the pole, but their ship, , was trapped and crushed by pack ice before they even landed. The expedition members survived after an epic journey on sledges over pack ice to Elephant Island. Then Shackleton and five others crossed the Southern Ocean, in an open boat called James Caird, and then trekked over South Georgia to raise the alarm at the whaling station Grytviken. In 1946, US Navy Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd and more than 4,700 military personnel visited the Antarctic in an expedition called Operation Highjump.
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Northern pole of inaccessibility The northern pole of inaccessibility, sometimes known as the Arctic pole of inaccessibility, or just Arctic pole, is located on the Arctic Ocean pack ice at a distance farthest from any land mass. It lies at , from the three closest landmasses: Ellesmere Island, Komsomolets Island, and Henrietta Island. Due to constant motion of the pack ice, no permanent structure can exist at this pole. Until a 2013 review of satellite cartography, the northern pole of inaccessibility was thought to lie at , which was away from Ellesmere, Franz-Josef Land, and the New Siberian Islands, north of Utqiagvik, Alaska, and away from the actual northern pole of inaccessibility.
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Shackleton informed the men that they would drag the food, gear, and three lifeboats across the pack ice, to Snow Hill or Robertson Island, away. Because of uneven ice conditions, pressure ridges, and the danger of ice breakup which could separate the men, they soon abandoned this plan: the men pitched camp and decided to wait. They hoped that the clockwise drift of the pack would carry them to Paulet Island where they knew there was a hut with emergency supplies.Alexander, p. 98 But the pack ice held firm as it carried the men well past Paulet Island, and did not break up until 9 April.
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Level ice, ice sludge, pancake ice, and rafter ice form in the more open regions. The gleaming expanse of ice is similar to the Arctic, with wind-driven pack ice and ridges up to . Offshore of the landfast ice, the ice remains very dynamic all year, and it is relatively easily moved around by winds and therefore forms pack ice, made up of large piles and ridges pushed against the landfast ice and shores. In spring, the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia normally thaw in late April, with some ice ridges persisting until May in the eastern extremities of the Gulf of Finland.
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Hooded seals live primarily on drifting pack ice and in deep water in the Arctic Ocean and North Atlantic. Although some drift away to warmer regions during the year, their best survival rate is in colder climates. They can be found on four distinct areas with pack ice: near Jan Mayen Island (northeast of Iceland); off Labrador and northeastern Newfoundland; the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and the Davis Strait (off midwestern Greenland). Males appear to be localized around areas of complex seabed, such as Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, and the Flemish cap, while females concentrate their habitat efforts primarily on shelf areas, such as the Labrador Shelf.
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She also has eight heeling tanks that can be used to free the icebreaker from compressive pack ice. Like the steam-powered icebreakers built before the war, she was also fitted with deck gun mounts.J/m Voiman pitkä talvi 1965-1966. Suomen Merimies-Unioni SMU ry.
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Their speed varies between hour and the direction by as much as 180°. This variability results in the collision and crushing of fresh, old, and pack ice. Winds are predominantly north-western through the whole year. South-eastern and eastern winds are common in July and August.
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However, by the time the icebreakers arrived, the pack ice had begun to drift at a considerable speed and a dangerous phenomenon known as "ice jet" appeared,Weintrit, A. and Neumann, T. (2013): Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation. CRC Press. Page 462. immobilizing the icebreakers.
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During the wintering period, Hansa was crushed by pack ice and sank. However, Germania managed to force its way through the ice, returning to Bremerhaven on 11 September 1870.Venzke, Jörg-Friedhelm (1990) The 1869/70 German North Polar Expedition. The Arctic 43(1): 83-85.
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Grise Fiord was the location for a 1995 BBC documentary entitled Billy Connolly: A Scot in the Arctic, in which the comedian Billy Connolly camped alone for a week on the pack ice near to the settlement, armed with a rifle to protect him from polar bears.
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Filming of the miniseries started in October 2019, in Hungary, on the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard (Spitzbergen), with the production team journeying north as far as 81 degrees, to shoot pack ice sequences, which is purported to be the furthest point north any television drama has ever been filmed.
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In December 1991, S. A. Agulhas suffered rudder damage while in the Antarctic. The German icebreaker Polarstern assisted her and by February 1992 S. A. Agulhas had been freed from the pack ice. Once freed, the SAS Drakensberg towed the stricken vessel back to Cape Town for repairs.
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Although its close relatives Weddell seals, crabeater seals and leopard seals are ubiquitous in Antarctic waters, the Ross seal is an uncommon and relatively unknown animal, considered to be the least common pack ice seal. It almost never leaves the Antarctic Ocean, with the very rare exception of stray animals found around subantarctic islands, and uniquely, off the south coast of Australia. Nonetheless, its distribution is circumpolar, with individuals found in low densities - usually singly - in very thick pack ice in all regions of the continent. The total Ross seal population is estimated at around 130,000 individuals, but there is great uncertainty in this estimate (reported 95% confidence intervals range from 20,000 to 227,000).
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During late April through June, ringed seals are distributed throughout their range from the southern ice edge northward. Preliminary results from recent surveys conducted in the Chukchi Sea in May–June 1999 and 2000 indicate that ringed seal density is higher in nearshore fast and pack ice, and lower in offshore pack ice. Results of surveys conducted by Frost and Lowry (1999) indicate that, in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea, the density of ringed seals in May–June is higher to the east than to the west of Flaxman Island. The overall winter distribution is probably similar, and it is believed there is a net movement of seals northward with the ice edge in late spring and summer.
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Larsen attempted to land again in 1931, but was hindered by pack ice. On 6 March 1931, a Norwegian royal proclamation declared the island under Norwegian sovereignty and on 23 March 1933 the island was declared a dependency. The next landing occurred on 10 February 1948 by Larsen's ship Brategg.
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Named after the sloop of war Peacock in which Captain William L. Hudson, in company with the tender Flying Fish under Lt. William M. Walker, both of the USEE, 1838–42, sailed along the edge of the pack ice to the north of Thurston Island for several days in March 1839.
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No ships were lost, though the escort suffered one whaler lost, Shera, capsized by ice buildup, and one destroyer, Oribi, damaged by pack ice. On 24 March the Lancaster Castle was dive bombed alongside the quay in Murmansk. Eight men were killed. It was towed out and moored in the river.
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Tyler-Lewis 2006, pp. 214–215. After a month-long halt in the Grytviken whaling station, Endurance departed for the Antarctic on 5 December. Two days later, Shackleton was disconcerted to encounter pack ice as far north as 57° 26′S,Shackleton 1919, p. 5. forcing the ship to manoeuvre.
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A herd of seven Peary caribou was observed from Seymour on the north coast of nearby Helena Island in the summer of 1977. Ringed seals are common on the surrounding pack ice, with up to 100 being recorded in view basking around Seymour Island. Bearded seals are occasional as well.
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The small detached islands off Starokadomsky's northern end are known as Mayskiye Ostrova. Ostrov Vesenniy is the easternmost one. The Vilkitsky Strait runs south of Starokadomsky and Maly Taymyr. Its waters, as well as the waters surrounding the two islands, are covered with pack ice during the long and bitter winters.
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The southern coastal regions of the archipelago experience currents from east to west. Average velocity is between per second. The tidal component in coastal areas is per second.Barr (1995): 38 Pack ice occurs throughout the year around the entire island group, with the lowest levels being during August and September.
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On 15 August 1912 Schröder-Stranz and three crew members disembarked and tried to cross the pack ice, ten miles away from the nearest mainland, with kayaks and sledges. This was the last time Schröder-Stranz was seen alive, only 7 out of 15 members of his crew survived the following winter.
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The Swedish cook and three Belgian sailors were dismissed, and Belgica departed for the Antarctic somewhat undermanned. Sailor Carl Wiencke was lost overboard en route to Antarctica, Wiencke Island being named in his honour. Belgica crossed the Antarctic Circle on 15 February 1898. On 3 March, Belgica became wedged in the pack ice.
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Blasting the pack ice briefly freed the brig on August 12, but she became set fast in an ice floe as the crew hoped for a breakup while their supplies waned. Expecting the worst, documents were cached at the observatory, with a large stone painted with "Advance, A.D. 1853–1854" as a marker.
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In 1875, he voyaged with British explorer Sir Allan William Young on his steam yacht on an expedition to try to find the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The expedition got as far as Peel Sound in the Canadian Arctic before it met pack ice and was forced to return.
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In 1988 he voyaged to the northern Siberian community of Tiksi at 72 degrees north latitude, "ice and pale blue water" to commence the around-the-world expedition. Although he often had to drag his boat, now Pella-Fiord, over rough pack ice, he reached Khatanga, 1300 kilometers away, in 30 days.
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The crew then had to sail and row the three ill- equipped lifeboats through the pack ice to Elephant Island, a trip which lasted five days. Crean and Hubert Hudson, the navigating officer of the Endurance, piloted their lifeboat with Crean effectively in charge as Hudson appeared to have suffered a breakdown.Alexander, p.
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Narwhals from Canada and West Greenland winter regularly in the pack ice of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay along the continental slope with less than 5% open water and high densities of Greenland halibut. Feeding in the winter accounts for a much larger portion of narwhal energy intake than in the summer.
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On 6 December 1948, while the ship was operating in heavy pack ice, a shifting floe sprung a leak in her port chain locker. A seam opened there, and the ship began to fill uncontrollably. In order to save the ship, her commanding officer, Lt. Cpmdr. F. E. Clark, ordered her beached.
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A glory hole in the context of the offshore petroleum industry is an excavation into the sea floor designed to protect the wellhead equipment installed at the surface of a petroleum well from icebergs or pack ice. An economically attractive alternative for exploiting offshore petroleum resources is a floating platform; however, ice can pose a serious hazard to this solution. While floating platforms can be built to withstand ice loading up to a design threshold, for the largest icebergs or the thickest pack ice the only sensible alternative is to move out of the way. Floating platforms can be disconnected from the wellheads in order to allow them to be moved away from threatening ice, but the wellhead equipment is fixed in place and hence vulnerable.
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The , which had tried to warn Titanic of the danger from pack-ice One of the most controversial issues examined by the inquiries was the role played by , which had been only a few miles from Titanic but had not picked up her distress calls or responded to her signal rockets. Californian had warned Titanic by radio of the pack ice (that was the reason Californian had stopped for the night) but was rebuked by Titanics senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips. Testimony before the British inquiry revealed that at 10:10 p.m., Californian observed the lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Stanley Lord and Third Officer C.V. Groves (who had relieved Lord of duty at 11:10 p.
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The steamship Aragonia attempted to break through the pack ice and free the Columbia on January 18. The efforts on behalf of the Aragonia were successful and allowed Columbia to steam free of the ice via the path Aragonia had cut for her. When Columbia returned to San Francisco, the ship appeared visibly unscathed.
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Norwegian expedition landing on Peter I Island in 1929. The United States, Chile, the Soviet Union and Germany disputed Norway's claim. In 1938 Germany dispatched the German Antarctic Expedition, led by Alfred Ritscher, to fly over as much of it as possible. The ship Schwabenland reached the pack ice off Antarctica on 19 January 1939.
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Norwegian expedition landing on the Peter I Island in 1929. Norway's claim was disputed by Nazi Germany, which in 1938 dispatched the German Antarctic Expedition, led by Alfred Ritscher, to fly over as much of it as possible. The ship Schwabenland reached the pack ice off Antarctica on 19 January 1939.Murphy, 2002, p. 192.
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The first confirmed complete passage, from west to east, was made by the Swedish Finnish explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, with the Swedish ship Vega 1878–79 backed by the royal funding of king Oscar II of Sweden. Nordenskiöld was forced to winter just a few days' sailing distance from Bering Strait, due to pack ice.
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The differences between families of odontocetes include size, feeding adaptations and distribution. Monodontids consist of two species: the beluga and the narwhal. They both reside in the frigid arctic and both have large amounts of blubber. Belugas, being white, hunt in large pods near the surface and around pack ice, their coloration acting as camouflage.
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Famous Travels and Travellers, Scribner, 1892 Jacob van Heemskerk captained the first ship, and Barents served as its pilot. After discovering Spitsbergen, the ships encountered pack ice blocking the way. Barents decided to turn east and round the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya, as he had successfully managed once before. When Barents urged Rijp to follow, he refused.
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Shackleton's grave in Grytviken. Grytviken is closely associated with the explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton. Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition set out from London on 1 August 1914, to reach the Weddell Sea on 10 January 1915, where the pack ice closed in on their ship, . The ship was broken by the ice on 27 October 1915.
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The range is circumpolar from close to the Antarctic pack ice to about 45°S. The northernmost confirmed sightings are 36°S in the South Atlantic Ocean and 33°S near Valparaíso, Chile, in the Pacific. Sightings have been made most commonly from the south of New Zealand, around the South Shetland Islands and off Tierra del Fuego, Argentina.
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Erebus and Terror returned in 1843, having made the most significant penetration of the Antarctic pack ice and discovered large parts of the continent—including the Ross Sea and Ross Island, Mount Erebus and the Ross Ice Shelf. Crozier was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1843, in recognition of his outstanding work on magnetism.
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Thus, ringed seals occupying the Bering and southern Chukchi seas in winter apparently are migratory, but details of their movements are unknown. Ringed seals reside in arctic waters and are commonly associated with ice floes and pack ice. The ringed seal maintains a breathing hole in the ice thus allowing it to use ice habitat that other seals cannot.
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Spall, M., "Circulation and water mass transformation in a model of the Chukchi Sea", "Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans (1978-2012)", May 2007. Retrieved 2016-08-18. While the shoal is no longer covered by continuous pack ice all year as it historically was, it still has the most reliable ice present on the entire Chukchi shelf.
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The distance between the northern and the southern end of the archipelago is and its maximum width is of from east to west. The main island is called Bolshoy. The sea surrounding the Arkticheskiy Institut Islands is covered with pack ice in the long winter and the climate is severe. There are numerous ice floes even in the summer.
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In addition, she has large ballast tanks and high-capacity pumps that can be used for rapid heeling and trimming to release the icebreaker if she is immobilized by compressive pack ice. Like her sister ship Otso, Kontio has also been retrofitted with a bow thruster to assist manoeuvering.Häkkinen, P. Muistiinpanot JM Otson vierailusta. Teknillinen Korkeakoulu, 2009.
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The freighter MV American Tern followed on 3 February. Similar pack ice blocked a National Geographic expedition aboard the Braveheart from reaching B-15A. However, expedition divers were able to explore the underwater world of another grounded tabular iceberg. They encountered a surprising environment of fish and other sea life secreted within a deep iceberg crevasse.
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In 1988, a similar rescue operation was attempted to free three gray whales from pack ice in the Beaufort Sea near Point Barrow, Alaska. As part of the $1 million effort, the United States Department of State requested help from the Soviet Union who sent two icebreakers, Admiral Makarov and Vladimir Arseniev, to break the ice trapping the whales.
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Off Haroe Island on 1 July, Advance encountered pack ice. A week later, she and her consort were caught in the pack just north of Upernavik. For the next three weeks, the two ships fought their way through the ice. On the 29th, they cleared the pack and continued their voyage across Melville Bay to Lancaster Sound.
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They took passage from Upernavik in the Danish brig Marianne to Disko Island where they were met by the relief expedition made up of and under the command of Lt. Hartstene. The two relief ships brought the survivors into New York on 11 October 1855. Presumably, the pack ice eventually crushed and sank the abandoned Advance.
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The Siberian coast lies to the south.Geographic location The sea surrounding Peschany Island is covered with pack ice in the winter. There are large polynias forming on the sea in Peschany Island's vicinity.Polar Exploration The climate is marked by severe Arctic weather with frequent gales and low temperatures even in the short summer season which lasts barely two months.
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Gray, John Edward. The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Erebus & Terror Under the Command of Captain Sir James Clark Ross, R.N., F.R.S., During the Years 1839 to 1843, E. W. Janson, 1875. The expedition was the first to describe the Ross seal, which it found in the pack ice, to which the species is confined.
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After eight days, it was decided to head south instead, and extensive exploration of the vast fjord systems of north-east Greenland, most notably the Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord, was undertaken. Germania managed to get through the pack ice, but the engine broke, and returned to Bremerhaven, most of the way by sail, on 11 September 1870.
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The reason is unclear, but it may have been forgotten because the radio operators had to fix faulty equipment. reported "three large bergs" at 19:30, and at 21:40, the steamer Mesaba reported: "Saw much heavy pack ice and great number large icebergs. Also field ice." This message, too, never left the Titanics radio room.
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Bruno "Penguin" Zehnder (born September 8, 1945 in Bad Ragaz, died July 7, 1997 at the Mirny Station in Antarctica) was a Swiss photographer. He specialized in penguins, as he was particularly fascinated by the emperor penguins and their life on the pack ice. He died in 1997, as the result of getting lost in a snowstorm.
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Unlike common minke whales, they often have a prominent blow, which is particularly visible in the calmer waters near the pack ice. In the narrow holes and cracks in the pack ice they have been observed spyhopping – raising their head vertically – to expose their blowholes to breathe; individuals have even been seen to break breathing holes through sea ice in the winter (July–August), rising in a similar manner. When traveling fast in open water they can create larger versions of the "roostertail" of spray created by their smaller cousin, the Dall's porpoise. During bouts of feeding they will lunge multiple times onto their side (either left or right) into a dense patch of prey with mouth agape and ventral pleats expanded as their gular pouch fills with prey-laden water.
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By the time of her launch in 1912, Endurance was perhaps the strongest wooden ship ever built, with the possible exception of Fram, the vessel used by Fridtjof Nansen and later by Roald Amundsen. There was one major difference between the ships. Fram was bowl-bottomed, which meant that if the ice closed in against her, the ship would be squeezed up and out and not be subject to the pressure of the ice compressing around her. Endurance, on the other hand, was designed with great inherent strength in her hull in order to resist collision with ice floes and to break through pack ice by ramming and crushing; she was therefore not intended to be frozen into heavy pack ice, and so was not designed to rise out of a crush.
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Herald Shoal is no longer covered by continuous pack ice, but along with Hanna Shoal, has some of the most reliable ice present on the entire Chukchi shelf.Weingartner T., Dobbins E., Danielson S., Winsor P., Potter R., and Statscewich H., "Hydrographic variability over the northeastern Chukchi Sea shelf in summer-fall 2008-2010", Continental Shelf Research, 2013. Retrieved 03-10-2016.
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The sea surrounding it is covered with pack ice with some polynias in the long winter and there are many ice floes even in the summer. Markgama belongs to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation. It is also part of the Great Arctic State Nature Reserve – the largest nature reserve of Russia and one of the biggest in the world.
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Reports released in the last decade of the 20th century have shown that a blue iceberg in the north Atlantic would have been easily detected.McCarty, Jennifer Hooper; Foecke, Tim. What Really Sank the Titanic: New Forensic Discoveries, Kensington Publishing Corporation, page 67, 2009. Alternative theories suggest that pack ice, rather than a blue iceberg, was responsible for sinking the ship.
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It's the world's first ultra-luxury cruise service to Antarctica, Since 2019 December. the ship was mades a maiden to Sokcho, South Korea as also it was the first Silversea cruises visit to the South Korean port. In 2019, the ship was successful for crossing the Northwest Passage for the first time in Arctic pack ice, being also accompanied by a Russian icebreaker.
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From 2007 to 2009 Ga was a part of the Tara expedition drifting through the Arctic pack ice. Based on the expedition Ga produced a series of works called The Fortunetellers. Among the works in the series are the performances The Fortunetellers and Reading the Deck of Tara. The Tara is a sailboat designed to withstand the pressure of the polar ice cap.
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She sailed from Hvalfjörður on 8 April and put into Akureyri on 13 April due to heavy pack ice and dense fog. She waited there until she was able to join Convoy PQ 15. ;PQ 15 Convoy PQ 15, departed Oban on 10 April 1942 and arrived at Murmansk on 5 May. As noted above, Empire Bard joined the convoy at Akureyri.
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White Island was typically inaccessible to sealers and whalers since it usually was surrounded by a wide belt of thick polar pack ice. It also was often hidden from view by thick ice fogs. It was known, however, to be prime hunting ground for walrus. It had been an exceptionally warm year in 1930 and the sea was virtually free of ice.
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Ringed seals are the most common marine mammals in this part of the Arctic, feeding on fish along the edges of the ice during the summer months. The polar bear is a major predator of ringed seals. In summer they live along the edges of the pack ice near the island. In winter, a few female bears den on the island's northern slopes.
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The sea surrounding the Medvezhyi Islands is covered with fast ice in the winter and the climate is severe. The surrounding sea is obstructed by pack ice even in the summer months. There is commercial fishing in the area of the islands during the summer.Commercial fishing This island group is a part of the territory of the Sakha Republic of Russia.
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Wild among the pressure ridges in the pack ice On 21 February 1915, Endurance, still held fast, drifted to her most southerly latitude, 76° 58′S. Thereafter she began moving with the pack in a northerly direction.Huntford 1975, p. 418. On 24 February, Shackleton realised that they would be held in the ice throughout the winter, and ordered ship's routine abandoned.
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Huntford 1975, pp. 532–533. By 23 August, it seemed that Wild's no-stockpiling policy had failed. The surrounding sea was dense with pack ice that would halt any rescue ship, food supplies were running out and no penguins were coming ashore. Orde-Lees wrote: "We shall have to eat the one who dies first [...] there's many a true word said in jest".
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After the ship Endurance became beset in the pack ice and sank, Crean and the ship's company spent 492 days drifting on the ice before undertaking a journey in the ship's lifeboats to Elephant Island. He was a member of the crew which made a small-boat journey of from Elephant Island to South Georgia Island to seek aid for the stranded party.
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In 1933-34 Voronin commanded another icebreaker on a dramatic, albeit not so fortunate, expedition. In July 1933 the Cheliuskin sailed from Leningrad before a large crowd. However, in September icebreaker Cheliuskin got stuck in pack ice in the Chukchi Sea near Kolyuchin Island. The crew worked hard to free the ship from the surrounding ice, succeeding after almost a week.
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They colonized Antarctica during the late Miocene or early Pliocene (15-25 million years ago), at a time when the region was much warmer than today. The population is connected and fairly well mixed (panmictic), and genetic evidence does not suggest any subspecies separations.Davis C, Stirling I, Strobeck C (2000) Genetic diversity of Antarctic pack ice seals in relation to life history characteristics.
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It reached Ross Island on 4 January 1911 after coming in contact with severe storms and heavy pack ice. A shore party of 34 spent two seasons exploring on and around the Ross Island Shelf. They were unable to reach the old Discovery hut at Hut Point. Scott had to settle for base on Cape Evans and started to unload the same day.
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Conyers Nesbit (1995), p. 221 After being spotted, the German ships in Førde Fjord sailed further up the fjord and prepared for an Allied attack. Z33 and several of her escorts anchored close to the steep southern slopes of the fjord near the village of Bjørkedal. Meanwhile, other ships moored near the northern shore after breaking up pack ice with gunfire.
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Females start bearing calves when six to eight years old. Adult narwhals mate in April or May when they are in the offshore pack ice. Gestation lasts for 14 months and calves are born between June and August the following year. As with most marine mammals, only a single young is born, averaging in length and white or light grey in colour.
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On 13 November, a new pressure wave swept through the pack ice. The forward topgallant mast and topmasts collapsed as the bow was finally crushed. These moments were recorded on film by expedition photographer Frank Hurley. The mainmast was split near its base and shortly afterwards the mainmast and the mizzen mast broke and collapsed together, with this also filmed by Hurley.
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Noona Dan arrived at Kap Tobin on 25 July 1958, but was surprised by the pack ice and had to seek shelter in Scoresbysund/Ittoqqortoormiit. The ship was trapped by the ice for the entire summer and forced to overwinter with only three crew members on board. The remaining crew and scientists were taken to Copenhagen by the ship Kista Dan.
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Antarctic trapped in pack ice Antarctic sinking After exploring parts of the South Shetland Islands the expedition continued through the Antarctic Sound towards the Antarctic Peninsula. On January 15, 1902 Hope Bay was discovered. In February Nordenskjöld chose Snow Hill Island as winter camp for part of the expedition. After all preparations were completed Antarctic left for the Falkland Islands.
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The climate here is strongly influenced by the cold Hudson Bay low-pressured and polar high-pressure air masses. The climate depends largely on the water surface during certain parts of the year. In the winter months the bay is covered almost entirely by pack ice and this keeps the air chilled and thus temperatures stay consistently low.Wolfe, E. 1999.
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University of Groningen. Bowheads were first taken along the pack ice in the northeastern Sea of Okhotsk, then in Tausk Bay and Northeast Gulf (Shelikhov Gulf). Soon, ships expanded to the west, catching them around Iony Island and then around the Shantar Islands. In the Western Arctic, they mainly caught them in the Anadyr Gulf, the Bering Strait, and around St. Lawrence Island.
