949 Sentences With "osmotic" | Random Sentence Generator

Orwell: Keeping an Eye on You was created by Osmotic Studios.

For the osmotic process to be effective, though, the bathing liquid needs to be changed frequently.

"So I dove in, trying to have an osmotic experience" — starting with the original 1966-68 series.

This is called osmotic balance, and without it, sharks would lose or gain water to the ocean and die.

She and Mr. Del Fra, who died in 1997, "worked together for a lifetime, in a completely osmotic relationship," Ms. Zegna said.

By "osmotic shock," the researchers are referring to a process whereby a sudden change in water concentration disrupts the normal functioning of a cell.

The non-habituated slime molds died, perhaps from osmotic shock because they could not cope with how rapidly moisture leaked out of their cells.

With Facebook feed clutter and pop-up notifications, and your various friends and family boosting those signals, news consumption is near-osmotic, meaning (blissful?) ignorance is impossible.

It's amazing that the developers at Osmotic Studios were able to put the player in a position of regularized banality while also embroiling them in an interesting story.

"If there were still microbial communities withstanding the process of extreme drying, they would have been subjected to processes of osmotic stress similar to those we have studied in Atacama," Fairén explained.

But I have a team of people that are very strong that work there, that had been on my team and hopefully were able to create some osmotic shift in the way they thought about culture.

Villenueve grants Jóhannsson the freedom to maintain his osmotic approach, so that even with a concept and visual framework in place, the composer can still put himself in a space to receive those inputs, and interpret accordingly.

Fresher is Aleksandar Denic's incredibly cryptic, complex and detailed drawing "Landing at Normandy" (2004) which at first glance looks like an automatized abstract network, but is in fact a representational osmotic membrane made up of tiny invading soldiers.

Dr. Gennaro D'Amato, who has researched this area extensively, says that the association between thunderstorms and asthma are related to the fact that storms can cause pollen to become concentrated and released into the air after the thunder and osmotic shock.

Scientists have documented several different strategies of cryptobiosis in animals, including desiccation (extreme dryness), osmotic pressure (which allows organisms to tolerate shifting variations in the environment, including salinity), oxygen deficiency (animals can slow or halt metabolic processes by slowing down breathing), and of course, freezing.

"Here we show that the sudden and massive input of water in regions that have remained hyperarid for millions of years is harmful for most of the surface soil microbial species, which are exquisitely adapted to survive with meager amounts of liquid water, and quickly perish from osmotic shock when water becomes suddenly abundant," the authors write in the study.

As to whether or not irrevocable damage occurs in the brain during the seconds and minutes following death, or as the brain is brought down to temperatures reaching -196 degrees Celsius (-320 degrees Fahrenheit) is another question entirely; a notorious issue facing cryonics is the degree to which "ice crystal formation, osmotic shock, and membrane damage during freezing and thawing will cause cell death," as noted in a 2017 Integrative Medicine Research study.

Seumas McNally Grand Prize: Inside (Playdead)Stardew Valley (ConcernedApe)Quadrilateral Cowboy (Blendo Games)Event[0] (Ocelot Society)Hyper Light Drifter (Heart Machine)Overcooked (Ghost Town Games) Honorable Mentions: 1979 Revolution: Black Friday (iNK Stories); Orwell (Osmotic Studios); Imbroglio (Michael Brough); Virginia (Variable State); Duskers (Misfits Attic); Oiκοςpiel, Book I (David Kanaga) Nuovo Award: Islands: Non-Places (Carlburton LLC)Close (Tobias Zarges and Moritz Eberl)Diaries of a Spaceport Janitor (Sundae Month)Oiκοςpiel, Book I (David Kanaga)Everything (David OReilly)Virginia (Variable State)Mu Cartographer (Titouan Millet)Lieve Oma (Florian Veltman) Honorable Mentions: Memoir En Code: Reissue (Alex Camilleri); Far from Noise (George Batchelor); Ladykiller in a Bind (Love Conquers All Games); Witchball (S.

Patent awarded for improvements on rotary Pressure Exchanger devices. Osmotic Power from the Ocean (with G.G. Pique), Power Magazine, December 2006.Osmotic Power from the Ocean (with G.G. Pique), Dec. 2006 A demonstration test of osmotic power generation using the osmotic potential difference between seawater and fresh water.

Glucose is an osmotic molecule, and can have profound effects on osmotic pressure in high concentrations possibly leading to cell damage or death if stored in the cell without being modified. Glycogen is a non-osmotic molecule, so it can be used as a solution to storing glucose in the cell without disrupting osmotic pressure.

Finally, a late maturation stage gives rise to undischarged capsules under high osmotic pressure through the synthesis of poly-γ-glutamate into the matrix of the capsule. This trapped osmotic pressure enables rapid thread discharge upon triggering through a massive osmotic shock.

Note that the second form of Brønsted's equation is an expression for the osmotic coefficient. Measurement of osmotic coefficients provides one means for determining mean activity coefficients.

Osmotic agents work by primarily affecting the blood brain barrier. It's very important that the osmotic agents cannot cross the blood brain barrier because the main idea is to use osmotic agents to increase plasma osmolarity and cause an osmotic gradient to cause water from brain cells to flow into the plasma. Once the equilibrium is reached, both the ICP and intracellular volume return to their initial normal conditions. An ideal osmotic agent would be characterized by its inertness, relative non-toxicity and complete exclusion from brain entry.

The osmotic pressure of the solvent across the semipermeable membrane is measured by the membrane osmometer. This osmotic pressure measurement is used to calculate M_n for the sample.

Sodium, chloride and potassium are excreted in osmotic diuresis, originating from diabetes mellitus (DM). Osmotic diuresis results in dehydration from polyuria and the classic polydipsia (excessive thirst) associated with DM.

Many commercial manufacturers of vegetable oil use a combination of mechanical pressing and chemical solvents in extracting oil. This use is often also adopted for algal oil extraction. Osmotic shock is a sudden reduction in osmotic pressure, this can cause cells in a solution to rupture. Osmotic shock is sometimes used to release cellular components, such as oil.

Photograph of Statkraft osmotic power prototype at Tofte in Hurum. Statkraft osmotic power prototype is the world's first osmotic power plant, based on the energy of osmosis. The power plant is run by Statkraft. The power plant is located at Tofte in Hurum, Norway, with rooms at the factory area at Södra Cell Tofte cellulose factory.

By 1927, use of osmotic agents in IV delivery became official.

Osmotic diarrhea occurs when too much water is drawn into the bowels. If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel and cause osmotic diarrhea. Osmotic diarrhea can also result from maldigestion, e.g. pancreatic disease or coeliac disease in which the nutrients are left in the lumen to pull in water.

This decreased glucan production leads to osmotic instability and thus cellular lysis.

Blood cells in solutions with different osmotic pressure. Cytolysis would result in the image on the far right. Micrographs of osmotic pressure on red blood cells A human white blood cell (upper right) in water swells until it bursts (at ~14 seconds) Cytolysis, or osmotic lysis, occurs when a cell bursts due to an osmotic imbalance that has caused excess water to diffuse into the cell. Water can enter the cell by diffusion through the cell membrane or through selective membrane channels called aquaporins, which greatly facilitate the flow of water.

Sunderland, Massachusetts. pp. 647-678. Furthermore, it is important to note that the osmotic pressure of the common raven is low compared to mammalian species. Reduced osmotic pressure is due to a lower concentration of plasma albumin protein.

Calcium also acts as one of the primary regulators of osmotic stress (osmotic shock). Chronically elevated plasma calcium (hypercalcemia) is associated with cardiac arrhythmias and decreased neuromuscular excitability. One cause of hypercalcemia is a condition known as hyperparathyroidism.

Throughout the body, dissolved compounds have an osmotic pressure. Because large plasma proteins cannot easily cross through the capillary walls, their effect on the osmotic pressure of the capillary interiors will, to some extent, balance out the tendency for fluid to leak out of the capillaries. In other words, the osmotic pressure tends to pull fluid into the capillaries. In conditions where plasma proteins are reduced, e.g.

At later gestational ages, osmotic dilators, including laminaria, may be used to assist in dilating the cervix. Most abortion providers use laminaria, Dilapan, or both for osmotic dilation prior to surgical abortion after 16–18 weeks gestation. Osmotic dilators may also be used to achieve cervical dilation prior to gynecology procedures, such as hysteroscopy or dilation and curettage of the non-pregnant uterus, although this is uncommon.

Thus, osmotic agents with reflection coefficient (σ) closer to 1 (0= freely permeable, 1= completely impermeable) is preferred as it is not likely to exhibit any rebound effects such as cerebral edema and ICP elevations upon withdrawal. Commonly used osmotic agents are urea, glycerol, mannitol and Hypertonic Saline. Dosage of osmotic agent administration is referred to as grams per person's body mass (g/ kg).

Osmotic dilators prior to expansion. Dilapan-S (left). Laminaria (right) Osmotic dilators are medical implements used to dilate the uterine cervix by swelling as they absorb fluid from surrounding tissue. They may be composed of natural or synthetic materials.

The paracaspase in Dictyostelium seems to regulate osmotic stress tolerance by vacuolar expansion.

Appropriate ADH release can also be a result of non-osmotic triggers. Symptoms such as nausea/vomiting and pain are significant causes of ADH release. The combination of osmotic and non-osmotic triggers of ADH release can adequately explain the hyponatremia in the majority of people who are hospitalized with acute illness and are found to have mild to moderate hyponatremia. SIADH is less common than appropriate release of ADH.

Osmotic drying using a humectant results in a soft texture in the final product.

Effect of different solutions on red blood cells Micrographs of osmotic pressure on red blood cells Tonicity is a measure of the effective osmotic pressure gradient; the water potential of two solutions separated by a semipermeable cell membrane. In other words, tonicity is the relative concentration of solutes dissolved in solution which determine the direction and extent of diffusion. It is commonly used when describing the response of cells immersed in an external solution. Unlike osmotic pressure, tonicity is influenced only by solutes that cannot cross the membrane, as only these exert an effective osmotic pressure.

All organisms have mechanisms to respond to osmotic shock, with sensors and signal transduction networks providing information to the cell about the osmolarity of its surroundings; these signals activate responses to deal with extreme conditions. Although single-celled organisms are more vulnerable to osmotic shock, since they are directly exposed to their environment, cells in large animals such as mammals still suffer these stresses under some conditions. Current research also suggests that osmotic stress in cells and tissues may significantly contribute to many human diseases. In eukaryotes, calcium acts as one of the primary regulators of osmotic stress.

With low adhesion, osmotic cells form underneath the coating with high enough pressures to form blisters, which expose more unprotected steel. Additional non-osmotic mechanisms have also been proposed. In either case, sufficient adhesion to resist displacement forces is required for corrosion protection.

The osmotic pressure and these amino acids help to control the amount of salt within the cell. However, because of these adaptations, if the cell is placed in a wet, less salty environment, it is likely to immediately burst from the osmotic pressure.

Maximum osmotic pressure has been reported in Atriplex conf. where it is about 202.5 atm.

Young osmotic cells appear swollen and turgescent, whereas old ones become flaccid, relaxed, and wrinkled.

Osmotic dehydration is an operation used for the partial removal of water from plant tissues by immersion in a hypertonic (osmotic) solution. Sugar or salt solutions are used to reduce the moisture content of foods before actual drying process. This technique is used to give the product quality improvement over conventional drying process. Mild heat treatment after osmotic dehydration favours colour and flavour retention resulting in the product having superior organoleptic characteristics.

It was previously believed that the primary mechanism of osmotic diuretics such as mannitol is that they are filtered in the glomerulus, but cannot be reabsorbed. Thus their presence leads to an increase in the osmolarity of the filtrate and to maintain osmotic balance, water is retained in the urine. Glucose, like mannitol, is a sugar that can behave as an osmotic diuretic. Unlike mannitol, glucose is commonly found in the blood.

This quantity can be related to the osmotic coefficient g by the relation: i = n g.

Frequent use of osmotic laxatives should be avoided as well as they can cause electrolyte imbalances.

However, other possibilities include bony tissue evolving as an osmotic barrier, or as a protective structure.

Measured variables were harvest index, stress susceptibility index, osmotic potential, leaf water potential and turgent pressure.

An illustration of the different components of the Elementary Osmotic Pump. The Elementary Osmotic Pump (EOP) was developed by ALZA in 1974, and was the first practical example of an osmotic pump based drug release system for oral use. It was introduced to the market in the early 1980s in Osmosin (indomethacin) and Acutrim (phenylpropanolamine), but unexpectedly severe issues with GI irritation and cases of GI perforation led to the withdrawal of Osmosin. Merck & Co. later developed the Controlled-Porosity Osmotic Pump (CPOP) with the intention of addressing some of the issues that led to Osmosin's withdrawal via a new approach to the final stage of the release mechanism.

Water removal is based on the natural and non-destructive phenomenon of osmosis across cell membranes. The driving force for the diffusion of water from the tissue into the solution is provided by the higher osmotic pressure of the hyper-tonic solution. The diffusion of water is accompanied by the simultaneous counter diffusion of solutes from the osmotic solution into the tissue. Since the cell membrane responsible for osmotic transport is not perfectly selective, solutes present in the cells (organic acids, reducing sugars, minerals, flavors and pigment compounds) can also be leaked into the osmotic solution, which affects the organoleptic and nutritional characteristics of the product.

In 1887 Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff published his landmark paper regarding the analogy between gas pressure and the osmotic pressure of solutions,J.H. van `t Hoff (1887), "The role of osmotic pressure in the analogy between solutions and gases " (translation). Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie 1, 481-508 for which he won the first Nobel prize in chemistry. He derived an analogue of Gay-Lussac's law for the dependence of the osmotic pressure on absolute temperature.

In galactosemic cataracts, osmotic swelling of the lens epithelial cells (LEC) occurs. Osmosis is the movement of water from areas of low particle concentration to areas of high particle concentration, to establish equilibrium. Researchers concluded that this osmotic swelling must be the result of an accumulation of abnormal metabolites or electrolytes in the lens. Ruth van Heyningen was the first to discover that the lens's retention of dulcitol, synonymous for galactitol, induces this osmotic swelling in the galactosemic cataract.

Some researchers have commented that it could be due to osmotic differences, however that is not verified.

For pure water DPD and Diffusion pressure are same. DPD of a solution is equal to its osmotic pressure i.e. DPD = OP(of solution). The DPD of a cell is influenced by both osmotic pressure and wall pressure (turgor pressure) which opposes the endosmotic entry of water, i.e.

D. salina lacks a rigid cell wall, which makes the organism susceptible to osmotic pressure. Glycerol is used as a means by which to maintain both osmotic balance and enzymatic activity.Craigie JS, McLachlan J. Glycerol as a photosynthetic product in Dunaliella tertiolecta Butcher. Can J Bot. 1964;42:777–778.

In the case of a plant cell, the flow of water out of the cell may eventually cause the plasma membrane to pull away from the cell wall, leading to plasmolysis. Most plants, however, have the ability to increase solute inside the cell to drive the flow of water into the cell and maintain turgor. This effect can be used to power an osmotic power plant.Statkraft to build world's first osmotic power plant A soil solution also experiences osmotic potential.

On the other hand, osmotic potential has an extreme influence on the rate of water uptake by plants. If soils are high in soluble salts, the osmotic potential is likely to be lower in the soil solution than in the plant root cells. In such cases, the soil solution would severely restrict the rate of water uptake by plants. In salty soils, the osmotic potential of soil water may be so low that the cells in young seedlings start to collapse (plasmolyze).

Climatic and osmotic pressure places physiological constraints on organisms, especially those that fly and respire at high altitudes, or dive to deep ocean depths. These constraints influence vertical limits of ecosystems in the biosphere, as organisms are physiologically sensitive and adapted to atmospheric and osmotic water pressure differences. For example, oxygen levels decrease with decreasing pressure and are a limiting factor for life at higher altitudes. Water transportation by plants is another important ecophysiological process affected by osmotic pressure gradients.

This system is not seen in animal cells, as the absence of a cell wall would cause the cell to lyse when under too much pressure. The pressure exerted by the osmotic flow of water is called turgidity. It is caused by the osmotic flow of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Osmotic flow of water through a semipermeable membrane is when the water travels from an area with a low-solute concentration, to one with a higher-solute concentration.

Osmotic blistering is a chemical phenomenon where two substances attempt to reach equilibrium through a semi-permeable membrane.

Cerebral edema was thus attributed to osmotic effects related to a high urea gradient between plasma and brain.

Hot, arid habitats pose osmotic stress, such as dehydration, which triggers the common ostrich's homeostatic response to osmoregulate.

Tanaka et al., emphasize that the discrete and reversible volume transitions which occur in partially hydrolyzed acrylimide gels can be interpreted in terms of a phase transition of the system consisting of the charged polymer network, hydrogen (counter)ions and liquid matrix. The phase transition is a manifestation of competition among the three forces which contribute to the osmotic pressure in the gel: # The positive osmotic pressure of (+) hydrogen ions # The negative pressure due to polymer-polymer affinity # The rubber-like elasticity of the polymer network The balance of these forces varies with change in temperature or solvent properties. The total osmotic pressure acting on the system is the sum osmotic pressure of the gel.

Discontinuous capillaries as found in sinusoidal tissues of bone marrow, liver and spleen have little or no filter function. The rate at which fluid is filtered across vascular endothelium (transendothelial filtration) is determined by the sum of two outward forces, capillary pressure ( P_c ) and interstitial protein osmotic pressure ( \pi_i ), and two absorptive forces, plasma protein osmotic pressure ( \pi_p ) and interstitial pressure ( P_i ). The Starling equation describes these forces in mathematical terms. It is one of the Kedem–Katchalski equations which bring nonsteady state thermodynamics to the theory of osmotic pressure across membranes that are at least partly permeable to the solute responsible for the osmotic pressure difference (Staverman 1951; Kedem and Katchalsky 1958).

DsrA levels are increased in response to low temperatures and osmotic stress, and RprA levels are increased in response to osmotic stress and cell-surface stress, therefore increasing RpoS levels in response to these conditions. Levels of OxyS are increased in response to oxidative stress, therefore inhibiting RpoS under these conditions.

The osmolal concentration of TEG and MG were calculated from the dependence of their osmotic pressure on molal concentration.

Together with sodium it regulates the basic acid balance, the osmotic pressure of the cells and the neuromuscular irritableness.

In addition to organic nutrient and mineral presence, temperature and pH, osmotic pressure also has an effect on C. coronatus growth and dispersal. The spores of this fungus are more likely to germinate at lower osmotic pressures, and any medium with osmotic pressures greater than 10 atm will almost entirely inhibit germination of this fungus. Conidiobolus coronatus produces forcibly discharged sporangia, which show phototropic orientation. Phototropic orientation aims growth and spore dispersal towards the most intense light source, thereby increasing the efficiency of dispersal.

Although water travels down an osmotic gradient in each individual step, overall, water usually travels against the osmotic gradient due to the pumping of sodium ions into the intercellular fluid. This allows the large intestine to absorb water despite the blood in capillaries being hypotonic compared to the fluid within the intestinal lumen.

Low osmotic gap (<50 mOsm/kg) causes of secretory diarrhea include toxin-mediated causes (cholera, enterotoxigenic strains of E. coli) and secretagogues such as vasoactive intestinal peptide (from a VIPoma, for example). Uncommon causes include gastrinoma, medullary thyroid carcinoma (which produces excess calcitonin), factitious diarrhea from non-osmotic laxative abuse and villous adenoma.

Prevention includes standard preventions for iatrogenic kidney damage. Osmotic nephrosis is usually reversible but can lead to chronic kidney failure.

Third spacing of fluids such as peritonitis, osmotic diuresis, or low aldosterone states such as Addison's disease all elevate urea.

BBC News Norway's Statkraft opens first osmotic power plant In January 2014 however Statkraft announced not to continue this pilot.

Even in modern energy recovery techniques membranes are increasingly used, for example in fuel cells and in osmotic power plants.

At the arteriolar end of the capillary the blood pressure is greater than the hydrostatic pressure in the tissues. Water will therefore seep out of the capillary into the interstitial fluid. The pores through which this water moves are large enough to allow all the smaller molecules (up to the size of small proteins such as insulin) to move freely through the capillary wall as well. This means that their concentrations across the capillary wall equalize, and therefore have no osmotic effect (because the osmotic pressure caused by these small molecules and ions – called the crystalloid osmotic pressure to distinguish it from the osmotic effect of the larger molecules that cannot move across the capillary membrane – is the same on both sides of capillary wall).

The osmotic pressure of a solution is the difference in pressure between the solution and the pure liquid solvent when the two are in equilibrium across a semipermeable membrane, which allows the passage of solvent molecules but not of solute particles. If the two phases are at the same initial pressure, there is a net transfer of solvent across the membrane into the solution known as osmosis. The process stops and equilibrium is attained when the pressure difference equals the osmotic pressure. Two laws governing the osmotic pressure of a dilute solution were discovered by the German botanist W. F. P. Pfeffer and the Dutch chemist J. H. van’t Hoff: # The osmotic pressure of a dilute solution at constant temperature is directly proportional to its concentration.