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The vessel was to be capable of uninterrupted progress in pack ice and the steel that the ship was to built from was to be tested down to .Maginley, p. 65 The ship's of aviation fuel would have carried in tanks separated from the outer hull to minimize the chances of pollution. The vessel itself would have carried of diesel fuel.
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The aim of the Imperial Trans- Antarctic Expedition was to be the first to cross the Antarctic continent from one side to the other. McNish was apparently attracted by Shackleton's advertisement for the expedition (although there are doubts as to whether the advertisement ever appeared): The crew have their hair cut aboard Endurance. McNish is on the left shaving Greenstreet's head. Endurance trapped in pack ice.
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Nansen chose naval engineer Colin Archer to design and build a ship. Archer designed an extraordinarily sturdy vessel with an intricate system of crossbeams and braces of the toughest oak timbers. Its rounded hull was designed to push the ship upwards when beset by pack ice. Speed and manoeuvrability were to be secondary to its ability as a safe and warm shelter during their predicted confinement.
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On 26 October Sverdlovsk and Schmidt managed to break through and all three ships arrived in Providenya on 2 November. Meanwhile, Cheluskin, drifting in the pack ice off Cape Dezhnev, became the subject of a massive propaganda campaign and its rescue became a national emergency. On 5 November, Litke, still crippled, offered help by radio. Otto Schmidt, aware of Litkes condition, at first declined the offer.
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After finding and rescuing McClure and the crew of Investigator, Resolute and Intrepid sailed east, but had to winter in the pack ice, gradually moving East all winter. Belcher's two ships moved south in the Wellington Channel before being frozen in again near Disaster Bay. In the spring of 1854 Belcher ordered the abandonment of four of his five ships, and the men gathered at Beechey Island.
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Grey and common seals are also regular visitors to Yell's coast. Yell occasionally receives the odd Arctic visitor besides the tern; in 1977, a stray bearded seal was recorded. Normally these creatures only live on the pack ice. Humans have introduced a number of animals including rabbits, and it has even been questioned whether otters could have arrived by themselves, although this is controversial.
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It is covered with tundra vegetation. This island is located in the Kara Sea, off the northern end of the estuary of the Yenisei river, at just from the nearest coast. The sea surrounding Sibiryakov Island is covered with pack ice in the winter and there are numerous ice floes even in the summer. The strait between Sibiryakov Island and the mainland is known as Vostochnyy Proliv.
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During this time the crew observed around 180 icebergs many of which they sketched and photographed, however as the Valdivia was an ordinary steel hulled vessel the ship had to remain clear of the pack ice. As well as the biological, geological and geographic findings the expedition was also able to make significant meteorological observations. The Valdivia returned to Hamburg on 30 April 1899.
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NOAA Ship Surveyor in 1977. A shore lead (or coastal lead) is an oceanographic term for a waterway opening between pack ice and shore. While the gap of water may be as narrow as a tide crack if closed by wind or currents, it can be as wide as . Its formation can be influenced by tidal action, or subsurface conditions, such as current and ocean floor.
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Subsequently, departing that "port" on 6 February for the area to the north of the ice floes, the attack cargo ship entered the pack ice on the 9th. Over the next three days, she pressed through the floes that extended for a width of almost . On 13 February, Yancey joined TU 68.1.2 which also included the Coast Guard icebreaker, , towing the attack cargo ship .
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Operation Breakthrough was a US-Soviet effort to free three gray whales from pack ice in the Beaufort Sea near Point Barrow in the U.S. state of Alaska in 1988. The whales' plight generated media attention that led to the collaboration of multiple governments and organizations to free them. The youngest whale died during the effort and it is unknown if the remaining two whales ultimately survived.
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It is most widespread throughout the polynyas and pack ice of the Bering Sea. It is also vagrant throughout coastal Canada and the northeastern United States, though records of individuals as far south as California and Georgia have been reported, as well as The British Isles, with most records from late November through early March. Juveniles tend to wander further from the Arctic than adults.
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In contrast, a weathered ridge is one with a rounded crest and with sides sloping at less than 40 degrees. Stamukhi are yet another type of pile-up but these are grounded and are therefore relatively stationary. They result from the interaction between fast ice and the drifting pack ice. Level ice is sea ice that has not been affected by deformation, and is therefore relatively flat.
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Vilkitsky Island is bleak and windswept and is covered with tundra. The island is crescent-shaped and it is divided in two by a narrow sound in its midst. It is 42 km in length but only 12 km wide at its broadest zone. The sea surrounding this island is covered with pack ice in the winter and there are numerous ice floes even in the summer.
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Other prey items include cephalopods and diverse Antarctic fish species. Although the crabeater seal is sympatric with the other Antarctic seal species (Weddell, Ross and leopard seals), the specialization on krill minimizes interspecific food competition. Among krill-feeding whales, only blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) and minke whales (B. acutorostrata) extend their range as far south as the pack ice where the crabeater seals are most frequent.
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The surrounding sea is obstructed by pack ice even in the summer. This island group belongs to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation. It is also part of the Great Arctic State Nature Reserve, the largest nature reserve of Russia. The Plavnikovye Islands should not be confused with Plavnikovy Island (Ostrov Plavnikovy), off the western shores of Severnaya Zemlya, also in the Kara Sea.
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Two days later, they were safely anchored at Holsteinborg, Greenland, where their health, spirits and provisions were restored until their departure on 10 May. They remained in the area of Upernavik, attempts at advancement forestalled by the remaining pack ice. By July, their progress improved as open leads in the ice presented themselves. Supplies were supplemented by regular hunting of polar bear, seal, reindeer and various birds.
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Diverted briefly to Argentia on 8 February 1943, she resumed her voyage to Iceland the next morning. Despite cautious steaming through pack ice, she reached Reykjavík on 13 February 1943. Late in February, Barnegat returned to Boston for repairs to her engines, degaussing gear, and radar. After a brief call at Quonset Point, she loaded aviation gasoline for Argentia at Boston on 8 March 1943.
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Narwhals, being black, hunt in large pods in the aphotic zone, but their underbelly still remains white to remain camouflaged when something is looking directly up or down at them. They have no dorsal fin to prevent collision with pack ice. Physeterids and Kogiids consist of sperm whales. Sperm whales consist the largest and smallest odontocetes, and spend a large portion of their life hunting squid.
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Some skerries and one smaller island, Larsøya, lie along the coast. Nyrøysa, created by a rock slide in the late 1950s, is the only easy place to land and is the location of a weather station. Landing on the island is very difficult, as it normally experiences high seas and features a steep coast.Barr (1987): 59 During the winter, it is surrounded by pack ice.
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Barr (1987): 65 Surrounding the island is a tall ice front and vertical cliffs. The long stretches of ice caps are supplemented with rock outcrops. Landing is only possible at three points, and only during the short period of the year in which the island is not surrounded by pack ice. The island is a shield volcano, although it is not known if it is still active.
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In 1997, Stancer was one of 20 amateur women selected for a place on the first all women’s expedition to the North Pole, The 'McVities Penguin Polar Relay'. A relay of five teams hauled sleds of up to 150 lbs across of shifting pack ice in temperatures down to minus 40 °C. After 73 days, the final relay group made it to the North Pole.
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In 1611, the first whaling expedition sailed to Spitsbergen. The whaling settlement Smeerenburg was founded on Spitzbergen in 1619. By midcentury, the population(s) there had practically been wiped out, forcing whalers to voyage into the "West Ice"—the pack ice off Greenland's east coast. By 1719, they had reached the Davis Strait, and by the first quarter of the 19th century, Baffin Bay.
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As the public fund-raising had been less successful than expected, Schröder-Stranz searched for a way to improve the publicity. He changed the initial plans and proposed to cross Spitsbergen's Nordaustlandet from the South to the North, the first expedition to do so. The expedition left Tromsø on 5 August 1912. On 13 August 1912 the "Herzog Ernst" was halted by pack ice three miles beyond Nordaustlandet's North Cape.
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Mackay was also the ship's doctor on the ill-fated Karluk expedition in 1913 led by Vilhjalmur Stefansson to explore the regions west of Parry Archipelago for the Government of Canada. After the Karluk, captained by Robert Bartlett, was stranded, crushed, and sunk by pack ice, Mackay and three other members of the crew died of exposure while struggling across the Arctic ice to reach Wrangel Island or Herald Island.
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After a refit she returned to the 11th Frigate Flotilla in February 1954 for patrols and port visits. In December 1956 she and Pukaki escorted the supply ship in a passage to the Southern Ocean, sailing from Bluff to the edge of the pack ice. Endeavour was taking Sir Edmund Hillary and members of the Trans-Antarctic Expedition to make a trans-polar crossing as part of International Geophysical Year.
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Wrangel Land was next. As they looked for clues of the missing ship, the crew of Rodgers surveyed the area and proved that Wrangel was an island and not the southern edge of a polar land mass. Rodgers departed the island on 13 September, and moved north and west until stopped by pack ice on the 18th. Returning to Wrangell, she continued the search on another course until the 27th.
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The Bostonians agreed on the plan's merits but their speculative voyage in 1663 failed when their ship ran into pack ice in Hudson Strait. Boston-based English commissioner Colonel George Cartwright learned of the expedition and brought the two to England to raise financing. Radisson and Groseilliers arrived in London in 1665 at the height of the Great Plague. Eventually, the two met and gained the sponsorship of Prince Rupert.
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In August 1851, Cooper again left Sag Harbor, this time as captain of the 382-ton ship Levant on a mixed whaling and sealing voyage.Starbuck (1878), pp. 490–91. Starbuck says Cooper sent home of "bone" (whalebone). Making a quick passage through the belt of pack ice in the Ross Sea, on January 26, 1853, he sighted land, an ice shelf backed by a high mountain some distant.
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The white- chinned petrel utilises many islands during the breeding season. 2,000,000 pairs breed on South Georgia, Between 175,000 and 226,000 pairs are on the Kerguelen Islands, and 100,000 pairs on Disappointment Island. Some also breed on the Crozet Islands, Prince Edward Islands, Campbell Islands, Auckland Islands, Antipodes Islands, and the Falkland Islands. During the non-breeding season, the petrels fly from the Antarctic pack ice to the subtropics.
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Elephant Island party, 1916 The island was the desolate refuge of the British explorer Ernest Shackleton and his crew in 1916 following the loss of their ship Endurance in the pack ice of the Weddell Sea. The crew of 28 reached Cape Valentine on Elephant Island after months spent drifting on ice floes and a harrowing crossing of the open ocean in small lifeboats.Shackleton, Earnest. South. The Endurance Expedition.
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The ships arrived at Chalky Island near New Zealand on 3 December 1838,, where they remained for a month, hunting seals and replenishing supplies. The Balleny squadron logged a partial break in the pack ice surrounding the southern continent, discovered the Balleny Islands in 1839, and caught a brief sight of Antarctica itself at 64°58'S., 121°08'E. This patch of icy land is today called the Sabrina Coast.
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A key factor is the polar winds that can drive the sound's pack ice into the Ross Sea summer or winter. Frigid katabatic winds rake subsequent exposed water, causing sea ice to form. Freezing surface water excludes salt from the water below; leaving behind heavy, cold water that sinks to the ocean floor. This process repeats itself along Antarctica's coastal areas, spreading cold sea water outward into the world's ocean basins.
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Islands along the peninsula are mostly ice-covered and connected to the land by pack ice. Separating the peninsula from nearby islands are the Antarctic Sound, Erebus and Terror Gulf, George VI Sound, Gerlache Strait and the Lemaire Channel. The Lemaire Channel is a popular destination for tourist cruise ships that visit Antarctica. Further to the west lies the Bellingshausen Sea and in the north is the Scotia Sea.
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However, the surrounding areas count numerous species. In addition to seals, the pack ice also brings polar bears from the east coast – hence the name Nanortalik. Every year a number of bears are sighted in the area, but they rarely present a threat to people. During the spring and late summer, there are many whales in the waters around the town, with minke whales being the most common visitors.
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Young seals may be killed using just the hakapik, but only in the aforementioned manner, i.e., they need not be shot. Seals in the water and seals with young may not be killed, and the use of traps, artificial lighting, airplanes, or helicopters is forbidden. The hakapik may only be used by certified seal-catchers (fangstmenn) operating in the pack ice of the Arctic Ocean and not by coastal seal hunters.
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The Tegetthoff left port at Tromsø, Noway in July 1872. Soon after arriving in the Arctic Circle, the Tegetthoff became locked in pack ice and drifted for the remainder of their journey. While drifting within the ice, the explorers discovered an archipelago and decided to name it after the then- current Emperor Franz Joseph. The crew later was able to dock and performed several sled expeditions on the island chain.
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In the Southern Ocean in the Antarctic zone, nanophytoplankton are the most abundant type of plankton in terms of number, but not volume. Antarctic marine flora consists almost entirely of algae, with phytoplankton, and therefore nanophytoplankton, being the most numerous type, as having great importance. Nanophytoplankton growth has been seen in pack-ice, covering nearly 73% of the Southern Ocean by the end of the winter. They even grow on icebergs.
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It is almost completely snow-capped, hence its name. Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Otto Nordenskiöld built a cabin on the island in 1902, where Nordenskiöld and three members of the expedition had to spend two winters. In 1915, Ernest Shackleton’s ship, , got trapped and was crushed by ice in this sea. After 15 months on the pack-ice Shackleton and his men managed to reach Elephant Island and finally safely returned.
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In spring 2008, 23 wolves and approximately 650 moose were counted. However, recent reductions in winter pack ice had ended replenishment of the wolf population from the mainland. Due to genetic inbreeding, the wolf population had declined to two individuals in 2016, causing researchers to expect that the island's wolf population would eventually become extinct. At the same time, the island's moose population had exploded to an estimated 1600.
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Ross chose 170°E as the longitude to follow south and this turned out to be the future usual route for Antarctic voyages. The ships headed into what became known as the Ross Sea reaching pack ice at 66°55'S in January 1840 – they then forced their way into the pack ice, the first time this had been attempted. Amundsen wrote "Few people of the present day are capable of rightly appreciating this heroic deed, this brilliant proof of human courage and energy ... These men were heroes ...", and Scott wrote "... all must concede that it deserves to rank among the most brilliant and famous [Antarctic expeditions] that have been made. ... few things could have looked more hopeless than an attack upon the great ice-bound region" They then emerged into open sea at 69°15'S and, sailing further south hoping to reach the South Magnetic Pole, they spotted land and mountains which they named Victoria Land and the Admiralty Range, and cleared Cape Adare.
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When submarines of the U.S. Navy made expeditions to the North Pole in the 1950s and 1960s, there was significant concern about surfacing through the thick pack ice of the Arctic Ocean. In 1962, both the USS Skate and USS Seadragon surfaced within the same large polynya near the North Pole for the first polar rendezvous of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet and the U.S. Pacific Fleet.Tales of a Cold War Submariner by Dan Summitt, 2004.
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The exploration ship steamed southward until within 200 miles (320 km) of its destination on the Antarctic coastline. In January 1915, harsh pack ice took the vessel in a grip that would never be loosened. Holness's duties moved from stoker-fireman to ship's crew member in a battle for survival. With the other castaways from the Endurance, Holness was forced to abandon the crushed ship as it fought its final battle with the ice.
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The crew carried out the planned scientific experiments as they pushed on northward, but thick pack ice hindered their progress. The boat was ill-equipped to deal with the extreme cold, lacking insulation and heaters. The fresh water system froze and the hull developed slow leaks. After ten days, Nautilus reached 82°N, the farthest north any vessel had reached under its own power, and preparations began to dive and proceed under the ice.
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Amundsen had little experience of Arctic sailing, and so decided to undertake a training expedition before braving the Arctic ice. He engaged Hans Christian Johannsen, her previous owner, and a small crew, and sailed from Tromsø in April 1901. The next five months were spent sealing on the pack ice of the Barents Sea. Following their return to Tromsø in September, Amundsen set about remedying the deficiencies in Gjøa that the trip had exposed.
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The other is slightly larger and lies to the southeast of the main island's southern tip, within a small enclosed bay. These islands and the nearby coast are in the desolate tundra regions of Siberia. The sea surrounding the islands is covered with pack ice with some polynias in the long winter and the climate is harsh even in the summer. Sorevnovaniya Island belongs to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation.
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Greenland expedition, July–October 1888 The sealer Jason picked up Nansen's party on 3 June 1888 from the Icelandic port of Ísafjörður. They sighted the Greenland coast a week later, but thick pack ice hindered progress. With the coast still away, Nansen decided to launch the small boats. They were within sight of Sermilik Fjord on 17 July; Nansen believed it would offer a route up the icecap.Huntford 2001, pp. 97–99.
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Cliffs along the shore of Grosse Île Tourism is a major industry on the islands, which have many kilometres of white sand beaches and steadily-eroding sandstone cliffs. Also, they are a destination for bicycle camping, sea kayaking, windsurfing, and kitesurfing. During the winter months, beginning in mid-February, ecotourists visit to observe newborn and young harp seal pups on the pack ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which surrounds the islands.
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Barr (1987): 65 Surrounding the island is a tall ice front and vertical cliffs. The long stretches of ice caps are supplemented with rock outcrops. Landing is only possible at three points, and only during the short period of the year in which the island is not surrounded by pack ice. These landings take place on the west side at Kapp Ingrid Christensen, a peninsula which divides the bays Norvegiabukta and Sandefjordbukta.
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Mrs Chippy, a tiger-striped male tabby ship's cat Mrs Chippy (actually a male) was the ship's cat aboard Endurance, the ship used by Sir Ernest Shackleton for his Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. When the ship was lost, having become trapped and eventually crushed in pack ice, Shackleton ordered the sled dogs and Mrs Chippy shot, as Shackleton had decided that the animals could not be kept during the arduous journey ahead.
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The islands lie off the coast of Siberia, west of the mouths of river Pyasina. They are covered with tundra vegetation. The sea surrounding the Kamennye Islands is covered with pack ice with some polynias in the winter and there are many ice floes even in the summer, so that they are connected with the Siberian mainland during the long winters. The climate is severe and summers last only about two months.
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Scott and four other men reached the South Pole on January 17, 1912, thirty-four days after Amundsen. On the return trip, Scott and his four companions all died of starvation and extreme cold. In 1914 Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition set out with the goal of crossing Antarctica via the South Pole, but his ship, the Endurance, was frozen in pack-ice and sank 11 months later. The overland journey was never made.
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Joint military-civilian teams first occupied T-3 from 1952 – 1954 during Project Icicle. Under Project Ice Skate, the station was used again during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58 and beyond. Over the years, T-3 drifted across the Arctic basin, leaving the zone of AAC support periodically. During the IGY, when T-3 had drifted to Greenland, two other stations were established in the western Arctic as pack ice stations.
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Cold circumpolar currents of the Southern Ocean reduce the flow of warm South Pacific or South Atlantic waters reaching McMurdo Sound and other Antarctic coastal waters. Bitter katabatic winds spilling down from the Antarctic polar plateau into McMurdo Sound demonstrate Antarctica's status as the coldest and windiest continent in the world. The McMurdo Sound freezes over with sea ice about thick during the winter. The Antarctic summer causes the pack ice to break up.
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The Trader visited many Eskimo villages on the north coast. They entered the Bering Strait on 2 August, but ran into a gale and pack ice, forcing them to shelter in the Prince of Wales Bay for two days, during which time Hutchison went for walks and hunted plants. They were fed and entertained by two tin miners. As the next day was calm they reached Point Hope where there was an old Eskimo village.
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Because bomb vessels were built with extremely strong hulls to withstand the recoil of the mortars, several were converted in peacetime as ships for exploration of the Arctic and Antarctic regions, where pack ice and icebergs were a constant menace. Most famously, these ships included and . In this case, the volcanoes – Mount Erebus and Mount Terror on Ross Island in Antarctica – were named after the ships, instead of vice versa. Fort Pulaski under fire.
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In preparation for the pups, the females dig a circular hole in the ice as a home for the pup. A newborn pup weighs around 66 pounds and are usually with their mother for a month, before they are weaned off. The male leopard seal does not participate in taking care of the pup, and goes back to its solitary lifestyle after the breeding season. Most leopard seal breeding is on pack ice.
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The drift ice zone may be further divided into a shear zone, a marginal ice zone and a central pack. Drift ice consists of floes, individual pieces of sea ice or more across. There are names for various floe sizes: small – ; medium – ; big – ; vast – ; and giant – more than . The term pack ice is used either as a synonym to drift ice, or to designate drift ice zone in which the floes are densely packed.
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While fast ice is relatively stable (because it is attached to the shoreline or the seabed), drift (or pack) ice undergoes relatively complex deformation processes that ultimately give rise to sea ice's typically wide variety of landscapes. Wind is thought to be the main driving force along with ocean currents. The Coriolis force and sea ice surface tilt have also been invoked. These driving forces induce a state of stress within the drift ice zone.
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Four vessels were built for the Royal Canadian Navy at various yards; these ships had strengthened hulls to cope with pack ice conditions and were also known as the . A further 16 vessels were ordered from Canadian shipyards in the war years, also bearing Canadian names. These were for the Royal Navy, though eight of these were transferred on completion to the Royal Canadian Navy. These are usually referred to as Canadian s.
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In February 1934, Chelyuskin steamship was crushed by Arctic ice in the Chukchi Sea. 104 crewmembers and passengers set their base on pack ice. At that time, United States grounded all arctic flights after a string of accidents, and the only rescue force on hand was Anatoly Liapidevsky and his crew of ANT-4. After 28 failed attempts, Liapidevski located the ice camp on 5 March landed and hauled out twelve of 104 survivors.
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All these islands are marshy and covered with tundra vegetation and lakes. The sea surrounding the Labyrintovye Islands is covered with pack ice with some polynias in the winter and there are many ice floes even in the summer. The climate in the area is Arctic, with long bitter winters and a short warmer period which barely allows the ice to melt. These islands belong to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation.
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Narwhals exhibit seasonal migrations, with a high fidelity of return to preferred, ice-free summering grounds, usually in shallow waters. In summer months, they move closer to coasts, often in pods of 10–100. In the winter, they move to offshore, deeper waters under thick pack ice, surfacing in narrow fissures in the sea ice, or leads. As spring comes, these leads open up into channels and the narwhals return to the coastal bays.
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Hendrik's last sea voyage was under George Strong Nares in the British Arctic expedition of 1875–1876. Hendrik presumably joined the crew of at Smith Sound before proceeding to the northernmost reaches of Greenland. The expedition encountered problems with pack ice and scurvy, spending one winter locked in the ice. Hendrik's hunting and handling of dogsleds contributed both to the exploration and the survival and ultimate rescue of the most of the crew.
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The Komsomolskaya Pravda Islands (, Ostrova Komsomol'skoy Pravdy) are an archipelago in the far north of the Russian Federation. The islands are uninhabited and are covered with tundra vegetation, shingle and ice. The climate in these islands and the surrounding waters is extremely severe with frequent gales and blizzards in the winter. The sea surrounding the archipelago is covered with fast ice most of the year and is obstructed by pack ice even in the summer.
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On 16 August they reached the River Derwent, remaining in Tasmania until 12 November. A week later the flotilla stopped at Lord Auckland's Islands and Campbell's Island for the spring months. Large floating forests of Macrocystis and Durvillaea were found until the ships ran into icebergs at latitude 61° S. Pack-ice was met at 68° S and longitude 175°. During this part of the voyage Victoria Land, Mount Erebus and Mount Terror were discovered.
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Several responded, of which was the closest, at away. She was a much slower vessel than Titanic and, even driven at her maximum speed of , would have taken four hours to reach the sinking ship. Another to respond was SS Mount Temple, which set a course and headed for Titanic position but was stopped en route by pack ice. Much nearer was , which had warned Titanic of ice a few hours earlier.
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Map of Cape Columbia and the Lincoln Sea. The pack ice of the Arctic Ocean stagnates off Cape Columbia, April 18, 1990 Cape Columbia is the northernmost point of land of Canada, located on Ellesmere Island in the Qikiqtaaluk Region of Nunavut. It marks the westernmost coastal point of Lincoln Sea in the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's northernmost point of land outside Greenland and the distance to the North Pole is .
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On 16 August they reached the River Derwent, remaining in Tasmania until 12 November. A week later the flotilla stopped at Lord Auckland's Islands and Campbell's Island for the spring months. Large floating forests of Macrocystis and Durvillaea were found until the ships ran into icebergs at latitude 61° S. Pack-ice was met at 68° S and longitude 175°. During this part of the voyage Victoria Land, Mount Erebus and Mount Terror were discovered.
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On 16 August they reached the River Derwent, remaining in Tasmania until 12 November. A week later the flotilla stopped at Lord Auckland's Islands and Campbell's Island for the spring months. Large floating forests of Macrocystis and Durvillaea were found until the ships ran into icebergs at latitude 61° S. Pack-ice was met at 68° S and longitude 175°. During this part of the voyage Victoria Land, Mount Erebus and Mount Terror were discovered.