Stool osmotic gap is a measure of the concentration of those other compounds. Stool osmotic gap is calculated as 290 mOsm/kg − 2 × (stool Na + stool K). 290 mOsm/kg is the presumed stool osmolality, and the measured concentration of sodium and potassium cations is doubled to account for the corresponding anions which must be present. A normal gap is between 50 and 100 mOsm/kg, corresponding to the concentration of other solutes such as magnesium salts and sugars. A low stool osmotic gap suggests secretory diarrhea, wherein the digestive tract is hyperpermeable and losing electrolytes, while a high gap suggests osmotic diarrhea, wherein the digestive tract is unable to absorb solutes from the chyme, either because the digestive tract is hypopermeable (e.g.

Osmotic Membrane Processes Forward osmosis (FO) is an osmotic process that, like reverse osmosis (RO), uses a semi-permeable membrane to effect separation of water from dissolved solutes. The driving force for this separation is an osmotic pressure gradient, such that a "draw" solution of high concentration (relative to that of the feed solution), is used to induce a net flow of water through the membrane into the draw solution, thus effectively separating the feed water from its solutes. In contrast, the reverse osmosis process uses hydraulic pressure as the driving force for separation, which serves to counteract the osmotic pressure gradient that would otherwise favor water flux from the permeate to the feed. Hence significantly more energy is required for reverse osmosis compared to forward osmosis.

Polyuria in osmotic cases, increases flow amount in the distal nephron where flow rates and velocity are low. The significant pressure increase occurring in the distal nephron takes place particularly in the cortical-collecting ducts. One study from 2008 lays out a hypothesis that hyperglycaemic and osmotic polyuria play roles ultimately in diabetic nephropathy.

A speculum is placed in the vagina to allow visualization of the cervix. If osmotic dilators were placed prior to the procedure, these are removed. The cervix may be further dilated with rigid dilator instruments (as opposed to osmotic dilators). Sufficient cervical dilation decreases the risk of morbidity, including cervical injury and uterine perforation.

Tissue is typically homogenized in a buffer solution that is isotonic to stop osmotic damage. Mechanisms for homogenization include grinding, mincing, chopping, pressure changes, osmotic shock, freeze-thawing, and ultra-sound. The samples are then kept cold to prevent enzymatic damage. It is the formation of homogenous mass of cells (cell homogenate or cell suspension).

The unit of osmotic concentration is the osmole. This is a non-SI unit of measurement that defines the number of moles of solute that contribute to the osmotic pressure of a solution. A milliosmole (mOsm) is 1/1,000 of an osmole. A microosmole (μOsm) (also spelled micro-osmole) is 1/1,000,000 of an osmole.

Although, liquid water will only move in response to such differences in osmotic potential if a semipermeable membrane exists between the zones of high and low osmotic potential. A semipermeable membrane is necessary because it allows water through its membrane while preventing solutes from moving through its membrane. If no membrane is present, movement of the solute, rather than of the water, largely equalizes concentrations. Since regions of soil are usually not divided by a semipermeable membrane, the osmotic potential typically has a negligible influence on the mass movement of water in soils.

A 54mg tablet of Concerta, which uses OROS technology. Osmotic controlled- release oral delivery systems (OROS) have the form of a rigid tablet with a semi-permeable outer membrane and one or more small laser drilled holes in it. As the tablet passes through the body, water is absorbed through the semipermeable membrane via osmosis, and the resulting osmotic pressure is used to push the active drug through the opening(s) in the tablet. OROS is a trademarked name owned by ALZA Corporation, which pioneered the use of osmotic pumps for oral drug delivery.

Water absorption at the colon typically proceeds against a transmucosal osmotic pressure gradient. The standing gradient osmosis is the reabsorption of water against the osmotic gradient in the intestines. Cells occupying the intestinal lining pump sodium ions into the intercellular space, raising the osmolarity of the intercellular fluid. This hypertonic fluid creates an osmotic pressure that drives water into the lateral intercellular spaces by osmosis via tight junctions and adjacent cells, which then in turn moves across the basement membrane and into the capillaries, while more sodium ions are pumped again into the intercellular fluid.

Furthermore, water is transferred from the hindgut, where osmotic pressure has already been reduced, to the stomach to dilute stomach content. Eventually, aphids consume xylem sap to dilute the stomach osmotic pressure. All these processes function synergetically, and enable aphids to feed on high-sucrose-concentration plant sap, as well as to adapt to varying sucrose concentrations. Plant sap is an unbalanced diet for aphids, as it lacks essential amino acids, which aphids, like all animals, cannot synthesise, and possesses a high osmotic pressure due to its high sucrose concentration.

The interaction of electrical and osmotic relations in plant cells appears to have arisen from an osmotic function of electrical excitability in a common unicellular ancestors of plants and animals under changing salinity conditions. Further, the present function of rapid signal transmission is seen as a newer accomplishment of metazoan cells in a more stable osmotic environment. Gradmann, D; Mummert, H in It is likely that the familiar signaling function of action potentials in some vascular plants (e.g. Mimosa pudica) arose independently from that in metazoan excitable cells.

As cataract formation progresses due to galactitol synthesis and subsequent osmotic swelling, changes occur in the lens epithelial cells. For instance, when rabbit lenses are placed in high-galactose mediums, a nearly 40% reduction in lens amino acid levels is observed, along with significant ATP reduction as well. Researchers theorized that this reduction in amino acid and ATP levels during cataract formation is a result of osmotic swelling. To test this theory, Kinoshita placed rabbit lenses in a high-galactose environment, but inhibited the osmotic swelling by constantly regulating galactose and galactitol concentrations.

Other pathways generate energy from ATP only through complex multi- enzyme reactions involving protein pumps and osmotic imbalances across a membrane.

Instead, the osmotic conditions enable Halanaerobium bacteria to thrive and decompose the fish glycogen into organic acids, making it sour (acidic).

Plants affected by salt stress are able to take water from soil, due to an osmotic imbalance between soil and plant.

Sucrose increases the liquid's osmotic pressure, which prevents microorganism growth. The sweetened evaporated milk is cooled and lactose crystallization is induced.

Fluid shifts occur when the body's fluids move between the fluid compartments. Physiologically, this occurs by a combination of hydrostatic pressure gradients and osmotic pressure gradients. Water will move from one space into the next passively across a semi permeable membrane until the hydrostatic and osmotic pressure gradients balance each other. Many medical conditions can cause fluid shifts.

Osmotic dehydration is the process of soaking food in highly concentrated solutions of humectant. Salt and sugar are commonly used humectants for this process. Water diffusion from the food to the humectant solution is caused by osmotic pressure. The water is replaced by the humectant, which results in a lowered water activity for the food product.

Echiniscoides sigismundi becomes turgid in freshwater, but can survive up to three days, resuming normal activity as osmotic differential returns to normal.

He researched many topics in physical chemistry, including freezing points, the dielectric constant of ice, osmotic pressures, oxidation potentials, and complex ions.

1 June 2014. When using to treat hyponatremia, it may cause too rapid correction of hyponatremia resulting in fatal osmotic demyelination syndrome.

Sorbitol cannot cross cell membranes, and, when it accumulates, it produces osmotic stresses on cells by drawing water into the insulin-independent tissues.

This latter equation is named after him. Using these equations one can calculate the molar mass of solutes from the osmotic pressure data.

Laminarid is a blend of polysaccharides, proteins and salts of alginic acid obtained from sea cabbage (Laminariae thalli). It is an osmotic laxative.

These results demonstrate that electrokinesis can be used for bacteria transport in soils with low hydraulic conductivity, even against the electro-osmotic flow.

The osmotic-controlled release oral delivery system (OROS) is an advanced controlled release oral drug delivery system in the form of a rigid tablet with a semi-permeable outer membrane and one or more small laser drilled holes in it. As the tablet passes through the body, water is absorbed through the semipermeable membrane via osmosis, and the resulting osmotic pressure is used to push the active drug through the laser drilled opening(s) in the tablet and into the gastrointestinal tract. OROS is a trademarked name owned by ALZA Corporation, which pioneered the use of osmotic pumps for oral drug delivery.

Osmosis in a U-shaped tube Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of its pure solvent across a semipermeable membrane. It is also defined as the measure of the tendency of a solution to take in pure solvent by osmosis. Potential osmotic pressure is the maximum osmotic pressure that could develop in a solution if it were separated from its pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane. Osmosis occurs when two solutions containing different concentrations of solute are separated by a selectively permeable membrane.

She worked for a time at Cambridge on problems of regeneration and osmotic phenomena in muscle, and this led her to a study of osmotic phenomena in simpler non-living colloidal systems. Her researches were interrupted by the First World War when she investigated – for the Medical Research Committee – substitute culture media for bacteriology, and the causes and prevention of ropiness in bread.

CP affects almost all the available membrane separation processes. In RO, the solutes retained at the membrane layer results in higher osmotic pressure in comparison to the bulk stream concentration. So the higher pressures are required to overcome this osmotic pressure. Concentration polarisation plays a dominant role in ultrafiltration as compared to microfiltration because of the small pore size membrane.

The rate of diffusion of water from any material made up of such tissues depends upon factors such as temperature and concentration of the osmotic solution, the size and geometry of the material, the solution-to-material mass ratio and, to a certain level.., agitation of the solution.Rastogi,N.K., K.S.M.S.Raghavarao and K.Niranjan(2005). Developments in Osmotic Dehydration. Emerging technologies for food processing..

Copeptin is a 39-amino acid-long, glycosylated peptide. It is synthesized mainly in the paraventricular neurons of the hypothalamus and in the supraoptical nucleus. During axonal transport, pre-pro-AVP is proteolytically cleaved into vasopressin, and copeptin. These molecules are then stored in secretory granules in the posterior pituitary and released upon osmotic or non-osmotic (hemodynamical; stress-related) stimuli.

In conclusion, we have established the role played by high-salt incubation and Donnan equilibrium in understanding the osmotic shock properties of viral capsids.

Other products include osmotic dilators, such as laminaria stick (made of dried seaweed) or synthetic hygroscopic materials, which expand when placed in a moist environment.

Osmotic lysis would be expected to occur when bacterial cells are treated with a hypotonic solution with added lysozyme, which destroys the bacteria's cell walls.

In multicellular organisms, they permit the organism to build and hold a definite shape. Cell walls also limit the entry of large molecules that may be toxic to the cell. They further permit the creation of stable osmotic environments by preventing osmotic lysis and helping to retain water. Their composition, properties, and form may change during the cell cycle and depend on growth conditions.

The Large Conductance Mechanosensitive Ion Channel (MscL) Family (TC# 1.A.22) consists of pore-forming membrane proteins that are responsible for translating physical forces applied to cell membranes into electrophysiological activities. MscL has a relatively large conductance, 3 nS, making it permeable to ions, water, and small proteins when opened. MscL acts as stretch-activated osmotic release valve in response to osmotic shock.

Osmotic nephrosis refers to structural changes that occur at the cellular level in the human kidney. Cells, primarily of the straight proximal tubule, swell due to the formation of large vacuoles in the cytoplasm. These vacuoles occur in the presence of large amounts of certain solutes circulating in the tubules. However, despite the condition's name, the solutes do not cause change through osmotic forces but through pinocytosis.

It is recommended that the reagent be used within three hours of reconstitution. The sensitivity of the reagent may become altered after the recommended time period. _Microtox Osmotic Adjustment Solution (MOAS)_ is a nontoxic solution that is made up of 22% Sodium Chloride (NaCl) and Ultra Pure Water. This solution is added to a sample to adjust the osmotic pressure to approximately 2% NaCl.

High-fructose foods that also have a high glucose content are more absorbable and less likely to cause diarrhea. Sugar alcohols such as sorbitol (often found in sugar-free foods) are difficult for the body to absorb and, in large amounts, may lead to osmotic diarrhea. In most of these cases, osmotic diarrhea stops when the offending agent, e.g. milk or sorbitol, is stopped.

Osmotic diuretics (e.g. mannitol) are substances that increase osmolarity but have limited tubular epithelial cell permeability. They work primarily by expanding extracellular fluid and plasma volume, therefore increasing blood flow to the kidney, particularly the peritubular capillaries. This reduces medullary osmolality and thus impairs the concentration of urine in the loop of Henle (which usually uses the high osmotic and solute gradient to transport solutes and water).

An illustration of the different components of the Push-Pull Osmotic Pump. Both the EOP and CPOP were relatively simple designs, and were limited by their inability to deliver poorly soluble drugs. This led to the development of an additional internal "push layer" composed of material (a swellable polymer) that would expand as it absorbed water, which then pushed the drug layer (which incorporates a viscous polymer for suspension of poorly soluble drugs) out of the exit hole at a controlled rate. Osmotic agents such as sodium chloride, potassium chloride, or xylitol are added to both the drug and push layers to increase the osmotic pressure.

Capillary tubes are attached to both the solvent and the solution compartments. In this case the osmotic pressure is provided by the additional pressure of the fluid in the solution compartment. The difference in the height of the fluid in the capillary tube of solution compartment versus the height of the fluid in the capillary tube of the solvent compartment is measured once the solution reaches equilibrium to calculate the osmotic pressure. \Pi = \Delta H \rho g \Pi, osmotic pressure \Delta H, change in height \rho, density g, acceleration due to gravity The main disadvantage of static osmometry is the long time it takes for equilibrium to be reached.

The availability of spare parts and upgrade components is also good, meaning that an installed osmotic power plant could be run for many years cost-effectively.

Once that happens, there will be no more flow between the two tubes, since both are at a similar dilution and there is no more osmotic pressure.

Macromolecules are excluded from between the plates. This results in pure solvent between the plates and a force equal to the osmotic pressure acting upon the plates.

Release of serotonin from EC cells can be triggered by a multitude of stimuli, particularly luminal distension, parasympathetic innervation or changes in osmotic concentrations in intestinal contents.

Osmotic release systems have a number of major advantages over other controlled-release mechanisms. They are significantly less affected by factors such as pH, food intake, GI motility, and differing intestinal environments. Using an osmotic pump to deliver drugs has additional inherent advantages regarding control over drug delivery rates. This allows for much more precise drug delivery over an extended period of time, which results in much more predictable pharmacokinetics.

Counterintuitively, KCC2 has also been shown to colocalize at excitatory synapses. One suggested explanation for such colocalization is a potential protective role of KCC2 against excitotoxicity. Ion influx due to the excitatory synaptic stimulation of ion channels in the neuronal membrane causes osmotic swelling of cells as water is drawn in alongside the ions. KCC2 may help to eliminate excess ions from the cell in order to re-establish osmotic homeostasis.

The rate at which this could occur was constrained by osmotic forces. If the rate at which the vulcanized fibre was subjected to lower and lower concentrations of zinc chloride solution were too rapid, the osmotic forces could result in ply separations. The final leaching bath concentration was 0.05% zinc chloride. Thicknesses up to 0.093”, can be made on continuous lines that stretch up to 1,000 feet (305m) in length.

Hypercoagulability is an abnormality of the blood that increases the risk of the formation blood clots. Nephrotic syndrome patients have a higher risk of RVT development due to hypercoagulability caused by proteinuria. The increased loss of proteins in the urine caused by nephrotic syndrome results in lower osmotic pressure. Reduced osmotic pressure will trigger the liver to produce more proteins like fibrinogen and beta- thromboglobulin, which promote blood clotting.

Osmoregulation is the active process by which an organism maintains its level of water content. The osmotic pressure in the body is homeostatically regulated in such a manner that it keeps the organism's fluids from becoming too diluted or too concentrated. Osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency of water to move into one solution from another by osmosis. Two major types of osmoregulation are osmoconformers and osmoregulators.

OSM-9 also known as OSMotic avoidance abnormal family member 9 is a protein which in the nematode worm C. elegans is encoded by the osm-9 gene.

Sodium/myo-inositol cotransporter is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC5A3 gene. Expression of the myo-inositol transport protein is regulated by osmotic stress.

For some complex electrolytes, Ge et al. obtained the new set of Pitzer parameters using up-to-date measured or critically reviewed osmotic coefficient or activity coefficient data.

It is an extracellular, host-associated bacterium that lacks a cell wall and is unable to survive outside of a host due to osmotic instability in the environment.

873-888 osmotic,Zhou, Tian, Zou, Xie, Lei, et al. (2008) Soybean WRKY-type transcription factor genes, GmWRKY13, GmWRKY21, and GmWRKY54, confer differential tolerance to abiotic stresses in transgenic Arabidopsis plants. Plant Biotechnology Journal. 6(5). 486-503, Vanderauwera, Vandenbroucke, Inzé, Van De Cotte, Mühlenbock, et al. (2012) AtWRKY15 perturbation abolishes the mitochondrial stress response that steers osmotic stress tolerance in Arabidopsis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109(49). 20113-20118, Li, Besseau, Törönen, Sipari, Kollist, et al. (2013) Defense-related transcription factors WRKY70 and WRKY54 modulate osmotic stress tolerance by regulating stomatal aperture in Arabidopsis. New Phytologist. 200(2). 457-472 oxidative,Liu, Hong, Zhang, Li, Huang, et al.

For distant objects, the lens needs to be made flatter; for near objects the lens needs to be made thicker and more rounded. Water in the eye can alter the optical properties of the eye and blur vision. It can also wash away the tear fluid—along with it the protective lipid layer—and can alter corneal physiology, due to osmotic differences between tear fluid and freshwater. Osmotic effects are made apparent when swimming in freshwater pools, because the osmotic gradient draws water from the pool into the corneal tissue (the pool water is hypotonic), causing edema, and subsequently leaving the swimmer with "cloudy" or "misty" vision for a short period thereafter.

Simple PRO power generation scheme In 1954 Pattle suggested that there was an untapped source of power when a river mixes with the sea, in terms of the lost osmotic pressure, however it was not until the mid ‘70s where a practical method of exploiting it using selectively permeable membranes by Loeb and independently by Jellinek was outlined. This process was referred by Loeb as pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) and one simplistic implementation is shown opposite. Some situations that may be envisaged to exploit it are using the differential osmotic pressure between a low brackish river flowing into the sea, or brine and seawater. The worldwide theoretical potential for osmotic power has been estimated at 1,650 TWh / year.

Whether these effects are from the influence of gluconic acid on the metabolism of the heart or from the influence of magnesium and potassium on osmotic pressure is unknown.

Osmotic stress is defined as difficulty maintaining proper fluids in the cell within a hypertonic or hypotonic environment. MAAs accumulate within a cell’s cytoplasm and contribute to the osmotic pressure within a cell, thus relieving pressure from salt stress in a hypertonic environment. As evidence of this, MAAs are seldom found in large quantities in cyanobacteria living in freshwater environments. However, in saline and hypertonic environments, cyanobacteria often contain high concentrations of MAAs.

The pressures that favor this movement are blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP) and interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure (IFHP). Whether a substance is filtrated or reabsorbed depends on the net filtration pressure (NFP), which is the difference between hydrostatic (BHP and IFHP) and osmotic pressures (IFOP and BCOP). These pressures are known as the Starling forces. If the NFP is positive then there will be filtration, but if it is negative then reabsorption will occur.

Water has been shown in at least some species to enter the CV through aquaporins. Acidocalcisomes have been implied to work alongside the contractile vacuole in responding to osmotic stress. They were detected in the vicinity of the vacuole in Trypanosoma cruzi and were shown to fuse with the vacuole when the cells were exposed to osmotic stress. Presumably the acidocalcisomes empty their ion contents into the contractile vacuole, thereby increasing the vacuole's osmolarity.

Bacterial MS channels were first discovered by patch-clamp experiments in E. coli. They have been classified based on their conductance as mini (MscM), small (MscS) and large (MscL). These channels function in tandem-mode and are responsible of turgor regulation in bacteria; when activated by changes in the osmotic pressure. MscM is activated first at really low pressures followed by MscS, and finally MscL being the last chance of survival during osmotic shock.

Poly(ethylenimine) was the second polymeric transfection agent discovered, after poly-l-lysine. PEI condenses DNA into positively charged particles, which bind to anionic cell surface residues and are brought into the cell via endocytosis. Once inside the cell, protonation of the amines results in an influx of counter-ions and a lowering of the osmotic potential. Osmotic swelling results and bursts the vesicle releasing the polymer-DNA complex (polyplex) into the cytoplasm.

ProP is a bacterial membrane protein that is a member of the major facilitator superfamily. It functions as an osmosensory and osmoregulatory transporter, responding to changes in osmotic pressure by importing compatible solutes such as proline or glycine betaine; most substrates for ProP are zwitterions. The activity of ProP increases with osmotic pressure in cells and proteoliposomes. ProP is a symporter of hydrogen ions and compatible solutes, and is responsive to potassium concentrations.

Mammals generally have a more-vascularised glomeruli than the nephrons in birds. The nephrons of avian species can not produce urine that is hyperosmotic to the blood, but the loop of Henle utilises countercurrent multiplication which allows it to become hyperosmotic in the collecting duct. This alternation of permeability between different sections of the ascending and descending loop allows for urine osmotic pressure to be elevated 2.5 times above the blood osmotic pressure.

Due to body permeability, the salinity of the organism’s aquatic environment can have a huge influence on cellular stability. Organisms residing in freshwater ecosystems need to maintain an osmotic balance between their body fluids and the ion concentrations within their cells. Changes in osmotic pressure requires large amounts of energy and can result in cellular damage and cellular death within the organisms. Changes within salinity levels affect organisms within freshwater ecosystems both directly and indirectly.

Or it can be caused by osmotic laxatives (which work to alleviate constipation by drawing water into the bowels). In healthy individuals, too much magnesium or vitamin C or undigested lactose can produce osmotic diarrhea and distention of the bowel. A person who has lactose intolerance can have difficulty absorbing lactose after an extraordinarily high intake of dairy products. In persons who have fructose malabsorption, excess fructose intake can also cause diarrhea.

Osmoprotectants or compatible solutes are small organic molecules with neutral charge and low toxicity at high concentrations that act as osmolytes and help organisms survive extreme osmotic stress. Osmoprotectants can be placed in three chemical classes: betaines and associated molecules, sugars and polyols, and amino acids. These molecules accumulate in cells and balance the osmotic difference between the cell's surroundings and the cytosol. In plants, their accumulation can increase survival during stresses such as drought.

Osmotic dilators after soaking in water for 24 hours. Dilapan-S (left). Laminaria (right). This does not represent the amount of expansion that will be occur when used in humans.

Circulatory system: The osmotic pressure of the hemolymph of Eutrochatella tankervillii is 67 mOsm.Little C. (1983). The colonisation of land: origins and adaptations of terrestrial animals. Cambridge University Press, 290 pp.

Circulatory system: The osmotic pressure of the hemolymph of Theodoxus fluviatilis is 95 mOsm.Little C. (1983). The colonisation of land: origins and adaptations of terrestrial animals. Cambridge University Press, 290 pp.

Oncotic pressure, or colloid osmotic pressure, is a form of osmotic pressure induced by proteins, notably albumin, in a blood vessel's plasma (blood/liquid) that displaces water molecules, thus creating a relative water molecule deficit with water molecules moving back into the circulatory system within the lower venous pressure end of capillaries. It has the opposing effect of both hydrostatic blood pressure pushing water and small molecules out of the blood into the interstitial spaces within the arterial end of capillaries and interstitial colloidal osmotic pressure. These interacting factors determine the partition balancing of total body extracellular water between the blood plasma and the larger extracellular water volume outside the blood stream. It has a major effect on the pressure across the glomerular filter.

Osmotic concentration, formerly known as osmolarity,IUPAC goldbook is the measure of solute concentration, defined as the number of osmoles (Osm) of solute per litre (L) of solution (osmol/L or Osm/L). The osmolarity of a solution is usually expressed as Osm/L (pronounced "osmolar"), in the same way that the molarity of a solution is expressed as "M" (pronounced "molar"). Whereas molarity measures the number of moles of solute per unit volume of solution, osmolarity measures the number of osmoles of solute particles per unit volume of solution. This value allows the measurement of the osmotic pressure of a solution and the determination of how the solvent will diffuse across a semipermeable membrane (osmosis) separating two solutions of different osmotic concentration.

Harmon Northrop Morse (October 15, 1848 – September 8, 1920) was an American chemist. Today he is known as the first to have synthesized paracetamol, but this substance only became widely used as a drug decades after Morse's death. In the first half of the 20th century he was best known for his study of osmotic pressure, for which he was awarded the Avogadro Medal in 1916. The Morse equation for estimating osmotic pressure is named after him.

When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water enters into a cell by osmosis and as a result turgor pressure develops in the cell which is in solution . The cell membrane becomes stretched and the osmotic pressure of the cell decreases. As the cell absorbs more and more water its Turgor Pressure increases and Osmotic Pressure decreases. When a cell is fully turgid, its OP is equal to TP and DPD is zero.

Cytolysis occurs when a cell bursts due to an osmotic imbalance that has caused excess water to move into the cell. Cytolysis can be prevented by several different mechanisms, including the contractile vacuole that exists in some paramecia, which rapidly pump water out of the cell. Cytolysis does not occur under normal conditions in plant cells because plant cells have a strong cell wall that contains the osmotic pressure, or turgor pressure, that would otherwise cause cytolysis to occur.

This occurs because alcohol confuses osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus, which relay osmotic pressure information to the posterior pituitary, the site of antidiuretic hormone release. Alcohol causes the osmoreceptors to signal that there is low osmotic pressure in the blood, which triggers an inhibition of the antidiuretic hormone. As a consequence, one's kidneys are no longer able to reabsorb as much water as they should be absorbing, therefore creating excessive volumes of urine and the subsequent overall dehydration.

Novozymes A/S. Copenhagen: Adenium Biotech, Web. 21 Nov. 2012. Peptides that were translocated across the outer membrane create pores in the cytoplasmic membrane, thereby disrupting the osmotic balance of the cell.

It also showed greater efficacy than osmotic controlled-release oral delivery system (OROS) methylphenidate over the first half of the laboratory classroom day but assessments late in the day favoured OROS methylphenidate.

Animal studies suggest that inositol reduces the severity of osmotic demyelination syndrome if given before attempting to correct chronic hyponatraemia. Further study is required before using inositol in humans for this purpose.

Family of osmotic membrane processes, including reverse osmosis and forward osmosisThe simplest equation describing the relationship between osmotic and hydraulic pressures and water (solvent) flux is: J_w = A \left(\Delta \pi - \Delta P \right) where J_w is water flux, A is the hydraulic permeability of the membrane, Δπ is the difference in osmotic pressures on the two sides of the membrane, and ΔP is the difference in hydrostatic pressure (negative values of J_w indicating reverse osmotic flow). The modeling of these relationships is in practice more complex than this equation indicates, with flux depending on the membrane, feed, and draw solution characteristics, as well as the fluid dynamics within the process itself. The solute flux (J_s) for each individual solute can be modelled by Fick's Law J_s = B \Delta c Where B is the solute permeability coefficient and \Delta c is the trans-membrane concentration differential for the solute. It is clear from this governing equation that a solute will diffuse from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

For each cycle of the transport, hundreds of water molecules move into the epithelial cell to maintain osmotic equilibrium. The resultant absorption of sodium and water can achieve rehydration even while diarrhea continues.

Pharmacologic agents, such as misoprostol and mifepristone, soften the cervix and facilitate cervical dilation, and may be used alone in early pregnancy, or in combination with osmotic dilators prior to dilation and evacuation.

Nautilus: The Biology and Paleobiology of a Living Fossil. Springer Netherlands. pp. 552, ch. 34.3. The maximum depth at which they can regulate buoyancy by osmotic removal of chamber liquid is not known.

These genes are more prominent in L. mollis than wheat however, and are used for osmotic and drought stress tolerance. Due to their similarity though, they have the ability to be hybridized into wheat. Overall these ESTs help to provide proper tools for molecular markers to help identify possible introgression of genes into wheat, particularly in regards to osmotic stress tolerance. Leymus mollis' relative success with wheat breading can be demonstrated specifically by utilizing the Genetic In-Situ Hybridization (GISH) method.

The osmotic potential is made possible due to the presence of both inorganic and organic solutes in the soil solution. As water molecules increasingly clump around solute ions or molecules, the freedom of movement, and thus the potential energy, of the water is lowered. As the concentration of solutes is increased, the osmotic potential of the soil solution is reduced. Since water has a tendency to move toward lower energy levels, water will want to travel toward the zone of higher solute concentrations.

Nuclear factor of activated T-cells 5, also known as NFAT5, is a human gene that encodes a transcription factor that regulates the expression of genes involved in the osmotic stress. The product of this gene is a member of the nuclear factors of activated T cells (NFAT) family of transcription factors. Proteins belonging to this family play a central role in inducible gene transcription during the immune response. This protein regulates gene expression induced by osmotic stress in mammalian cells.

The osmotic entry of water raises the turgor pressure exerted against the cell wall, until it equals the osmotic pressure, creating a steady state. When a plant cell is placed in a solution that is hypertonic relative to the cytoplasm, water moves out of the cell and the cell shrinks. In doing so, the cell becomes flaccid. In extreme cases, the cell becomes plasmolyzed – the cell membrane disengages with the cell wall due to lack of water pressure on it.

Stool osmotic gap is a measurement of the difference in solute types between serum and feces, used to distinguish among different causes of diarrhea. Feces is normally in osmotic equilibrium with blood serum, which the human body maintains between 290–300 mOsm/kg. However, the solutes contributing to this total differ. Serum is mostly sodium and potassium salts (as reflected in the formulas for serum osmol gap and anion gap), while the digestive tract contains significant amounts of other compounds.

However, osmotic release systems are relatively complicated, somewhat difficult to manufacture, and may cause irritation or even blockage of the GI tract due to prolonged release of irritating drugs from the non-deformable tablet.

However, osmotic release systems are relatively complicated, somewhat difficult to manufacture, and may cause irritation or even blockage of the GI tract due to prolonged release of irritating drugs from the non- deformable tablet.

Lactulose and milk of magnesia have been compared with polyethylene glycol (PEG) in children. All had similar side effects, but PEG was more effective at treating constipation. Osmotic laxatives are recommended over stimulant laxatives.

Abby Howe Turner (1875-1957) was a noted professor of Physiology and Zoology who founded the department of physiology at Mount Holyoke College. She specialized in colloid osmotic pressure and circulatory reactions to gravity.

Many Pteridinium fossils are found completely filled with sand; if this sand were present within the organism while it was alive, this would reduce its metabolically active volume enough to make osmotic feeding viable.

Cutaneous Osmoregualtion in Triturus cristatus carnifex (Laur.) (Urodela). General and Comparative Endocrinology 46: 452-457. In contrast to prolactin, which decreases osmotic permeability, vasotocin increases the permeability and is secreted during the summer months.

Open electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, can be used to extract power either from natural fuels or from synthesized fuels. Osmotic power is a possibility at places where salt and fresh water merge.

Nanofiltration membranes have pores sized from 0.001 μm to 0.01 μm and filters multivalent ions, synthetic dyes, sugars and specific salts. As the pore size drops from MF to NF, the osmotic pressure requirement increases.

Orwell is a series of episodic simulation video games by German indie developer Osmotic Studios in which the player assumes the role of a state operative and monitors surveillance sources to find national security threats.

The dilator is then grasped with a ring forcep and is placed into the cervix so that it spans both the internal cervical os and external cervical os. Over time, the osmotic dilator absorbs fluid and swells to 3-4 times the initial diameter. Most of the increase in size occurs within 6 hours after the dilator are placed in the cervix, though further expansion will continue over 12–24 hours. The number of osmotic dilators placed depends on the degree of cervical dilation that is sought.

The dehydration theory explains why mucoadhesion can arise rapidly. When two gels capable of rapid gelation in an aqueous environment are brought into contact, movement occurs between the two gels until a state of equilibrium is reached. Gels associated with a strong affinity for water will have high osmotic pressures and large swelling forces. The difference in osmotic pressure when these gels contact mucus gels will draw water into the formulation and quickly dehydrate the mucus gel, forcing intermixing and consolidation until equilibrium results.

Comparison to A. thaliana genes identified three predicted 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases in E. crepidifolium (EcHSD1, EcHSD2, and EcHSD3). In vitro assays showed that all three enzymes catalyze the dehydrogenation of pregnenolone and the 3-reduction of 5-alpha/beta-pregnane-3,20-dione. Whereas EcHSD1 expression was not induced by tested stress conditions, EcHSD2 expression was upregulated by osmotic stress, and EcHSD3 expression was upregulated by both osmotic stress and treatment with methyl jasmonate, an endogenous elicitor of chemical defenses in many plant species.

Type B adipsia occurs when vasopressin responses are at decreased levels in the presence of osmotic stimuli. Although minimal, there is still some secretion of AVP. This type may be due to some elimination of osmoreceptors.

B 9: 141-244.Ashida, J. 1935, Studies on the leaf movement of Aldrovanda vesiculosa L. II. Effect of mechanical, electrical, thermal, osmotic and chemical influences. Mem. Coll. Sci. Univ. Kyoto Ser. B 11: 55-113.

This can be calculate by measuring the change in height or measured directly with a flexible diaphragm. Since the pressure is directly changed, an accurate measurement of osmotic pressure can be achieved in 10 - 30 minutes.

Empirical parameters are used to quantify the behaviour of solutions of ionic and non-ionic solutes which are not ideal solutions in the thermodynamic sense. The Pfeffer cell was developed for the measurement of osmotic pressure.

So tight junction plays a key role in maintenance of osmotic balance and trans-cellular transport of tissue specific molecules. Nowadays is known more than 40 different proteins, that are involved in these selective TJ channels.

AQP9 stimulates urea transport and osmotic water permeability; there are contradicting reports about its role in providing glycerol permeability. Aquaporin 9 may also have some role in specialized leukocyte functions such as immunological response and bactericidal activity.

Salt ponds can be made by dissolving salt. Otherwise, the salt "pond" can be a stack of salt. Then the first drying is done. After salting, the moisture of the gulbi is reduced because of osmotic pressure.

This fluid is similar to seawater but with 18-fold higher potassium levels. Because the secreted fluid does not allow for osmotic balance with the ingested fluid, studies suggest that the anal papillae aid in salt secretion.

The discovery of chemical chaperones’ effect on protein folding led to periplasmic protein expression, especially for ones that require an oxidative environment to form disulfide bonds for proper folding. Folding of proteins that are difficult to do in the cytoplasm can be enhanced in the periplasm where the osmotic pressure can be readily controlled. The osmotic pressure of the periplasmic space can be simply altered by changing that of the medium as osmolytes freely penetrate the outer membrane. Proteins is secreted to this space when an appropriate signal sequence is attached to its terminal.

It has been suggested that cephalopods do not osmoregulate, which would indicate that they are conformers. This means that they adapt to match the osmotic pressure of their environment, and because there is no osmotic gradient, there is no net movement of water from the organism to the seawater, or from the seawater into the organism. Octopuses have an average minimum salinity requirement of 27g/l, and that any disturbance introducing significant amounts of fresh water into their environment can prove fatal.Vaz-Pires, P., Seixas, P. & Barbosa, A. 2004.

The osmotic stress technique is a method for measuring the effect of water on biological molecules, particularly enzymes. Just as the properties of molecules can depend on the presence of salts, pH, and temperature, they can depend significantly on the amount of water present. In the osmotic stress technique, flexible neutral polymers such as polyethylene glycol and dextran are added to the solution containing the molecule of interest, replacing a significant part of the water. The amount of water replaced is characterized by the chemical activity of water.

Osmotic dilators are most commonly used to slowly dilate and soften the cervix prior to surgical abortion, a process referred to as cervical preparation. Adequate cervical preparation is important prior to surgical abortions because it helps to prevent complications of dilation and evacuation (D&E;), such as laceration of the cervix. Cervical preparation can be accomplished with osmotic dilators, with medications such as prostaglandins and/or mifepristone, or with a combination of these. However, there is no consensus as to which cervical preparation method is superior in terms of safety and efficacy.

The incidence of complications related to osmotic dilator use prior to abortion has not been systematically studied and reported, but serious complications appear to be very rare. Risks of osmotic dilator insertion include pain, rupture of amniotic membranes, initiation of labor, cervical or uterine perforation, retention of the dilator, and infection. Original Dilapan dilators were prone to fracturing under tension during removal which sometimes led to retention of dilator fragments within the uterus. Dilapan was subsequently removed from the market and replaced with Dilapan-S which is less prone to fragmentation.

In treatment of spontaneous or induced abortion, preparation (softening and dilating) of the cervix allows the cannulae vacuum aspiration to pass more easily into the uterus, which may make the procedure shorter in duration, more comfortable for the patient, and easier to perform. Preparation may also reduce the rare complications of uterine perforation and cervical injury. Options for cervical preparation prior to the abortion procedure include osmotic dilators and pharmacologic agents. Osmotic dilators produce wide cervical dilation in a predictable fashion and are generally used in more advanced pregnancies.

Physical impacts or vibrations, though crucial for animals, have little effect on microbes such as E. coli. In comparison, osmotic force greatly affects individual cells or microbes within their aquatic environment. When bacteria is under osmotic downshock, which is during the transition from media of high osmolarity to low, water inflow gives rise to a substantial increase in the turgor pressure, which is capable of bursting the cell envelope. Mechanosensitive channels are major pathways for the release of cytoplasmic solutes to achieve a rapid reduction of the turgor pressure, therefore avoiding lysis.

This builds an osmotic gradient across the vesicle membrane, leading to influx of water from the cytosol into the vesicles by osmosis, which is facilitated by aquaporins. Since these vesicles fuse with the central contractile vacuole, which expels the water, ions end up being removed from the cell, which is not beneficial for a freshwater organism. The removal of ions with the water has to be compensated by some yet-unidentified mechanism. Like other eukaryotes, Amoeba species are adversely affected by excessive osmotic pressure caused by extremely saline or dilute water.

Osmotic dehydration process results in two way mass transfer in regards to the moisture lost and the solids gained, with moisture loss being much greater than the addition of solids. Advantages of osmotic dehydration include low processing temperatures, short drying times, and 20-30% lower energy consumption than typical dehydration processes. Sugar is used as the humectant for candied intermediate moisture fruits, and salt is used for intermediate moisture vegetables and fish. Additionally, a mixture of humectants can be formulated to manipulate the sensory properties of the food product.

The blood plasma, interstitial fluid, and cytoplasm of cells in southern bluefin tuna are hyposmotic to the surrounding ocean water. This means that the ion concentration within these fluids is low relative to the seawater. The standard osmotic pressure of seawater is 1.0 osmole/L, while the osmotic pressure in the blood plasma of the southern bluefin tuna is approximately half of that. Without the mechanism of osmoregulation present, the tuna would lose water to the surrounding environment and ions would diffuse from the seawater into the fluids of the tuna to establish equilibrium.

High osmotic pressure in the stomach, caused by high sucrose concentration, can lead to water transfer from the hemolymph to the stomach, thus resulting in hyperosmotic stress and eventually to the death of the insect. Aphids avoid this fate by osmoregulating through several processes. Sucrose concentration is directly reduced by assimilating sucrose toward metabolism and by synthesizing oligosaccharides from several sucrose molecules, thus reducing the solute concentration and consequently the osmotic pressure. Oligosaccharides are then excreted through honeydew, explaining its high sugar concentrations, which can then be used by other animals such as ants.

Three layers form the outer cup, two form the inner cup, and one layer dissolves to create the fluid that bathes the gleba. After splitting of the peridal layers to expose the gleba, enzymatic conversion of glycogen to glucose increases the internal osmotic pressure and the turgidity of palisade cells in the inner peridial cup. Analysis of the glebal carbohydrates revealed an increase in glucose, mannitol, and trehalose prior to glebal discharge, which would account for the increase in osmotic pressure. Glebal discharge typically occurs 5-6 hours after the apex has split.

Auxins activate proton pumps, decreasing the pH in the cells on the dark side of the plant. This acidification of the cell wall region activates enzymes known as expansins which disrupt hydrogen bonds in the cell wall structure, making the cell walls less rigid. In addition, increased proton pump activity leads to more solutes entering the plant cells on the dark side of the plant, which increases the osmotic gradient between the symplast and apoplast of these plant cells. Water then enters the cells along its osmotic gradient, leading to an increase in turgor pressure.

Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute but not on its identity. Osmosis is a vital process in biological systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to large and polar molecules, such as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides, while being permeable to non-polar or hydrophobic molecules like lipids as well as to small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size.

Avian erythrocytes (red blood cells) have been shown to contain approximately ten times the amount of taurine (an amino acid) as mammal erythrocytes. Taurine has a fairly large list of physiological functions; but in birds, it can have an important influence on osmoregulation. It helps the movement of ions in erythrocytes by altering the permeability of the membrane and regulating osmotic pressure within the cell. The regulation of osmotic pressure is achieved by the influx or efflux of taurine relative to changes in the osmolarity of the blood.

Haloarchaea can grow at an aw close to 0.75, yet a water activity (aw) lower than 0.90 is inhibitory to most microbes. The number of solutes causes osmotic stress on microbes, which can cause cell lysis, unfolding of proteins and inactivation of enzymes when there is a large enough imbalance. Haloarchaea combat this by retaining compatible solutes such as potassium chloride (KCl) in their intracellular space to allow them to balance osmotic pressure. Retaining these salts is referred to as the “salt-in” method where the cell accumulates a high internal concentration of potassium.

Electro-osmotic flow is commonly used in microfluidic devices, soil analysis and processing, and chemical analysis, all of which routinely involve systems with highly charged surfaces, often of oxides. One example is capillary electrophoresis, in which electric fields are used to separate chemicals according to their electrophoretic mobility by applying an electric field to a narrow capillary, usually made of silica. In electrophoretic separations, the electroosmotic flow affects the elution time of the analytes. Electro-osmotic flow is actuated in a FlowFET to electronically control fluid flow through a junction.

Statkraft PRO pilot plant In more recent times a significant amount of research and development work has been undertaken and funded by Statkraft, the Norwegian state energy company. A prototype plant was built in Norway generating a gross output between 2 – 4 kW; see Statkraft osmotic power prototype in Hurum. A much larger plant with an output of 1 – 2 MW at Sunndalsøra, 400 km north of Oslo was considered but was subsequently dropped. The New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organisation (NEDO) in Japan is funding work on osmotic power.

Turgor pressure can be deduced when total water potential, Ψw, and osmotic potential, Ψs, are known in a water potential equation. These equations are used to measure the total water potential of a plant by using variables such as matric potential, osmotic potential, pressure potential, gravitational effects and turgor pressure. After taking the difference between Ψs and Ψw, the value for turgor pressure is given. When using this method, gravity and matric potential are considered to be negligible, since their values are generally either negative or close to zero.