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The disease was confined to the ship, with no cases of diphtheria reported among people in the Pribilofs. While Roosevelt was quarantined at Unalaska, several cannery vessels carrying workers became stuck in pack ice in Bristol Bay. The ice threatened to sink the vessels and kill many of those aboard them. The Navy sent Roosevelt to render assistance. She was delayed by her quarantine for three days, but departed Unalaska on 27 May 1918.
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They also take aboard another mysterious sailor named Hunt who is eager to join the search for undisclosed reasons. Extraordinarily mild weather allows the Halbrane to make good progress, and they break the pack ice barrier, which surrounds an ice-free Antarctic ocean, early in summer. They find first Bennet's islet, where Jane had made a stop, and finally Tsalal. But the island is completely devastated, apparently by a recent massive earthquake, and deserted.
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W.J. Stringer and J.E. Groves. 1991. Extent of Polynyas in the Bering and Chukchi Seas It is now used as a geographical term for an area of unfrozen seawater within otherwise contiguous pack ice or fast ice. It is a loanword from the Russian полынья (), which refers to a natural ice hole and was adopted in the 19th century by polar explorers to describe navigable portions of the sea.Sherard Osborn, Peter Wells and A. Petermann. 1866.
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The Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii) is a true seal (family Phocidae) with a range confined entirely to the pack ice of Antarctica. It is the only species of the genus Ommatophoca. First described during the Ross expedition in 1841, it is the smallest, least abundant and least well known of the Antarctic pinnipeds. Its distinctive features include disproportionately large eyes, whence its scientific name (Ommato- meaning "eye", and phoca meaning "seal"), and complex, trilling and siren-like vocalizations.
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During the period which later became known as the Interim Peace, Tarmo was disarmed and her armour was removed. Already on 13 March 1940 she was sent to Hanko to open a channel to the icebound harbour, but was unable to break through the pack ice fields and had to return to Helsinki. Later most of the damage the icebreaker had suffered during the war was repaired. In addition to rebuilding the bridge, the crew accommodation was improved considerably.
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After repairs at Wellington, Glacier returned to McMurdo Station and to the site of Little America V for cartographic studies. She returned to New Zealand on 6 March 1962 and then put in at Boston on 5 May 1962 after steaming . Glacier stood out of Boston on 17 September 1962 for "Deep Freeze 63", entering the pack ice on 6 November 1962 and reaching the edge of the bay ice of McMurdo Sound a week later.
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II, p. 276 Whether this still-distant land was Franz Josef Land or a new discovery they did not know—they had only a rough sketch map to guide them. The edge of the pack ice was reached on 6 August and they shot the last of their dogs—the weakest of which they killed regularly to feed the others since 24 April. The two kayaks were lashed together, a sail was raised, and they made for the land.
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Pressed by pack ice Eira was holed and subsequently sank off Cape Flora on 21August. Although men, stores and boats were saved, ice hindered the expedition from reaching Eira Lodge so instead the men built a turf and stone hut at Cape Flora. Coal and salt was brought from the lodge on 1September, which meant that they had sufficient food, including fresh meat to ward off scurvy. The cottage was subdivided into two sections for officers and crew respectively.
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They slowly cut north, yard by yard, through the increasingly violent pack ice, as larger icebergs drifted in and calved still more loose ice. By August 17, they had pulled themselves to open water for the first time in nearly a month, and De Haven resolved to return home before winter caught them again. Upernavik was reached on August 23\. They were met by Henry Grinnell at New York on September 30, 1851, to whom both ships were returned.
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This bay is enclosed on its western side by the Polyarnik Peninsula. The sea surrounding the Tillo Islands is covered with fast ice in the winter, which is long and bitter, and the climate is severe. The surrounding sea is obstructed by pack ice even in the summer, so that these islands are connected with the mainland for most of the year. This island group belongs to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation.
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'Investigator was abandoned to the pack ice in the spring of 1853. McClure and his crew undertook a sledge journey and were rescued when they happened upon a party from —one of the ships commanded by Sir Edward Belcher, who sailed into the Arctic region from the east. Subsequently, he completed his journey across the Northwest Passage. Resolute itself did not make it out of the Arctic that year; it was abandoned in ice, but later recovered.
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Despite their size, the icebergs of Newfoundland move an average of a day. The average mass of icebergs in the Grand Banks area is between one and two hundred thousand tonnes. These icebergs represent a significant threat to shipping and off-shore oil platforms and the hazard is aggravated by dense fog in this area. During the first half of each year the waters off Newfoundland may become covered with floes of sea ice or "pack ice".
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S. balanoides is found in the intertidal zone in the world's northern oceans. Its distribution is limited in the north by the extent of the pack-ice and in the south by increasing temperature which prevents maturation of gametes. The mean monthly temperature of the sea must drop below for it to breed. In Europe, S. balanoides is found on Svalbard and from Finnmark to north-west Spain but excluding part of the Bay of Biscay.
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The crew of Investigator were trapped for three years in the pack ice before making contact via sledging expeditions with and abandoning their ship. Resolute was in turn also trapped in the ice and abandoned, and the survivors marched across the ice to Beechey Island from where other ships returned them home. Fawcett spent his retirement in Winterton. Timbers from Resolute were eventually made into the Resolute desk used in the White House Oval Office by American presidents.
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Toothed cod, Arctogadus borisovi Canada's Polar Life Portal, University of Guelph (2002) Fishes attributed to East Siberian cod are found off the western half of the Canadian coast and the coasts of Siberia and also off northern and southern coasts of Greenland. The fish prefers living close to the sea floor at depths of 15 to 40 m, but it sometimes enters estuaries. They may also be found under pack ice. They are of little economic value.
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High-latitude cruises in dense pack ice are only achievable during the summer season, November into March. In 1997, the vessel Kapitan Khlebnikov claimed the distinction of being the first ship to circumnavigate Antarctica with passengers (Quark Expeditions). Passengers aboard the icebreaker make landings aboard Zodiac inflatable boats to explore remote beaches. Their itinerary may also include stops at Ross Island's historic explorer huts at Discovery Point near McMurdo Station or Cape Royds (Antarctica New Zealand).
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Boreal forests of the southern part of the province have extensive black spruce and white spruce forests. The tundra region of northern Manitoba exhibits more sparse black spruce forests whose tree heights are limited by the thin soils, permafrost underlayer and generally cold climate. In this region polar bears are found, denning in the Wapusk National Park and migrating to hunt for seals when pack ice forms on Hudson Bay.C. Michael Hogan (2008) Polar Bear: Ursus maritimus, globalTwitcher.
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Karluk sailed from Nome, Alaska on 13 July 1913, heading for Herschel Island where she was to meet up with the expedition's other vessels. On 13 August, still more than from her destination, she became trapped in the pack ice and began a slow drift, generally in a westerly direction away from Herschel Island.Niven, p. 49 On 19 September Stefansson and other members of the expedition staff left the ship for a ten-day hunting trip.
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Lannuzel was previously an Australian Research Council (ARC) Discovery Early Career Researcher at IMAS. Lannuzel's research is in the study of trace metals in the sea ice environment The iron and other trace element data generated from her research represented the first for the Antarctic pack ice zone. Her pioneering work highlighted the accumulation of trace element iron in sea ice and therefore the paramount importance of Antarctic sea ice to iron biogeochemical cycling in polar ecosystems.
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190 with a varied range of duties. In the absence of a Canadian dog-handling expert who was hired but never appeared, Crean took charge of one of the dog-handling teams,Shackleton, pp. 44–45 and was later involved in the care and nurture of the pups born to one of his dogs, Sally, early in the expedition.Alexander, pp. 29–31 On 19 January 1915 the expedition's ship, the Endurance, was beset in the Weddell Sea pack ice.
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Their goal was the Filchner Ice Shelf attached to the continent of Antarctica. To get to this goal the Endurance, her crew, and her shore party had to make their way through the ice-filled Weddell Sea. Instead of reaching the ice shelf, the expedition ship was beset by pack ice as the Antarctic winter of 1915 closed in. Conditions worsened during the winter and Shackleton was forced to order his men to abandon the Endurance in November 1915.
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These flows have a broken platey texture, consisting of dark, kilometer-scale slabs embedded in a light-toned matrix. They have been attributed to rafted slabs of solidified lava floating on a still-molten subsurface. Others have claimed the broken slabs represent pack ice that froze over a sea that pooled in the area after massive releases of groundwater from the Cerberus Fossae area. The second type of volcanic plains (ridged plains) are characterized by abundant wrinkle ridges.
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Vega's progress stopped in pack ice on September 28, 1878, about 1.5 kilometers from the coast at the Chukchi Peninsula at Neshkan, only days from the Bering Strait. The expedition spent the winter there. Vega could be freed from the ice only the next summer, on August 18, 1879, and it reached Bering Strait on August 20. Vega stopped in Japan for repairs for almost two months, and returned to Sweden through the Indian Ocean and the Suez canal.
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Last photo of the Far Eastern Party, 17 November 1912 The Australasian Antarctic expedition, commanded by Douglas Mawson, explored part of East Antarctica between 1911 and 1914. The expedition's main base was established in January 1912, at Cape Denison in Commonwealth Bay, Adélie Land.Ayres (1999), p. 63. This was much farther west than originally intended; dense pack ice had prevented the expedition ship from landing closer to Cape Adare, the original eastern limit.Bickel (2000), p. 43.
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There are colonies on a number of the islands around Antarctica such as the South Sandwich Islands, South Orkney Islands, South Shetland Islands, Bouvet Island, and Peter I Island. The bird also breeds at several sites along the mainland coast of Antarctica. At sea, it mainly occurs along the outer edge of the pack ice in summer with water temperatures of −1.5 to 0.5 °C. In winter, it regularly ranges north to around 40°S latitude.
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On 16 August they reached the River Derwent, collecting plants in Tasmania until 12 November. A week later the flotilla stopped at Lord Auckland's Islands and Campbell's Island for the spring months. Large floating forests of Macrocystis and Durvillaea were found until the ships ran into icebergs at latitude 61° S. Pack-ice was met at 68° S and longitude 175°. During this part of the voyage Victoria Land, Mount Erebus and Mount Terror were discovered.
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The sea surrounding neighbouring Nansen Island is covered with pack ice with some polynias during the long and harsh winters and there are many ice floes even in the summer.Fast ice conditions near the Nordenskjold Archipelago Vkhodnoy Island belongs to the Taymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District of the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of Russia and is part of the Great Arctic State Nature Reserve – the largest nature reserve of Russia and one of the biggest in the world.
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Fast ice can survive one or more melting seasons (i.e. summer), in which case it can be designated following the usual age-based categories: first-year, second-year, multiyear. The fast ice boundary is the limit between fast ice and drift (or pack) ice—in places, this boundary may coincide with a shear ridge. Fast ice may be delimited or enclose pressure ridges which extend sufficiently downward so as to be grounded—these features are known as stamukhi.
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By mid-September, Captain Brusilov's expedition reached the Kara Sea through the Yugorsky Shar Strait, but soon became icebound near the western shores of the Yamal Peninsula and was drifting helplessly towards the north. Brusilov wintered in the hope of seeing his ship freed in the next year's thaw. However, the summer of 1913 came and the St. Anna remained locked in sea ice. It drifted far north with the pack ice, leaving the Kara Sea and entering the Arctic Ocean.
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RCMP depot under construction, Craig Harbour, 1926 Craig Harbour () is an abandoned settlement in Qikiqtaaluk, Nunavut, Canada. It is located on Ellesmere Island, on the north shore of Jones Sound, southeast of Grise Fiord. In 1922, a Royal Canadian Mounted Police detachment was established at Craig Harbour, named in honour of Dr. John D. Craig, expedition commander. The site was selected as Smith Island protected the harbour from moving pack ice, and the nearby mouth of Jones Sound made the harbour's navigation accessible.
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On 22 September, while attempting to clear a passage for three ships trapped in the ice, Litke again damaged its rudder and propeller, hardly escaping entrapment in the ice itself, and had to retreat to clear water in Provideniya bay.Larkov, p. 140 In the middle of October, Cheluskin was firmly trapped in solid pack ice and drifting westward through the Chukchi Sea. Litke, protecting a far larger convoy, had to complete her mission at the cost of leaving Cheluskin alone in the Arctic.
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They indicate navigable channels and have reduced the number of shipwrecks, but many old hulks are found on the beaches and under the waters. Until the 20th century, the islands were completely isolated during the winter since the pack ice made the trip to the mainland impassable by boat. The islands had no means of communication with the mainland. An underwater cable was installed to enable communication by telegraph, but in winter 1910, the cable broke, and the islands were again isolated.
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After the capture of Quebec in 1759, the defeated French forces positioned themselves on the Jacques-Cartier River west of the city. Pack ice had closed the mouth of the river forcing the British Royal Navy to leave the Saint Lawrence River shortly after. The Chevalier de Lévis, General Montcalm's successor as French commander, marched his 7,000 troops to Quebec and besieged it. James Murray, the British commander, had experienced a terrible winter, in which scurvy had reduced his garrison to only 4,000.
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The keel of an iceberg or pack ice can extend far below the surface of the water. If this keel extends deep enough to make contact with the sea floor, it will scour the sea floor as the ice moves with the current. To protect the wellhead equipment from possible scouring, a glory hole is excavated into the sea floor. This excavation must be deep enough to allow adequate clearance between the top of the wellhead equipment and the surrounding sea floor.
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The ship borrowed the main principles from Pilot and applied them to the creation of the first polar icebreaker, which was able to run over and crush pack ice. The ship displaced 5,000 tons, and its steam-reciprocating engines delivered . The ship was decommissioned in 1963 and scrapped in 1964, making it one of the longest serving icebreakers in the world. In Canada, the government needed to provide a way to prevent flooding due to ice jam on the St. Lawrence River.
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The pair of ships became the first Royal Navy ships to have steam-powered engines and screw propellers. Twelve days' supply of coal was carried. Iron plating was added fore and aft on the ships' hulls to make them more resistant to pack ice, and their decks were cross-planked to distribute impact forces. Along with Erebus, Terror was stocked with supplies for their expedition, which included among other items: two tons of tobacco, 8,000 tins of preserves, and of liquor.
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It is covered with tundra vegetation and has a lake. This island group is located in the Pyasina Bay, in the Kara Sea, northeast of Dikson, off the coast of Siberia. The sea surrounding the Zveroboy Islands is covered with pack ice with some polynias in the winter and there are many ice floes even in the summer. The climate in the area is Arctic, with long bitter winters and a short warmer period which barely allows the ice to melt.
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They soon took refuge on Hakluyt Island and repaired the boats. They set out again on the June 22, island-hopping to Northumberland Island, then camping at Cape Parry and hunting all along the way, melting snow from the icebergs to produce water. As a result of the harsh winter, they soon encountered unbroken ice to the south. As their hope faded, a storm rose up and broke the ice floe, and they returned to the water amid the loose pack ice.
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48 though still extremely cold. On 20 February the ferry service across the English Channel between Dover and Ostend was suspended due to pack ice off the Belgian coast. In some places snow fell on 26 days out of 28 in the month and a temperature of was recorded at Woburn, Bedfordshire, on 25 February. As a result, railways were badly affected by drifts of light powdery snow and three hundred main roads were made unusable.. Several hundred villages were cut off.
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That evening, heavy pack ice completely crushed the lifeboat. Luckily, the men were not far from shore, but the boat sank with almost all their provisions and they were forced to walk shoulder-high through the ice-cold water. They eventually reached the shore at Cape Douglas, Alaska. The following morning, 9 January 1910, the party trekked to the top of the cliff above the beach for protection from the high seas and wind, and there they constructed a makeshift tent and fire.
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A beach supply depot was established by the end of May, accompanied by a cairn and a monument to the fallen crew members. On 3 June final flags were raised and the remaining crew abandoned Investigator, travelling by sledge to Resolute, with 18 days of provisions and McClure leading the way on foot. Progress across the thawing pack ice was slow, as the four sledges weighed between . The weakened crew made Melville Island on 12 June and reached the ships on 17 June.
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Another feature noted here is of the shore line which appears to have receded, as a result of island formations (the rise of the islands above the icy sea is reported to be per year). Though most of the land is covered by glacial ice, it does have outcrops covered with moss. The northeastern part of the archipelago is locked in pack ice most of the year round; however the ice sometimes retreats north past the islands in summer (September).
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On , 1988, Inupiaq hunter Roy Ahmaogak discovered three gray whales trapped in pack ice in the Beaufort Sea near Point Barrow in the U.S. state of Alaska. The hunter used a chainsaw to attempt cutting a path in the ice leading to open water. Fellow villagers helped the hunter by using water pumps to keep ice from reforming overnight. Word spread through the Inupiat community about the whales, and biologists from North Slope Borough, Alaska, visited the site and realized the danger.
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Most leopard seals remain within the pack ice throughout the year and remain solitary during most of their lives with the exception of a mother and her newborn pup. These matrilineal groups can move further north in the austral winter to sub- antarctic islands and the coastlines of the southern continents to provide care for their pups. While solitary animals may appear in areas of lower latitudes, females rarely breed there. Some researchers believe this is due to safety concerns for the pups.
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Following along the International Date Line, the ships of Operation Blue Nose sighted pack ice on the morning of 1 August 1947. After reaching 72’15’ north latitude, the ships continued independently along the ice pack to determine its shape. Before returning to her home port of San Diego, Nereus visited Norton Bay, Kodiak, Juneau, and Vancouver The cruise was followed by the ship's first overhaul, at Mare Island. Starting in 1948 Nereus was primarily engaged in submarine repair and services at San Diego.
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Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named for him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: and . Frank Hurley, As time wore on it became more and more evident that the ship was doomed ( trapped in pack ice), National Library of Australia.
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199 Although the transmitter's range was normally no more than , Hooke attempted to raise the radio station at Macquarie Island, more than away, again without success. On 14 May the broken remains of the two bower anchors, which were threatening to capsize the ship, were hauled in.Shackleton, pp. 310–11 During the following days the pack ice thickened, and in increasingly turbulent weather the boilers were closed down, since attempting to manoeuvre under power in these conditions would merely waste coal.
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Schwabenland was borrowed from Lufthansa for the 1938-1939 Third German Antarctic Expedition. The ship sailed in secret from Hamburg on 17 December 1938, carrying a complement of 82 men and two Dornier Wal seaplanes. The ship contacted the German whaling fleet off Bouvet Island, then anchored near the edge of the pack ice at 69°14′S, 4°30′W. After the expedition had completed its work, Schwabenland headed north on 6 February 1939, reaching Germany again on 11 April.
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South Orkney Islands On 26 January, Scotia set sail for Antarctic waters. The crew had to manoeuvre round heavy pack ice on 3 February, north of the South Orkney Islands. Next day, Scotia was able to move southward again and land a small party on Saddle Island, South Orkney Islands, where a large number of botanical and geological specimens were gathered. Ice conditions prevented any further progress until 10 February, after which Scotia continued southward, "scudding along at seven knots under sail".
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The combination of those currents creates a counter-clockwise water flow in the central part of the sea. Because of frequent fogs, winds, and currents, which continuously transport ice and icebergs through the Greenland Sea to the south, the Greenland Sea has a narrow window for commercial navigation: The ice season starts in October and ends in August. Three types of floating ice are distinguished: Arctic pack ice (several meters thick), sea ice (about a meter thick), and freshwater icebergs.
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Operation Wunderland was only moderately successful. Owing to adverse weather conditions and the abundance of ice floes, the vessels taking part in Operation Wunderland did not venture beyond the Vilkitsky Strait. Therefore, the Kriegsmarine campaign only affected the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea. By mid-September it had to be stopped because of the freezing of the sea surface with thick pack-ice, especially in the Kara Sea, which not being affected by the warmer Atlantic currents freezes much earlier.
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Under Project Ice Skate, the station was used again during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58 and beyond. Over the years, T-3 drifted across the Arctic basin, leaving the zone of AAC support periodically, and occasionally drifting close to Soviet waters across the International Date Line. During the IGY, when T-3 had drifted to Greenland, two other stations were established in the western Arctic as pack ice stations. Ice Station Alpha was occupied from 1957-late 1958.
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The Firnley Islands are covering the entrance to the Vilkitsky Strait from the west. They are all relatively small islands, Dlinnyy, the largest of the group, is only about 5 km in length. The sea surrounding the islands is covered with fast ice in the winter, which is long and bitter, and the climate is exceptionally severe. The surrounding sea is obstructed by pack ice even in the summer, so that these islands are connected with the mainland for most of the year.
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At around 11 to 13 years old, the males become sexually mature; females become sexually mature at about 5 to 8 years old. Narwhals do not have a dorsal fin, and their neck vertebrae are jointed like those of most other mammals, not fused as in dolphins and most whales. Found primarily in Canadian Arctic and Greenlandic and Russian waters, the narwhal is a uniquely specialized Arctic predator. In winter, it feeds on benthic prey, mostly flatfish, under dense pack ice.
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The blizzard continued until 16 July. This broke up the pack ice into smaller, individual floes, each of which began to move semi-independently under the force of the weather, while also clearing water in the north of the Weddell Sea. This provided a long fetch for the south-setting wind to blow over and then for the broken ice to pile up against itself while individual parts moved in different directions. This caused regions of intense localised pressure in the ice field.
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On 26 August, the two ships attempted the passage of Wellington Channel to search the area north of Cape Spencer. Soon, however, they found the way north blocked by a solid mass of pack ice and prudently returned south to the vicinity of Point Innes. There, the Americans again encountered the British, along with positive evidence of the Franklin party having camped nearby. Heartened by that find and by a favorable change in weather conditions, they headed back toward Wellington Channel.
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However, they only had sledging provisions for six weeks with the intention of completing the geological work in a couple of weeks. After the work was done they were left with rations for about four weeks. It was not anticipated the ship would have trouble picking them up as arranged in February but Terra Nova could not reach them due to heavy pack ice. Unable to connect with their ship, the Northern Party was forced to winter in Antarctica again.
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The Island was now effectively without an engine, a prospect that did not daunt Worsley as he sailed for Franz Josef Land. He described it as "sail's last unaided battle with the polar pack [pack ice]". In August he landed on Cape Barents, one of the southern islands of Franz Josef Land, and planted a Union Jack. Together with the ship's engineer who was from Dunedin, he claimed to be the first New Zealander to set foot on Franz Josef Land.
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The Antarctic Service Expedition was the first government-funded expedition of Admiral Richard E. Byrd (his first two expeditions in 1928–1930 and 1933–1935 were privately funded). East Base was built using Army knockdown buildings and a crew of 23 led by Richard Black, after Admiral Byrd had to return to Washington on the USS Bear. The war time pressures and pack-ice in the bay which prevented ship movement led to the evacuation of the base in 1941 by air.
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They sailed northwards, and, on 9 June, discovered Bear Island in the Barents Sea. Continuing on the same course they sighted a mountainous snow-covered land in about 80° N., soon afterwards being stopped by the polar pack ice. This important discovery was named Spitsbergen, and was believed—incorrectly—to be a part of Greenland. Arriving at Bear Island again on 1 July, Rijp parted company, while Heemskerck and Barents proceeded eastward, intending to pass round the northern extreme of Novaya Zemlya.
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The three governments involved were adamant that he would not lead the rescue expedition and at their insistence John King Davis was appointed to captain Aurora. After negotiation Shackleton sailed aboard Aurora, but Captain Davis had total authority on the voyage. On 10 January 1917, the ship pulled alongside the pack ice near Cape Royds and worked her way to Cape Evans. One week later, the seven survivors of the original ten members of the Ross Sea Party were headed back to Wellington, New Zealand aboard Aurora.
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Antarctic krill can scrape off the green lawn of ice-algae from the underside of the pack ice. Krill have developed special rows of rake-like setae at the tips of the thoracopods, and graze the ice in a zig-zag fashion. One krill can clear an area of a square foot in about 10 minutes (1.5 cm2/s). Recent discoveries have found that the film of ice algae is well developed over vast areas, often containing much more carbon than the whole water column below.
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They reached the Whale Fish Islands on June 16, and recuperated for five days with the Inuit at Godhavn before setting out north to resume their search for Franklin. By June 24, they encountered the pack ice again and slowly made their way towards Upernavik. Hunting and visiting with the local Inuit passed the time until they harbored at a Danish settlement in early July. Setting out as the ice cleared, they encountered British whalers, exchanging news, mail, and fresh provisions before briefly visiting Upernavik.
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People at the Port au Choix site likely hunted harp seals when hundreds of thousands arrived on the pack ice in February and March, using clubs and spears, and then shifted to migratory birds in the late spring. One grave contained the bills of 200 great auks. Dr. Leslie Tuck from the Canadian Wildlife Service suggested that the birds were blown ashore by high winds and hunted. Archaic peoples may have shifted to salmon in rivers in the summer and hunted caribou throughout the year.
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On the return trip, Scott and his four companions all died of starvation and extreme cold. In 1914 Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans- Antarctic Expedition set out with the goal of crossing Antarctica via the South Pole, but his ship, the Endurance, was frozen in pack ice and sank 11 months later. The overland journey was never made. US Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd, with the assistance of his first pilot Bernt Balchen, became the first person to fly over the South Pole on November 29, 1929.
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On 1 December 1955, Voima was transferred back to the Finnish Maritime Administration.Uusi Suomi, 11 February 1954. s. 10. Voima breaking ice shortly after delivery Although the commissioning of the new icebreaker did not go as planned, Voima still brought a long-awaited relief to the Finnish winter navigation. During the extremely difficult winter of 1956, she broke all previous records by escorting or otherwise assisting 616 icebound ships, among them the steam-powered icebreakers Sampo and Tarmo that had been immobilized by compressive pack ice.
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Kane and five men undertook an attempt in a modified whaleboat to reach Beechey Island, where Kane, as part of the first Grinnel expedition, had located the 1845 winter camp of the Franklin expedition. There, Kane hoped to meet Sir Edward Belcher's rescue expedition and their supplies. Thwarted by a heavy gale and pack ice, they sailed and manhauled the craft, only to be stopped by the ice on July 31, just from Cape Parry. They were forced to return to the ice-locked Advance.
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Upon resuming their march, many natives came to assist them, helping with the hauling and offering fresh meat from the now plentiful auks. The open water was reached on . After bidding the gathered natives farewell and offering gifts, including most of the remaining dogs, Kane and the survivors launched their three boats on June 19, having been delayed by another storm. The dried, weather-beaten wooden boats began leaking, and the Red Eric was nearly lost, as they made for the protection of the pack ice inlets.
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On 20 July they sailed again to arrive on 16 August at the River Derwent, to remain in Tasmania until 12 November. A week later the flotilla stopped at Lord Auckland's Islands and Campbell's Island for the spring months. Large floating forests of Macrocystis and Durvillaea were found until the ships run into the icebergs at latitude 61° S. Pack-ice was met at 68° S and longitude 175°. During this part of the voyage Victoria Land, Mount Erebus and Mount Terror were discovered.
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The Bolling took the City of New York in tow to save coal. According to Bursey, a whaler, the C. A. Larsen, which worked the area every summer, met the City of New York and towed it through the pack ice while the Bolling returned to New Zealand for more supplies. On Christmas Day the Great Ice Barrier was sighted, and two days later, the City of New York was tied to ice in the Bay of Whales. A base camp, Little America, was set up away.
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Two weeks after seeing their first iceberg, Astrolabe and Zélée found themselves entangled again in a mass of ice on 1 January 1838. The same night the pack ice prevented the ships from continuing to the south. In the next two months Dumont led increasingly desperate attempts to find a passage through the ice so that he could reach the desired latitude. For a while the ships managed to keep to an ice-free channel, but shortly afterwards they became trapped again, after a wind change.
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When the winter had passed, Swan, Roger Mear and Gareth Wood set out to walk to the South Pole. They arrived at the South Pole on 11 January 1986, after 70 days without the aid of any radio communications or back-up support and having hauled sledges. Swan's team had achieved the longest unassisted march ever made in history. Once at the pole, they received the bad news that their ship, Southern Quest, had been crushed by pack ice and had sunk, just minutes before they arrived.
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On 16 June 1826, Brisbane became the master of the 103 ton schooner Prince of Saxe-Coburg outfitted for sealing in the South Orkney Islands.Jones, 1971, p. 173. This voyage proved to be disastrous: first meeting atrocious weather and then pack ice that damaged the ship, Brisbane made the decision to run for Tierra del Fuego in order to make repairs. There on 16 December 1826, whilst anchored in Fury Bay on the southern end of the Cockburn Channel the schooner was driven ashore by violent williwaws.
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Preserved meat was secured from Gamble of Cork, Ireland, and although some spoilage was experienced, it had no major impact on the voyage (subsequently discovered to be the case with Franklin). Double rations of preserved limes were provisioned to offset scurvy. A seven-month voyage across the Atlantic, through the Straits of Magellan, to Hawaii and through the Aleutian Islands to the Bering Strait was planned to reach the pack ice during the most ice-free Arctic season. The ships were provisioned for a three-year voyage.
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The pack ice that girdles the shoreline at Winter Quarters Bay and elsewhere in the sound presents a formidable obstacle to surface ships. Vessels require ice- strengthened hulls and often have to rely upon escort by icebreakers. Such extreme sea conditions have limited access by tourists, who otherwise are appearing in increasing numbers in the open waters of the Antarctic Peninsula. The few tourists who reach the McMurdo Sound find spectacular scenery with wildlife to be seen, including killer whales, seals, Adélie penguins, and emperor penguins.
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Gibson's albatross breeds only in the subantarctic Auckland Islands archipelago of New Zealand. Breeding females feed mainly in the Tasman Sea, while the males forage further south in the sub Australian or mid Pacific sectors of the Southern Ocean between latitudes of 30° and 50° S, especially the Roaring Forties where the weather systems assist their foraging. Though they may sometimes travel as far south as the edge of the Antarctic pack-ice in late summer, they are rarely seen south of the Antarctic Convergence in winter.
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Leopard seals are pagophilic ("ice-loving") seals, which primarily inhabit the Antarctic pack ice between 50˚S and 80˚S. Sightings of vagrant leopard seals have been recorded on the coasts of Australia, New Zealand (where individuals have been seen even on the foreshores of major cities such as Auckland and Dunedin), South America, and South Africa. In August 2018, an individual was sighted at Geraldton, on the west coast of Australia. Higher densities of leopard seals are seen in the Western Antarctic than in other regions.
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A mother leopard seal with her pup. Since leopard seals live in an area difficult for humans to survive in, not much is known on their reproduction and breeding habits. However, it is known that their breeding system is polygynous, meaning that males mate with multiple females during the mating period. A sexually active female (ages 3–7) can give birth to a single pup during the summer on the floating ice floes of the Antarctic pack ice, with a sexually active male (ages 6–7).
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Earth's North Pole is covered by floating pack ice (sea ice) over the Arctic Ocean. Portions of the ice that do not melt seasonally can get very thick, up to 3–4 meters thick over large areas, with ridges up to 20 meters thick. One- year ice is usually about 1 meter thick. The area covered by sea ice ranges between 9 and 12 million km2. In addition, the Greenland ice sheet covers about 1.71 million km2 and contains about 2.6 million km³ of ice.
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Surface features consistent with existing pack ice have been discovered in the southern Elysium Planitia. What appear to be plates, ranging in size from to , are found in channels leading to a large flooded area. The plates show signs of break up and rotation that clearly distinguish them from lava plates elsewhere on the surface of Mars. The source for the flood is thought to be the nearby geological fault Cerberus Fossae that spewed water as well as lava aged some 2 to 10 million years.
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In 2015, ICEYE demonstrated that synthetic- aperture radar could be used to monitor hazardous ice features such as pack ice. In 2019, the founders of ICEYE and Aalto staff involved were awarded the Finnish Engineering Award. The achievement was called "a breakthrough in Finnish space technology" in the award citation. The award is given annually by the Academic Engineers and Architects in Finland TEK, the main trade union and learned society for university graduates in Finland, and comes with a cash prize of 30,000 €.
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After transferring her cargo to Edisto — which eventually forced her way through the pack ice to Slidre Fjord — Whitewood headed home. Whitewood underwent repairs at Boston between 1 September and 18 October before sailing for Bayonne, N.J., for an overhaul that lasted through the end of October. She headed back northward and operated out of Argentia, Newfoundland; and Grondal and Søndre Strømfjord, Greenland; into late 1948 supporting the International Ice Patrol. During the tour, she touched at such ports as Narsarssuak, Grondal, Argentia, and Breton.
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In 1912–14 Wiese went with Georgy Sedov’s expedition on the ship St. Foka to Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land. After the Russian Revolution Wiese took part in a number of Soviet Arctic expeditions. In 1924 Wiese studied the drift of Georgy Brusilov's ill- fated Russian ship St. Anna when she was trapped on the pack ice of the Kara Sea. He detected an odd deviation of the path of the ship's drift caused by certain variations of the patterns of sea and ice currents.
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While on South Pacific service, he became renowned for his ability to navigate to tiny, remote islands. He joined the Royal Navy Reserve in 1902 and served on HMS Swiftsure for a year before returning to the Merchant Navy. In 1914, he joined the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, which aimed to cross the Antarctic continent. After the expedition's ship Endurance was trapped in pack ice and wrecked, he and the rest of the crew sailed three lifeboats to Elephant Island, off the Antarctic Peninsula.
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The Island sailed on 21 June 1925 from Liverpool. When sailing the western side of Spitzbergen, a blade of the propeller of the Island was damaged in a collision with an ice floe. When the engine was run, severe vibration was felt and this forced Worsley to continue northwards under sail, searching for Gillis Land until the ship reached the pack ice. While doing so, soundings were taken which confirmed the presence of a submarine plain between Spitzbergen and the island group of Franz Josef Land.
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A small artificial island was built at the site to house an exploration oil well. After additional exploration, Alaska International Construction began construction of the island in the winter of 1999-2000. A standard oil-drilling platform, such as those used in the Gulf of Mexico, was not feasible because of the annual formation of pack ice close to the northern Alaska coast. A stable, year-round artificial island was the only way to provide the permanent structures needed for a production oil well.
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Leslie (1879), p. 129. On August 23, his ship, the Sofia, left a number of naturalists ashore within the fjord, before sailing north to review the state of the pack-ice. The Sofia returned to the fjord several days later, "where a violent snowstorm had almost put a stop to the work of the party that was left behind, but did not prevent a series of magnetic observations from being taken and some hitherto unknown insects [being] discovered." The Sofia left Kobbefjorden on August 31.
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She studies seals at the Commonwealth Bay and Prydz Bay. The seals are tricky to study as they live in dangerous pack ice off coastal Antarctica, making observations difficult. To identify how the seals respond to a changing ecosystem, Rogers studies them using acoustic technology (hydrophones and retired military sonar buoys). During expeditions, the team take biopsies and collect fur from seals in the wild, which can be used as biomarkers to "capture the changes in an individual's diet, environment, climate, health, and stress levels".
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Initial plans in 1901 foresaw a 60-metre-long landing stage, but this was deemed insufficient due to the very high number of anticipated visitors. The first 508-metre long pier with a restaurant was built in 1906. Pack ice damaged the structure in 1918; in 1920 the bridge head was destroyed by fire. In 1924, the bridge was again damaged by ice.Wolfgang Müller: Seebrücken an Pommerns Küste 1885–1945, Barth, 2004 In 1925 a new pier was built with a platform and concert hall, that had a length of approximately 500 metres.
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Polar bears can be found all along the coast of Baffin Island but are most prevalent where the sea ice takes the form of pack ice, where their major food sources—ringed seals (jar seal) and bearded seals—live. Polar bears mate approximately every year, bearing one to three cubs around March. Female polar bears may travel inland to find a large snow bank where they dig a den in which to spend the winter and later give birth. The polar bear population here is one of 19 genetically distinct demes of the circumpolar region.
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Bárðr, his wife and his daughters emigrated to Iceland and came ashore at a lagoon on the south shore of Snæfellsnes which they named Djúpalón; he built himself a farm which he called Laugarbrekka. Þorkell, Bárðr's half-brother from his mother's second marriage to a jötunn, lived at Arnarstapi and had two sons, Rauðfeldr (Red- cloak) and Sölvi. The sons of Þorkell and the daughters of Bárðr used to play together. One day, when there was pack ice along the shore, Rauðfeldr pushed Helga out to sea on an iceberg.
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Elliott Ridge () is a hook-shaped ridge, long, extending westward from Wiens Peak in the southern Neptune Range of the Pensacola Mountains in Antarctica. It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos in 1956–66, and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Commander James Elliott, captain of the icebreaker USS Staten Island which assisted the cargo ship Wyandot through the Weddell Sea pack ice to establish Ellsworth Station on the Filchner Ice Shelf in January 1957.
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When the ship became trapped in pack ice his duties expanded to constructing makeshift housing, and, once it became clear that the ship was doomed, to altering the sledges for the journey over the ice to open water. He built the quarters where the crew took their meals (nicknamed The Ritz) and cubicles where the men could sleep. These were all christened as well; McNish shared The Sailors' Rest with Alfred Cheetham, the Third Officer. Assisted by the crew, he constructed kennels for the dogs on the upper deck.
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Progress was impeded by fog and ice conditions in the mainly uncharted seas.Scott, pp. 128–135. The crew also experienced the dead water phenomenon, where a ship's forward progress is impeded by friction caused by a layer of fresh water lying on top of heavier salt water.Huntford, pp. 234–237. Nevertheless, Cape Chelyuskin, the most northerly point of the Eurasian continental mass, was passed on 10 September. Heavy pack ice was sighted ten days later at around latitude 78°N, as Fram approached the area in which was crushed.
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Mount Sinha () is a mountain (990 m) at the southeast extremity of Erickson Bluffs in the south part of McDonald Heights. It overlooks lower Kirkpatrick Glacier from the north in Marie Byrd Land. Mapped by United States Geological Survey (USGS) from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos, 1959–65. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for Akhouri Sinha, member of the biological party that made population studies of seals, whales and birds in the pack ice of the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas using USCGC Southwind and its two helicopters, 1971–72.
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Continuing through areas populated by several native tribes, they passed the tree line on August 2\. The party was occasionally harassed by groups of Inuit aboard kayak and umiak, but successfully suppressed the occasional aggressive posturing and developed good trading relations. These Inuit were interviewed but denied having seen any Europeans or ships, even as far back as Rae's trip through the area during the Ross Expedition of 1826. They continued on, hunting as they went, past Franklin Bay and Cape Parry, where they first encountered drifting pack ice.
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Among snailfishes, Liparis fabricii, Liparis bathyarcticus and Liparis tunicatus (the kelp snailfish) are the three species with the northernmost distribution range. Liparis fabricii lives in the circumpolar Arctic regions in waters with temperatures below . It has been recorded from the Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Kara Sea, East Siberian Sea, Chukchi Sea, White Sea, Bering Sea, Hudson Bay, Baffin Bay and the northernmost region of the North Atlantic. It is a benthopelagic species and can be found at depths of ; from just beneath the pack ice in open water to deep in the ocean bottom.
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Disaster struck this expedition when its ship, , became trapped in pack ice and was slowly crushed before the shore parties could be landed. The crew escaped by camping on the sea ice until it disintegrated, then by launching the lifeboats to reach Elephant Island and ultimately South Georgia Island, a stormy ocean voyage of and Shackleton's most famous exploit. In 1921, he returned to the Antarctic with the Shackleton–Rowett Expedition, but died of a heart attack while his ship was moored in South Georgia. At his wife's request, he was buried there.
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Nearly all of the island is covered by a glacier and it is surrounded most of the year by pack ice, making it inaccessible during these times. There is little vertebrate animal life on the island apart from some seabirds and seals. The island was first sighted by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen on 21 January 1821 and was named for Peter I of Russia. Not until 2 February 1929 did anyone set foot on the island, when Nils Larsen and Ola Olstad's Second Norvegia Expedition, financed by Lars Christensen, was successful.
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Biological, geological and hydrographic surveys underwent for three days, before the pack ice forced the expedition to leave. The expedition built a hut and placed a copy of the document of occupation from 1929 inside. On 23 June 1961, Peter I Island became subject to the Antarctic Treaty, after Norway's signing of the treaty in 1959.Barr (1987): 79 Since then, there have been several landings on the island by various nations for scientific investigations, as well as a limited number of ships that have successfully landed tourists on the island.
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Little evidence of pre-Dorset Eskimo culture exists in Newfoundland and Labrador, but Dorset sites are well-studied. Triangular end blades, probably used in barbed spears are commonly found at Dorset sites. Sod houses concentrated near the coast to take advantage of bearded seals and ringed seals close into the coast at the end of the pack ice season between May and July, as well as for hunting sea birds, salmon and Arctic char in the summer. Many sites had separated tents and houses, but today only central stone hearths are well-preserve.
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This assessment is discussed in several contexts in Vår position är ej synnerligen god ... by Andrée specialist Sven Lundström, curator of the Andreexpedition Polarcenter in Gränna, Sweden. p. 131. After Andrée, Strindberg, and Frænkel lifted off from Svalbard in July 1897, the balloon lost hydrogen quickly and crashed on the pack ice after only two days. The explorers were unhurt but faced a grueling trek back south across the drifting icescape. Inadequately clothed, equipped, and prepared, and shocked by the difficulty of the terrain, they did not make it to safety.
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Fridtjof Nansen, whose Arctic drift of 1893–96 inspired Amundsen In 1893 Nansen had driven his ship Fram into the Arctic pack ice off the northern Siberian coast and allowed it to drift in the ice towards Greenland, hoping that this route would cross the North Pole. In the event, the drift did not approach the pole, and an attempt by Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen to reach it on foot was likewise unsuccessful.See for a summary account of Nansen's Fram expedition. Nevertheless, Nansen's strategy became the basis of Amundsen's own Arctic plans.
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Location of Pernik Peninsula on Loubet Coast, Antarctic Peninsula. Holdfast Point () is both the northeast side of the entrance to Lallemand Fjord and the northwest side of the entrance to Chepra Cove on Pernik Peninsula in Graham Land, Antarctica, situated about southwest of Cape Rey. It was mapped from air photos taken by the Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition (1956–57), and was so named because when the pack ice breaks out to the north of Lallemand Fjord, it usually continues to hold fast for some time longer south of this point.
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Mount Hopeful is a peak standing north of the head of King George Bay and 1.5 nautical miles southeast of Rea Peak on King George Island, in the South Shetland Islands. It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1960 for the Enderby Brothers' schooner Hopeful (Captain Henry Rea), which sailed from London in 1833 in company with the tender Rose in order to continue John Biscoe's Antarctic researches. The Antarctic voyage was abandoned after the Rose had been crushed in the pack ice at in December 1833 or January 1834.
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As a result, the ice-strengthened oil tanker Renda was chartered to carry a cargo of diesel fuel, heating oil and gasoline to the city. This was the first time a fuel supply mission was attempted in the middle of the winter. In January 2012, a Jones Act waiver was arranged with the support of Alaska's congressional delegation so that Renda could load fuel at Dutch Harbor and transport it to Nome, a task normally reserved for US- flagged vessels. At the time, Nome was separated from open water by a pack ice field.
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Staten Island departed Seattle on 5 July 1956 to lead another convoy of resupply ships bound for the Distant Early Warning Line through the ice, returning to Seattle on 6 September 1956. She was then assigned to Operation Deep Freeze II and departed Seattle for Antarctica on 3 November 1956. Staten Island rendezvoused with cargo ship near the Panama Canal Zone before both continued on for Antarctica, arriving on 15 December 1956 at the Weddell Sea pack ice, and then breaking through the Antarctic Circle on 20 December 1956 en route to Cape Adams.
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It is generally higher than West Antarctica and includes the Gamburtsev Mountain Range in the centre. Apart from small areas of the coast, East Antarctica is permanently covered by ice. The only terrestrial plant life is lichens, mosses and algae clinging to rocks, and there are a limited range of invertebrates including nematodes, springtails, mites and midges. The coasts are the breeding ground for various seabirds and penguins, and the leopard seal, Weddell seal, elephant seal, crabeater seal and Ross seal breed on the surrounding pack ice in summer.
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On 21 March 2007 two crew members of the Royal Navy's , were killed in an explosion caused by air-purification equipment in the forward section of the submarine. The submarine was in service in the Arctic Ocean and had to make an emergency surface through the pack ice. A third crewmember who suffered "non-life-threatening" injuries was airlifted to a military hospital at Elmendorf Air Force Base near Anchorage, Alaska. According to the Royal Navy, the accident did not affect the ship's nuclear reactor, and the ship sustained only superficial damage.
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While in those cold southern latitudes, she served as the flagship for Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd, officer-in-charge of the Antarctic programs. She was then assigned to "Operation Deep Freeze II" in 1956. Wyandot rendezvoused with near the Panama Canal Zone before both continued on for Antarctica, arriving on 15 December at the Weddell Sea pack ice and then breaking through the Antarctic Circle on 20 December en route to Cape Adams. In 1957 Staten Island led Wyandot from Cape Adams to Gould Bay where Ellsworth Station was then assembled.
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In May 1941 Scott narrowly avoided detection by the while surveying Greenland pack ice in the Denmark Strait. She was damaged in a collision with in December 1941 while assisting the British Commando raid Operation Anklet on the Lofoten Islands. After the collision damage was repaired, Scott focused on providing navigational information for the minelayers placing the Northern Barrage between Greenland and Scotland from the spring of 1942 until the project was abandoned in the autumn of 1943. She surveyed the minefields in advance, and then accompanied the minelayers while the fields were placed.
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It is located off the southeastern end of the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago and northeast of the Taymyr Peninsula and has a smaller island, Starokadomsky Island, close by on its northwestern side. The area of Maly Taymyr Island is and its location is . The Vilkitsky Strait runs south of Maly Taymyr Island and its waters, as well as the waters surrounding the two islands, are covered with pack ice during the long and bitter winters. There are many ice floes even in the short summer, between June and September.
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He first left South Georgia a mere three days after he had arrived in Stromness, after securing the use of a large whaler, The Southern Sky, which was laid up in Husvik Harbour. Shackleton assembled a volunteer crew, which had it ready to sail by the morning of 22 May. As the vessel approached Elephant Island they saw that an impenetrable barrier of pack ice had formed, some from their destination. The Southern Sky was not built for ice breaking, and retreated to Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands.Shackleton 1919, pp. 210–213.
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These depots would be essential for the transcontinental party's survival, as the group would not be able to carry enough provisions for the entire crossing. The expedition required two ships: under Shackleton for the Weddell Sea party, and , under Aeneas Mackintosh, for the Ross Sea party. Endurance became beset in the ice of the Weddell Sea before reaching Vahsel Bay, and drifted northward, held in the pack ice, throughout the Antarctic winter of 1915. Eventually the ship was crushed and sunk, stranding its 28-man complement on the ice.
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One of the explorers, James Clark Ross, a British naval officer, identified its approximate location, but was unable to reach it on his 4 year- expedition from 1839 to 1843. Commanding the British ships Erebus and Terror, he braved the pack ice and approached what is now known as the Ross Ice Shelf, a massive floating ice shelf over high. His expedition sailed eastward along the southern Antarctic coast discovering mountains which were since named after his ships: Mount Erebus, the most active volcano on Antarctica, and Mount Terror. Map of exploration routes, 1911.
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The cetacean family Monodontidae comprises two living whale species, the narwhal and the beluga whale and at least four extinct species, known from the fossil record. Beluga and Narwhal are native to coastal regions and pack ice around the Arctic Ocean. Both species are medium-sized whales, between three and five metres in length, with a forehead melon, and a short or absent snout. They do not have a true dorsal fin, but do have a narrow ridge running along the back, which is much more pronounced in the narwhal.
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The fertilized egg grows into an embryo which remains suspended in the womb for up to three months before implantation, to delay birth until sufficient pack ice is available. Harp seal births are rapid, with recorded lengths as short as 15 seconds in duration. In order to cope with the shock of a rapid change in environmental temperature and undeveloped blubber layers, the pup relies on solar heating, and behavioral responses such as shivering or seeking warmth in the shade or even water. Newborn pups weigh on average and are long.
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Ikertivaq, also known as Ikersuaq or Ikerssuaq, is a bay or fjord in Sermersooq municipality, southeastern Greenland.GoogleEarth Tundra climate prevails in the area of the fjord, the average annual temperature in the area being -8° C . The warmest month is July when the average temperature rises to 0° C and the coldest is January with -14° C. This fjord has been labeled as one of the most dangerous fjords in the area because of the abundance of pack ice. Large ice floes encumber its entrance, blocking the fjord and keeping the calf ice inside.
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In 1886, a Baltic German explorer in Russian service, Baron Eduard von Toll, reported observing the elusive land during an expedition to the New Siberian Islands. In August 1901, during the Russian Polar Expedition, also led by Toll, the Russian Arctic ship Zarya headed across the Laptev Sea, searching for the legendary Sannikov Land. It was soon blocked by floating pack ice in the New Siberian Islands. Attempts to reach Sannikov Land, deemed to be beyond the De Long Islands, continued in 1902 while the Zarya was trapped in fast ice.
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She was carrying a cargo of aviation fuel. From HX 80, British Corporal joined Convoy UR 18, which departed from Loch Ewe on 27 March 1942 and arrived at Reykjavík, Iceland, on 7 April. She then joined Convoy PQ 14, which departed from Reykjavík on 8 April 1942 and arrived at Murmansk, Soviet Union, on 19 April. Due to thick fog and pack ice, British Corporal left the convoy to return to Iceland, joining Convoy QP 10 for the return and arriving at Akureyri on 18 April 1942.