The results show that amino acid levels remained relatively constant and in some cases even increased. > Thus, from these experiments it would appear that the loss of amino acids in > the lens when exposed to galactose is primarily due to the osmotic swelling > of the lens brought about by dulcitol [galactitol] retention. Galactosemic patients will also present with amino aciduria and galactitoluria (excessive levels of amino acids and galactitol in the urine). Osmotic swelling of the lens is also responsible for a reduction in electrolyte concentration during the initial vacuolar stage of galactosemic cataract.

Tolerance of such conditions is reached through the use of stress proteins and compatible cytoplasm osmotic solutes. To exist in such conditions, halophytes tend to be subject to the uptake of high levels of salt into their cells, and this is often required to maintain an osmotic potential lower than that of the soil to ensure water uptake. High salt concentrations within the cell can be damaging to sensitive organelles such as the chloroplast, so sequestration of salt is seen. Under this action, salt is stored within the vacuole to protect such delicate areas.

Individuals with deficient FMO3 activity have a higher prevalence of hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases, since there is a decrease in formation of TMA N-oxides to counterbalance the effects of a higher osmotic pressure and peripheral resistance.

The channel is activated by osmotic, mechanical and chemical cues. It also responds to thermal changes (warmth). Channel activation can be sensitized by inflammation and injury. The TRPV4 gene has been co-discovered by W. Liedtke et al.

The specific functionality of ILRs in plants is not well characterized but in addition to mechanical signaling transduction, they are believed to have some role in plant immune response, osmotic stress sensitivity, and ion regulation within the cell.

Liquid paraffin is also used in combination with magnesium as an osmotic laxative, sold under the trade name Mil-Par (among others). Additionally, it may be used as a release agent, binder, or lubricant on capsules and tablets.

As galactose is not being catabolized to glucose due to a galactokinase mutation, galactitol accumulates. This galactitol gradient across the lens cell membrane triggers the osmotic uptake of water, and the swelling and eventual apoptosis of lens cells ensues.

Sbrissa D, Ikonomov OC, Deeb R, Shisheva A. Phosphatidylinositol 5-phosphate biosynthesis is linked to PIKfyve and is involved in osmotic response pathway in mammalian cells. J Biol Chem. 2002 Dec 6;277(49):47276-84. Epub 2002 Sep 20.

The same phenomenon was noted for some halotolerant fungi. But, the concentration of MAAs within cyanobacteria living in hyper-saline environments is far from the amount required to balance the salinity. Therefore, additional osmotic solutes must be present as well.

In contrast, hepatocytes secrete bile through bile-acid dependent bile flow, which is coupled to canalicular secretion of bile acids via ATP-driven transporters. This results in passive transcellular and paracellular secretion of fluid and electrolytes through an osmotic effect.

A year later, during his studies of their osmotic behavior, he discovered and described the occasional fusion of naked protoplasts. This seminal paper in German immediately caught the attention of the bacterial geneticist Joshua Lederberg, who personally requested a copy.

It enriches salmonellae because they are better able to survive the high osmotic pressure in the medium and because they can multiply at relatively lower pH and higher temperatures compared with other gut bacteria. RVS broth has a pH around 5.2.

Seizures are treated with anticonvulsants. Hydrocephalus (obstructed flow of CSF) may require insertion of a temporary or long-term drainage device, such as a cerebral shunt. The osmotic therapy, glycerol, has an unclear effect on mortality but may decrease hearing problems.

Some of the smallest infusion pumps use osmotic power. Basically, a bag of salt solution absorbs water through a membrane, swelling its volume. The bag presses medicine out. The rate is precisely controlled by the salt concentrations and pump volume.

Like in other ciliates, a contractile vacuole maintains osmotic balance for the cell, and allows it to survive the salt concentrations in both marine and brackish water. The vacuole is located in Z. niveum directly below the lip of the peristome.

Upon an osmotic stress signal, Brx, localized at the cell membrane, is activated and recruits JIP4, a p38 MAPK-specific scaffold protein. JIP4 binds to downstream kinases, MKK3 and MKK6, and activates p38 MAPK. p38 MAPK is necessary for naft5 expression.

Osmosis . University of Hamburg. last change: 31 July 2003 Osmosis can be made to do work. Osmotic pressure is defined as the external pressure required to be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane.

Glycine betaine, found in osmolytes, stabilizes osmotic pressure in cells. left Choline is a quat compound. Choline is a precursor for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Choline is also a constituent of lecithin, which is present in many plants and animal organs.

While osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease that may cause gross cartilage loss and morphological damage to other joint tissues, more subtle biochemical changes occur in the earliest stages of osteoarthritis progression. The water content of healthy cartilage is finely balanced by compressive force driving water out and hydrostatic and osmotic pressure drawing water in. Collagen fibres exert the compressive force, whereas the Gibbs–Donnan effect and cartilage proteoglycans create osmotic pressure which tends to draw water in. However, during onset of osteoarthritis, the collagen matrix becomes more disorganized and there is a decrease in proteoglycan content within cartilage.

Osmotic shock or osmotic stress is physiologic dysfunction caused by a sudden change in the solute concentration around a cell, which causes a rapid change in the movement of water across its cell membrane. Under conditions of high concentrations of either salts, substrates or any solute in the supernatant, water is drawn out of the cells through osmosis. This also inhibits the transport of substrates and cofactors into the cell thus “shocking” the cell. Alternatively, at low concentrations of solutes, water enters the cell in large amounts, causing it to swell and either burst or undergo apoptosis.

Gene disruption experiments confirmed that either MscL or MscS channels can rescue bacteria from a strong osmotic shock, while a double knockout of both channels lead to lysis. The role of MscL as a defense mechanism against osmotic shocks indicates its evolutionary importance even during the early phase of biological history. Together with MscS, MscL, or its homologs, has been found in bacteria, archaea, fungi, and higher plants, but not animals. Although bacterial and archaeal mechanosensitive channels differ in conductive and mechanosensitive properties, they share similar gating mechanisms triggered by mechanical force transmitted via the lipid bilayer.

The different families of stretch-activated ion channels are responsible for different functions around the body. The DEG/ENaC family consists of two subgroups: the ENaC subfamily regulates Na+ reabsorption in kidney and lung epithelia; the ASIC subfamily is involved in fear conditioning, memory formation, and pain sensation. The TRP superfamily of channels are found in sensory receptor cells that are involved in heat sensation, taste, smell, touch, and osmotic and volume regulation. MscM, MscS, and MscL channels (mechanosensitive channels of mini, small, and large conductance) regulate osmotic pressure in cells by releasing intracellular fluid when they become too stretched.

Lysozyme crystals have been used to grow other functional materials for catalysis and biomedical applications. Lysozyme is a commonly used enzyme for lysing gram positive bacteria. Due to the unique function of lysozyme in which it can digest the cell wall and causes osmotic shock (burst the cell by suddenly changing solute concentration around the cell and thus the osmotic pressure), lysozyme is commonly used in lab setting to release proteins from bacterium periplasm while the inner membrane remains sealed as vesicles called the spheroplast. For example, E. coli can be lysed using lysozyme to free the contents of the periplasmic space.

Salinity plays a major role in a freshwater organism's attempts to maintain an osmotic balance between ion concentration and their internal fluids. Salinization increases osmotic pressure, thus negatively affecting the chance of an organism's fitness and survival. Higher levels of salinity present in freshwater environments can lead to declining species richness in general observations, though toxicity varies among freshwater species and the identity of the ions that are causing the salinization. Excluding an organism's death, excess salinity may also lead to a decrease in both individual and population fitness via stunted growth during adolescence, decreased feeding ability, oxidative stress, and overall bodily disfigurement.

Although the precise mechanism by which osmotic stress is sensed by the cell is unclear, it has been suggested that Brx, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) localized near the plasma membrane, is activated by osmotic stress through changes in the cytoskeleton structure. Alternatively, Brx may also be activated through changes in its interactions with possible osmosensor molecules at the cell membrane. Upon Brx activation, the GEF domain of Brx facilitates activation of Rho-type small G proteins from its inactive GDP state to active GTP state. Additionally, activated Brx also recruits and physically interacts with JIP4, a p38 MAPK-specific scaffold protein.

As mentioned before, osmosis may be opposed by increasing the pressure in the region of high solute concentration with respect to that in the low solute concentration region. The force per unit area, or pressure, required to prevent the passage of water (or any other high-liquidity solution) through a selectively permeable membrane and into a solution of greater concentration is equivalent to the osmotic pressure of the solution, or turgor. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, meaning that the property depends on the concentration of the solute, but not on its content or chemical identity.

A potential exists for electrolyte problems as a result of the diarrhea it produces. No evidence of harm to the baby has been found when used during pregnancy. It is generally regarded as safe during breastfeeding. It is classified as an osmotic laxative.

Below 1.5% salinity, cells lyse by low osmotic shock. The cells of the organisms are sensitive to chloramphenicol and insensitive to ampicillin, vancomycin, and cycloserine. It grows well on proteinaceous substances, with a doubling time under these conditions of about 200 minutes.

In humans, the intracellular compartment contains on average about of fluid, and under ordinary circumstances remains in osmotic equilibrium. It contains moderate quantities of magnesium and sulfate ions. In the cell nucleus the fluid component of the nucleoplasm is called the nucleosol.

Calcium ion (Ca2+) also tastes salty and sometimes bitter to some people but, like potassium, can trigger other tastes. Sodium ions play a diverse and important role in many physiological processes, acting to regulate blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH.

DPD is directly proportional to the height of the plant, tree or organism. DPD is governed by two factors i.e. turgor pressure and osmotic pressure. The formula is DPD = OP - TP. Turgor pressure can also be denoted as wall pressure in some cases.

Binding to these sites consequently activates the transcription of target genes. Although the Brx-mediated activation of NFAT5 has only been examined in lymphocyte response to osmotic stress, it is hypothesized that this mechanism is a common one in other cell types.

Epub 2014 Jun 16. Current theories include the non-selective blockade of sodium-potassium pumps in the brain causing osmotic imbalances or swelling in the cells. [auth opinion] Interaction of PPIs with other drug affecting the sodium-potassium pump, e.g., digoxin, warfarin etc.

Insects may have one to hundreds of Malpighian tubules (element 20). These tubules remove nitrogenous wastes from the hemolymph of the insect and regulate osmotic balance. Wastes and solutes are emptied directly into the alimentary canal, at the junction between the midgut and hindgut.

For people who do not adequately respond to dietary fiber, osmotic laxatives such as polyethylene glycol, sorbitol, and lactulose can help avoid "cathartic colon" which has been associated with stimulant laxatives. Lubiprostone is a gastrointestinal agent used for the treatment of constipation-predominant IBS.

Most of the HCO3− comes from pancreatic acinar cells in the form of NaHCO3 in an aqueous solution. This is the result of the high concentration of both HCO3− and Na+ present in the duct creating an osmotic gradient to which the water follows.

Accordingly, worms lacking SRP-6 are sensitive to stress. Most notably, SRP-6 knockout worms die when placed in water (the hypo-osmotic stress lethal phenotype or Osl). It has therefore been suggested that lysosomes play a general and controllable role in determining cell fate.

C5b associates with C6, C7, C8, and C9, all of which form a complex that results in a pore through the pathogen's membrane. This pore disrupts the ionic and osmotic balance provided by the pathogen's membrane, and leads to the death of the pathogen cell.

They speak the Kolami language. They are an agricultural community. The Kolam are an endogamous group. They have a high rate of returning positive to the Naked eye single tube red cell osmotic fragility test (NESTROFT) test, making them prone to high incidence of Thalassaemia.

The barrier also protects the germ cells from blood-borne noxious agents, prevents antigenic products of germ cell maturation from entering the circulation and generating an autoimmune response, and may help establish an osmotic gradient that facilitates movement of fluid into the tubular lumen.

MS channels are different from other membrane proteins in that their primary gating stimulus is force, such that they open conduits for ions to pass through the membrane in response to mechanical stimuli. This system allows physical force to create an ion flux, which then results in signal integration and response (as detailed below). MS channels are hypothesized to be the working mechanism in the perception of gravity, vibration, touch, hyper-osmotic and hypo-osmotic stress, pathogenic invasion, and interaction with commensal microbes. MS channels have been discovered across a diverse array of genera as well as in different plant organs, like leaves and stems, and localize to diverse cellular membranes.

This technological advancement made possible the verification and correction of van 't Hoff's theory. In a modern formulation, van 't Hoff's equation states that ΠV = nRT, where Π is the osmotic pressure, V is the volume of the solution, n is the number of moles of the solute, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature (compare with the ideal gas law). This equation can also be written as Π = cRT, where c = n/V is the molarity (mol/m3) of the solution. Morse showed experimentally that Π = bRT, where b is the molality (mol/kg) yields a better approximation of osmotic pressure.

Osmotic diuresis is the increase of urination rate caused by the presence of certain substances in the small tubes of the kidneys. The excretion occurs when substances such as glucose enter the kidney tubules and cannot be reabsorbed (due to a pathological state or the normal nature of the substance). The substances cause an increase in the osmotic pressure within the tubule, causing retention of water within the lumen, and thus reduces the reabsorption of water, increasing urine output (i.e. diuresis). The same effect can be seen in therapeutics such as mannitol, which is used to increase urine output and decrease extracellular fluid volume.

Most adverse reactions to conivaptan are found at the site of infusion. Other complications include blood and lymphatic system disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, metabolism and nutrition disorders, psychiatric disorders as well as vascular disorders. There is risk of too rapid correction of hyponatremia causing fatal osmotic demyelination syndrome.

The walls of plant cells must have sufficient tensile strength to withstand internal osmotic pressures of several times atmospheric pressure that result from the difference in solute concentration between the cell interior and external solutions. Plant cell walls vary from 0.1 to several µm in thickness.

This design was called the Push- Stick Osmotic Pump (PSOP), and utilized two separate drug layers with different concentrations of methylphenidate in addition to the (now quite robust) push layer. An illustration of the different inner components of a tablet of Concerta, a PSOP OROS design.

Freshwater baths are an effective way to detach trophonts from skin and gill epithelium due to the sudden osmotic shock experienced by the host. However, freshwater bath procedures remain impractical for the majority of marine fish farms and some fish species cannot tolerate a similar treatment.

There are also genes involved in High Osmolality Glycerol signaling pathway being observed in W. sebi, and are suggested to play an important role in the adaptation to osmotic stress. Wallemia mellicola also have a large number of transporters that allow it to survive in hyperosmotic situation.

Dried Pineapples Sugar is added to fruit to protect against microbial contamination and reduce water activity in the fruit. This allows the fruit to be more stable at room temperature. Some examples are strawberries, prunes, peaches, apricots, and pineapples. IMF blueberries are prepared by osmotic dehydration.

The eggs stop absorbing salt after approximately a month, having reached osmotic equilibrium. Their yolks take on an orange-red color and solidify, but the white remains somewhat liquid. These often are boiled before consumption and are served with rice congee. Pickled egg, colored with beetroot juice.

To cryopreserve HSCs, a preservative, dimethyl sulfoxide, must be added, and the cells must be cooled very slowly in a controlled-rate freezer to prevent osmotic cellular injury during ice-crystal formation. HSCs may be stored for years in a cryofreezer, which typically uses liquid nitrogen.

For the purpose of dehumidifying air, in a water-spray absorption refrigeration system, water vapor is dissolved into a deliquescent salt water mixture using osmotic power as an intermediary. The primary power source originates from a thermal difference, as part of a thermodynamic heat engine cycle.

Echinocandins noncompetitively inhibit beta-1,3-D-glucan synthase enzyme complex in susceptible fungi to disturb fungal cell glucan synthesis. Beta-glucan destruction prevents resistance against osmotic forces, which leads to cell lysis. They have fungistatic activity against Aspergillus species. and fungicidal activity against most Candida spp.

Glyceria acutiflora can be found growing in muddy pools and the margins of ponds from New Hampshire to Michigan and south to Tennessee and Missouri. The grass is a problematic weed in China, germinating over a wide range of temperatures and being resistant to osmotic and salt stress.

The scarcity of clastosomes in cells indicates that they are not required for proteasome function. Osmotic stress has also been shown to cause the formation of clastosomes. These nuclear bodies contain catalytic and regulatory subunits of the proteasome and its substrates, indicating that clastosomes are sites for degrading proteins.

The recovery can be aided nonsurgically by bandaging with an osmotic saline solution. Although a hydrops usually causes increased scarring of the cornea, occasionally it will benefit a patient by creating a flatter cone, aiding the fitting of contact lenses. Corneal transplantation is not usually indicated during corneal hydrops.

The effect is normally temporary and after a period of six to eight weeks, the cornea usually returns to its former transparency. The recovery can be aided nonsurgically by bandaging with an osmotic saline solution. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory topical may be used to reduce the pain and inflammation.

Water flowing into and out of the brain or spinal cord is assisted by AQP4. Here, AQP4 channels respond passively to osmotic gradients. In addition, they play a role in brain water transport, cell migration, brain edema, metabolism and cell homeostasis. Other systems are also regulated by AQP4.

Most fungi are profoundly affected by the availability of water. The ability to tolerate environments with low water activity has been found mostly in Ascomycota, but rarely in Basidiomycota. However, W. sebi. can adjust its morphology and physiology to adapt to different environmental conditions and survive osmotic stress.

Like many antibiotics, monensin-A is an ionophore that tightly bind Na+ (shown in yellow). The abundant inorganic elements act as ionic electrolytes. The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate, and bicarbonate. The maintenance of precise gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH.

The guiding principles for the development of UW Solution were: #osmotic concentration maintained by the use of metabolically inert substances like lactobionate and raffinose rather than with glucose #Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) is used to prevent edema #Substances are added to scavenge free radicals, along with steroids and insulin.

Treatment of the loss of autoregulation of the brain's blood vessels may be difficult or impossible. When SIS occurs, surgery does not help and there is little hope for recovery. Treatment requires immediate recognition and includes administration of osmotic agents and hyperventilation in order to lower intracranial pressure.

As a result of the equilibrium of those forces, liquids subjected to the influence of electric force become charged. In addition to the applied hydraulic pressure ∆pH the process is influenced also by the electro-osmotic pressure Pe. Modifying the Darcy’s basic equation, describing filter cake formation, with electro-kinetic effects by integration under assumption of using the constants of electro-osmotic pressure Pe, the critical electric field Ekrit and the electric field E results: Previous scientific works conducted in the Dept. of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Engineering in Life Sciences, University of Karlsruhe demonstrated that electrofiltration is effective for the concentration of charged biopolymers. Very promising results concerning purification of the charged polysaccharide xanthan are already obtained.

More specifically, the phenomenon threatens 19.5% of the world's irrigated agricultural land and 2.1% of the world's non-irrigated (dry-land) agricultural lands. High soil salinity content can be harmful to plants because water-soluble salts can alter osmotic potential gradients and consequently inhibit many cellular functions.Zhu, J.-K. (2001). Plant Salt Stress. eLS. For example, high soil salinity content can inhibit the process of photosynthesis by limiting a plant's water uptake; high levels of water-soluble salts in the soil can decrease the osmotic potential of the soil and consequently decrease the difference in water potential between the soil and the plant's roots, thereby limiting electron flow from H2O to P680 in Photosystem II's reaction center.

There is evidence that FMOs are associated to the regulation of blood pressure. FMO3 is involved in the formation of TMA N-oxides (TMAO). Some studies indicate that hypertension can develop when there are no organic osmolytes (i.e. TMAO) that can counteract an increase in osmotic pressure and peripheral resistance.

It is classified as an osmotic laxative. It works by increasing the amount of water in the stool. Macrogol came into use as a bowel prep in 1980 and was approved for medical use in the United States in 1999. It is available as a generic medication and over the counter.

Icodextrin (INN, USAN) is a colloid osmotic agent, derived from maltodextrin, used in form of an aqueous solution for peritoneal dialysis under the trade name Extraneal, and after gynecological laparoscopic surgery for the reduction of post-surgical adhesions (fibrous bands that form between tissues and organs) under the trade name Adept.

An osmotic pressure is introduced to equalize the concentration of solute throughout the system by driving water to flow from the low concentration areas to the high concentration areas. In short, the influx and outflux of water within mucus, managed by the polyelectrolyte effect, contribute to mucus' tunable swelling capacity.

Page 213. Although the osmotic fragility test is widely considered the gold standard for diagnosing hereditary spherocytosis, it misses as many as 25% of cases. Flow cytometric analysis of eosin-5′-maleimide-labeled intact red blood cells and the acidified glycerol lysis test are two additional options to aid diagnosis.

Their task was demonstrated when bacteria missing both MscS and MscL was lysed after exposure to osmotic downshocks. MscS: Small conductance mechanosensitive channel. The closed structure of MscS The main conductance is 1nS in buffer solution. Channel-proteins have been found in gram positive and gram negative bacteria, archaea and plants.

Some species of Haloarchaea undergo phenotypic switching and grow as several different cell types, including thick-walled structures that are resistant to osmotic shock and allow the archaea to survive in water at low salt concentrations, but these are not reproductive structures and may instead help them reach new habitats.

Absolute ethanol may inactivate microbes without destroying them because the alcohol is unable to fully permeate the microbe's membrane. Ethanol can also be used as a disinfectant and antiseptic because it causes cell dehydration by disrupting the osmotic balance across cell membrane, so water leaves the cell leading to cell death.

During gallbladder storage of bile, it is concentrated 3-10 fold by removal of some water and electrolytes. This is through the active transport of sodium and chloride ions across the epithelium of the gallbladder, which creates an osmotic pressure that also causes water and other electrolytes to be reabsorbed.