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Abandonment of the Whalers Ships receiving the Captains, Officers, and Crews of Abandoned Ships In late June 1871, forty whaleships passed north through Bering Strait, hunting bowhead whales. By August the vessels had passed as far as Point Belcher, near Wainwright, Alaska, before a stationary high, parked over northeast Siberia, reversed the normal wind pattern and pushed the pack ice toward the Alaskan coast. Seven ships were able to escape to the south, but 33 others were trapped. Within two weeks the pack had tightened around the vessels, crushing four ships.
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At Beechy Island, all the search vessels gathered in a cove (later called Union Bay) to plan a coordinated search. While the leading officers were so engaged, a party sent ashore discovered three graves and "other unmistakable evidences of the missing expedition (Franklin's) having passed its first winter here." At that point, she and Rescue entered Wellington Channel to pursue the search, but the pack ice quickly closed in upon the two ships. Though they tried to escape the clutches of the pack, abysmal weather foiled their attempts; and Rescue suffered a damaged rudder.
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From 22 July to 5 August, all activities in "Nanook" centered around Thule; Norton Sound remained at anchor there, in North Star Bay, servicing her two PBM's. Meanwhile, Whitewood and Atule operated from North Star Bay as they conducted exercises and tests in the Smith Sound-Kane Basin area. On 5 August, Norton Sound and Whitewood headed for Dundas Harbor, Devon Island, to attempt air and surface operations there. Unfortunately, the ships found the harbor iced over, with a belt of pack ice extending out three miles down the coast.
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Johnson, p 117 Smith and other Coast Guard oceanographers helped in the understanding of how pack ice affected the drift of icebergs, thus helping the IIP track the iceberg's movements in shipping lanes. During Billard's term of office, the was used as an oceanographic research vessel studying the waters near Greenland with hundreds of observations taken of water temperature and salinity as well as soundings. The soundings were used to correct nautical charts of the coastal waters. This would prove valuable information later during World War II when the Greenland Patrol was established.
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The data about the drift of the Svyataya Anna on the pack ice of the Kara Sea supplied by Albanov were carefully studied in 1924, by Soviet oceanographer Vladimir Wiese. He detected an odd deviation of the path of the ship's drift caused by certain variations of the patterns of sea and ice currents. Wiese deemed that the deviation was caused by the presence of an undiscovered island whose coordinates he was able to calculate with precision thanks to Albanov's data. This island was later discovered and named Wiese Island.
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Worsley was to be in command of the resupply expedition for the party that was to winter over in Antarctica, but Shackleton began to doubt whether his leadership skills were sufficient to achieve this. After resupplying at Buenos Aires, the Endurance left for the remote island of South Georgia, in the South Atlantic, on 26 October. It duly arrived at Grytviken Station, a Norwegian whaling outpost, on 5 November. The Norwegians confirmed initial reports from Buenos Aires that the Antarctic pack ice was much further north than usual.
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Worsley alongside a large pressure ridge on the ice, August 1915 The Endurance encountered the pack ice three days after leaving South Georgia, and Worsley began working the ship through the various bergs. On occasion it was necessary to ram a path through the ice. Progress was intermittent; on some days little headway was made while on other days large stretches of open water allowed swift passage southwards. Worsley would often direct the helmsman from the crow's nest, from where he could see any breaks in the ice.
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When the ship had to be abandoned all Clark's specimens were left behind. Frank Worsley recorded: Once they reached the edge of the pack ice the crew set out for Elephant Island in three of the small boats of the Endurance. Clark travelled in the 22½-foot James Caird with Shackleton, Frank Hurley, Leonard Hussey, Reginald James, James Wordie, Harry McNish, Charles Green, John Vincent and Timothy McCarthy. On arriving at the island, Shackleton set out almost immediately with five of the crew to fetch rescue from South Georgia.
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Amongst these were HMS Glatton which, due to bodged construction, suffered a magazine explosion in Dover Harbour less than one month after commissioning. Armstrong Mitchell and later Armstrong Whitworth built many merchant ships, freighters, tank- ships, and dredgers; notable among them was the ice-breaking train ferries in 1897 and in 1900, built to connect the Trans-Siberian Railway across Lake Baikal. The company built the first polar icebreaker in the world: Yermak was a Russian and later Soviet icebreaker, having a strengthened hull shaped to ride over and crush pack ice.
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The ships were the first to penetrate the Antarctic pack ice and to confirm the existence of the great southern continent. Hooker and Lyall made good use of their time botanizing on Kerguelen Island. Lyall had the rare distinction of having a whole genus, Lyallia, named after him, by Hooker. Hooker noted in his Flora Antarctica: > Among his many important botanical discoveries in this survey was that of > the monarch of all buttercups, the gigantic white-flowered Ranunculus > lyallii, the only known species with peltate leaves, the 'water-lily' of the > New Zealand shepherds.
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During the first days of December the ship was struck by a heavy storm; at one point, with the ship taking heavy seas and the pumps having failed, the crew had to bail her out with buckets. The storm resulted in the loss of two ponies, a dog, of coal and of petrol. On 10 December, Terra Nova met the southern pack ice and was halted, remaining for 20 days before breaking clear and continuing southward. The delay, which Scott attributed to "sheer bad luck", had consumed of coal.
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After following the barrier for over 250 miles and with the Antarctic winter approaching they returned to the west but, near Mount Erebus, could not get ashore. They were 160 miles from the south magnetic pole – 700 miles nearer than anyone had been before. After passing Cape Adare, they again succeeded in breaking through the pack ice and reached Tasmania on 6 April 1841 to be greeted by John Franklin and crowds of well- wishers. As it happens Erebus and Terror were the last vessels to navigate the Ross Sea using only sail.
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Collision of Erebus and Terror For more magnetic readings, they left for Sydney in July 1841 continuing to New Zealand's Bay of Islands. In November they set sail south, this time heading south along 146°W hoping to again reach the Ross Ice Shelf. This time they became trapped in the pack ice and it took 58 days to reach through 800 miles of pack to open water. They sighted what became Edward VII Land and, reaching their new furthest south of 78°9'S, they again saw the Ice Shelf.
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Cape Kohlsaat (Russian: Мыс Кользат) is a point on the eastern shore of Graham Bell Island, the easternmost island of Franz Josef Land, Russia. It is also the easternmost limit of the Franz Josef Archipelago. Its location is 81°14′N, 65°10′E, and it is important as a landmark, for Cape Kohlsaat marks the northwesternmost corner of the Kara Sea. Being close to the area of permanent polar ice of the Arctic Ocean, the sea off Cape Kohlsaat has much pack ice almost the whole year round.
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Although she had some modern facilities, such as electric lights in the cabins,Huntford (The Shackleton Voyages), p. 259 she was unsuited to long oceanic voyages; Shackleton, on the first day out, observed that "in no way are we shipshape or fitted to ignore even the mildest storm".Mills, pp. 287–90 Leif Mills, in his biography of Frank Wild, says that had the ship been taken to the Beaufort Sea in accordance with Shackleton's original plans, she would probably have been crushed in the Arctic pack ice.
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Lawrence Gianella headed south towards McMurdo Station, Antarctica Among Lawrence H. Gianella’s multiple tasks, her reinforced steel bow enables her to battle through pack ice in southern seas and deliver fuel to McMurdo Station, Antarctica. On 1 July 2009, she shifted from the MSC’s Sealift Program and began serving the Command’s Prepositioning Program. The ships assigned to the program preposition U.S. Marine Corps vehicles, equipment, and ammunition throughout the world. Lawrence H. Gianella serves the program by delivering petroleum products to Department of Defense storage and distribution facilities worldwide.
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The peninsula was named by A.G. Nathorst on his 1899 expedition after Swedish Arctic explorer Salomon August Andrée, who had made an attempt to reach the North Pole by balloon in 1897. One of the aims of Nathorst's 1899 venture was to search for traces of the lost Andrée's Arctic Balloon Expedition, whose fate was unknown until 1930, when it became known that Andrée had crash-landed on the pack ice and died on Kvitøya. The region was later visited and accurately mapped during Lauge Koch's expeditions to East Greenland.
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Punta Médanos couldn't be repaired, and was unable to continue operations during the war. After the end of the war, she was converted into a hospital ship. The ship gained attention in 2002, when she attempted to rescue the supply vessel Magdalena Oldendorff, which was trapped in pack ice off Antarctica. Even though Irízar failed to break Magdalena Oldendorff free, she managed to move it to a safer position and resupply the ship with food, medicine and medical personnel until the ice melted and Magdalena Oldendorff could return to open sea.
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In 1996 Nizhneyansk was sold to a Liberian company Bandwidth Shipping Corporation, reclassified by Germanischer Lloyd and renamed Magdalena Oldendorff. Operated by a German shipping company Oldendorff Carriers, a subsidiary of Egon Oldendorff, the ship was chartered in 2000 as a support ship for the 20th Indian Antarctic Expedition. On 11 June 2002 Magdalena Oldendorff, while on her second voyage to the Maitri Base, was immobilized by pack ice. 79 Russian scientists and 11 crew members were airlifted by helicopters to the South African research ship S. A. Agulhas and returned to Cape Town.
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Crevasse, Ross Ice Shelf in 2001. On January 5, 1841, the British Admiralty's Ross expedition in the Erebus and the Terror, three-masted ships with specially strengthened wooden hulls, was going through the pack ice of the Pacific near Antarctica in an attempt to determine the position of the South Magnetic Pole. Four days later, they found their way into open water and were hoping that they would have a clear passage to their destination. But on 11 January, the men were faced with an enormous mass of ice.
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The ships have performed beyond expectations in both level ice up to thick, which can be broken in continuous motion at , and ridges up to deep, which can be penetrated by either allowing the forward-facing propeller to mill (crush) the ice or breaking the ridge apart with the propeller wash.Opening up the Arctic. High Technology Finland 2005. While the vessels have been immobilized occasionally by pack ice, they have been able to free themselves by using the rotating propeller pod to clear the ice around the hull.
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The ships have performed beyond expectations in both level ice up to thick, which can be broken in continuous motion at , and ridges up to deep, which can be penetrated by either allowing the forward-facing propeller to mill (crush) the ice or breaking the ridge apart with the propeller wash.Opening up the Arctic. High Technology Finland 2005. Retrieved 26 September 2010 While the vessels have been immobilized occasionally by pack ice, they have been able to free themselves by using the rotating propeller pod to clear the ice around the hull.
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A group of researchers from the Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory tested their Submarine Team Behaviors Tool with the Healy crew in September 2013. They were part of the 50 person science team from the USCG Research and Development Center that evaluated technology for the recovery of "simulated oil trapped in or under ice at the polar ice edge". USCGC HEALY amid the ice at night in the Arctic Ocean. 2012: In January 2012, Healy escorted the Russian-flagged freighter Renda through pack ice to deliver an emergency supply of fuel to Nome, Alaska.
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In addition to providing year-round supply services for the Piltun-Astokhskoye-A platform (the former Molikpaq), they served as ice management and standby vessels for the floating storage and offloading (FSO) vessel Okha and its single anchor leg mooring (SALM) buoy. The icebreakers were used to assist the raising and lowering of the SALM buoy and the beginning and end of the production season, and to support loading operations together with other icebreaking vessels until the ice conditions became too severe.Dunderdale, P. and Wright, B. (2005): Pack ice management on the Southern Grand Banks Offshore Newfoundland, Canada.
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Mount Petrides () is a mountain with much exposed rock midway between Oehlenschlager Bluff and Mount Sinha, in southern Erickson Bluffs, Marie Byrd Land. It overlooks the confluence of Kirkpatrick and Hull Glaciers from the north. Mapped by United States Geological Survey (USGS) from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos, 1959–65. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US- ACAN) for George A. Petrides, member of the biological party that made population studies of seals, whales and birds in the pack ice of the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas using USCGC Southwind and its two helicopters, 1971–72.
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He constructed a false deck, extending from the poop-deck to the chart-room to cover the extra coal that the ship had taken on board. He also acted as the ship's barber. As the ship pushed into the pack ice in the Weddell Sea it became increasingly difficult to navigate. McNish constructed a six-foot wooden semaphore on the bridge to enable the navigating officer to give the helmsman directions, and built a small stage over the stern to allow the propeller to be watched in order to keep it clear of the heavy ice.
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As supplies began to dwindle the party grew hungry. McNish records that he smoked himself sick trying to alleviate the pangs of hunger and although he thought the shooting of the dogs terribly sad, he was happy to eat the meat they provided stating "Their flesh tastes a treat. It is a big treat for us after being so long on seal meat." When the ice finally brought the camp to the edge of the pack ice, Shackleton decided that the three boats, the James Caird, Stancomb Wills, and Dudley Docker, should make initially for Elephant Island.
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Christiansen's red-and-white flag was officially adopted on 1 May 1989. To honour the tenth anniversary of the Erfalasorput, the Greenland Post Office issued commemorative postage stamps and a leaflet by the flag's creator. He described the white stripe as representing the glaciers and ice cap, which cover more than 80% of the island; the red stripe, the ocean; the red semicircle, the sun, with its bottom part sunk in the ocean; and the white semicircle, the icebergs and pack ice. The design is also reminiscent of the setting sun half- submerged below the horizon and reflected on the sea.
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It separated from the nearest coast by a narrow sound that is about one km in width in its narrowest stretch. The climate in the area is severe, with long and bitter winters and frequent blizzards and gales. The sea surrounding Kolchak Island is covered with pack ice in the winter and there are numerous ice floes even in the summer, so that most of the year it is merged with the mainland. Kolchak Island belongs to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation and is part of the Great Arctic State Nature Reserve, the largest nature reserve of Russia.
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S. A. Andrée and Knut Frænkel with the balloon on the pack ice, photographed by the third expedition member, Nils Strindberg. The exposed film for this photograph and others from the failed 1897 expedition was recovered in 1930. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897 was an effort to reach the North Pole in which all three Swedish expedition members S. A. Andrée, Knut Frænkel, and Nils Strindberg perished. Andrée, the first Swedish balloonist, proposed a voyage by hydrogen balloon from Svalbard to either Russia or Canada, which was to pass, with luck, straight over the North Pole on the way.
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There are many different varieties of dairy products produced by Kowloon Dairy Limited. There are up to eight types of milk for customers to choose from, such as regular fresh milk, Hi-Calcium Slimilk, Hi-Calcium Skimmed, Gold Medal Milk, Australian Whole Milk, Hi-Calcium Chocolate Slimilk, Deluxe Chocolate Low Fat Milk, and Hi-Fibre Papaya Low Fat Milk. As for ice cream products, there are up to four types of choices such as Mochi Ice, Mini Mochi Ice, Family Pack Ice Cream, and Ovaltine Cone Series. There are more than eight flavors, such as Vanilla, Chocolate, Mango, etc.
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The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition was an attempt to cross the Antarctic continent led by Ernest Shackleton. The personnel were divided into two groups: the Weddell Sea party consisting of the men who would attempt the crossing and their support, and the Ross Sea party whose job it was to lay stores on the far side of the Pole for the members of the Weddell Sea party who would make the crossing. Both arms of the expedition had a final complement of 28 men. The Weddell Sea party's ship Endurance was crushed in pack ice and the crossing attempt was never made.
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Video of a reclining Weddell seal on pack ice in Adélie Land A Weddell seal at a breathing hole Weddell seals are commonly found on fast ice, or ice fastened to land, and gather in small groups around cracks and holes within the ice. In the winter, they stay in the water to avoid blizzards, with only their heads poking through breathing holes in the ice. These seals are often observed lying on their sides when on land. Weddell seals are non-migratory phocids that move regionally to follow the distribution of breathing holes and exit cracks within the ice changes between seasons.
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The Saint Peter Islands, also known as Saint Petra Islands or Petra Islands (, Ostrova Petra) are two islands covered with tundra vegetation, shingle and ice. These islands, as well as some other islands nearby (Ostrova Andreia, Ostrov Pavla) were originally named after Christian Apostles. The climate is Arctic and severe with frequent blizzards in the winter. The sea surrounding these Islands is covered with fast ice most of the year and is obstructed by pack ice even in the summer, so that these islands are merged with the mainland and animals can go across the ice.
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There are two small islands just east of Clarence Island, the northern one is named Sugarloaf Island. Chinstrap Cove lies on the northwest coast of the island, while Istros Bay, Smith Cove, and Kutela Cove lie on its southeast side. Antarctic explorer Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition observed and considered landing on Clarence Island after escaping the pack ice of the Weddell Sea but instead landed on nearby Elephant Island. The high point on Clarence Island was reached by members of the Joint Services Elephant Island Expedition in 1970, which also completed a survey of Elephant and Clarence Island.
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Molodyozhnaya Station is located in the Thala Hills, 500–600 meters inland from the coast on the southern shore of Alasheyev Bight in the Cosmonaut Sea, at 42 meters above sea level. The area around the station is composed mostly of rocky ridges separated by snow-covered depressions and lakes. The sea near the station is covered in pack ice for much of the year, out to a distance of as much as 100 km at the end of winter. The rise to the summit of the massive East Antarctic Ice Sheet (Dome A) begins 1.5-2.0 km from the shore.
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Elisha Kent Kane The Second Grinnell expedition of 1853–1855 was an American effort, financed by Henry Grinnell, to determine the fate of the Franklin's lost expedition. Led by Elisha Kent Kane, the team explored areas northwest of Greenland, now called Grinnell Land. While failing to determine the fate of Sir John Franklin, the expedition set a new record for northward penetration, delineated of unexplored coastline north of 82° latitude, and discovered the long-sought open Polar Sea. Kane collected valuable geographical, climate and magnetic observations before abandoning the brig to the pack ice in 1855.
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Hauling- out spikes an increase in the herding behaviour of ringed seals, particularly in the Ladoga subspecies. Subspecies of the ringed seal prefer different haul- out sites depending on their geographical location and environmental constraints. For example, 5 subspecies of ringed seals prefer hauling-out onto land-fast ice, however Phoca hispida ochotensis prefers drifting pack ice, meanwhile Phoca hispida hispida occupies both land-fast ice and far offshore areas of relatively stable ice. The majority of ringed seals however use terrestrial haul-out sites to create birth layers in the snow for newborn seal pups.
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Making their way along the coast east of Point Barrow,McClure, p. 48. message cairns were left at the site of each landing, crews occasionally trading with local Inuit but obtaining no news of Franklin. The progress north-west was frustrated by ice and shoals, and at one time Investigator became grounded so firmly that all stores had to be unloaded to her boats (one of which capsized, losing of dried beef) before she could be freed. Alternating between pressing ice floes, then open water, McClure's continued to advance to the north-east, reaching the solid pack ice on August 19.
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The head (top) of the run is located under the remains of a Twelfth Century church, demolished in 1890, known as the 'Leaning Tower'. The overall drop is and the gradient varies from 2.8 to 1 to 8.7 to 1 (length to drop). The modern Cresta track is not shared with bobsled, unlike the original half-pipe sledding track built by hotelier Caspar Badrutt for his guests. Most of it is located within the contour of a steep ravine and is recreated each winter using the rocky ravine and banks of earth as a buttress for the pack ice.
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Getting all those things done took another decade; the process was expedited when the owner of the land on the Pennsylvania side donated it to the company. alt=A black and white photograph of a truss bridge with large pack ice and ice floes in the river below In the late 1890s the Horseheads Bridge Company, which later built Dingman's Ferry Bridge downriver, was hired to build a truss bridge. It cost $23,180 and opened early in 1899. After being open for free on its first day, it became a toll bridge to recoup the construction costs.
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Research based upon measurements retrieved from a seismometer previously placed on B-15 indicated that ocean swells caused by an earthquake away in the Gulf of Alaska caused the breakup, according to a report by the U.S. National Public Radio. Wind and sea currents shifted a smaller, but still massive Iceberg B-15A towards McMurdo Sound. B-15A's enormous girth temporarily blocked the outflow of pack ice from McMurdo Sound, according to news reports. Iceberg B-15A's grounding at the mouth of McMurdo Sound also blocked the path for thousands of penguins to reach their food source in open water.
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Moreover, pack ice built up behind the iceberg in the Ross Sea creating a nearly frozen barrier that blocked two cargo ships en route to supply McMurdo Station, according to the National Science Foundation. MV American Tern bringing supplies for McMurdo Station The icebreakers USCGC Polar Star and the Russian Krasin were required to open a ship channel through ice up to thick. The last leg of the channel followed a route along the eastern shoreline of McMurdo Sound adjacent to Ross Island. The icebreakers escorted the tanker USNS Paul Buck to McMurdo Station's ice pier in late January.
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The sound separates Kulusuk Island in the south from Apusiaajik Island in the northeast, and from the small Akinaaq island and smaller skerries in the northwest. The strait waterway connects Ammassalik Fjord in the northwest with the North Atlantic in the southeast, through the Ikaasaartik Strait.Tasiilaq, Saga Map, Tage Schjøtt, 1992 During winter pack ice and small icebergs pushed forth by the East Greenland Current ram against the northeastern coast, blocking the narrow Ikaasaartik Strait and facilitating the freeze of the much wider Torsuut Tunoq sound. The tidewater Apusiaajik Glacier drains into the sound in its northernmost part.
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Geology and Ore, 11, 2-12 (pdf 7.4 MB) There was a plan to build a road between Nanortalik and the mine, so workers could live in the town. But the decision and planning process took too long a time, so the company built simple apartment buildings for the workers at the mine. It was less attractive for Greenlanders to live at such a place, so most workers were from other countries. During the spring, many Greenlanders hunt hooded seals among the outer islands, where the pack ice drifts up from the east coast on its way north.
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The light-mantled albatross has a circumpolar pelagic distribution in the Southern Ocean. It ranges in latitude from the pack-ice around Antarctica, with the southernmost record from 78°S in the Ross Sea, to about 35°S, with occasional sightings further north along the Humboldt Current. It breeds on several subantarctic islands including the Prince Edward Island, Marion Island, Crozet Islands, Amsterdam Island, St. Paul Island, Kerguelen Islands, Heard Island, Macquarie Island, Campbell Island, Auckland Islands, Antipodes Islands and South Georgia and at least on one island in the maritime Antarctic at 62°S on King George Island.Lisovski et al.
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This was the first positive indicator of the eastern limits of the Weddell Sea at high latitude, and suggested that the sea might be considerably smaller than had been previously supposed. A projected visit to Coats Land by a sledging party was abandoned by Bruce because of the state of the sea ice. Piper Gilbert Kerr alongside a penguin, March 1904 On 9 March 1904 Scotia reached its most southerly latitude of 74°01'S. At this point, the ship was held fast in the pack ice, and the prospect loomed of becoming trapped for the winter.
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The crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophaga), also known as the krill-eater seal, is a true seal with a circumpolar distribution around the coast of Antarctica. They are medium- to large-sized (over 2 m in length), relatively slender and pale-colored, found primarily on the free-floating pack ice that extends seasonally out from the Antarctic coast, which they use as a platform for resting, mating, social aggregation and accessing their prey. They are by far the most abundant seal species in the world. While population estimates are uncertain, there are at least 7 million and possibly as many as 75 million individuals.
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Accessed 10 May 2012. Meanwhile, following Sweden's exit from the Kalmar Union, the remaining states in the personal union were reorganized into Denmark-Norway in 1536. In protest against foreign involvement in the region, the Greenlandic polar bear was included in the state's coat of arms in the 1660s (it was removed in 1958 but remains part of the royal coat of arms). In the second half of the 17th century Dutch, German, French, Basque, and Dano-Norwegian ships hunted bowhead whales in the pack ice off the east coast of Greenland, regularly coming to shore to trade and replenish drinking water.
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Continuing north to Wainwright on 31 July, Estes pressed on to Point Barrow the following day. At anchor off Point Barrow, Estes fell temporary victim to a shift in the wind which allowed pack ice to move inshore, immobilizing the ship for the better part of a week. The icebreaker freed Estes, and the transports and , from the icy confines of the anchorage. The resupply mission complete, Estes set course for its home port of San Diego on 9 August. Between January and May 1954, it again sailed for atomic weapons tests at Eniwetok, and on 6 July cleared for the Far East.
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Secondary ecological effects are also resultant from the shrinkage of sea ice; for example, polar bears are denied their historic length of seal hunting season due to late formation and early thaw of pack ice. Some 200 Svalbard reindeer were found starved to death in July 2019, apparently due to low precipitation related to climate change.More Than 200 Reindeer Found Dead in Norway, Starved by Climate Change By Mindy Weisberger. Live Science, July 29, 2019 In the short-term, climate warming may have neutral or positive effects on the nesting cycle of many Arctic-breeding shorebirds.
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It was suggested at the time that the ships could have been Erebus and Terror, but it is now known that they were not; it is likely that they were abandoned whaling ships. In 1852, Edward Belcher was given command of the government Arctic expedition in search of Franklin. This was unsuccessful; Belcher's inability to render himself popular with his subordinates was peculiarly unfortunate in an Arctic voyage, and he was not wholly suited to command vessels among ice. Four of the five ships (, Pioneer, and Intrepid) were abandoned in pack ice, for which Belcher was court-martialed but acquitted.
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Ungava Bay and the Bay of Fundy lie similar distances from the continental shelf edge, but Ungava Bay is free of pack ice for about four months every year while the Bay of Fundy rarely freezes. Southampton in the United Kingdom has a double high water caused by the interaction between the M2 and M4 tidal constituents. Portland has double low waters for the same reason. The M4 tide is found all along the south coast of the United Kingdom, but its effect is most noticeable between the Isle of Wight and Portland because the M2 tide is lowest in this region.
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From 22 July to 5 August 1946, all activities in Operation Nanook centered on Thule; Norton Sound remained at anchor there, in North Star Bay, servicing her two PBM's. Meanwhile, Whitewood and Atule operated from North Star Bay as they conducted exercises and tests in the Smith Sound-Kane Basin area. On 5 August 1946, Norton Sound and Whitewood headed for Dundas Harbour, Nunavut and Devon Island, in order to attempt air and surface operations there. Unfortunately, the ships found the harbor iced over, with a belt of pack ice extending out three miles down the coast.
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Different proposals included flying a large aircraft from Seattle to Nome, carrying a plane to the edge of the pack ice via Navy ship and launching it, and the original plan of flying the serum from Fairbanks. Despite receiving headline coverage across the country, the support of several cabinet departments, and from Arctic explorer Roald Amundsen, the plans were rejected by experienced pilots, the Navy, and Governor Bone. Thompson's editorials waxed virulent against those opposing using airplanes. In response, Bone decided to speed up the relay and authorized additional drivers for Seppala's leg of the relay, so they could travel without rest.
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The young botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker made his name on the expedition. The expedition inferred the position of the South Magnetic Pole, and made substantial observations of the zoology and botany of the region, resulting in a monograph on the zoology, and a series of four detailed monographs by Hooker on the botany, collectively called Flora Antarctica and published in parts between 1843 and 1859. The expedition was the last major voyage of exploration made wholly under sail. Among the expedition's biological discoveries was the Ross seal, a species confined to the pack ice of Antarctica.
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Captain H. Halvorsen of the whaler Sevilla discovered the Princess Astrid Coast independently at the same time. Six years later, during Christensen's expedition of 1936–37, Viggo Widerøe flew over and discovered the Prince Harald Coast. Negotiations with the British government in 1938 resulted in the western border of Queen Maud Land being set at 20°W. Norway's claim was disputed by Germany, which in 1938 dispatched the German Antarctic Expedition, led by Alfred Ritscher, to fly over as much of it as possible. The ship Schwabenland reached the pack ice off Antarctica on 19 January 1939.
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Despite their joyous reunion, the expedition team ended up losing two more sled dogs. Kuma from Pippu broke his chain, ran off into the Antarctic wilderness, and disappeared, while Tetsu died at the base of natural causes. Shiroko, the sole female dog of the team, soon gave birth to a litter of eight puppies, bringing the number of dogs at the base up to 24 sled dogs. As the ship, Sōya, carrying the second Antarctica expedition team approached, it became entrapped by pack ice due to the changing weather conditions and the ship's lack of power.
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The Tegetthoff trapped in the ice The Tegetthoff with her crew of 25 left Tromsø, Norway in July 1872. At the end of August she got locked in pack ice north of Novaya Zemlya and drifted to hitherto unknown polar regions. While drifting, the explorers discovered an archipelago which they named Franz-Josef Land after Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph I. Payer led several sledge expeditions to explore the new-discovered lands, on one of them reaching 81° 50′ North. In May 1874 boat captain Weyprecht decided to abandon the ice-locked ship and try to return by sledges and boats.
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On 18 February 1872, Weyprecht gained citizenship in Austria-Hungary. He co-led, with Julius von Payer, the 1872-1874 Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition which discovered the archipelago Franz Josef Land in the Arctic Ocean. The expedition's ship Admiral Tegetthoff was abandoned in the pack ice. The expedition then moved on sledges to go further north, then to open water, where they used boats to reach the Black Cape of Novaya Zemlya and would eventually contact a Russian schooner, "Nikolaj", under Captain Feodor Voronin, and get to Vardø, Norway, where they took the mail boat south and eventually returned to Vienna.
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The expedition begins on March 8 with temperatures around -70 degrees. The first week mainly consists of practicing routines, getting used to the harsh weather conditions and carrying out the daily routines of walking, camping and preparing running, all the while making a few miles of progress. The crew, which splits up into two teams for the expedition, quickly gets to experience “the real challenge” of the expedition, the pack ice and the physical hardships, such as frostbites, stiff hands and plagued feet. Especially the nights are hard to endure for the crew. The only actions that bring “circulation to the cramped legs” are loading sleds and harnessing dogs.
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A brinicle can, under the proper conditions, reach down to the seafloor. To do so, the supercold brine from the pack ice overhead must continue to flow, the surrounding water must be significantly less saline than the brine, the water cannot be very deep, the overhead sea ice pack must be still, and currents in the area must be minimal or still. If the surrounding water is too saline, its freezing point will be too low to create a significant amount of ice around the brine plume. If the water is too deep, the brinicle is likely to break free under its own weight before reaching the seafloor.
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The latitude of this group is 77° 40' N and the longitude 101° 27' E. The largest island of the group is only about in length. The sea surrounding the Heiberg Islands is covered with fast ice in the winter, which is long and bitter, and the climate is severe. The surrounding sea is obstructed by pack ice even in the summer, so that these islands are connected with the mainland for most of the year. The Heiberg Islands were named by Fridtjof Nansen after Axel Heiberg, financial director of the Norwegian Ringnes brewery, who was the main financier of the Fram expedition to the Arctic.
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There she became frozen into the pack ice and had to wait for the drift to carry her towards the pole. Impatient with the slow progress and erratic character of the drift, after eighteen months Nansen and a chosen companion, Hjalmar Johansen, left the ship with a team of dogs and sledges to make for the pole. On 14March, with the ship at 84°4′N, the pair finally began their polar march. They did not reach their objective, but achieved a record "Farthest North" latitude of 86°13.6′N before their long retreat over ice and water to reach safety in Franz Josef Land.
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AB acronym stands for Deep Arctic to White Sea A deep sea route via Amderma and the Kara Strait was safe from bottom mines, but at least of the journey was packed with 'young' ice, slowing down the convoy and consuming fuel (Litke sailed with only 900 tonnes of coal and 290 tonnes of water). The second leg of the journey was almost entirely in pack ice (eliminating the submarine threat). On 11 November, AB-66 reached open water and was joined by a defensive destroyer escort (Convoy AB-55). Six more destroyers sailed from Arkhangelsk and Iokanga to protect AB-55 in home waters.
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At that time, many experts believed than an undiscovered land mass lay in this region, since such a mass could account for observed patterns of arctic currents and tides.Mills, William James (2003) "Mikkelsen, Ejnar (1880–1971)" Exploring polar frontiers: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1 pp 426 ff, ABC- CLIO , Leffingwell 1915a The underfunded expedition fared badly but achieved some positive results. No new land was discovered, but they delineated part of the continental shelf and Leffingwell began his mapping efforts. Their ship, the Duchess of Bedford, was locked in pack ice and destroyed, but they salvaged the wood to build a cabin which Leffingwell used intermittently through 1914.
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However, during the Antarctic winter darkness, when there is no light under the ice where the seals forage, they rely on other senses, primarily the sense of touch from their vibrissae or whiskers, which are not just hairs, but very complicated sense organs with more than 500 nerve endings that attach to the animal's snout. The hairs allow the seals to detect the wake of swimming fish and use that to capture prey. Weddell seals have no natural predators when on fast ice. At sea or on pack ice, they are prey for killer whales and leopard seals, which prey primarily on juveniles and pups.
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Early in 1898 the ship became trapped by pack ice in the Bellinghausen Sea, and was held fast for almost a year. The expedition thus became, involuntarily, the first to spend a complete winter in Antarctic waters, a period marked by depression, near-starvation, insanity, and scurvy among the crew. Amundsen remained dispassionate, recording everything and using the experience as an education in all aspects of polar exploration techniques, particularly aids, clothing and diet. Belgicas voyage marked the beginning of what became known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, and was rapidly followed by expeditions from the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany and France.
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Austro-Hungarian ships and naval personnel were also involved in Arctic exploration, discovering Franz Josef Land during an expedition which lasted from 1872 to 1874. Led by the naval officer Karl Weyprecht and the infantry officer and landscape artist Julius Payer, the custom-built schooner Tegetthoff left Tromsø in July 1872. At the end of August she got locked in pack-ice north of Novaya Zemlya and drifted to hitherto unknown polar regions. It was on this drift when the explorers discovered an archipelago which they named after Emperor Franz Joseph I. In May 1874 Payer decided to abandon the ice-locked ship and try to return by sledges and boats.
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The aircraft often operate over open ocean, mountains, coastal wetlands, Arctic pack ice, and in and around hurricanes and other severe weather. Noncommercial aircraft support NOAA's atmospheric and hurricane surveillance/research programs, NOAA Hurricane Hunters. The aircraft collect environmental and geographic data for NOAA hurricane and other weather and atmospheric research; provide aerial support for coastal and aeronautical charting and remote sensing projects; conduct aerial surveys for hydrologic research, and provide support to NOAA's fishery research and marine mammal assessment programs. Prior to its move to Lakeland, the AOC resided at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida, from January 1993 to June 2017.
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On 1 October 1931, at the end of a trading run and loaded with a cargo of fur, Baychimo became trapped in pack ice. The crew briefly abandoned the ship, travelling over a half-mile of ice to the town of Barrow to take shelter for two days, but the ship had broken free of the ice by the time the crew returned. The ship became mired again on October 8, more thoroughly this time, and on 15 October the Hudson's Bay Company sent aircraft to retrieve 22 of the crew; 15 men remained behind. Intending to wait out the winter if necessary, they constructed a wooden shelter some distance away.
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Amundsen, Hanssen, Hassel and Wisting (photo by fifth member Bjaaland) After the North Magnetic Pole was located in 1831, explorers and scientists began looking for the South Magnetic Pole. James Clark Ross, a British naval officer, identified its approximate location, but was unable to reach it on his trip in 1841. Commanding the British ships Erebus and Terror, he braved the pack ice and approached what is now known as the Ross Ice Shelf, a massive floating ice shelf over high. His expedition sailed eastward along the southern Antarctic coast discovering mountains which were since named after his ships: Mount Erebus, the most active volcano on Antarctica, and Mount Terror.
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Five days of continuous work were necessary in order to open a corridor in the pack ice to free them. After reaching the South Orkney Islands, the expedition headed directly to the South Shetland Islands and the Bransfield Strait separating them from Antarctica. In spite of thick fog they located some land only sketched on the maps, which Dumont named Terre de Louis-Philippe (now called Graham Land), the Joinville Island group and Rosamel Island (now called Andersson Island).These were named respectively after the French King; François d'Orléans, prince de Joinville, son of the King; and Vice Admiral Claude Charles Marie du Campe de Rosamel, French Naval Minister.
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A party of invalids had been taken from Resolute to Beechey Island and to be returned to England in October 1853, along with the first news of Investigator and the Northwest Passage to the outside world. Hunting supplemented the provisions while Resolute and Intrepid waited for their own release from the ice. The breakup came on 18 August and the ships followed the edge of the pack ice before becoming fixed in the ice in early November at 70°41' N, 101°22' W. The combined crews prepared for another winter in the ice, while another crewman died on 16 October. Far from shore, no effective hunting could be resumed.
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Sir Clements Markham, president of Britain's Royal Geographical Society, declared that the expedition had resolved "the whole problem of Arctic geography". It was now established that the North Pole was located not on land, nor on a permanent ice sheet, but on shifting, unpredictable pack ice. The Arctic Ocean was a deep basin, with no significant land masses north of the Eurasian continent—any hidden expanse of land would have blocked the free movement of ice. Nansen had proved the polar drift theory; furthermore, he had noted the presence of a Coriolis force driving the ice to the right of the wind direction, due to the effect of the Earth's rotation.
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Lone male leopard seals hunt other marine mammals and penguins in the pack ice of antarctic waters. The estimated population of this species ranges from 220,000 to 440,000 individuals, which puts leopard seals at "least concern". Although there is an abundance of leopard seals in the Antarctic, they are difficult to survey by traditional visual techniques because they spend long periods of time vocalizing under the water during the austral spring and summer, when visual surveys are carried out. The trait of vocalizing underwater for long periods means they can be the subject of acoustic surveys, allowing researchers to gather most of what is known about them.
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Coleman, pp. 53–54 Cook left England in September 1772 with two ships, HMS Resolution and HMS Adventure. After pausing at Cape Town, on 22 November the two ships sailed due south, but were driven to the east by heavy gales.Coleman, pp. 56–57 They managed to edge further south, encountering their first pack ice on 10 December. This soon became a solid barrier, which tested Cook's seamanship as he manoeuvered for a passage through. Eventually, he found open water, and was able to continue south; on 17 January 1773, the expedition reached the Antarctic Circle at 66°20'S,Coleman, p. 59 the first ships to do so.
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Moskva was the largest non-nuclear icebreaker in the world at the time of the delivery, having almost twice the displacement of the largest western icebreakers. Designed to withstand the compression of the polar pack ice, the fully welded steel hull of Moskva was very strong. The wide ice belt, where the hull plating was over thick in the bow, was designed to withstand ice pressures of up to 1,000 tonnes per square meter (about ), more than 30 to 60 times as much as normal merchant ships at the time. In bow and stern, the web frames were aligned perpendicularly to the shell plating.
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During the spring and summer when seals forage along the pack ice in the Greenland Sea, most dives are less than 50m. In the late fall and winter, dive depth has been found to increase, particularly in the Denmark Strait, where the mean dive depth was found to be 141m. Lactating female harp seals spend about 80% of the time in the water and 20% of the time on the fast-ice weaning or in close proximity to their pups. However, almost half of the time spent in the water is at the surface, which is well beyond what is expected to recover from their dives.
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On 20 January 1966, the MV Mi Amigo lost its anchor in a storm, drifted and ran aground on the beach at Frinton-on-Sea. The crew and broadcasting staff were rescued unharmed, but the ship's hull was damaged and repairs were carried out at Zaandam, Netherlands. Between 31 January and 1 May, Radio Caroline South broadcast from the vessel Cheeta II, owned by Britt Wadner of Swedish offshore station Radio Syd, which was off the air because of pack ice in the Baltic Sea. The Cheeta II was equipped for FM broadcasting, so it was fitted with the 10 kW transmitter from the Mi Amigo, feeding a makeshift antenna.
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Crabeater seals have a continuous circumpolar distribution surrounding Antarctica, with only occasional sightings or strandings in the extreme southern coasts of Brazil, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. They spend the entire year on the pack ice zone as it advances and retreat seasonally, primarily staying within the continental shelf area in waters less than 600 m deep.Burns, J., Costa, D., Fedak, M., Hindell, M., Bradshaw, C., Gales, N., McDonald, B., Trumble, S. & Crocker, D. (2004). Winter habitat use and foraging behavior of crabeater seals along the Western Antarctic Peninsula. Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 51 (17-19), 2279-2303.
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She sailed for the Canadian Arctic in company with the Navy's newest icebreaker, , to participate in the successor to Operation "Nanook." The basic missions for TF 68 in this Arctic stint were the resupply of existing weather stations and the establishment of a new one at Melville Harbor, Ville Island. Whitewood performed reconnaissance and survey work during the expedition, while completed her assigned task, supplying the weather station at Thule. When Whitewood and Edisto tried to force their way through the ice to deliver needed supplies to the station at Slidre Fjord, the heavy pack ice damaged Whitewood's bow sheathing, steering engine, and propeller, necessitating her return to Boston for repairs.
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Its latitude is 72° 58' N and its longitude 74° 27' E. The island has an area of 428 km² and it is covered by tundra. The sea surrounding the island is covered with pack ice in the winter and there are numerous ice floes even in the summer, so that it is often merged with the Gydanskiy Peninsula in the Siberian mainland. This island belongs to the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug which is the northern part of the Tyumen Oblast administrative division of the Russian Federation. This island is also part of the Great Arctic State Nature Reserve, the largest nature reserve of Russia.
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In the southern summer of 1912-13 the first successful attempt was made by a Norwegian factory ship at catching and flensing whales in the pack ice off South Orkney. A further breakthrough occurred in the 1923–24 season when the Norwegian factory ship Sir James Clark Ross spent an entire season in the Ross Sea flensing whales alongside the ship while anchored in Discovery Inlet off the Ross Ice Shelf.For an account of this voyage see Does (2003). With the introduction of the stern slipwayIn 1926 the C.A. Larsen, named after the Norwegian pioneer in Antarctic whaling Carl Anton Larsen, had a slipway built in its bows.
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Gilbert Bluff () is a rock bluff with abrupt cliff faces on the north and east sides, located on the south side of Garfield Glacier and near the north margin of Erickson Bluffs in the McDonald Heights area of coastal Marie Byrd Land. Mapped by United States Geological Survey (USGS) from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos, 1959–65. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for James R. Gilbert, member of the biological party that made population studies of seals, whales and birds in the pack ice of the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas using USCGC Southwind and its two helicopters, 1971–72.
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Under the expedition plans and the articles that Rickinson had signed, his job was to work the engines during the Antarctic summer of 1914-1915 to get the Endurance to the Filchner Ice Shelf. Once the vessel had reached her destination, she and her crew were supposed to unload the expedition leader, Sir Ernest Shackleton, and a shore party for expedition work in the interior of Antarctica. Rickinson and the ship's company were then supposed to steam north toward warmer waters to avoid the worst of the Antarctic winter of 1915. However, when the Endurance was beset by pack ice in the Weddell Sea, these plans could not be implemented.
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The Northern Party spent the 1911 winter in their hut. Their exploration plans for the summer of 1911–1912 could not be fully carried out, partly because of the condition of the sea ice and also because they were unable to discover a route into the interior. Terra Nova returned from New Zealand on 1912, and transferred the party to the vicinity of Evans Cove, a location approximately south of Cape Adare and northwest of Cape Evans. They were to be picked up on after the completion of further geological work, but due to heavy pack ice, the ship was unable to reach them.
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Dense pack ice in the Beaufort Sea Despite the large debts still outstanding from the Endurance expedition, Shackleton's mind turned towards another exploration venture. He decided to turn away from the Antarctic, go northwards and, as he put it, "fill in this great blank now called the Beaufort Sea".Fisher, pp. 442–445. This area of the Arctic Ocean, to the north of Alaska and west of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, was largely unexplored; Shackleton believed, on the basis of tidal records, that it contained large undiscovered land masses that "would be of the greatest scientific interest to the world, apart from the possible economic value".
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Last visited May 26, 2008.Naval Historical Center, 2003b, Jeannette Arctic Expedition, 1879–1881 — Overview and Selected Images. Last visited May 26, 2008. drawing of Bennett Island, discovered north of Siberia by the Jeannette Expedition, July 1881 In August 1901, Russian polar ship Zarya sailed on an expedition searching for the legendary Sannikov Land but was soon blocked by floating pack ice. During 1902 the attempts to reach Sannikov Land continued while Zarya was trapped in fast ice. Russian explorer Baron Eduard Toll and three companions vanished forever in November 1902 while travelling away from Bennett Island towards the south on loose ice floes.
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In August 1901 Russian Arctic ship Zarya headed across the Laptev Sea, searching for the legendary Sannikov Land (Zemlya Sannikova) but was soon blocked by floating pack ice in the New Siberian Islands. During 1902 the attempts to reach Sannikov Land continued while Zarya was trapped in fast ice. Leaving the ship, Russian Arctic explorer Baron Eduard Toll and three companions vanished forever in November 1902 while travelling away from Bennett Island towards the south on loose ice floes. After its ordeal in the ice, a badly-leaking Zarya was finally moored close to Brusneva Island in Bukhta Tiksi, never to leave the place again.
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Willem Barentsz' ship among the Arctic ice Het Behouden Huys on Novaya Zemlya The search for the Northern Sea Route in the 16th century led to its exploration. Dutch explorer Willem Barentsz reached the west coast of Novaya Zemlya in 1594, and in a subsequent expedition of 1596 rounded the Northern point and wintered on the Northeast coast. Willem Barents, Jacob van Heemskerck and their crew were blocked by the pack ice in the Kara Sea and forced to winter on the east coast of Novaya Zemlya. The wintering of the shipwrecked crew in the 'Saved House' was the first successful wintering of Europeans in the High Arctic.
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Camp and Hut (summer), Antarctica, British Antarctic (Southern Cross) Expedition, 1899 Southern Cross left London on 23 August 1898, after inspection by the Duke of York (the future King George V), who presented a Union Flag. The ship was carrying 31 men and 90 Siberian sledge dogs, the first to be taken on an Antarctic expedition. (Equipment and Personnel) After final provisioning in Hobart, Tasmania, Southern Cross sailed for the Antarctic on 19 December. She crossed the Antarctic Circle on 23 January 1899, and after a three-week delay in pack ice sighted Cape Adare on 16 February, before anchoring close to the shore on the following day.
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At the time of the death, T-3 was in pack ice about 240 kilometers north of Ellesmere Island, at . This placed it within an area considered Canadian territory by the Canadian government, though potentially disputed by other nations. The iceberg itself was thought to have been calved from an ice shelf on Ellesmere Island in Canada, though it had at one point been grounded on the Alaskan coast.Appeal ruling: 467 F.2d 341 (1972) No legal precedent covered whether icebergs like this should be treated as islands, as ships, or as an extension of land, and there was recent precedent (1970, Regina v.
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Guy and Peters decide to push further south, much to the chagrin of a part of the crew led by one seaman Hearne, who feels they should abandon the rescue attempt and head home before the onset of winter. The wreck of the Halbrane Not much later, in a freak accident, Halbrane is thrown upon an iceberg and subsequently lost. The crew makes it safely onto the iceberg, but with only one small boat left, it is doomed to drift on. The iceberg drifts even past the South Pole, before the whole party is cast ashore on a hitherto unknown land mass still within the pack ice barrier.
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The ship reentered service that year and was renamed Amundsen. Ice station SHEBA base, Des Groseilliers (right) with As part of the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) experiment in 1997, Louis S. St-Laurent and Des Groseilliers sailed through the Northwest Passage to meet in Alaskan waters. Sir Wilfrid Laurier then escorted Des Groseilliers to a point where Des Groseillierss engines were shut off on 2 October and the ship was left with a minimum crew and a group of international scientists. The vessel was then left to drift in the pack ice for a year and dubbed "Ice Station SHEBA".
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Map of Thurston Island Satellite image of Thurston Island Peale Inlet is an ice-filled inlet about 16 nautical miles (30 km) long, lying immediately west of Noville Peninsula and indenting the north side of Thurston Island. Delineated from aerial photographs taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump in December 1946. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for Titian Ramsay Peale, noted artist-naturalist who served on the sloop of war Peacock of the United States Exploring Expedition under Wilkes, 1838–42. The Peacock, accompanied by the tender Flying Fish, sailed along the edge of the pack ice to the north of Thurston Island for several days in March 1839.
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Jääkarhu in the port of Hanko. Jääkarhu left Rotterdam on 3 March 1926. When the new icebreaker arrived in Finland on 7 March, she was welcomed by a number of icebound ships outside Utö. After Sampo had arrived from Hanko with the Minister of Commerce and Industry, Tyko Reinikka, other representatives of the state, and members of the press, the newest and largest state-owned icebreaker demonstrated her power by easily overcoming the notorious pack ice fields surrounding the island and escorting a convoy of three merchant ships to the open seas. After spending her first winter escorting ships in the Gulf of Finland, Jääkarhu arrived in Helsinki on 27 April 1926.
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Shackleton ordered him not to leave the ship unaccompanied after he became lost while searching for food, and encountered a fierce leopard seal. His cries brought second in-command Frank Wild out of his tent, who shot the leopard seal at a distance of 10m (30 ft) from Orde-Lees. When the Endurance was crushed by pack ice, Shackleton took the three lifeboats and led the men over the ice to open water where they used the boats to travel to Elephant Island. Orde-Lees was assigned to the Dudley Docker under the command of Frank Worsley but failed to pitch in with the other men when a gale threatened to sink the small craft.