There is an important distinction between transudates and exudates. Transudates are caused by disturbances of hydrostatic or colloid osmotic pressure, not by inflammation. They have a low protein content in comparison to exudates. Medical distinction between transudates and exudates is through the measurement of the specific gravity of extracted fluid.

Class: Actinopterygii Freshwater fish are physiologically differ from marine and brackish water forms. The low salinity and high osmotic pressure makes them so different. Few fish can be found in all three ecological systems. There are 95 species of freshwater fish occur in the country, where 53 of those are endemic.

A single nucleotide polymorphism (mutation), in the sodium/myo-inositol cotransporter (SLC5A3) gene causes FIS. This gene is crucial in regulating a cell's response to osmotic stress; an alteration to the function of the gene leads to failure of red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) and failure of the immune system.

Like methyl-JA, methyl-SA is volatile and can act as a long-distance signal to neighboring plants to warn of pathogen attack. In addition to its role in defense, SA is also involved in the response of plants to abiotic stress, particularly from drought, extreme temperatures, heavy metals, and osmotic stress.

Nephrosis can be a primary disorder or can be secondary to another disorder. Nephrotic complications of another disorder can coexist with nephritic complications. In other words, nephrosis and nephritis can be pathophysiologically contradistinguished, but that does not mean that they cannot occur simultaneously. Types of nephrosis include amyloid nephrosis and osmotic nephrosis.

However, for a radius tube, the water would rise , and for a radius tube, the water would rise . Capillary action is used by many plants to bring up water from the soil. For tall trees (larger than ~10 m (32 ft)), other processes like osmotic pressure and negative pressures are also important.

These detachments, in turn, lead to limited cellular energy through the drop in the level of ATP and it undermines the cell wall integrity. Additionally, MP196 leads to osmotic destabilization in bacterial cells. These factors lead to bacterial cell death.MP196 does not need to be stereospecific to bring about bacterial cell death.

Electric potential arises between two solutions is called Donnan potential. Donnan equilibrium is prominent in the triphasic model for articular cartilage proposed by Mow and Ratcliffe, as well as in electrochemical fuel cells and dialysis. The Donnan effect is extra osmotic pressure attributable to cations (Na+ and K+) attached to dissolved plasma proteins.

This allows it to flourish in southern Puget Sound. Acclimation and size are important factors as larger individuals have a lower surface area to volume ratio and can handle the increased osmotic tension.J. Campbell and M.P. Russell. 2003. Acclimation and growth response of the green sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis to fluctuating salinity.

Fertilizer burn on a leaf. Fertilizer burn is leaf scorch resulting from over- fertilization, usually referring to excess nitrogen salts. Fertilizer burn is the result of desiccation of plant tissues due to osmotic stress, creating a state of hypertonicity. Fertilizers vary in their tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their salt index.

Amniotic fluid is present from the formation of the gestational sac. Amniotic fluid is in the amniotic sac. It is generated from maternal plasma, and passes through the fetal membranes by osmotic and hydrostatic forces. When fetal kidneys begin to function in about week 16, fetal urine also contributes to the fluid.

The necrosome starts recruiting MLKL (Mixed Kinase Domain Like protein), which is phosphorylated by RIPK3 and immediately translocates to lipid rafts inside the plasma membrane. This leads to the formation of pores in the membrane, allowing the sodium influx to increase -and consequently the osmotic pressure-, which eventually causes cell membrane rupture.

They provide osmotic adjustment, in addition to protection against oxidative stress of the photosynthetic structures in developing leaves. Studies also suggested that reduction in stomatal density in reaction to salinity levels represents an essential instrument of defence to optimize water use efficiency under the given conditions to which it may be exposed.

Tissues that comprise the kidneys, skin, and eyes are often subjected to osmotic stresses. When the extracellular environment is hypertonic, cells lose water and consequently, shrink. To counteract this, cells increase their sodium uptake in order to lose less water. However, an increase in intracellular ionic concentration is harmful to the cell.

Among these differences is the absence of docking sites for calcineurin, which is necessary for NFATc nuclear import. Instead, NFAT5 is a constitutively nuclear protein whose activity and localization does not depend on calcineurin-mediated dephosphorylation. Increased NFAT5 transcription is correlated with p38 MAPK-mediated phosphorylation. Pathway of NFAT5-Mediated Osmotic Response Activation.

Some protists do not have cell walls and cannot experience turgor pressure. These few protists are ones that use their contractile vacuole to regulate the quantity of water within the cell. Protist cells avoid lysing in solutions by utilizing a vacuole which pumps water out of the cells to maintain osmotic equilibrium.

These proteins are visualized as freely floating within a completely liquid bilayer. This was not the first proposal of a heterogeneous membrane structure. Indeed, as early as 1904 Nathansohn proposed a “mosaic” of water permeable and impermeable regions.A B Macallum, The significance of osmotic membranes in heredity, in The Harvey Lectures. 1910.

Centrosema brasilianum contains a characteristic, which allows it to have a high tolerance to drought, along with the ability to retain green leaves over extended dry seasons. To control water loss, C. brasilianum uses osmotic and stomatal as its main processes. Centrosema brasilianum drought tolerance is attributed to its deep rooting system.

A rise in hydrostatic pressure occurs in cardiac failure. A fall in osmotic pressure occurs in nephrotic syndrome and liver failure. Causes of edema which are generalized to the whole body can cause edema in multiple organs and peripherally. For example, severe heart failure can cause pulmonary edema, pleural effusions, ascites and peripheral edema.

The pods break into two to five segments and contain pale brown seeds about long. The flowers are insect pollinated and wind pollinated. The seeds have hard seed coats which restrict germination and make osmotic pressure and soil acidity less significant hindrances. High temperatures are the main stimuli that cause the seeds to end dormancy.

Pediococcus acidilactici is a species of Gram-positive cocci that is often found in pairs or tetrads. P. acidilactici is a homofermentative bacterium that can grow in a wide range of pH, temperature, and osmotic pressure, therefore being able to colonize the digestive tract.Klaenhammer T.R. 1993. Genetics of bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria.

As a visiting scientist at the University of Copenhagen in 1993, Stein worked with the Danish physiologist Thomas Zeuthen on the coupling of water and substrates in membrane proteins.Zeuthen T, Stein WD. Cotransport of salt and water in membrane proteins: membrane proteins as osmotic engines. J Membr Biol. 1994 Feb;137(3):179–95. Review.

Activity coefficients may be determined experimentally by making measurements on non-ideal mixtures. Use may be made of Raoult's law or Henry's law to provide a value for an ideal mixture against which the experimental value may be compared to obtain the activity coefficient. Other colligative properties, such as osmotic pressure may also be used.

The ability to produce hyposmotic urine is from the medullary cones. Urine is mixed with digestive fluids rather than directly eliminated. Consequently, the avian gut plays an important role in water and salt regulation. In mammals, the osmotic gradient is urea, whereas in birds, sodium chloride is the major solute in the medullary cones.

Without subtelomeres, heterochromatin would spread around the region of subtelomeres, getting too close to important genes. At this distance, heterochromatin can silence genes that are nearby, resulting in a higher sensitivity to osmotic stress. Subtelomeres carry out essential functions with Shugoshin protein. Shugoshin is a centromere protein for chromosome segregation during meiosis and mitosis.

A laminaria stick or tent is a thin rod made of the stems of dried Laminaria, a genus of kelp. Laminaria sticks can be generated from Laminaria japonica and Laminaria digitata. Synthetic osmotic dilators are commonly referred to by their brand names, such as Dilapan. Dilapan-S are composed of polyacrylonitrile, a plastic polymer.

Revised 2003-02-12. In February 2020, Lactitol was approved for use in the United States as an osmotic laxative for the treatment of chronic idiopathic constipation (CIC) in adults. Lactitol in combination with Ispaghula husk is an approved combination for idiopathic constipation as a laxative and is used to prevent or treat constipation.

A dish of tsukudani made from kombu is small seafood, meat or seaweed that has been simmered in soy sauce and mirin. High osmotic pressure preserves the ingredients. Its name originates from Tsukudajima, the island (in present-day Chūō, Tokyo) where it was first made in the Edo period. Many kinds of tsukudani are sold.

Opening of the β-lactam ring by a serine residue in the enzyme binding site leads to covalent binding of the antibiotic molecule with the active site of the enzyme. The result is an inactive irreversibly bound enzyme-complex which is incapable of further cell wall synthesis and the cell will die from osmotic-lysis.

Antiquitin function and subcellular localization are closely linked, as it functions in detoxification in the cytosol, lysine catabolism in the mitochondrion, and cell cycle progression in the nucleus. In particular, antiquitin localizes to the mitochondria in kidney and liver to contribute to the synthesis of betaine, a chaperone protein that protects against osmotic stress.

Patient using eyepatch after cataract surgery to reduce the risk of infection. There are several medications which need to be consumed in order to treat phacolytic glaucoma. The medicines induced ensure the management of glaucoma and reduce inflammation. These medications consist of: Aqueous suppressants, anti-inflammatory drugs, hyper-osmotic agents, cycloplegics, anti-glaucoma medications.

Example: a child with diarrhea who has been given salty soup to drink, or insufficiently diluted infant formula. Overall there is more sodium than water. The water will move out of the cell toward the intravascular compartment down the osmotic gradient. This can cause tissue breakage (in case of muscle breakage it is called rhabdomyolysis).

In sharks, this includes a rectal gland that secretes salt to help the animal maintain osmotic balance with the seawater. The gland somewhat resembles a caecum in structure, but is not a homologous structure. As with many aquatic animals, most fish release their nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. Some of the wastes diffuse through the gills.

Glycosuria leads to excessive water loss into the urine with resultant dehydration, a process called osmotic diuresis. Alimentary glycosuria is a temporary condition, when a high amount of carbohydrate is taken, it is rapidly absorbed in some cases where a part of the stomach is surgically removed, the excessive glucose appears in urine producing glycosuria.

This is one way the hydraulic signal can be sensed, through sensing the osmotic environment. Increase in water potential also causes mechanical forces on the cell wall and plasma membrane of the cell. This is the second way to sense hydraulic signaling, by sensing the changes in the mechanical forces on the cell wall.

In rich media, it is highly expressed only after reaching the stationary growth phase, but under limiting iron or osmotic stress, it is already expressed during exponential growth. Overexpression of AsdA stabilizes dnaA mRNA, increasing its levels and thereby enhancing its rate of translation. This suggests that AsdA is a regulator of DNA replication.

In a study performed in 1974, it was determined that the optimal osmolar concentration for growth in C. meneghiniana in a medium of 0.5 Osm/L.Schobert, B. (1974). The influence of water stress on the metabolism of diatoms I. Osmotic resistance and proline accumulation in Cyclotella meneghiniana. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenphysiologie. 74(2). 106-120.

It was generally considered that water moved in and out of the plant cell through the lipid bilayer. Wayne, working with Masashi Tazawa, presented most of the now classical arguments favoring membrane water channels and clearly demonstrated their major contribution to osmotic water transport. Wayne's work preceded the molecular identification of aquaporins in plant cells.

Bioconcentration factors facilitate predicting contamination levels in an organism based on chemical concentration in surrounding water. BCF in this setting only applies to aquatic organisms. Air breathing organisms do not take up chemicals in the same manner as other aquatic organisms. Fish, for example uptake chemicals via ingestion and osmotic gradients in gill lamellae.

Campylobacter are microaerophilic, fastidious organisms that become stressed in aerobic condition, temperature variations, osmotic balances, and starvation . However, in the community of Campylobacter species, C. coli has been discovered to be more aerotolerant than C. jejuni; this explains the increasing survival and transmission of the strains during stressful processing and storage conditions (Karki et al., 2019).

The salts come from atmospheric pollution and contamination during blasting or other substrate preparation processes. These salts promote osmotic blistering of the coating and underfilm metallic corrosion. As a result, loss of adhesion, cathodic disbondment, and scribe creep can be observed. A coating behaves as a semi-impermeable membrane; allowing moisture to pass through but not salts4,5.

In this situation, a fixed amount of drug is in solution inside the microcapsule. The concentration difference between the inside and the outside of the capsule decreases continually as the drug diffuses. Nevertheless, there are some other mechanisms that may take place in the liberation of the encapsulated material. These include, biodegradation, osmotic pressure, diffusion, etc.

The OSM-9 protein is required for some olfactory and osmotic stimuli as well as a mechanosensory response to nose touch. This protein encodes a protein with ankyrin repeats and is closely related in sequence to the mammalian TRPV ion channels. OSM-9 controls the biosynthesis of serotonin via regulation of the expression of the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase.

Albumins are the most common plasma proteins and they are responsible for maintaining the osmotic pressure of blood. Without albumins, the consistency of blood would be closer to that of water. The increased viscosity of blood prevents fluid from entering the bloodstream from outside the capillaries. The second most common type of protein in the blood plasma are globulins.

Sodium chloride is sometimes used as a cheap and safe desiccant because of its hygroscopic properties, making salting an effective method of food preservation historically; the salt draws water out of bacteria through osmotic pressure, keeping it from reproducing, a major source of food spoilage. Even though more effective desiccants are available, few are safe for humans to ingest.

Alpha(α)-hemolysin of Staphylococcus aureus: macromolecular structure of the transmembrane pore. Secreted by Staphylococcus aureus, this toxin causes cell death by binding with the outer membrane, with subsequent oligomerization of the toxin monomer and water-filled channels. These are responsible for osmotic phenomena, cell depolarization, and loss of vital molecules (v.gr. ATP), leading to its demise.

Syrup, honey, brine, alcohol and concentrated sugar or salt solutions display an antibacterial action due to osmotic pressure. Syrup and honey have a long history of being used as a topical treatment for superficial and deep wounds. Wood smoke compounds act as food preservatives. Phenol and phenolic compounds found in wood smoke are antioxidants and antimicrobials, slowing bacterial growth.

The thin ascending limb is impermeable to water; but is permeable to ions allowing for some sodium reabsorption. Na/K-ATPase is expressed at very low levels in this segment and thus this reabsorption is likely through passive diffusion. Salt moves out of the tubule and into the interstitium due to osmotic pressure created by the countercurrent system.

Changes in the regulation of gene networks are a common mechanism for prokaryotic evolution. An example of the effects of different regulatory environments for homologous proteins is the DNA-binding protein OmpR, which is involved in response to osmotic stress in E. coli but is involved in response to acidic environments in the close relative Salmonella Typhimurium.

They have osmotic membrane faces and growth-rings circling their wiry bodies. Many Polis Massans are miners, medics, or exobiologists. They tend to wear form-fitting bodysuits fitted with all manner of signaling devices, medical equipment, and utility pouches. Most Polis Massan miners are seasoned spelunkers who dig deep into the core of their asteroid to locate prize artifacts.

Filamentous cell state of Yarrowia lipolytica Y. lipolytica has a dimorphic growth , which means it can grow in two different phenotypes. The usual form of the cells can be described as round and spherical. When exposed to stress conditions such as temperature, pH, mechanical or osmotic stress, the cell can switch into a filamentous growth form (also see hyphae).

This model was also extended for a number of electrolytes dissolved in methanol, ethanol, 2-propanol, and so on. Temperature dependent parameters for a number of common single salts were also compiled, available at . The performance of the TCPC model in correlation with the measured activity coefficient or osmotic coefficients is found to be comparable with Pitzer-like models.

After it hardens, the new shell fills with body tissue. Shell hardening occurs most quickly in low salinity water where high osmotic pressure allows the shell to become rigid soon after molting. Molting reflects only incremental growth, making age estimation difficult. For blue crabs, the number of molts in a lifetime is fixed at approximately 25.

It is the main contributor to osmotic pressure of the blood and it functions as a carrier molecule for molecules with low water solubility such as lipid-soluble hormones, enzymes, fatty acids, metal ions, and pharmaceutical compounds.Matejtschuk, P., Dash, C.H., and Gascoigne, E.W. 2000. "Production of human albumin solution: a continually developing colloid". British Journal of Anaesthesia.

Opening and closing of stoma. However, most plants do not have the aforementioned facility and must therefore open and close their stomata during the daytime, in response to changing conditions, such as light intensity, humidity, and carbon dioxide concentration. It is not entirely certain how these responses work. However, the basic mechanism involves regulation of osmotic pressure.

Neurospora crassa is a multicellular fungus with many off shooting hyphae. Cells can be up to 10 cm long, and are separated by a small septum. Small holes in the septum allow cytoplasm and cytoplasmic contents to flow from cell to cell. Osmotic pressure gradients occur through the length of the cell to drive this cytoplasmic flow.

The SAAG subsequently increases because there is more free fluid leaving the circulation, concentrating the serum albumin. The albumin does not move across membrane spaces easily because it is a large molecule. A rare cause of ascites, with elevated SAAG, and without change in hydrostatic/osmotic pressure is urinary bladder rupture with leakage of urine into the peritoneal space.

Peroxisomes are used to break down peroxide, which is otherwise toxic. Many protozoans have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and extrusomes, which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey. In higher plants, most of a cell's volume is taken up by a central vacuole, which mostly contains water and primarily maintains its osmotic pressure.

About 25 minutes after initial infection, approximately 200 new virions (viral bodies) are formed. Once enough virions have matured and accumulated, specialized viral proteins are used to dissolve the cells wall. The cell bursts (i.e. it undergoes lysis) due to high internal osmotic pressure (water pressure) that can no longer be constrained by the cell wall.

The pressure to release the seed is created by the increased concentration of glucoside and elaterinidin in low volumes of cytoplasm. This creates an osmotic pressure of up to 27 atms. The pressure building method also seems to rely on the phloem sieve tubes. This also means that the shooting mechanism can be decreased in water stressed conditions.

In this theory the depletion force arises from an increase in osmotic pressure of the surrounding solution when colloidal particles get close enough such that the excluded cosolutes (depletants) cannot fit in between them. Because the particles were considered as hard-core (completely rigid) particles, the emerging picture of the underlying mechanism inducing the force was necessarily entropic.

Depletion forces were first described by Sho Asakura and Fumio Oosawa in 1954. In their model, the force is always considered to be attractive. Additionally, the force is considered to be proportional to the osmotic pressure. The Asakura–Oosawa model assumes low macromolecule densities and that the density distribution, \rho(r), of the macromolecules is constant.

Cited in Nascimento, P., Fernandes, N., Mauro, M., & Kimura, M. (2007). Beta-carotene stability during drying and storage of cassava and sweet potato. II International Symposium on Human Health Effects of Fruits and Vegetables: FAVHEALTH 2007 841, 363-366. Retention of carotenoids in cassava processing β-carotene retention can be improved by pretreatments such as blanching and osmotic dehydration.

Homarine functions as an osmolyte by affecting the ionic strength of the cytosol and thereby maintaining osmotic pressure within the cell. Homarine may also act as a methyl group donor in the biosynthesis of various other N-methylated chemicals, such as glycine betaine and choline. The process of methyl donation converts homarine into picolinic acid and is reversible.

Membrane osmometry measurements are best used for 30,000 < M_n < 1,000,000 grams/mole. For M_n above 1,000,000 grams/mole, the solute is too dilute to create a measurable osmotic pressure. For M_n below 30,000 grams per mole, the solute permeates through the membrane and the measurements are inaccurate. Another issue for membrane osmometer is the limited membrane types.

Unlike the widely used automotive antifreeze, ethylene glycol, AFPs do not lower freezing point in proportion to concentration. Rather, they work in a noncolligative manner. This phenomenon allows them to act as an antifreeze at concentrations 1/300th to 1/500th of those of other dissolved solutes. Their low concentration minimizes their effect on osmotic pressure.

Cytotoxic, osmotic, and vasogenic edema exist on a continuum. The mechanism of the cause of cerebral edema can often overlap between these types. In most instances, cytotoxic and vasogenic edema occur together. When the two edema types evolve simultaneously, the damage of one type reaches a limit and will bring about the other type of injury.

Aside from controlling the levels of sucrose in the cell, regulation via phosphorylation can help the cell adapt to hyperosmotic conditions; in times of osmotic stress, the seryl residue is phosphorylated and enzyme activity decreases. This regulation strategy also controls carbon flux from photosynthesis, as studies indicate the signal transduction pathway responsible for SPS activation responds to light stimulus.

Elevations in target cells are the result of a shift in the exchange equilibrium between the red blood cells and the cholesterol. Also the surface membrane to volume ratio is increased.biomedx.livebloodunderthemicroscope Target cells are more resistant to osmotic lysis, which is mostly seen in dogs. Hypochromic cells in iron deficiency anemias also can show a target appearance.cornell.edu.

It is typically determined by measurements of the osmotic pressure of the polymer. The weight-average degree of polymerization is a weighted mean of the degrees of polymerization, weighted by the weight fractions (or the overall weight of the molecules) of the species. It is typically determined by measurements of Rayleigh light scattering by the polymer.

Natural osmolytes that can act as osmoprotectants include trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), dimethylsulfoniopropionate, sarcosine, betaine, glycerophosphorylcholine, myo- inositol, taurine, glycine, and others. Remarkably, TMAO has the capacity to restore glucocorticoid binding to mutant receptors. Bacteria accumulate osmolytes for protection against a high osmotic environment. The osmolytes will be neutral non-electrolytes, except in bacteria that can tolerate salts.

Mechanical systems contain moving parts, which are usually actuation and microvalve membranes or flaps. The driving force can be generated by utilizing piezoelectric , electrostatic, thermo-pneumatic, pneumatic or magnetic effects. Non-mechanical pumps function with electro-hydrodynamic, electro-osmotic, electrochemical or ultrasonic flow generation, just to name a few of the actuation mechanisms that are currently studied.

In order to augment the defense of the plant some non-articulated laticifer cells contain highly pressurized stores of latex. It has been noted that pressure may be produced by the osmotic uptake of water into the laticifer cell resulting in a turgid cell.Pickard, W. F. 2007. Laticifers and Secretory Ducts: Two Other Tube Systems in Plants.

When they are large enough (c. ), they smoltify, changing camouflage from stream-adapted with large, gray spots to sea-adapted with shiny sides. They also undergo some endocrinological changes to adapt to osmotic differences between fresh water and seawater habitat. When smoltification is complete, the parr (young fish) now begin to swim with the current instead of against it.

Portrait from the Smithsonian Institution Archives William Mansfield Clark (17 August 1884 – 19 January 1964) was an American chemist and professor at the Johns Hopkins University. He studied oxidation-reduction reactions and was a pioneer of medical biochemistry. Clark was born in Tivoli, New York, in a clergy family and studied at Hotchkiss School and Williams College before entering Johns Hopkins University, where he received a PhD in chemistry under H.N. Morse with a dissertation on A contribution to the investigation of the temperature coefficient of osmotic pressure: a redetermination of the osmotic pressures of cane sugar at 20°. He then worked on dairy bacteriology in the US department of agriculture followed by studies on oxidation reduction of dyes and metalloporphyrins at the Hygiene Laboratory, which he headed from 1920.

The osmotic gradient is the difference in concentration between two solutions on either side of a semipermeable membrane, and is used to tell the difference in percentages of the concentration of a specific particle dissolved in a solution. Usually the osmotic gradient is used while comparing solutions that have a semipermeable membrane between them allowing water to diffuse between the two solutions, toward the hypertonic solution (the solution with the higher concentration). Eventually, the force of the column of water on the hypertonic side of the semipermeable membrane will equal the force of diffusion on the hypotonic (the side with a lesser concentration) side, creating equilibrium. When equilibrium is reached, water continues to flow, but it flows both ways in equal amounts as well as force, therefore stabilizing the solution.

Electro- osmotic flow was first reported in 1807 by Ferdinand Friedrich Reuss (18 February 1778 (Tübingen, Germany) – 14 April 1852 (Stuttgart, Germany))Biographical information about F.F. Reuss is available (in German) at: Deutsche Biographie in an unpublished lecture before the Physical-Medical Society of Moscow;A notice of Reuss' lecture appeared in: Available at: Österreichische Nationalbibliothek (Austrian National Library) Reuss first published an account of electro-osmotic flow in 1809 in the Memoirs of the Imperial Society of Naturalists of Moscow. Available at: Wiley.com He showed that water could be made to flow through a plug of clay by applying an electric voltage. Clay is composed of closely packed particles of silica and other minerals, and water flows through the narrow spaces between these particles just as it would through a narrow glass tube.

Oasys FO Pilot System Brine concentration using forward osmosis may be achieved using a high osmotic pressure draw solution with a means to recover and regenerate it. One such process uses the ammonia-carbon dioxide (NH3/CO2) forward osmosis process invented at Yale University by Rob McGinnis, who subsequently founded Oasys Water to commercialize the technology. Because ammonia and carbon dioxide readily dissociate into gases using heat, the draw solutes can effectively be recovered and reused in a closed loop system, achieving separation through the conversion between thermal energy and osmotic pressure. NH3/CO2 FO brine concentration is was initially demonstrated in the oil and gas industry to treat produced water in the Permian Basin area of Texas, and is currently being used in power and manufacturing plants in China.

As the soluble substance dissolves under the paint layer, the pressure caused by the increase in volume can exert a greater force than the paint adhesion and cohesion forces, giving rise to the formation of a blister; the process called osmotic blistering. The blisters are first filled with water and later with corrosion products from the corrosion of the metallic substrate.

Fecal weight is dictated by: # the holding of water by the residual dietary fiber after fermentation. # the bacterial mass. # There may also be an added osmotic effect of products of bacterial fermentation on fecal mass. Wheat bran is minimally fermented and binds water and when added to the diet increases fecal weight in a predictable linear manner and decreases intestinal transit time.

This change of affinity is what is meant by activation of the pathway. The amount of sorbitol that accumulates, however, may not be sufficient to cause osmotic influx of water. NADPH acts to promote nitric oxide production and glutathione reduction, and its deficiency will cause glutathione deficiency. A glutathione deficiency, congenital or acquired, can lead to hemolysis caused by oxidative stress.

The highest recorded discharge of Muncy Creek near Muncy is per second. In 2012 and 2013, the creek's discharge at this location ranged from per second. The discharge of the creek at Sonestown averages 44.9 cubic feet per second. The osmotic pressure of the stream's waters at this location ranged from less than 1 up to 4 millios-moles per .

This method is being specifically studied by the Norwegian utility Statkraft, which has calculated that up to 25 TWh/yr would be available from this process in Norway. Statkraft has built the world's first prototype osmotic power plant on the Oslo fjord which was opened on 24 November 2009. In January 2014 however Statkraft announced not to continue this pilot.

Although Johns Hopkins was a research university from the beginning, the early years of the chemistry department were marked by a lack of students and equipment. Morse was initially discouraged and spent most of his time teaching. Around the turn of the century Morse published a series of papers on the preparation of permanganic acid. This led him to study osmotic pressure.

Autolysins are naturally produced by peptidoglycan containing bacteria, but excessive amounts will degrade the peptidoglycan matrix and cause the cell to burst due to osmotic pressure. Previous studies have found that the byproducts of autolysin during cell wall breakdown are highly immunogenic. When observed in the bacteria, Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis), there were potentially lethal amounts of autolysin found in the cell walls.

Between 1916 and 1926 he investigated the properties of electrolytic solutions in regards to their dissociation and association in German journals like Z. anorg. allgem. Chem. (1918, 1920) and Ergebnisse der exakten Naturwissenschaften (1926). He also published in the British journal Transactions of the Faraday Society (1927) . He introduced the quantity osmotic coefficient in relation to non-ideal solutions of electrolytes.

An osmotic fragility test can aid in the diagnosis. In this test, the spherocytes will rupture in liquid solutions less concentrated than the inside of the red blood cell. This is due to increased permeability of the spherocyte membrane to salt and water, which enters the concentrated inner environment of the RBC and leads to its rupture.Goljan. Rapid Review Pathology. 2010.

This combined with the West Indian Ocean coelacanth's large eyes aid seeing in dark water. Similar to cartilaginous fish, Latimeria chalumnae has a rectal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, and spinal cord. To balance osmotic pressure, these fish adopt an efficient mechanism of osmoregulation by retaining urea in their blood. Latimeria chalumnae is ovoviviparous fish that retain their eggs internally until they hatch.

Astrocytes use ammonia when synthesising glutamine from glutamate. The increased levels of glutamine lead to an increase in osmotic pressure in the astrocytes, which become swollen. There is increased activity of the inhibitory γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system, and the energy supply to other brain cells is decreased. This can be thought of as an example of brain edema of the "cytotoxic" type.

Vacuum dryer can be used to dry heat sensitive hygroscopic and toxic materials. If the feed for drying is a solution, it can be dried using vacuum dryer as the solvent can be recovered by condensation. To improve quality of products, such as for fruit preservation, hybrid drying combining osmotic dehydration followed by heat pump drying and microwave-vacuum drying proved effective.

Delivery devices must be biocompatible and stable in vivo. Some examples include osmotic pumps, silicone reservoirs, polymer matrices, and microspheres. Gene therapy techniques have also been studied to provide long-term production of growth factors and could be delivered with viral or non-viral vectors such as lipoplexes. Cells are also effective delivery vehicles for ECM components, neurotrophic factors and cell adhesion molecules.

Prior to a planned surgical abortion, osmotic dilator(s) may be inserted into a woman's cervix. A speculum is placed in the vagina to allow the provider to see the uterine cervix. A tenaculum may be placed on the anterior lip of the cervix to straighten the cervical canal and hold the cervix steady. Pain medications may be administered via a paracervical block.

Reductive Ventricular Omotherapy (RVOT) could be a novel treatment that manages cerebral edema without the use of osmotic agents. RVOT uses catheters permeable to water vapor to increase osmolarity of CSF. Ex vivo experiments have been carried out to test the efficiency of RVOT. RVOT is done locally, therefore, it's more likely to be efficient in severe cases of cerebral edema.

This will become a microsphere. Due to metabolic reaction, osmotic pressure will build up inside the microsphere, and this will generate a force for invaginating the membrane, and ultimately division. In fact, this is close to the cell division of cell wall-less bacteria, such as Mycoplasma. Continuous reactions will also invariably produce variable polymers that can be inherited by daughter cells.

Such a transformation is responsible for MscL's unitary conductance of 3nS and the channel's lack of selectivity, allowing any particles with a molecular weight smaller than ~1,000. This property of MscL fulfills its role as an emergency valve to release solutes under osmotic shock. Two models have been proposed in explaining the gating mechanism of MS channels: membrane-mediated mechanism and trapdoor mechanism.

She then studied at the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Chicago, and the Harvard Medical School. She received her Ph.D. from Radcliffe College in 1926. She did research on students whilst she both taught and worked in a lab at Mount Holyoke from 1896 until her retirement in 1940. She specialized in colloid osmotic pressure and circulatory reactions to gravity.

By changing osmotic potential without changing the total amount of carbohydrate, plants can withstand cold and drought during winter periods. Inulin was discovered in 1804 by German scientist Valentin Rose. He found “a peculiar substance” from Inula helenium roots by boiling-water extraction. The substance was named inulin because of I. helenium, but it is also called helenin, alatin, and meniantin.

Choroid plexus epithelial cells actively transport sodium ions into the ventricles and water follows the resulting osmotic gradient. The choroid plexus consists of many capillaries, separated from the ventricles by choroid epithelial cells. Fluid filters through these cells from blood to become cerebrospinal fluid. There is also much active transport of substances into, and out of, the CSF as it is made.

In particular, the maintenance of precise osmotic gradients of electrolytes is important. Such gradients affect and regulate the hydration of the body as well as blood pH, and are critical for nerve and muscle function. Various mechanisms exist in living species that keep the concentrations of different electrolytes under tight control. Both muscle tissue and neurons are considered electric tissues of the body.

Sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption may increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension, in children and adults. Such health effects of salt have long been studied. Accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods.

Penicillium digitatum is a mesophilic fungus, growing from to a maximum of , with an optimal growth temperature at . With respect to water activity, P. digitatum has a relatively low tolerance for osmotic stress. The minimum water activity required for growth at is 0.90, at is 0.95 and at is 0.99. Germination does not occur at a water activity of 0.87.

DREB proteins are involved in a variety of functions related to drought tolerance. For example, DREB proteins including DREB2A cooperate with AREB/ABF proteins in gene expression, specifically in the DREB2A gene under osmotic stress conditions. DREB2 also induces the expression of heat-related genes, such as heat shock protein. Overexpression of DREB2Aca enhances drought and heat stress tolerance levels in Arabidopsis.

Sodium picosulfate is a prodrug. It has no significant direct physiological effect on the intestine; however, it is metabolised by gut bacteria into the active compound 4,4'-dihydroxydiphenyl-(2-pyridiyl)methane (DPM, BPHM). This compound is a stimulant laxative and increases peristalsis in the gut. Sodium picosulfate is typically prescribed in a combined formulation with magnesium citrate, an osmotic laxative.

Mannitol is in the osmotic diuretic family of medications and works by pulling fluid from the brain and eyes. The discovery of mannitol is attributed to Joseph Louis Proust in 1806. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It was originally made from the flowering ash and called manna due to its supposed resemblance to the Biblical food.

In the first part of the nephron, Bowman's capsule filters blood from the circulatory system into the tubules. Hydrostatic and osmotic pressure gradients facilitate filtration across a semipermeable membrane. The filtrate includes water, small molecules, and ions that easily pass through the filtration membrane. However larger molecules such as proteins and blood cells are prevented from passing through the filtration membrane.

At a hospital in Bombay, India, patients were admitted to be treated for diverse health problems. Doctors prescribed glycerine for its osmotic diuretic effect, but patients started to develop kidney failure. Fourteen patients received hemodialysis, but the treatment failed. The episode resulted in the deaths of 21 patients and the discovery of glycerin contaminated with 18.5% v/v of DEG.

Members of the Small Conductance Mechanosensitive Ion Channel (MscS) Family provide protection against hypo-osmotic shock in bacteria, responding both to stretching of the cell membrane and to membrane depolarization. In eukaryotes, they fulfill a multitude of important functions in addition to osmoregulation. They are present in the membranes of organisms from the three domains of life: bacteria, archaea, fungi and plants.

As an acid, lactobionic acid can form salts with mineral cations such as calcium, potassium, sodium and zinc. Calcium lactobionate is a food additive used as a stabilizer. Potassium lactobionate is added to organ preservation solutions such as Viaspan or CoStorSol to provide osmotic support and prevent cell swelling. Mineral salts of lactobionic acid are also used for mineral supplementation.

The cycle of successional colonization of P. setosa involves the ingestion and excretion of the fungus by herbivorous animals. Spore projection from animal excrement allows for transferring of the fungus between animals. The process of spore dispersal requires the build-up of osmotic pressure inside the perithecia. At the threshold of pressure, ejection of spores occur through the apical pore.

Both groups released synaptic vesicles from isolated synaptosomes by osmotic shock. The content of acetylcholine in a vesicle was originally estimated to be 1000–2000 molecules. Subsequent work identified the vesicular localization of other neurotransmitters, such as amino acids, catecholamines, serotonin, and ATP. Later, synaptic vesicles could also be isolated from other tissues such as the superior cervical ganglion, or the octopus brain.

They need energy to perform certain basic functions like the maintenance of osmotic pressure and maintenance of macromolecules such as enzymes and RNA (e.g., proofreading and synthesis). However, laboratory estimates of the energy needed are several orders of magnitude greater than the energy supply that appears to sustain life underground. It was thought, at first, that most underground cells are dormant.

The protein encoded by this gene is a transmembrane glycoprotein that functions as a sulfate transporter. It is localized to the mucosa of the lower intestinal tract, particularly to the apical membrane of columnar epithelium and some goblet cells, and is instrumental in chloride reuptake, aiding in the creation of an osmotic gradient for resorption of fluid from the lumen of the intestine.

These differences are determined by soil water availability and vapor pressure deficit. If this gradient is flipped the translocation of water will occur in the opposite direction. The water potential is the combination of the pressure potential, the osmotic potential and the gravitational contribution. The translocation of water can be restricted by resistances like stomatal aperture, xylem structure related resistance to flow etc.

Treatment of constipation depends on the underlying cause and the duration that it has been present. Measures that may help include drinking enough fluids, eating more fiber, and exercise. If this is not effective, laxatives of the bulk forming agent, osmotic agent, stool softener, or lubricant type may be recommended. Stimulant laxatives are generally reserved for when other types are not effective.

This releases ApoL1 from the HDL particle to insert in the lysosomal membrane. The ApoL1 protein then creates anionic pores in the membrane which leads to depolarization of the membrane, a continuous influx of chloride and subsequent osmotic swelling of the lysosome. This influx in its turn leads to rupture of the lysosome and the subsequent death of the parasite.

Any combination of an electrolyte (a fluid containing dissolved ions) and an insulating solid would generate electro-osmotic flow, though for water/silica the effect is particularly large. Even so, flow speeds are typically only a few millimeters per second. Electro-osmosis was discovered independently in 1814 by the English chemist Robert Porrett Jr. (1783–1868).(Biscombe, 2017), p. 8339.

Transport proteins that pump solutes into the cell can be regulated by cell turgor pressure. Lower values allow for an increase in the pumping of solutes; which in turn increases osmotic pressure. This function is important as a plant response when under drought conditions (seeing as turgor pressure is maintained), and for cells which need to accumulate solutes (i.e. developing fruits).

Researchers have postulated that as the cataractous lens loses its ability to maintain homeostasis, electrolyte concentration eventually increases within the lens, which further encourages osmotic movement of water into the lens fibers, increasing lens permeability even more so. This damaging cycle may play a pivotal role in accelerating the rupture of lens fibers during the most advanced, nuclear stage of the galactosemic cataract.

The total amount of water in the body needs to be kept in balance. Fluid balance involves keeping the fluid volume stabilized, and also keeping the levels of electrolytes in the extracellular fluid stable. Fluid balance is maintained by the process of osmoregulation and by behavior. Osmotic pressure is detected by osmoreceptors in the median preoptic nucleus in the hypothalamus.

Pure water is usually defined as having an osmotic potential (\Psi_\pi) of zero, and in this case, solute potential can never be positive. The relationship of solute concentration (in molarity) to solute potential is given by the van 't Hoff equation: :\Psi_\pi = - MiRT where M is the concentration in molarity of the solute, i is the van 't Hoff factor, the ratio of amount of particles in solution to amount of formula units dissolved, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. The water diffuses across the osmotic membrane to where the water potential is lowerFor example, when a solute is dissolved in water, water molecules are less likely to diffuse away via osmosis than when there is no solute. A solution will have a lower and hence more negative water potential than that of pure water.

Osmotic laxatives such as magnesium citrate work within minutes - 8 hours for onset of action, and even then they may not be sufficient to expel the stool. Osmotic laxatives can cause cramping and even severe pain as the patient's attempts to evacuate the contents of the rectum are blocked by the fecal mass. Polyethylene glycol (PEG 3350) may be used to increase the water content of the stool without cramping; however, since it may take 24 to 48 hours for it to take effect, it is not well suited to cases where the impaction needs to be removed immediately due to risk of complications or severe pain. Enemas (such as hyperosmotic saline) and suppositories (such as glycerine suppositories) work by increasing water content and stimulating peristalsis to aid in expulsion, and both work much more quickly than oral laxatives.

Redistribution of aquaporins 1 and 5 in the rat uterus is dependent on progesterone: a study with light and electron microscopy. Reproduction, 131(2), 369-378. The osmotic gradient created by the reabsortion of Na+ ions leads to reabsorption of water through AQP5 channels in the apical plasma membrane, which causes the uterine epithelial cells to come into contact with each other and the blastocyst.

Examples of this include borax, calomel, milk of magnesia, muriatic acid, oil of vitriol, saltpeter, and slaked lime. Soluble ionic compounds like salt can easily be dissolved to provide electrolyte solutions. This is a simple way to control the concentration and ionic strength. The concentration of solutes affects many colligative properties, including increasing the osmotic pressure, and causing freezing-point depression and boiling-point elevation.

The toxin behaves as an irreversible antagonist, occupying a binding site whereby acetylcholine would otherwise bind. The result of this antagonistic mode of inhibitory action by LNTX-1 is observed by decreased muscular and neuronal transmission. In addition, the toxin is also cytolytic, meaning that when the toxin has entered the bloodstream an osmotic imbalance between cells and their extracellular surrounding occurs, causing the cells to burst.

In 2019, researchers unravelled information about a protein causing progressive diseases Nature communications, February 25, 2019 In summer 2016 the Institut Laue–Langevin demonstrated that a molecule called ectoine is used by Halomonas titanicae near the wreck of RMS Titanic to survive the osmotic pressure that salt water causes on their membranes.laboratoryequipment.com, September 6, 2016, Extremophile Bacteria’ Will Eat Away Wreck of the Titanic by 2030.

His mother was Maria Donata Cecilia Bortone. He studied medicine in Rome, graduating in 1893 and joining the Institute of Higher, Practical, and Postgraduate Studies of Florence the next year. Bottazzi studied under Giulio Fano who was influenced by the physiology schools of Luigi Luciani and Angelo Mosso. In 1894 Bottazzi studied the reduction in osmotic resistance experienced by red blood cells during the splenic cycle.

In the clinical setting, there are two types of fluids that are used for intravenous drips: crystalloids and colloids. Crystalloids are aqueous solutions of mineral salts or other water-soluble molecules. Colloids contain larger insoluble molecules, such as gelatin. Oncotic pressure values are approximately 290 mOsm per kg of water, which slightly differs from the osmotic pressure of the blood that has values approximating 300 mOsm /L.

Halococcus species are able to survive in high-saline habitats because of chlorine pumps that maintain osmotic balance with the salinity of their habitat, and thus prevent dehydration of the cytoplasm. The cells are cocci, 0.6–1.5 micrometres long with sulfated polysaccharide walls. The cells are organtrophic, using amino acids, organic acids, or carbohydrates for energy. In some cases they are also able to photosynthesize.

Jacobus Henricus "Henry" van 't Hoff Jr. (; 30 August 1852 – 1 March 1911) was a Dutch physical chemist. A highly influential theoretical chemist of his time, Van 't Hoff was the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.Nobel Lecture Osmotic Pressure and Chemical Equilibrium from Nobelprize.org website His pioneering work helped found the modern theory of chemical affinity, chemical equilibrium, chemical kinetics, and chemical thermodynamics.

A 54mg tablet of Concerta, which uses OROS technology. 22% of the drug is contained in the red overcoat, while the remaining 78% is split between two drug layers of differing concentration. The tablet uses an additional push layer that expands as water enters the tablet via the osmotic membrane. The drug is expelled via the laser-drilled hole visible on the left side of the tablet.