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The Erickson Bluffs () are a series of conspicuous rock bluffs extending from Gilbert Bluff to Mount Sinha, forming the southwest edge of the McDonald Heights, near the coast of Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica. A portion of the bluffs were photographed from aircraft of the United States Antarctic Service, 1939–41. They were mapped by the United States Geological Survey from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos, 1959–65, and were named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Albert W. Erickson, leader of a biology party that made population studies of seals, whales, and birds in the pack ice of the Bellingshausen Sea and Amundsen Sea using USCGC Southwind and its two helicopters, 1971–72.
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Truelove was launched in Philadelphia in 1764. The vessel was captured by the British during the American War of Independence, when she operated as an American privateer, and was bought by a shipowner for use as a cargo ship in the wine trade to Oporto. After a refit in 1784, which involved strengthening the vessel's hull, she began work as a whaler in the Arctic, based at Hull, although she was occasionally used for other cargo. In 1849, the ship carried relief supplies in support of Franklin's lost expedition, during which time she was threatened with sinking several times due to pack ice, including one instance when she was trapped for six weeks in Melville Bay.
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Pages 22–24 extensive model testing at Wärtsilä's new ice model test basin showed that the ice resistance could be reduced by replacing the bow propellers with a "clean" hull and adopting an air bubbling system to lubricate the hull. The patented Wärtsilä Air Bubbling System (WABS) onboard Otso consists of three compressors with a combined output of 1,900kW that pump air through 46 nozzles located below the waterline on both sides of the vessel. At low speeds, the system can also be used for manoeuvering. In addition, she has large ballast tanks and high-capacity pumps that can be used for rapid heeling and trimming to release the icebreaker if she is immobilized by compressive pack ice.
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Bowdoin College was a favorite object of his benefactions, and among the donations that remain are the splendid Hubbard Free Library and the fine grand stand which displays the motto, "Fair Play, and May the Best Man Win." A more enduring monument is Cape Thomas Hubbard, which, from the wind-swept coast of Grant Land, faces the North Pole across reaches of grinding pack-ice, over which Robert E. Peary, another Bowdoin man, carried the Stars and Stripes in 1909. Hubbard died in New York City on May 19, 1915. At the time of his death, he was commander-in-chief of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States.
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117 The following year, the icebreaker escorted the icebreaking cargo ship to Cameron Island in the Arctic to load 100,000 barrels of oil. Ice station SHEBA base, Des Groseilliers (right) with As part of the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean experiment in 1997, and Des Groseilliers sailed through the Northwest Passage to meet in Alaskan waters. Sir Wilfrid Laurier then escorted Des Groseilliers to a point where Des Groseillierss engines were shut off on 2 October and the ship was left with a minimum crew and a group of international scientists. The vessel was then left to drift in the pack ice for a year and dubbed Ice Station SHEBA.
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The experiences of the Ross Sea party are then described. Ernest Joyce's diary is quoted for the description of laying depots, during which Arnold Spencer-Smith died from exhaustion; after depot-laying was done, Aeneas Mackintosh and Victor Hayward died, falling through ice attempting to walk to their base at Cape Evans. The log of Joseph Stenhouse, first officer of the Aurora, is quoted for the description of the drift of the ship for several months in pack ice, unable to manoeuvre, after it broke away from moorings at Cape Evans. The last chapter describes the subsequent involvement of the expedition members in the First World War; three were killed and five wounded.
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Adélie penguins on the ice foot at Cape Adare by Levick Penguins jumping onto the ice foot by Levick He was given leave of absence to accompany Robert Falcon Scott as surgeon and zoologist on his Terra Nova expedition. Levick photographed extensively throughout the expedition. Prevented by pack ice from embarking on the in February 1912, Levick and the other five members of the party (Victor L. A. Campbell, Raymond Priestley, George Abbott, Harry Dickason, and Frank Browning) were forced to overwinter on Inexpressible Island in a cramped ice cave. Part of the Northern Party, Levick spent the austral summer of 1911–1912 at Cape Adare in the midst of an Adélie penguin rookery.
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On 27 January, now deep into the Weddell Sea, came the first intimation of land; seabed samples produced blue clay, remnants of glacial deposits that would not be found far from shore. On 28 January a wide stretch of water appeared, extending southward to the horizon: "No one had expected an open Weddell Sea behind a pack ice girdle of roughly 1,100 nautical miles", wrote Filchner. By 29 January, the ship was beyond the location of Bruce's 1904 sighting of Coats Land, and had passed Weddell's southernmost mark of 74°15'S.; The water was now becoming rapidly shallower in depth, showing the imminent approach of land;; light surf was visible in the distance to the south.
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In 1924, oceanographer Vladimir Wiese studied the drift of Georgy Brusilov's ill-fated Russian ship Svyataya Anna when she was trapped on the pack ice of the Kara Sea. Wiese detected an odd deviation of the path of the ship's drift caused by certain variations of the patterns of sea and ice currents. He deemed that the deviation was caused by the presence of an undiscovered island whose coordinates he was able to calculate with precision thanks to the availability of the successive positions of the St. Anna during its drift. The data of the drift had been supplied by navigator Valerian Albanov, one of the only two survivors of the St. Anna.
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Arctic shrinkage as of 2007 compared to previous years The Open Polar Sea was debunked gradually by the failure of the expeditions in the 1810s to the 1880s to navigate the polar sea. Reports of open water by earlier explorers, such as Elisha Kent Kane and Isaac Israel Hayes, fueled optimism in the theory in the 1850s and 1860s. Support faded when George W. De Long sailed into the Bering Strait in the hope of finding an open gateway to the North Pole and was met by a sea of ice. After a long drift, pack ice crushed the Jeannette, and her survivors returned home with first hand accounts of an ice- covered polar sea.
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Ross's gull breeds in the high Arctic of northernmost North America, and northeast Siberia. It migrates only short distances south in autumn, most of the population wintering in northern latitudes at the edge of the pack ice in the northern Bering Sea and in the Sea of Okhotsk, although some birds reach more temperate areas, such as north west Europe; in February 2016 they were sighted in Cornwall and Ireland according to the BTOs 'BirdTrack'. In North America, a Ross's gull has been spotted as far south as Salton Sea in California, although sightings this far south are extremely rare. The summer breeding grounds are tundra with sedges, grass tussocks, dwarf willows, bushes, lichens and pools.
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At the end of Victor's narrative, Captain Walton resumes the telling of the story, closing the frame around Victor's recounting. A few days after the Creature vanished, the ship becomes trapped in pack ice, and several crewmen die in the cold before the rest of Walton's crew insists on returning south once it is freed. Upon hearing and becoming angered by the crew's pleas to their captain, Victor lectures them with a powerful speech: it is hardship, not comfort and easiness, that defines a glorious undertaking such as theirs; he urges them to be men, not cowards. The ship is freed and Walton, owing it to the will of his unchanged men, albeit regretfully, decides to return South.
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Wilkes' chart suggests a possible coastal recession corresponding closely with the longitudinal limits for Vincennes Bay, although pack ice conditions prevented close reconnaissance by the USEE of the coast in this immediate area. Vincennes Bay is roughly triangular, 120 km north-south and 150 km east-west at its northern extremity, and thus covers an area of about 9,000 km2. To the east lies the icecap of Law Dome and the north-south oriented Windmill Islands coast of Precambrian basement, which is the setting for Antarctic stations Wilkes (USA, 1957–59) and Casey (Australia, 1959–present day). The Knox Coast forms the western boundary of Vincennes Bay, where the East Antarctic ice sheet terminates in continuous ice cliffs.
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In 1873, Markham shipped as the second mate in the whaler Arctic through Davis Straits and Baffin Bay. While performing his share of whaling duties, which he would later write about, he also kept detailed notes on the ice conditions and wrote a report suggesting the route for use with steam vessels. HMS Alert in pack ice during the Arctic Expedition of 1876For the British Arctic Expedition of 1875–76 he was appointed second-in-command of HMS Alert under Captain Nares. Despite suffering from scurvy and being poorly clothed, he led a sledge-party to reach the highest latitude ever attained at the time (83°20′26″ N), a record that stood for 20 years.
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On May 6, 1854, Rae and his two travelling companions reached a promontory on the western coast of Boothia which allowed them to look far west, at which point they realized King William Island was separated from the mainland. Said island protects the strait from the excessive flow of pack ice from the north, making its waters navigable for 19th century ships. This proved to be of vital importance for the eventual completion of the Northwest Passage by Roald Amundsen in 1903–06, since the Norwegian sailed through Rae Strait, wintering at Gjoa Haven on the southeastern tip of King William Island, then sailed along the Arctic coast into the Beaufort Sea.
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The following day a lead of open water was seen ahead of the ship. Only one boiler had been lit and there was insufficient steam to use the engine, so all the sails were set to try and force the ship into the loosening pack ice but without success. In the late afternoon of 18 October, the ice closed in around the Endurance once again. In just five seconds the ship was canted over to port by 20 degrees, and the list continued until she rested at 30 degrees, with the port bulwark resting on the pack and the boats on that side nearly touching the ice as they hung in their davits.
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Although Bear was built for working in icy waters, it was not an icebreaker and could not be expected to sail through pack ice to the trapped whalers. Near Nelson Island, the captain of Bear put ashore the executive officer, Lieutenant David H. Jarvis; the ship's surgeon, Dr. Samuel J. Call; and Bertholf with instructions to drive a herd of reindeer overland to the stranded whalers.Kroll, p 40King, p 94 The distance to Point Barrow overland from Cape Vancouver was roughly 1500 miles.King, p 96 Bear turned back and wintered over in Unalaska awaiting the spring thaw while the rescue party gathered dog sled teams and acquired the necessary number of reindeer.
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Before the expedition's work could properly begin, Shackleton died on board the ship, just after its arrival at the sub-Antarctic island of South Georgia. The major part of the subsequent attenuated expedition was a three-month cruise to the eastern Antarctic, under the leadership of the party's second-in-command, Frank Wild. The shortcomings of Quest were soon in evidence: slow speed, heavy fuel consumption, a tendency to roll in heavy seas, and a steady leak. The ship was unable to proceed further than longitude 20°E, well short of its easterly target, and its engine's low power coupled with its unsuitable bows was insufficient for it to penetrate southward through the pack ice.
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Henry McNish (11 September 187424 September 1930), often referred to as Harry McNeish or by the nickname Chippy, was the carpenter on Sir Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–1917. He was responsible for much of the work that ensured the crew's survival after their ship, the Endurance, was destroyed when it became trapped in pack ice in the Weddell Sea. He modified the small boat, James Caird, that allowed Shackleton and five men (including McNish) to make a voyage of hundreds of miles to fetch help for the rest of the crew. After the expedition he returned to work in the Merchant Navy and eventually emigrated to New Zealand, where he worked on the docks in Wellington until poor health forced his retirement.
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By early December they were sailing in thick fog and seeing 'ice islands'. Cook had not found the island that Bouvet claimed to be in latitude 54°. Pack ice soon surrounded the ships but in the second week in January, in the southern mid-summer, the weather abated and Cook was able to take the ships southwards through the ice to reach the Antarctic Circle on 17 January. The next day, being severely impeded by the ice, they changed course and headed away to the north-east, after having reached 67°15's. On 8 February 1773 Resolution and Adventure became separated in the Antarctic fog. Furneaux directed Adventure towards the prearranged meeting point of Queen Charlotte Sound (New Zealand), charted by Cook in 1770.
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RV Tangaroa in Wellington From 1991 to 2011, Leachman captained the Tangaroa taking the ship as far north as New Caledonia and as far south as Antarctica. On one voyage in 2003, scientists aboard Tangaroa discovered over 500 species of fish and 1,300 species of invertebrate, and the tooth of an extinct Megalodon. In 2011, the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) planned to invest in two new 85 m 1900-tonne ships to venture into the Southern Ocean to combat illegal fishing. Leachman was asked to inspect one of the vessels, , to make sure the vessels would be suitable for handling the notorious pack ice of the Southern Ocean, and in so doing, he joined the RNZN as an ice navigation consultant.
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Russian nuclear icebreaker en route to the North Pole, 2001 American supply ship into McMurdo Station, Antarctica An icebreaker is a special-purpose ship or boat designed to move and navigate through ice-covered waters, and provide safe waterways for other boats and ships. Although the term usually refers to ice-breaking ships, it may also refer to smaller vessels, such as the icebreaking boats that were once used on the canals of the United Kingdom. For a ship to be considered an icebreaker, it requires three traits most normal ships lack: a strengthened hull, an ice-clearing shape, and the power to push through sea ice. Icebreakers clear paths by pushing straight into frozen-over water or pack ice.
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Endurance, listing heavily, shortly before being crushed by the ice, October 1915; photograph by Frank Hurley On 5 December 1914, Shackleton's expedition ship Endurance left South Georgia for the Weddell Sea, on the first stage of the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. It was making for Vahsel Bay, the southernmost explored point of the Weddell Sea at 77° 49' S, where a shore party was to land and prepare for a transcontinental crossing of Antarctica. Before it could reach its destination the ship was trapped in pack ice, and by 14 February 1915 was held fast, despite prolonged efforts to free her. During the following eight months she drifted northward until, on 27 October, she was crushed by the pack's pressure, finally sinking on 21 November.
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These islands are located in the northeastern regions of the Kara Sea, about 130 km west of Severnaya Zemlya's shores and 72 km NNE of Kirova Island of the Kirov group. The sea surrounding these lonely two islands is covered with pack ice in the winter and there are numerous ice floes even in the summer, which lasts barely two months. The climate is so severe that there are years where at Voronina Island's latitude the surrounding waters of the Kara Sea don't melt and remain frozen solid through the summer.William Barr, Reinhard Krause and Peter-Michael Pawlik, The polar voyages of Captain Eduard Dallmann, whaler, trader, explorer 1830–96 This island group belongs to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation.
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Examples of Clovis and other Paleoindian point forms, markers of archaeological cultures in North America BP, Crôt du Charnier, Solutré- Pouilly, Saône-et-Loire, France The Solutrean hypothesis on the peopling of the Americas claims that the earliest human migration to the Americas took place from Europe, during the Last Glacial Maximum. This hypothesis contrasts with the mainstream view that the North American continent was first reached after the Last Glacial Maximum, by people from North Asia, either by the Bering land bridge (i.e. Beringia), or by maritime travel along the Pacific coast, or by both. According to the Solutrean hypothesis, people of the Solutrean culture, 21,000 to 17,000 years ago migrated to North America by boat along the pack ice of the North Atlantic Ocean.
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Kontio immobilized by pack ice while towing a cargo ship, a problem more likely to occur when the icebreaker has no bow propellers. Prior to the construction of the new vessels, all Finnish state-owned icebreakers built after the Second World War had been fitted with two bow propellers to reduce the friction between ice and the hull of the vessel in difficult ice conditions. However, the quad-shaft propulsion system was expensive to build and maintain, and the forward propeller bossings considerably increased the resistance of the ship. Although Finnish icebreaker captains voiced their concerns about the maneuverability and icebreaking capability of a vessel without bow propellers especially in heavy ice ridges and at crawling speeds,Otso osoittautui kelpo murtajaksi.
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McClure's travels, including the route of HMS The McClure Arctic expedition of 1850, among numerous British search efforts to determine the fate of the Franklin's lost expedition, is distinguished as the voyage during which the Irish explorer Robert McClure became the first person to confirm and transit the Northwest Passage by a combination of sea travel and sledging. McClure and his crew spent three years locked in the pack ice aboard before abandoning it and making their escape across the ice. Rescued by , which was itself later lost to the ice, McClure returned to England in 1854, where he was knighted and rewarded for completing the passage. The expedition discovered the first known Northwest Passage, in the geographical sense, which was the Prince of Wales Strait.
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Fridtjof Nansen at the time of his Greenland crossing In September 1879, Jeannette, an ex-Royal Navy gunboat converted by the US Navy for Arctic exploration, and commanded by George W. De Long, entered the pack ice north of the Bering Strait. She remained ice-bound for nearly two years, drifting to the area of the New Siberian Islands, before being crushed and sunk on 13 June 1881. Her crew escaped in boats and made for the Siberian coast; most, including De Long, subsequently perished either during the boat journey or in the wastelands of the Lena River delta. Three years later, relics from Jeannette appeared on the opposite side of the world, in the vicinity of Julianehaab on the southwest coast of Greenland.
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He was followed in 1789 by Alexander Mackenzie, who traced what is now the Mackenzie River to open sea west of the mouth of the Coppermine. In 1818, Barrow had sent his first expedition to seek the Northwest Passage. Led by John Ross, it ended ignominiously when Ross entered the Lancaster Sound, the true entrance to the Northwest Passage, but judging it to be a bay turned around and returned to Britain. At the same time, David Buchan made an attempt to sail directly to the North Pole from Britain (Barrow was a believer in the Open Polar Sea hypothesis), but returned only with the news that the pack ice north of Spitsbergen was a barrier which could not be breached.
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An ice-bound northern route was discovered in 1850 by the Irish explorer Robert McClure; it was through a more southerly opening in an area explored by the Scotsman John Rae in 1854 that Norwegian Roald Amundsen made the first complete passage in 1903–1906. Until 2009, the Arctic pack ice prevented regular marine shipping throughout most of the year. Arctic sea ice decline has rendered the waterways more navigable for ice navigation. The contested sovereignty claims over the waters may complicate future shipping through the region: the Canadian government maintains that the Northwestern Passages are part of Canadian Internal Waters, but the United States and various European countries claim that they are an international strait and transit passage, allowing free and unencumbered passage.
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The expedition, which had been renamed the British Arctic Expedition with the consensus of the participants, made several attempts to find a way northwards through the pack ice, Worsley harbouring hopes of being the first sailing ship to sail through the island group to Gillis Land and then back to Spitzbergen, but was unsuccessful. In one attempt, the Island nearly collided with a large iceberg, but Worsley ordered a rowboat to take to the water and the ship was towed out of harm's way. Finally, on 14 September, what was thought to be Gillis Land was spotted several miles away. The Island was unable to sail close enough to confirm the sighting, but Worsley noted that it was to the west of its charted position.
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Oates is reported as saying to Scott, "Sir, I'm afraid you'll come to regret not taking my advice." Four ponies died during this journey either from the cold or because they slowed the team down and were shot. Terra Nova held up in pack ice, 13 December 1910 On its return to base, the expedition learned of the presence of Amundsen, camped with his crew and a large contingent of dogs in the Bay of Whales, 200 miles (322 km) to their east. Scott conceded that his ponies would not be able to start early enough in the season to compete with Amundsen's cold-tolerant dog teams for the pole, and also acknowledged that the Norwegian's base was closer to the pole by 69 miles (111 km).
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Drawing of a Latham 47 on the memorial in Calais for Gilbert Brazy, the air mechanic lost on the flight On 6 June 1928 the Latham 47.02 was tasked to help search for the airship Italia which earlier on 25 May 1928 had crashed on pack ice in the Arctic Ocean just north of Spitsbergen. The aircraft, piloted by Norwegian Leif Dietrichson and Frenchman René Guilbaud, picked up the explorer Roald Amundsen and a colleague at Bergen. On 18 June the aircraft left Tromsø, Norway to fly across the Barents Sea; it disappeared without a trace until, on 31 August the same year, the torn-off port float was found off the coast of Troms and, in October, a large gasoline tank was found on Haltenbanken.
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The two former Canadian offshore icebreakers were deployed together at the Vityaz Production Complex during the first phase of the Sakhalin-2 project in the seasonally frozen Sea of Okhotsk. In addition to providing year-round supply services for the Piltun-Astokhskoye-A platform (the former Molikpaq), they served as ice management and standby vessels for the floating storage and offloading (FSO) vessel Okha and its single anchor leg mooring (SALM) buoy. The icebreakers were used to assist the raising and lowering of the SALM buoy and the beginning and end of the production season, and to support loading operations together with other icebreaking vessels until the ice conditions became too severe.Dunderdale, P. and Wright, B. (2005): Pack ice management on the Southern Grand Banks Offshore Newfoundland, Canada.
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The path followed by the 1897 expedition: north by balloon from Danes Island, then south on foot to Kvitøya From the moment the three were grounded on 14 July, Strindberg's highly specialized cartographic camera, which had been brought to map the region from the air, became instead a means of recording daily life in the icescape and the constant danger and drudgery of the trek.Lundström, p. 90. Strindberg took about 200 photos with his camera over the course of the three months they spent on the pack ice, one of the most famous being his picture of Andrée and Frænkel contemplating the fallen Eagle.The account in this section is based on the expedition's diaries and photos in Med Örnen mot polen plus some of Sven Lundström's commentary in "Vår position är ej synnerligen god ...".
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George W. DeLong Jeannette Island, Henrietta Island, and Bennett Island were discovered in 1881 by the ill-fated Jeannette Expedition, named after the , and commanded by Lieutenant Commander George W. De Long. In August 1901, during the Russian polar expedition of 1900–1902, the Russian Arctic ship Zarya headed across the Laptev Sea, searching for the legendary Sannikov Land (Zemlya Sannikova) but was soon blocked by floating pack ice in the New Siberian Islands. During 1902 the attempts to reach Sannikov Land, deemed to be beyond the De Long Islands, continued while Zarya was trapped in fast ice. Leaving the ship, Russian Arctic explorer Baron Eduard Toll and three companions vanished forever in November 1902 while travelling away from Bennett Island towards the south on loose ice floes.
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The Kolomeytsev Islands lie about east of Russky Island, the largest island of the Nordenskjold Archipelago, and less than west of the Taymyr Peninsula. The climate in the northernmost end of the archipelago is severe and the sea surrounding the little Kolomeytsev Islands is covered with fast ice in the winter and often obstructed by pack ice even in the summer.Fast ice conditions near the Nordenskjold Archipelago These islands belong to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of Russia and is part of the Great Arctic State Nature Reserve, the largest nature reserve of Russia.Nature Reserve In 1900, the islands of the Nordenskiöld Archipelago were explored by Russian geologist Baron Eduard Von Toll during the Polar Expedition on behalf of the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences aboard ship Zarya.
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The Solutrean hypothesis posits that a population derived from the Solutrean culture of Western Europe may have crossed the North Atlantic Ocean along the edge of pack ice that extended from the Atlantic coast of France to North America during the Last Glacial Maximum, before 17 kya. The model postulates early inhabitants may have made the crossing in small boats, using skills similar to those of the modern Inuit people: hauling out on ice floes at night; collecting fresh water from melting icebergs or the first-frozen parts of sea ice; hunting seals and fish for food; and using seal blubber as heating fuel. Among other evidence, they cite the discovery in the Solutrean toolkit of bone needles used for sewing waterproof clothing from animal hides similar to those still in use among modern Inuit.
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In which is included, Captain Furneaux's Narrative of his Proceedings in the Adventure during the Separation of the Ships. Volume II. London: Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell. (Relevant fragment) Edmond Halley's voyage in for magnetic investigations in the South Atlantic met the pack ice in 52° S in January 1700, but that latitude (he reached 140 mi off the north coast of South Georgia) was his farthest south. A determined effort on the part of the French naval officer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier to discover the "South Land" – described by a half legendary "sieur de Gonneyville" – resulted in the discovery of Bouvet Island in 54°10′ S, and in the navigation of 48° of longitude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in 55° S in 1730.
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SY Aurora, anchored to the Antarctic ice The drift of the Antarctic exploration vessel SY Aurora was an ordeal which lasted 312 days, affecting the Ross Sea party of Sir Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1914–17. It began when the ship broke loose from its anchorage in McMurdo Sound in May 1915, during a gale. Caught in heavy pack ice and unable to manoeuvre, Aurora, with eighteen men aboard, was carried into the open waters of the Ross Sea and Southern Ocean, leaving ten men stranded ashore with meagre provisions. Aurora, a 40-year-old former Arctic whaler registered as a steam yacht, had brought the Ross Sea party to Cape Evans in McMurdo Sound in January 1915, to establish its base there in support of Shackleton's proposed transcontinental crossing.
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Illustration of the whaling ships trapped by ice in September 1871 in the Whaling Disaster of 1871.In the Whaling Disaster of 1871, 32 U.S. whaling ships – one of them registered in the Kingdom of Hawaii – were trapped in pack ice in the Chukchi Sea in a line about 60 miles (97 km) south of Point Franklin, Territory of Alaska, and abandoned between 2 and 14 September. All 1,219 people aboard the ships were rescued by seven other whaling ships – Arctic, Chance, Daniel Webster, Europa, Lagoda, Midas, and Progress (all ) – that had not become trapped. One trapped vessel, Minerva () was discovered intact in 1872 and returned to service, but the other ships were crushed in the ice, sank, wrecked on the coast, or were stripped of wood or burned by the local Inupiat people.