Unlike the EOP, the CPOP had no pre-formed hole in the outer shell for the drug to be expelled out of. Instead, the CPOP's semipermeable membrane was designed to form numerous small pores upon contact with water through which the drug would be expelled via osmotic pressure. The pores were formed via the use of a pH insensitive leachable or dissolvable additive such as sorbitol.

Newly formed peptidoglycan is weakened from the absence of cross-linkages. The continued activity of autolysins, that function like lysozymes and cleave glycosidic and peptide bonds of peptidoglycan in periplasm, weakens the cell wall and leads to osmotic bursting of the bacterial cell. A unique quality of carbapenems is their resistance to hydrolysis by bacterial plasmid and chromosomally mediated extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBL).

Potassium chloride uptake by cells helps to maintain osmotic balance during cell growth. By performing the same task, light-driven anion pumps can considerably reduce the use of metabolic energy. Halorhodopsin has been the subject of much study and its structure is accurately known. Its properties are similar to those of bacteriorhodopsin, and these two light-driven ion pumps transport cations and anions in opposite directions.

It prevents the growth of mold in its liquefied form. Its disinfectant qualities rely on its ability to denature proteins and dismantle cell walls, but this unfortunately has the added side effect of drying tissues and occasionally results in a degree of discoloration. Methanol is an additive with disinfectant properties. It helps regulate the osmotic balance of the embalming fluid, and it is a decent antirefrigerant.

In general, birds have larger heart sizes and higher cardiac output. During flight, birds can sustain their heart rates, and their myosin flight muscles have better oxygen diffusion because of a high degree of branching between the capillaries. The common raven lives in a wide variety of climates. Due to its habitat and food, the common raven has unique features that allow it to regulate osmotic challenges.

Pupfish, such as the Shoshone pupfish, exhibit many adaptions for life in extreme thermal and osmotic environments. Pupfish growth is rapid and sexual maturity is reached within four to six weeks. This short generation time enables pupfish to maintain small but viable populations. Among the subspecies, however, there are minor differences in generation times, with pupfish in habitats with widely fluctuating environmental conditions exhibiting the shortest.

Sodium- and chloride-dependent betaine transporter, also known as Na(+)/Cl(-) betaine/GABA transporter (BGT-1), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC6A12 gene. BGT-1 is predominantly expressed in the liver (hepatocytes). It is also expressed in the kidney where it is regulated by NFAT5 during a response to osmotic stress. Further, BGT1 is also present in the leptomeninges surrounding the brain.

A red blood cell in a hypotonic solution, causing water to move into the cell. A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution. In biology, a solution outside of a cell is called hypotonic if it has a lower concentration of solutes relative to the cytosol. Due to osmotic pressure, water diffuses into the cell, and the cell often appears turgid, or bloated.

Renal losses of salt and fluid can lead to hypovolemic shock. The kidneys usually excrete sodium and water in a manner that matches sodium intake and water intake. Diuretic therapy and osmotic diuresis from hyperglycemia can lead to excessive renal sodium and volume loss. In addition, there are several tubular and interstitial diseases beyond the scope of this article that cause severe salt- wasting nephropathy.

Cryoablation also involves the insertion of a probe into the affected area, however, cold is used to kill the tumor instead of heat. The probe is cooled with chemical fluids which are very cold. The freezing temperatures cause the tumor cells to die by causing osmotic dehydration, which pulls the water out of the cell destroying the enzyme, organelles, cell membrane and freezing the cytoplasm.

Molecular structure of Mannitol Mannitol is an alcohol derivative of simple sugar mannose, and its use has been investigated since 1962. With a σ=.9, molecular weight of 182 daltons, half life of 2–4 hours, ease of preparation, chemical stability and free radical scavenging properties, it's been regarded as the principal osmotic agent for clinical use. However, it could cause diuresis, renal failure, hyperkalemia and hemolysis.

He was born to Chinese immigrants Benjamin and Monta Jean Koe in Astoria, Oregon on April 15, 1925. Later the family moved to Portland’s Chinatown district. Koe attended Lincoln High School and won a full scholarship to Reed College, where he majored in chemistry and wrote his undergraduate thesis on osmotic pressure. During this time, he also supported the family by washing dishes at Hung Far Low.

Antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD) results from an imbalance in the colonic microbiota caused by antibiotics. Microbiotal alteration changes carbohydrate metabolism with decreased short-chain fatty acid absorption and an osmotic diarrhea as a result. Another consequence of antibiotic therapy leading to diarrhea is overgrowth of potentially pathogenic organisms such as Clostridium difficile. It is defined as frequent loose and watery stools with no other complications.

Dry infusion is the combination of partial dehydration and osmotic dehydration using a humectant. The food product is first dehydrated and then the resultant product is added to a humectant solution to reach the desired water activity. This method is desirable because it results in a higher quality and more appealing product. However, more energy is used for this method because it is two processing steps combined.

Since only 1–10g of sodium and 1–4g of potassium are likely to be replaced by diet, renal filtering must efficiently reabsorb the remainder from the plasma. Sodium is reabsorbed to maintain extracellular volume, osmotic pressure, and serum sodium concentration within narrow limits. Potassium is reabsorbed to maintain serum potassium concentration within narrow limits. Sodium pumps in the renal tubules operate to reabsorb sodium.

A balanced salt solution (BSS) is a solution made to a physiological pH and isotonic salt concentration. Solutions most commonly include sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and chloride. Balanced salt solutions are used for washing tissues and cells and are usually combined with other agents to treat the tissues and cells. They provide the cells with water and inorganic ions, while maintaining a physiological pH and osmotic pressure.

The end result is reduction or loss of vision. While it is unclear why pericytes are lost in diabetic patients, one hypothesis is that toxic sorbitol and advanced glycation end-products (AGE) accumulate in the pericytes. Because of the build-up of glucose, the polyol pathway increases its flux, and intracellular sorbitol and fructose accumulate. This leads to osmotic imbalance, which results in cellular damage.

Minerals are however essential for fish and often the reduction or removal of such minerals in treatment for Columnaris would affect fish mineral uptake and thus affect: oxygen utilization, osmotic regulation, metabolic processes, among may other biological processes and poor minerals (GH) may be a contributing cause to the advancement in severity of this disease, as deficits can increase vulnerability to opportunistic infections (citations).

Pfeffer was a pioneer of modern plant physiology. His scientific interests included the thermonastic and photonastic movements of flowers, the nyctinastic movements of leaves, protoplastic physics and photosynthesis. In 1877, while researching plant metabolism, Pfeffer developed a semi-porous membrane to study the phenomena of osmosis. The eponymous "Pfeffer cell" is named for the osmometric device he constructed for determining the osmotic pressure of a solution.

The surgery is preceded by cervical preparation which may take several days. Osmotic dilators, natural or synthetic rods that absorb moisture from the cervix, are placed in the cervix and mechanically dilate the cervix over the course of hours to days. Misoprostol can be used to soften the cervix further. Intact D&E; can only be performed with 2-5 centimeters of cervical dilation.

Diabetic cataract formation follows an increase in sugars in the lens. The excess sugar within the lens is reduced by aldose reductase to its alcohol, but the lens capsule is relatively impermeable to sugar alcohols. Because of the excess sugar alcohol (polyol), the lens imbibes water, causing osmotic imbalance. Eventually, increased sodium and decreased potassium levels and decreased glutathione levels lead to cataract formation.

Potassium levels can fluctuate severely during the treatment of DKA, because insulin decreases potassium levels in the blood by redistributing it into cells via increased sodium-potassium pump activity. A large part of the shifted extracellular potassium would have been lost in urine because of osmotic diuresis. Hypokalemia (low blood potassium concentration) often follows treatment. This increases the risk of dangerous irregularities in the heart rate.

There is insufficient evidence for intramuscular arteether to treat severe malaria. The provision of rectal artesunate before transfer to hospital may reduce the rate of death for children with severe malaria. Cerebral malaria is the form of severe and complicated malaria with the worst neurological symptoms. There is insufficient data on whether osmotic agents such as mannitol or urea are effective in treating cerebral malaria.

In chemistry, concentration is the abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture. Several types of mathematical description can be distinguished: mass concentration, molar concentration, number concentration, and volume concentration. A concentration can be any kind of chemical mixture, but most frequently solutes and solvents in solutions. The molar (amount) concentration has variants such as normal concentration and osmotic concentration.

2284-2287.) All energy that is proposed to use salinity gradient technology relies on the evaporation to separate water from salt. Osmotic pressure is the "chemical potential of concentrated and dilute solutions of salt".(Brauns, E. “Toward a worldwide sustainable and simultaneous large-scale production of renewable energy and potable water trough salinity gradient power by combining reversed electrodialysis and solar power?” Environmental Process and Technology.

An osmoreceptor is a sensory receptor primarily found in the hypothalamus of most homeothermic organisms that detects changes in osmotic pressure. Osmoreceptors can be found in several structures, including two of the circumventricular organs – the vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, and the subfornical organ. They contribute to osmoregulation, controlling fluid balance in the body. Osmoreceptors are also found in the kidneys where they also modulate osmolality.

NFAT5 is also implicated in cytokine production. It has been shown that when NFAT5 is inhibited in renal and immune cells, these cells become significantly more susceptible to osmotic stress. NFAT5 deficient mice were found to suffer from massive cell loss in the renal medulla. Additionally, mice expressing a dominant-negative form of NFAT5 in their eyes exhibited decreased viability under hypertonic extracellular environment.

Dentin contains many microscopic tubes containing fluid and the processes of odontoblast cells, which communicate with the pulp. Mechanical, osmotic, or other stimuli cause movement of this fluid, triggering nerves in the pulp (the "hydrodynamic theory" of pulp sensitivity). Due to the close relationship between dentin and pulp, they are frequently considered together as the dentin-pulp complex. The teeth and gums exhibit normal sensations in health.

With the application of an osmotic MFC (OsMFC) in conjunction with the UMDC as an initial pretreatment of biosolid removal and desalination, 85% of oxygen demand and approximately 97% of salts was reduced after secondary treatment. Subsequent treatment by traditional BES systems such as electrodialysis can function as a more effective system for desalination, provisioning energy demands by the output energy obtained from the MDC pretreatment.

Cerebral edema has been traditional classified into two major sub-types: cytotoxic and vasogenic cerebral edema. This simple classification helps guide medical decision making and treatment of patients affected with cerebral edema. There are, however, several more differentiated types including but not limited to interstitial, osmotic, hydrostatic, and high altitude associated edema. Within one affected person, many individual sub-types can be present simultaneously.

Reverse osmosis is a separation process that uses pressure to force a solvent through a semi- permeable membrane that retains the solute on one side and allows the pure solvent to pass to the other side, forcing it from a region of high solute concentration through a membrane to a region of low solute concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure.

Changes in salinity may promote organism to seek out more suitable waters if they happen to be stenohaline or unequipped to handle regulating their osmotic pressure. Areas that are impacted by tidal cycles accompanied by salinity changes, estuaries for example, may see vertical migration in some species of zooplankton. In areas such as the Arctic, melting ice causes a layer of freshwater which organisms cannot cross.

In a hypotonic environment, cells will swell and eventually shrink; this shrinkage is due to efflux of taurine. This process also works in the opposite way in hypertonic environments. In hypertonic environments cells tend to shrink and then enlarge; this enlargement is due to an influx in taurine, effectively changing the osmotic pressure. This adaptation allows the flamingo to regulate between differences in salinity.

Capillary action is seen in many plants. Water is brought high up in trees by branching; evaporation at the leaves creating depressurization; probably by osmotic pressure added at the roots; and possibly at other locations inside the plant, especially when gathering humidity with air roots.Tree physics at "Neat, Plausible And" scientific discussion website.Water in Redwood and other trees, mostly by evaporation article at wonderquest website.

As galactitol concentration increases in the lens, a hypertonic environment is created. Osmosis favors the movement of water into the lens fibers to reduce the high osmolarity. Figures 2 and 3 show how water concentration increases as galactitol concentration increases inside the lens of galactosemic animals sustained on a galactose diet. This osmotic movement ultimately results in the swelling of lens fibers until they rupture.

Vacuoles appear where a significant amount of osmotic dissolution of fiber has taken place. What are left are interfibrillar clefts filled with precipitated proteins: the manifestation of a cataract. Friedenwald was able to show that periphery lens fibers always dissolve before fibers at the equatorial region of the lens. This observation has been confirmed by more recent experiments as well, but is still unexplained.

There is an important distinction between transudates and exudates. Transudates are caused by disturbances of hydrostatic or colloid osmotic pressure, not by inflammation. They have a low protein content in comparison to exudates and thus appear clearer.The University of Utah • Spencer S. Eccles Health Sciences Library; WebPath images Levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) or a Rivalta test can be used to distinguish transudate from exudate.

They orient on monoterpene hydrocarbon compounds, which weakened trees produce. When a tree is stressed through dryness or exterior injuries, the compounds pervade osmotic barriers and escape from the bark. The female alights on the bark to drills several holes through the wood to the xylem to place one egg in each. At the same time, she inserts spores of Amylostereum areolatum and a phytotoxic secretion.

The van 't Hoff factor i is a measure of the effect of a solute upon colligative properties such as osmotic pressure, relative lowering in vapor pressure, elevation of boiling point and freezing point depression. The van 't Hoff factor is the ratio between the actual concentration of particles produced when the substance is dissolved, and the concentration of a substance as calculated from its mass.

One method utilized has been to study how vesicles swell in response to osmotic stress. This method is, however, indirect and measurements can be perturbed by polydispersity in vesicle size. A more direct method of measuring Ka is the pipette aspiration method, in which a single giant unilamellar vesicle (GUV) is held and stretched with a micropipette.E. Evans, V. Heinrich, F. Ludwig and W. Rawicz.

Lachrymal glands located behind each eye allow the loggerhead to maintain osmotic balance by eliminating the excess salt obtained from ingesting ocean water. On land, the excretion of excess salt gives the false impression that the turtle is crying. The urea content is high in Caretta caretta tears. The skull is most easily distinguished from other sea turtles by having maxillae that meet in the mid- line of the palate.

Cholesterol is important to this pathway because it undergoes covalent bonding to Hedgehog proteins, resulting in their activation. Without cholesterol, the signaling activity is disrupted and cell differentiation may be impaired. Cholesterol is a precursor for many important molecules. These include bile acids (important in processing dietary fats), oxysterols, neurosteroids (involved in neurotransmission and excitation), glucocorticoids (involved in immune and inflammatory processes), mineralocorticoids (osmotic balance), and sex steroids (i.e.

The continual process of drenching the fruit in syrup causes the fruit to become saturated with sugar, preventing the growth of spoilage microorganisms due to the unfavourable osmotic pressure this creates. Fruits that are commonly candied include dates, cherries, pineapple, as well as a root, ginger.Answers.com (from The Food Lover's Companion) — candied fruit; candied flowers, with candied cherries being popularly referred to as "glacé cherries". Archived on 24 November 20091-06.

To survive in extremely salty environments, this archaeon—as with other halophilic Archaeal species—utilizes compatible solutes (in particular potassium chloride) to reduce osmotic stress. Potassium levels are not at equilibrium with the environment, so H. salinarum expresses multiple active transporters which pump potassium into the cell. At extremely high salt concentrations protein precipitation will occur. To prevent the salting out of proteins, H. salinarum encodes mainly acidic proteins.

In this case, the exchange of materials is determined by changes in pressure. When the flow of substances goes from the bloodstream or the capillary to the interstitial space or interstitium, the process is called filtration. This kind of movement is favored by blood hydrostatic pressure (BHP) and interstitial fluid osmotic pressure (IFOP). When substances move from the interstitial fluid to the blood in capillaries, the process is called reabsorption.

Through these pores, cellular components are released into the extracellular fluid, simply due to the osmotic difference. Within the cell, the integration of silver creates a low molecular weight region where the DNA then condenses. Having DNA in a condensed state inhibits the cell's replication proteins contact with the DNA. Thus the introduction of silver nanoparticles inhibits replication and is sufficient to cause the death of the cell.

Eryptosis can be elicited by osmotic shock, oxidative stress, and energy depletion, as well as by a wide variety of endogenous mediators and xenobiotics. Excessive eryptosis is observed in red blood cells lacking the cGMP-dependent protein kinase type I or the AMP-activated protein kinase AMPK. Inhibitors of eryptosis include erythropoietin, nitric oxide, catecholamines and high concentrations of urea. Much of the resulting breakdown products are recirculated in the body.

Although relatively few side effects are associated with dextran use, these side effects can be very serious. These include anaphylaxis, volume overload, pulmonary edema, cerebral edema, or platelet dysfunction. An uncommon but significant complication of dextran osmotic effect is acute kidney injury. The pathogenesis of this kidney failure is the subject of many debates with direct toxic effect on tubules and glomerulus versus intraluminal hyperviscosity being some of the proposed mechanisms.

This can be done by the tanner, or by obtaining a skin at a slaughterhouse, farm, or local fur trader. Preparing hides begins by curing them with salt. Curing is employed to prevent putrefaction of the protein substance (collagen) from bacterial growth during the time lag from procuring the hide to when it is processed. Curing removes water from the hides and skins using a difference in osmotic pressure.

The moisture content of hides and skins is greatly reduced, and osmotic pressure increased, to the point that bacteria are unable to grow. In wet-salting, the hides are heavily salted, then pressed into packs for about 30 days. In brine-curing, the hides are agitated in a saltwater bath for about 16 hours. Curing can also be accomplished by preserving the hides and skins at very low temperatures.

Furthermore, the more solute molecules present, the more negative the solute potential is. Osmotic potential has important implications for many living organisms. If a living cell is surrounded by a more concentrated solution, the cell will tend to lose water to the more negative water potential (\Psi_w) of the surrounding environment. This can be the case for marine organisms living in sea water and halophytic plants growing in saline environments.

On receiving the action potential signal, the cells in the lower half of the pulvinus respond by expelling potassium and chlorine ions and taking up of calcium ions. This results in an osmotic gradient that draws water out of the affected cells, so that they temporarily shrink. This pulls the entire structure downward like a folding fan. Many other Fabaceae react to touch with the same rapid leaf closure motion.

The osmotic activity of icodextrin keeps the solution inside the peritoneum for three to four days, separating tissues and thus reducing adhesion between them when fibrin is formed after a surgery. In other words, the tissues are kept from gluing together. Peritoneal dialysis When used for peritoneal dialysis, the icodextrin solution absorbs waste products from the blood, and is removed from the peritoneum after a few hours together with the waste.

Many halophilic bacteria and archaea are easy to maintain, and their high cellular osmotic pressure has been exploited in recombinant protein production. The cellular environments of halophiles can be fine-tuned to accommodate folding of protein of interest by adjusting the concentration of osmolytes in the culture medium. Successful expression and folding of Ice nucleation protein, GFP, α-amylase, nucleotide diphosphate kinase, and serine racemase have been reported in halophiles.

The osmotic pressure in the plant is what maintains water uptake and cell turgor to help with stomatal function and other cellular mechanisms. Over generations, many plant genes have adapted, allowing plants’ phenotypes to change and built distinct mechanisms to counter salinity effects. The plant hormone ethylene is a combatant for salinity in most plants. Ethylene is known for regulating plant growth and development and adapted to stress conditions.

Regulatory mechanisms that control RpoS exist at various levels of gene and protein organization: transcription, translation, degradation, and protein activity. These processes occur in response to stresses such as near-UV radiation, acid, temperature or osmotic shock, oxidative stress, and nutrient deprivation. While many key regulatory entities have been identified in these areas, the precise mechanisms by which they signal rpoS transcription, translation, proteolysis or activity remain largely uncharacterized.

The agriculture sustainability benefits of water and energy savings have been established using the SG-1000 leaf sensor under field conditions and in greenhouses. Plant science researchers and agronomists have utilized the SG-1000 Leaf Sensor for studying the relationship between water content and leaf cell turgidity potential and leaf thickness. Plant leaf characteristics including water potential and osmotic water potential relationships have been studied with the device.

Usually, 90 mL of space is created in the intracranial vault by 1.6% reduction in brain water content. Osmotherapy has cerebral dehydrating effects. The main goal of osmotherapy is to decrease intracranial pressure(ICP) by shifting excess fluid from brain. This is accomplished by intravenous administration of osmotic agents which increase serum osmolality in order to shift excess fluid from intracellular or extracellular space of the brain to intravascular compartment.

Dunaliella also serves as a very important model organism in understanding how algae adapts to and regulates itself in different salt concentrations. In fact, the idea for developing solutes to maintain osmotic balance in other organic matter originated from the osmoregulatory abilities of Dunaliella. D. salina and D. bardawil are also widely studied and currently used in biopharmaceuticals. An example includes nuclear transformations that led to the production HBsAg protein.

Importantly, many of these channels mediate a variety of sensations like the sensations of pain, temperature, different kinds of tastes, pressure, and vision. In the body, some TRP channels are thought to behave like microscopic thermometers and are used in animals to sense hot or cold. TRPs act as sensors of osmotic pressure, volume, stretch, and vibration. TRPs have been seen to have complex multidimensional roles in sensory signaling.