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Insufficient nourishment leads to lower reproductive rates in adult females and lower survival rates in cubs and juvenile bears, in addition to poorer body condition in bears of all ages. Mothers and cubs have high nutritional requirements, which are not met if the seal-hunting season is too short In addition to creating nutritional stress, a warming climate is expected to affect various other aspects of polar bear life: Changes in sea ice affect the ability of pregnant females to build suitable maternity dens. As the distance increases between the pack ice and the coast, females must swim longer distances to reach favoured denning areas on land. Thawing of permafrost would affect the bears who traditionally den underground, and warm winters could result in den roofs collapsing or having reduced insulative value.
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Location of Oleny Island in the Kara Sea. Oleny Island (also spelt as Oleniy and Oleni) () is a single island in the Kara Sea just a few kilometers offshore, north of the coast of one of the arms of the Gyda Peninsula in North Siberia. It is covered with tundra and swamps and it is 53 km in length and its average width is 27 km, having an area of 1197 km². Its latitude is 72° 24' N and the longitude 77° 45' E. The sea surrounding Oleny Island is covered with pack ice in the winter and there are numerous ice floes even in the summer, so that it is often merged with the Gydan Peninsula in the Siberian mainland, from which is separated by a narrow, only 2 km wide, strait.
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Species that can no longer be included in a list of this nature include the Waitaha penguin, the last of which is believed to have perished between 1300 and 1500 CE (soon after the Polynesian arrival to New Zealand), and the Chatham penguin, which is only known through subfossils but may have been kept in captivity sometime between 1867 and 1872.A.J.D. Tennyson and P.R. Millener (1994). Bird extinctions and fossil bones from Mangere Island, Chatham Islands, Notornis (Supplement) 41, 165-178. Adélies and emperors nest on Antarctica and feed on broken pack ice; global warming's effect on the latter may affect their numbers, and the chinstraps and gentoos, which both feed in open waters, have been making inroads into the Adélie and emperors' formerly ice-packed range.
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Drawing from the newspaper Aftonbladet showing the festivities when the expedition leaves Stockholm for the first try to launch the balloon, in 1896 Örnen (The Eagle) shortly after its descent onto pack ice. Photographed by Nils Strindberg, the exposed plate was among those recovered in 1930. The grand homecoming of the bodies from the polar expedition to Stockholm, October 5, 1930 Salomon August Andrée (18 October 1854, Gränna, Småland – October 1897, Kvitøya, Arctic Norway), during his lifetime most often known as S. A. Andrée, was a Swedish engineer, physicist, aeronaut and polar explorer who died while leading an attempt to reach the Geographic North Pole by hydrogen balloon. The balloon expedition was unsuccessful in reaching the Pole and resulted in the deaths of all three of its participants.
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This expedition failed when the researchers' AUV was lost to the ice as well. The wreck itself is speculated to rest on flat terrain at around 3,000 metres, undisturbed by massive sediment disposition and little to no erosion. According to Professor Julian Dowdeswell of the Scott Polar Research Institute, that due to the aforementioned conditions on the sea bed, there is speculation that the Endurance shouldn't be harmed and that it would be in the same state as it was when it sank in the pack ice in 1915. He also noted that any future attempts at finding the Endurance would be "add-ons" to other main scientific expeditions to the area such as the one in 2019, which was launched with the intention to study the melting and retreat of the Larsen ice shelves.
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By the time of the Imperial Trans- Antarctic Expedition in 1914, the 48-year-old Cheetham was the crew member with most experience of the Antarctic, having spent almost six years in the seas around the continent He was Third Officer on board the and was a popular and cheerful member of the crew. Frank Worsley refers to him as "a pirate to his fingertips". After Endurance was crushed in pack ice and the men set up for Elephant Island in the three lifeboats, he was part of Worsley's crew in the Dudley Docker. Worsley mentions that matches had become such precious currency that Cheetham bought a single match from him for the price of a bottle of champagne, to be paid when Cheetham opened his pub in Hull after the war.
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On its journey from New Zealand to the Antarctic, Terra Nova nearly sank in a storm and was then trapped in pack ice for 20 days, far longer than other ships had experienced, which meant a late-season arrival and less time for preparatory work before the Antarctic winter. At Cape Evans, Antarctica, one of the motor sledges was lost during its unloading from the ship, breaking through the sea ice and sinking. Deteriorating weather conditions and weak, unacclimatised ponies affected the initial depot-laying journey, so that the expedition's main supply point, One Ton Depot, was laid north of its planned location at 80°S. Lawrence Oates, in charge of the ponies, advised Scott to kill ponies for food and advance the depot to 80°S, which Scott refused to do.
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On 9 August 1914 the Endurance departed Plymouth, carrying Shackleton and his crew on what was intended to be the first expedition to cross Antarctica from the Atlantic to the Pacific via the South Pole. Over 5000 applications for places in the crew had been received. The expedition was a failure: the ship became trapped in pack ice and was eventually destroyed by the pressure of the ice, but all the crew of the Endurance were eventually rescued after Shackleton and five men made an 800-mile sea journey to fetch help. Clark was a hard worker, and, despite his dour manner, quickly won the respect of the crew with his willingness to volunteer for some of the more arduous or unpleasant jobs aboard ship, although he was the butt of several jokes.
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At last, after rounding Cape Horn, they reached East Falkland in April 1842 and refitted the ships. For more magnetic readings they sailed for Cape Horn, arriving in September but it was too early in the season to head south again so they took extended readings and then returned to the Falkland Islands, setting off on 17 December down 55°W aiming to reach the Antarctic coast at 40°W through the Weddell Sea. This time they failed to penetrate any distance into the pack ice so they retreated, heading for the Cape of Good Hope arriving in April 1843, and sailing home via St Helena, Ascension Island and Rio de Janeiro. They arrived back in England on 23 September 1843, after which Abernethy has been briefly lost to history.
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Clavering prepared his ship at Deptford, loading enough stores to see the ship through an entire winter, should they become trapped in the ice. The Griper set sail on 11 May, sailing across the North Sea, and then north along the coast of Norway, making good time as far as the Lofoten islands, where calms and light airs delayed them slightly. They arrived at Hammerfest on 2 June. Sabine set up camp ashore and made his first set of observations, which were completed by 23 June. Griper then sailed north for Spitsbergen in the Svalbard archipelago, landing on 1 June and setting up a camp of tents and huts for six men, Sabine, and his instruments. Meanwhile, Clavering sailed north, until blocked by pack ice at 80° 21' N, and returned on the 11th.
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Launching the James Caird from the shore of Elephant Island, 24 April 1916 The voyage of the James Caird was a journey of from Elephant Island in the South Shetland Islands through the Southern Ocean to South Georgia, undertaken by Sir Ernest Shackleton and five companions to obtain rescue for the main body of the stranded Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914–1917. Polar historians regard the voyage of the crew in a 22.5' lifeboat through the "Furious Fifties" as one of the greatest small-boat journeys ever completed. In October 1915, pack ice in the Weddell Sea had sunk the main expedition ship Endurance, leaving Shackleton and his 27 companions adrift on a floe. They drifted northward until April 1916, when the floe they had encamped broke up, then made their way in the ship's lifeboats to Elephant Island.
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On 24 May, the ship reached the Pole and had already turned back toward Svalbard when it ran into a storm. On 25 May, the Italia crashed onto the pack ice less than 30 kilometres north of Nordaustlandet (Eastern part of Svalbard). Of the 16 men in the crew, ten were thrown onto the ice as the gondola was smashed; the remaining six crewmen were trapped in the buoyant superstructure as it ascended skyward due to loss of the gondola; the fate of the six men was never resolved. One of the ten men on the ice, Pomella, died from the impact; Nobile suffered a broken arm, broken leg, broken rib and head injury; Cecioni suffered two badly broken legs; Malmgren suffered a severe shoulder injury and suspected injury to a kidney; and Zappi had several broken ribs.
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The island was the resting place of the Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897, organised by S. A. Andrée. The expedition had attempted to overfly the North Pole in a hydrogen balloon, but was forced down on the pack ice about north of Kvitøya on July 14, less than three days after their launch. They reached the island on foot by October 6 and settled on the only ice free part on the island, on what is now called Andréeneset. The fate of the expedition for many years was one of the great mysteries of the Arctic, until its remains were discovered by the ship Bratvaag in 1930, over thirty years later, and diaries, logs of scientific observations and photographs—glass negative plates, which had been deep frozen and could be developed—were recovered at the site.
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Antarctic minke whales are the main prey item of Type A killer whales in the Southern Ocean. Their remains have been found in the stomachs of killer whales caught by the Soviets, while individuals caught by the Japanese exhibited damaged flippers with tooth rake scars and parallel scarring on the body suggestive of killer whale attacks. Large groups of killer whales have also been observed chasing, attacking, and even killing Antarctic minke whales. Most attacks involve Type A killer whales, but on one occasion, in January 2009, a group of ten Type B or pack ice killer whales, which normally preyed on Weddell seals in the area by wave-washing them off ice floes, were observed to attack, kill, and feed on a juvenile Antarctic minke whale in Laubeuf Fjord, between Adelaide Island and the Antarctic Peninsula.
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On 14 February, an open channel of water opened up a quarter of a mile (0.4 km) ahead of the ship and dawn showed the Endurance was afloat in a pool of soft, young ice no more than thick, but the pool was surrounded by solid pack ice of in thickness, blocking the path to the open lead. A day's continual work by the crew saw them hack a clear channel long. This work continued through the following day (15 February) and, with steam raised, the Endurance was backed up within her pool as far as possible to allow the ship to ram her way through the channel. As the ship went astern for successive attempts, lines were attached from the bow to loosened blocks of ice, estimated to weigh 20 tons (18 tonnes), in order to clear the path.
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In 1912, the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen wrote of the Ross expedition that "Few people of the present day are capable of rightly appreciating this heroic deed, this brilliant proof of human courage and energy. With two ponderous craft - regular "tubs" according to our ideas - these men sailed right into the heart of the pack [ice], which all previous explorers had regarded as certain death ... These men were heroes - heroes in the highest sense of the word." Hooker's Flora Antarctica remains important; in 2013 W. H. Walton in his Antarctica: Global Science from a Frozen Continent describes it as "a major reference to this day", encompassing as it does "all the plants he found both in the Antarctic and on the sub-Antarctic islands", surviving better than Ross's deep-sea soundings which were made with "inadequate equipment".
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With higher precipitation, portions of this snow may not melt during the summer and so glacial ice can form at lower altitudes and more southerly latitudes, reducing the temperatures over land by increased albedo as noted above. Furthermore, under this hypothesis the lack of oceanic pack ice allows increased exchange of waters between the Arctic and the North Atlantic Oceans, warming the Arctic and cooling the North Atlantic. (Current projected consequences of global warming include a largely ice-free Arctic Ocean within 5–20 years, see Arctic shrinkage.) Additional fresh water flowing into the North Atlantic during a warming cycle may also reduce the global ocean water circulation. Such a reduction (by reducing the effects of the Gulf Stream) would have a cooling effect on northern Europe, which in turn would lead to increased low-latitude snow retention during the summer.
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The great ice barrier – looking east from Cape Crozier, 1911 watercolour by Wilson On 15 June 1910, Wilson set sail from Cardiff on the , as chief of the scientific staff of Scott's final journey, the Terra Nova Expedition. After making stops in Madeira, South Trinidad, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, the Terra Nova was trapped for three weeks by pack ice, and finally arrived at Cape Evans in McMurdo Sound in early January 1911. A base camp hut was built and three weeks later work began to establish the supply depots in preparation for the journey to the South Pole the following austral spring. Deteriorating weather conditions and weak, unacclimatised ponies meant that the main supply point, One Ton Depot, was laid further north of its planned location at 80°S, something that was to prove critical during the return journey from the Pole the following year.
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The islands visited during this period were the Prince Edward Islands, the Crozet Islands, the Kerguelen Islands, and Heard Island. February 1874 was spent travelling south and then generally eastwards in the vicinity of the Antarctic Circle, with sightings of icebergs, pack ice and whales. The route then took the ship north-eastward and away from the ice regions in March 1874, with the expedition reaching Melbourne in Australia later that month. The journey eastward along the coast from Melbourne to Sydney took place in April 1874, passing by Wilsons Promontory and Cape Howe. Expedition crew in 1874 When the voyage resumed in June 1874, the route went east from Sydney to Wellington in New Zealand, followed by a large loop north into the Pacific calling at Tonga and Fiji, and then back westward to Cape York in Australia by the end of August.
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It was agreed that scientists of both countries would work together at the place in technical studies and scientific research. On 31 December 1959, the Argentinean icebreaker ARA General San Martín was heading to Ellsworth Station to exchange personnel deliver and consumables when it received a SOS signal from the Norwegian–South African exploration ship Polarbjorn, which had gotten stuck in ice. The Argentineans managed to set the ship free so it could follow with its planned route along the coastline, However, the General San Martín was later unable to reach its own primary goal—located on the deepest recess of the Weddell Sea—due to unusually thick pack ice on the target area. On 6 January 1962, Frigate Captain Hermes Quijada of the Argentine Naval Aviation, leading a two-plane flight of Douglas C-47s, made a stopover at Ellsworth Base before continuing to the South Pole.
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Over a quarter of the females off South Africa were found to be lactating, whereas lactating females are very rare in the Antarctic – though a cow-calf pair was observed in the austral winter (August) in the Lazarev Sea. In the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic, immature animals are normally solitary and occur in lower latitudes further offshore, while mature whales are typically found in mixed groups (usually one sex outnumbers the other, and groups composed solely of males or females are occasionally found) and occur in higher latitudes. Mature males dominate in middle latitudes, while mature females predominate in the higher latitudes of the pack ice zone – from two-thirds to three-quarters of the whales in the Ross Sea consist of pregnant females. An immature Antarctic minke whale was observed briefly associating with four dwarf minke whales on the Great Barrier Reef in July 2000.
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But the icy terrain between the ship and the shore was too arduous to travel while carrying the materials and supplies needed for the overland expedition. By March, navigational observation showed that the ship (and the mass of pack ice that contained it) was still moving, but now swinging towards the west-northwest and increasing in the speed of its drift, moving between the start of March and May 2, when the sun disappeared below the horizon and the dark Antarctic winter began. Still the men on the ship hoped for either a change in the weather which would break up the pack or that, by the spring, the warmer weather and the ship's northward drift would mean it was released. On 14 July 1915, Endurance was swept by a southwest gale, with wind speeds of , a barometer reading of and temperatures falling to .
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Wind speeds exceeding 100 km/h occur throughout the year, often causing flight cancellations at the Kulusuk Airport. Neighboring Tasiilaq−where the main local weather station is located−holds the settlement windspeed record for Greenland: on 7 February 1970 the speed peaked at or Moraine boulders under Qalorujoorneq: rime ice windblasted on the northeast-facing surfaces Pack ice and small icebergs pushed forth by the East Greenland Current ram against the northeastern coast, blocking the Ikaasaartik Sound and facilitating the freeze of the wider Torsuut Tunoq waterway. Aurora borealis over Kulusuk Conversely, when the Greenland High pressure area from the Greenland ice sheet () moves towards the area in winter, Kulusuk can be as wind-free and sunny as the inner parts of the Uummannaq Fjord region known as the sunniest spot in Greenland. Kulusuk experiences one of the windiest winters, with rougher weather than the rest of Greenland.
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On 13 January 1926 Jääkarhu was ready for first sea trials in the North Sea. Although there were still issues with the oil-fired boilers by late February, it was agreed to take the delivery of the new icebreaker on 2 March 1926 and solve the problems later as the winter of 1926 had turned out to be very severe. Despite the best efforts of existing Finnish state-owned icebreakers, the ice conditions in the Gulf of Finland and the Sea of Åland were extremely difficult and vast pack ice fields closed off the shipping lanes outside the island of Utö at the edge of the Archipelago Sea. Although sometimes called the largest and most powerful icebreaker in the world by the press in the 1920s, Jääkarhu was no match for the Soviet polar icebreakers Yermak and Svyatogor that had nearly twice the displacement and over twice the power of the Finnish icebreaker.
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As part of the plans of the Royal Society to make observations of the June 1769 transit of Venus, which would lead to an accurate determination of the astronomical unit (the distance between the Earth and the Sun), Wales and an assistant, Joseph Dymond, were sent to Prince of Wales Fort on Hudson Bay to observe the transit, with the pair being offered a reward of £200 for a successful conclusion to their expedition. Other Royal Society expeditions associated with the 1769 transit were Cook's first voyage to the Pacific, with observations of the transit being made at Tahiti, and the expedition of Jeremiah Dixon and William Bayly to Norway. Due to winter pack ice making the journey impossible during the winter months, Wales and Dymond were obliged to begin their journey in the summer of 1768, setting sail on 23 June. Ironically, Wales when volunteering to make a journey to observe the transit, had requested that he be sent to a more hospitable location.
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His longtime comrade-in-arms Frank Wild assumed the leadership and advanced as far as the South Sandwich Islands until pack ice induced him to turn around and make for home. Later, the ship resumed its original role as a sealer. In 1930 to 1931 H. G. Watkins deployed the Quest for the British Air Route expedition, surveyed the eastern coast of Greenland in search of a site for an air base. The winner of the race, Roald Amundsen, made his way to the Arctic Ocean, his actual field of interest. In the following years between 1918 and 1922, he attempted to repeat Nansen's enterprise without success. After the First World War interrupted oceanographic research, international scientific activities started anew in 1920. The invention of the echo sounder in 1912 reached a new significance for the international marine research. Henceforth, it was possible to measure the distance to the seabed by sending acoustic signals instead of using wires and weights.
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The landfalls were logged in Ingraham's computer model OSCUR (Ocean Surface Currents Simulation), which uses measurements of air pressure from 1967 onwards to calculate the direction of and speed of wind across the oceans, and the consequent surface currents. Ingraham's model was built to help fisheries but it is also used to predict flotsam movements or the likely locations of those lost at sea. Using the models they had developed, the oceanographers correctly predicted further landfalls of the toys in Washington state in 1996 and theorized that many of the remaining Floatees would have travelled to Alaska, westward to Japan, back to Alaska, and then drifted northwards through the Bering Strait and become trapped in the Arctic pack ice. Moving slowly with the ice across the Pole, they predicted it would take five or six years for the toys to reach the North Atlantic where the ice would thaw and release them.
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Upon her arrival back in Seattle, Staten Island became the fourth United States ship to circumnavigate the North American continent, traveling over in the process. She departed Seattle on 6 July 1970 to conduct scientific tests and evaluation of crude oil spread rate in the Arctic Ocean. Later that summer when a large group of 20 tugboats and 40 barges bound for Prudhoe Bay with vital supplies became trapped in pack ice, Staten Island worked around the clock for 3½ days to tow and push the barges to open water. She freed the fouled screw of the tugboat Active southwest of Point Barrow on 14 August 1970, and returned to Seattle on 20 August 1970. Staten Island departed Seattle once more later in 1970 as part of "Operation Deep Freeze 1971". On 28 February 1971, while en route to Mawson Station she struck an uncharted pinnacle north of the station, suffering significant damage, including a punctured hull that flooded four compartments, but no crew injuries.
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Map showing the path of Aurora's drift in pack ice from 6 May 1915, its position on release from the pack on 14 March 1916, and its subsequent retreat to Port Chalmers By 8 May a continuous southerly gale had driven the ship northwards, still locked in the ice, out of McMurdo Sound and into the open Ross Sea. In his diary for 9 May Stenhouse summarised Auroras position: "...fast in the pack and drifting God knows where [...] We are all in good health [...] we have good spirits and we will get through." He recognised that this was the end of any hope of wintering the ship in McMurdo Sound, and expressed concern for the men at Cape Evans: "It is a dismal prospect for them [...] we have the remaining Burberrys, clothing etc for next year's sledging still on board."Shackleton, pp. 309–13 During the next two days the winds reached a force that made it impossible for the men to work on deck,Haddelsey, pp.
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The controversial Solutrean hypothesis proposed in 1999 by Smithsonian archaeologist Dennis Stanford and colleague Bruce Bradley (Stanford and Bradley 2002), suggests that the Clovis people could have inherited technology from the Solutrean people who lived in southern Europe 21,000–15,000 years ago, and who created the first Stone Age artwork in present-day southern France. The link is suggested by the similarity in technology between the projectile points of the Solutreans and those found at Clovis (and pre-Clovis) sites. Its proponents point to tools found at various pre-Clovis sites in eastern North America (particularly in the Chesapeake Bay region) as progenitors of Clovis-style tools. The model envisions these people making the crossing in small watercraft via the edge of the pack ice in the North Atlantic Ocean that then extended to the Atlantic coast of France, using skills similar to those of the modern Inuit people, making landfall somewhere around the then-exposed Grand Banks of the North American continental shelf.
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On 14 January, in sight of the first icebergs, the towline was cut; Nimrod, under her own power, proceeded southward into the floating pack ice, heading for the Barrier Inlet where six years earlier Discovery had paused to allow Scott and Shackleton to take experimental balloon flights. The Barrier (later known as the Ross Ice Shelf) was sighted on 23 January, but the inlet had disappeared; the Barrier edge had changed significantly in the intervening years, and the section which had included the inlet had broken away to form a considerable bay, which Shackleton named the Bay of Whales after the large number of whales seen there. Shackleton was not prepared to risk wintering on a Barrier surface that might calve into the sea, so he turned the ship towards King Edward VII Land. After repeated efforts to approach this coast had failed, and with rapidly moving ice threatening to trap the ship, Nimrod was forced to retreat.
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In 1883, new rescue attempts by Proteus, commanded by Lieutenant Ernest Albert Garlington, and Yantic, commanded by Commander Frank Wildes, failed, with Proteus being crushed by pack ice. The six survivors: Private Francis Long, Sergeant Julius R. Frederick, Private Maurice Connell, Steward Henry Bierderbick, Sergeant David L. Brainard, Lieutenant Adolphus W. Greely In the summer of 1883, in accordance with his instructions for the case of two consecutive relief expeditions not reaching Fort Conger, Greely decided to head South with his crew. It had been planned that the relief ships should depot supplies along the Nares Strait, around Cape Sabine and at Littleton Island, if they were unable to reach Fort Conger, which should have made for a comfortable wintering of Greely's men. But with Neptune not even getting that far and Proteus sunk, in reality only a small emergency cache with 40 days worth of supplies had been laid at Cape Sabine by Proteus.
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At the crew made course for Greenland, eventually seeing pack ice through the fog. The Catalina flew into Scoresby Sound and the crew photographed northwards to Cape Brewster, turned for Iceland at and flew in clear weather almost to the island before the fog closed in again, landing at Akureyri at on 26 June The ice and weather reports were transmitted and P-Peter took off at for Jan Mayen, thence to Spitzbergen, making landfall at The crew descended to to take photographs in clear weather then turned east for Bell Sound and photographed Van Mijenfjorden (Lowe Sound) a prospective anchorage for tankers, examining Sveagruva, which seemed unoccupied. The crew took pictures of the coast to Cape Linné, Green Harbour and Barentsburg, made contact with Fritham Force and then photographed the pier, the navigator hanging out of the port blister with a camera, held fast by a colleague. Healy landed P-Peter, deposited Glen and Croft into a boat and took off for Advent Bay to check on the Germans.
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Sarpaneva made his and Finland's largest glass sculpture, Ahtojää ("Pack Ice," renamed from Jäävuori, "Iceberg"), for the Finnish pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal in 1967. It was then bought by the City of Tampere and remained in storage until 1988 when it was installed in the entrance lobby of the KoskiKeskus shopping mall opened in downtown Tampere in March of that year. The 12 m (36 ft.) long and 6.4 m (21 ft.) wide triangle is suspended from the ceiling and filled with 488, up to 1 m (3.3 ft.) high, faceted and noduled glass turrets. Sarpaneva expanded his original concept by attaching Meren peili ("Mirror of the Sea") below Ahtojää, mirror panes interpreting the surface of the sea (the Baltic Sea is partly covered with ice around Finland in the winter, but ice-free in the summer), in order to reminisce on fluidity and the cycle of life, which also subsumed a Finnish take on the two manifestations of the country's denotative multitude of lakes – white ice in the winter and a blue mirror in the summer.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics "Western Australian Year Book, 1997" In the southern part of the state the bulk of rainfall comes from west to east moving cold frontal low pressure depressions, originating off the edge of the winter pack-ice in the Southern Ocean, south of South Africa. Cold southern airflows, wedging beneath humid north westerly winds triggers vertical instabilities, bringing this region the bulk of its rain between May and August. During the summer months these frontal depressions travel well to the south, leading to warm high pressure systems dominating the southern part of the state. As a result, the state is classified with five climates in the Köppen climate classifications, ranging from Aw Tropical wet-dry climates in the Kimberley region of the state, through BSh Semiarid (summer rainfall) to the south of the Kimberley, BW Arid climates, covering the Great Sandy Desert, Central Australian Desert, Gibson Desert and the Great Victoria Desert, BSh Semiarid (winter rainfall), from Shark Bay to the Nullabor, and then a Csa Mediterranean climate from Northampton to Esperance and covering the Southwest of the state.
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