Albumin functions primarily as a carrier protein for steroids, fatty acids, and thyroid hormones in the blood and plays a major role in stabilizing extracellular fluid volume by contributing to oncotic pressure (known also as colloid osmotic pressure) of plasma. Because smaller animals (for example rats) function at a lower blood pressure, they need less oncotic pressure to balance this, and thus need less albumin to maintain proper fluid distribution.

Inulin is a natural, storage carbohydrate present in more than 36,000 species of plants, including wheat, onion, bananas, garlic, asparagus, Jerusalem artichoke, and chicory. For these plants, inulin is used as an energy reserve and for regulating cold resistance. Because it is soluble in water, it is osmotically active. Certain plants can change the osmotic potential of their cells by changing the degree of polymerization of inulin molecules by hydrolysis.

Joakim Norbeck, born 1965, is a scientist in molecular biotechnology at Chalmers University, Gothenburg, Sweden. He received his Ph.D. from Gothenburg University in 1996 on a thesis entitled "Protein expression of yeast during growth under osmotic stress",.Dissertation record in Libris database He identified the genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae encoding glycerol-3-phosphatase (GPP1 and GPP2), as well as the genes encoding dihydroxyacetone kinase (DAK1 and DAK2) in the same organism.

Salinity and disease also have subtle impacts on molting and growth rate. Molting occurs more rapidly in low salinity environments. The high osmotic pressure gradient causes water to quickly diffuse into a soft, recently molted blue crab's shell, allowing it to harden more quickly. The effects of diseases and parasites on growth and molting are less well understood, but in many cases have been observed to reduce growth between molts.

Osmotic pumps are usually recharged with a syringe. Spring-powered clockwork infusion pumps have been developed, and are sometimes still used in veterinary work and for ambulatory small-volume pumps. They generally have one spring to power the infusion, and another for the alarm bell when the infusion completes. Battlefields often have a need to perfuse large amounts of fluid quickly, with dramatically changing blood pressures and patient condition.

Salt (sodium chloride) is the primary ingredient used in meat curing. Removal of water and addition of salt to meat creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, slowing down their growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%. In addition, salt causes the soluble proteins to come to the surface of the meat that was used to make the sausages.

Despite the high number of MAPK genes, MAPK pathways of higher plants were studied less than animal or fungal ones. Although their signaling appears very complex, the MPK3, MPK4 and MPK6 kinases of Arabidopsis thaliana are key mediators of responses to osmotic shock, oxidative stress, response to cold and involved in anti-pathogen responses. In addition, they are also involved in morphogenesis, since MPK4 mutants display severe dwarfism.

A mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK or MAP kinase) is a type of protein kinase that is specific to the amino acids serine and threonine (i.e., a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase). MAPKs are involved in directing cellular responses to a diverse array of stimuli, such as mitogens, osmotic stress, heat shock and proinflammatory cytokines. They regulate cell functions including proliferation, gene expression, differentiation, mitosis, cell survival, and apoptosis.

A second mechanism is the matrix swelling when the encapsulated hygroscopic salts exposed to water or moisture start to rehydrate and to dissolve. The high concentration of salt in the pore solution inside the bituminised matrix is then responsible for osmotic effects inside the bituminised matrix. The water moves in the direction of the concentrated salts, the asphalt acting as a semi-permeable membrane. This also causes the matrix to swell.

Cytoplasmic flows created through osmotic pressure gradients flow longitudinally along the fungal hyphae and crash into the end causing growth. It has been demonstrated that the greater pressure at the hyphal tip corresponds to faster growth rates. Longer hyphae have greater pressure differences along their length allowing for faster cytoplasmic flow rates and larger pressures at the hyphal tip. This is why longer hyphae grow faster than shorter ones.

Colloids preserve a high colloid osmotic pressure in the blood, while, on the other hand, this parameter is decreased by crystalloids due to hemodilution. Therefore, they should theoretically preferentially increase the intravascular volume, whereas crystalloids also increase the interstitial volume and intracellular volume. However, there is no evidence to support that this results in less mortality than crystalloids. Another difference is that crystalloids generally are much cheaper than colloids.

Erythritol is produced industrially beginning with enzymatic hydrolysis of the starch from corn to generate glucose. Glucose is then fermented with yeast or another fungus to produce erythritol. Other methods such as electrochemical synthesis are in development. A genetically engineered mutant form of Yarrowia lipolytica, a yeast, has been optimized for erythritol production by fermentation, using glycerol as a carbon source and high osmotic pressure to increase yields up to 62%.

Genital infections seem to be the most common adverse effect of gliflozins. In clinical trials mycotic infections, urinary tract infections and osmotic diuresis were higher in patients treated with gliflozins. In May 2015, the FDA issued a warning that gliflozins can increase risk of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). By reducing glucose blood circulation, gliflozins cause less stimulation of endogenous insulin secretion or lower dose of exogenous insulin that results in diabetic ketoacidosis.

The abundant inorganic elements act as electrolytes. The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate. The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH. Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function, as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell's fluid, the cytosol.

In fresh water, the osmolality (the concentration of solutes that contribute to a solution's osmotic pressure) in the plasma is much higher than it is in the surrounding water. The animals are well-hydrated, and the urine in the cloaca is abundant and dilute, nitrogen being excreted as ammonium bicarbonate.Grigg and Gans, pp. 333–334. Sodium loss is low and mainly takes place through the skin in freshwater conditions.

Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid subfamily member 6 (TRPV6) is an epithelial Ca2+ channel that belongs to the transient receptor potential family (TRP) of proteins. The TRP family is a group of channel proteins critical for ionic homeostasis and the perception of various physical and chemical stimuli. TRP channels can detect temperature, osmotic pressure, olfaction, taste, and mechanical forces. The human genome encodes for 28 TRP channels, which include six TRPV channels.

Initially, sensory organs, such as chloroplasts, the cambium, and roots, detect an external stimuli, such as light. The stimulus triggers biochemical events downstream that result in the expansion of tissue in the leaf. There are two processes found by which this occurs: osmotic regulation, which has a temporary effect that causes leaves to increase size, or wall extensibility, which gradually changes the leaf over time and permanently enlarges it.

The subfornical organ is active in many bodily processes including, but not limited to, osmoregulation, cardiovascular regulation, and energy homeostasis. In a study by Ferguson, both hyper- and hypotonic stimuli facilitated an osmotic response. This observation demonstrated the fact that the SFO is involved in the maintenance of blood pressure. Featuring an AT1 receptor for ANG, the SFO neurons demonstrate an excitatory response when activated by ANG, therefore increasing blood pressure.

ILKs function by interacting with the many transmembrane receptors to regulate different signaling cascades. ILK1 has been found in the root system of most plants where they are co-localized on the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum where they transport ions across the plasma membrane ILK1 is responsible for the control of osmotic and salt stress, control of the uptake of nutrients based on availability and pathogen detection.

A physical explanation is that on an electrically charged capacitor, there is a mutually attractive electric force between the electric charge on the electrode, and the ionic charge in the liquid. In order to pull ions away from the charged electrode, osmotic pressure must do work. This work done increases the electrical potential energy in the capacitor. An electronic explanation is that capacitance is a function of ion density.

The fermentation happens through autolysis and starts from a lactic acid enzyme in the spine of the fish. Together with bacteria, pungent smelling acids are formed, such as propionic acid, butyric acid and acetic acid. Hydrogen sulfide is also produced. The salt raises the osmotic pressure of the brine above the zone where bacteria responsible for rotting can thrive and prevents decomposition of proteins into oligopeptides and amino acids.

In 2003, Ööpik et al. showed the use of sodium citrate (0.5 g/kg body weight) improved running performance over 5 km by 30 seconds. Sodium citrate is used to relieve discomfort in urinary-tract infections, such as cystitis, to reduce the acidosis seen in distal renal tubular acidosis, and can also be used as an osmotic laxative. It is a major component of the WHO oral rehydration solution.

Similarly to the Carnot cycle this cycle is fully reversible, so can in principle work with an ideal thermodynamic efficiency. Because the method is free from the use of osmotic membranes it can compete with reverse osmosis method. In addition, unlike the reverse osmosis, the approach is not sensitive to the quality of feed water and its seasonal changes, and allows the production of water of any desired concentration.

Almost immediately, major structural rearrangements such as rounded cells, cytoplasmic reorganization, and vacuolation of cells undergoing paraptosis can be seen through light microscopy. There is physical enlargement of the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. This swollen appearance can be attributed to intracellular ion imbalance and eventual osmotic lysis. Once ruptured, particles and substances are released, including: (1) high mobility group B-1 (HMGB1) (2) heat shock proteins and (3) various other proteases.

Chiton body fluid is isosmotic with sea water, implying no osmotic regulation. Like other chitons, A. zelandica has no eyes, instead relying on simple sensory structures in the girdle and photosensory organs known as aesthetes in the shell. Inside the shell, the tegmentum layer is permeated by vertical canals, which allow light to reach sensory megalopores and micropores. The Acanthochitona zelandica mouth is similar to that of other mollusks.

P. hawaiensis is a detritovore that has a circumtropical, worldwide, intertidal, and shallow-water marine distribution, and it may occur as a species complex. It has been reported to occur in large populations (more than 3,000 per square metre) on decaying mangrove leaf material in environments subjected to rapid changes in salinity. The ability to tolerate rapid temperature and osmotic changes allows this species to thrive under typical laboratory conditions.

It enhances glycosaminoglycan modification and product secretion. Aggrecan plays an important role in mediating chondrocyte-chondrocyte and chondrocyte-matrix interactions through its ability to bind hyaluronan. Aggrecan provides intervertebral disc and cartilage with the ability to resist compressive loads. The localized high concentrations of aggrecan provide the osmotic properties necessary for normal tissue function with the GAGs producing the swelling pressure that counters compressive loads on the tissue.

This form of secretion would cause dehydration from water loss. Therefore, sodium and water are reabsorbed into the plasma by renal tubules. This increase in osmotic plasma levels causes extracellular fluid volume to increase, which triggers receptors in both the brain and heart. These receptors then stimulate salt gland secretion and sodium is able to efficiently leave the body through the nares while maintaining a high body water level.

A controversial use of electro-osmotic systems is the control rising damp in the walls of buildings. Available at: Springer.com While there is little evidence to suggest that these systems can be useful in moving salts in walls, such systems are claimed to be especially effective in structures with very thick walls. However some claim that there is no scientific base for those systems, and cite several examples for their failure.

Turgor pressure is the force within the cell that pushes the plasma membrane against the cell wall. It is also called hydrostatic pressure, and defined as the pressure measured by a fluid, measured at a certain point within itself when at equilibrium. Generally, turgor pressure is caused by the osmotic flow of water and occurs in plants, fungi, and bacteria. The phenomenon is also observed in protists that have cell walls.

Attacked pines tend to develop flagging. Tip dieback begins with the needles becoming chlorotic and changing from green to yellowish-red, finally turning completely brown over a three- to six-month period. The wasp bores 1/8- to 3/8-inch-diameter holes in the tree. Unstressed trees may be attacked uniformly along the main stem, while trees with low osmotic phloem pressure are preferentially attacked, with denser clusters of boreholes.

An example is freshwater fish. The gills actively uptake salt from the environment by the use of mitochondria-rich cells. Water will diffuse into the fish, so it excretes a very hypotonic (dilute) urine to expel all the excess water. A marine fish has an internal osmotic concentration lower than that of the surrounding seawater, so it tends to lose water (to the more negative surroundings) and gain salt.

Congenital distal spinal muscular atrophy is caused by a mutation of the TRPV4 gene found on the 12q23-12q24.1. The mutation causes an affected individual to have lower levels of TRPV4 expression. This deficiency can lead to abnormal osmotic regulation. Congenital dSMA is genetically heterogeneous, meaning a mutation on this gene can cause a plethora of other phenotypically related or phenotypically unrelated diseases depending on the region that is mutated.

Lymphatic obstruction due to any cause can increase the amount of proteins in the intravascular tissue, either by root osmotic pressure, or because it absorbs a little liquid. The further roteins increase the vascular fluid, fibroblasts and promote the ploriferation of mast cells which produce the clinical symptoms of nonpitting edema. The epidermis may be hyperkeratotic and warty and this predisposes to tissue cracks and allows secondary infection.

Differentiation of DIOS from constipation is generally performed by unit specializing in the treatment of cystic fibrosis. Adequate hydration and an aggressive regimen of laxatives are essential for treatment and prevention of DIOS. Osmotic laxatives such as polyethylene glycol are preferred. Individuals prone to DIOS tend to be at risk for repeated episodes and often require maintenance therapy with pancreatic enzyme replacement, hydration and laxatives (if the symptoms are also mild).

High salinity represents an extreme environment in which relatively few organisms have been able to adapt and survive. Most halophilic and all halotolerant organisms expend energy to exclude salt from their cytoplasm to avoid protein aggregation ('salting out'). To survive the high salinities, halophiles employ two differing strategies to prevent desiccation through osmotic movement of water out of their cytoplasm. Both strategies work by increasing the internal osmolarity of the cell.

Their cellular machinery is adapted to high salt concentrations by having charged amino acids on their surfaces, allowing the retention of water molecules around these components. They are heterotrophs that normally respire by aerobic means. Most halophiles are unable to survive outside their high-salt native environments. Many halophiles are so fragile that when they are placed in distilled water, they immediately lyse from the change in osmotic conditions.

He graduated from the University of St Andrews School of Medicine in 1923 with an MB ChB. In 1925, he earned an MD from St Andrews for his dissertation on 'Reaction of the eye to changes in osmotic pressure of the blood'. Blue plaque, 63 Harley Street, London In 1927, Duke-Elder earned a DSc from St Andrews for his thesis on "The nature of the intraocular fluids and the pressure equilibrium in the eye".

Salmon prepared for curing Salt (sodium chloride) is a primary ingredient used to cure fish and other foods. Removal of water and addition of salt to fish creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, retarding their growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%. Iodized table salt may be used, but the iodine generally causes a dark end product and a bitter taste.

2) that has been purified from oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus). These act in concert to perforate natural and artificial lipid membranes with high cholesterol and sphingomyelin contents. The complex has a 13-meric rosette-like structure with a central lumen that is ~ 4-5 nm in diameter. The opened transmembrane pore is non-selectively permeable to ions and smaller neutral solutes, and is a cause of cytolysis of a colloid-osmotic type.

Diffusion through the capillary walls depends on the permeability of the endothelial cells forming the capillary walls, which may be continuous, discontinuous, and fenestrated. The Starling equation describes the roles of hydrostatic and osmotic pressures (the so-called Starling forces) in the movement of fluid across capillary endothelium. Lipids, which are transported by proteins, are too large to cross the capillary walls by diffusion, and have to rely on the other two methods.

Chloride has a major physiological significance, which includes regulation of osmotic pressure, electrolyte balance and acid-base homeostasis. Chloride is the most abundant extracellular anion and accounts for around one third of extracellular fluid tonicity. Chloride is an essential electrolyte, playing a key role in maintaining cell homeostasis and transmitting action potentials in neurons. It can flow through chloride channels (including the GABAA receptor) and is transported by KCC2 and NKCC2 transporters.

Antibiotics are a common treatment for children, with 11% to 40% of antibiotic-treated children developing diarrhea. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD) results from an imbalance in the colonic microbiota caused by antibiotic therapy. These microbial community alterations result in changes in carbohydrate metabolism, with decreased short-chain fatty acid absorption and osmotic diarrhea as a result. A 2015 Cochrane review concluded that a protective effect of some probiotics existed for AAD in children.

Fructose that has not been adequately absorbed is fermented by intestinal bacteria producing hydrogen, carbon dioxide, methane and short-chain fatty acids. This abnormal increase in hydrogen may be detectable with the hydrogen breath test. The physiological consequences of fructose malabsorption include increased osmotic load, rapid bacterial fermentation, altered gastrointestinal motility, the formation of mucosal biofilm and altered profile of bacteria. These effects are additive with other short-chain poorly absorbed carbohydrates such as sorbitol.

Like all beta-lactam antibiotics, ertapenem is bactericidal. It inhibits cross-linking of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls by blocking a type of enzymes called penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). When a bacterial cell tries to synthesize new cell wall in order to grow and divide, the attempt fails, rendering the cell vulnerable to osmotic disruption. Additionally, the surplus of peptidoglycan precursors triggers autolytic enzymes of the bacterium, which disintegrate the existing wall.

SGK1 is upregulated by osmotic and isotonic cell shrinkage. "It is tempting to speculate that SGK1-dependent regulation of cation channels contributes to the regulation of cell volume, which involves cation channels in a variety of cells". The entrance of NaCl and osmotically driven water into cells leads to an increase in the cell's regulatory cell volume. This occurs as the entrance of Na+ depolarizes the cell, thus allowing the parallel entrance of Cl−.

On the other hand, it is complicated by electro-osmosis at the walls of the sample cell. Electrophoretic light scattering is based on dynamic light scattering. It allows measurement in an open cell which eliminates the problem of electro- osmotic flow except for the case of a capillary cell. And, it can be used to characterize very small particles, but at the price of the lost ability to display images of moving particles.

Three-day old larval white seabass with Na+/K+-ATPase immunostained in brown to identify its ionocytes Ionocytes (formerly known as mitochondrion-rich cells or as chloride cells) are responsible for maintaining optimal osmotic, ionic, and acid-base levels within the fish. Ionocytes are typically found within adult gills. However, embryonic and larval fishes often lack or have underdeveloped gills. Instead, ionocytes are found along the skin, yolk sac, and fins of the larva.

Plasmolysis is the process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution. The reverse process, deplasmolysis or cytolysis, can occur if the cell is in a hypotonic solution resulting in a lower external osmotic pressure and a net flow of water into the cell. Through observation of plasmolysis and deplasmolysis, it is possible to determine the tonicity of the cell's environment as well as the rate solute molecules cross the cellular membrane.

Within glycerol diether lipids, phytanyl (C20) is the hydrocarbon component, and within diglycerol tetraether lipids, biphytanyl (C40) is the hydrocarbon component. The cell wall, or S-layer, of T. celer functions as protection from cell lysis as a result of changes in osmotic gradients. The envelope S-layer consists of glycoprotein subunits arranged into a two-dimensional paracrystalline hexagonal structure. The T. celer cell envelope lacks muramic acid, indicating resistance to penicillin and vancomycin.

Upon high salt exposure, Arabidopsis experiences a negative osmotic pressure gradient between the salty solution and its xylem, and it absorbs Na+ through Na+ permeable transporters. The plant then reduces the impact of high Na+ abundance by improving Na+ efflux from its cells through SOS pathway Two different paths in the SOS pathway can activate SOS1, a molecule that causes sodium efflux. One path is the SOS2-SOS3, the other is the PLD path.

This induces gas and nutrients to move from the blood to the cells, due to the lower osmotic pressure outside the capillary. The opposite process occurs when the blood leaves the capillaries and enters the venules, where the blood pressure drops due to an increase in flow rate. Arterioles receive autonomic nervous system innervation and respond to various circulating hormones in order to regulate their diameter. Retinal vessels lack a functional sympathetic innervation.

Bacillary band is a specialized row of longitudinal cells of some nematodes (Trichuris and Capillaria), consisting of glandular and nonglandular cells, formed by the hypodermis. The glandular cells opens up to the exterior through cuticular pores. The function of bacillary bands is unknown, their ultrastructure suggests that the gland cells may have a role in osmotic or ion regulation, and the nongland cells may function in cuticle formation and food storage.Peter J. Gosling.

Coralline algae are widespread in all of the world's oceans, where they often cover close to 100% of rocky substrata. Only one species, Pneophyllum cetinaensis, is found in freshwater. Its ancestor lived in brackish water, and was already adapted to osmotic stress and rapid changes in water salinity and temperature. Many are epiphytic (grow on other algae or marine angiosperms), or epizoic (grow on animals), and some are even parasitic on other corallines.

Pyropia species, which reside in the upper intertidal zone, endure many stresses, including intense direct light, temperature fluctuation, osmotic stress, salinity fluctuation, and desiccation. They are especially able to handle heat stress; some Pyropia species will halt metabolic systems that are not essential to homeostasis, such as photosynthesis. Other species will use increased lipid production to fight desiccation. The ability of Pyropia species to adapt to deal with these stresses makes them heavily studied organisms.

The shells of testate amoebae may be composed of various substances, including calcium, silica, chitin, or agglutinations of found materials like small grains of sand and the frustules of diatoms. testate amoeba Difflugia acuminata. To regulate osmotic pressure, most freshwater amoebae have a contractile vacuole which expels excess water from the cell. This organelle is necessary because freshwater has a lower concentration of solutes (such as salt) than the amoeba's own internal fluids (cytosol).

It is opposed by osmotic pressure (30 mmHg, 4.0 kPa) and hydrostatic pressure (20 mmHg, 2.7 kPa) of solutes present in capsular space. This difference in pressure is called effective pressure (25 mmHg, 3.3 kPa). In hemodialysis centers, ultrafiltration takes place in a hemofilter on the hemodialysis machines, when the blood pressure is greater than the dializate pressure (difference = transmembrane pressure (TMP)). This removes fluid from the blood while keeping its blood cells intact.

A contractile vacuole is used to maintain osmotic equilibrium by excreting excess water from the cell (see Osmoregulation). An Amoeba obtains its food by phagocytosis, engulfing smaller organisms and particles of organic matter, or by pinocytosis, taking in dissolved nutrients through vesicles formed within the cell membrane. Food enveloped by the Amoeba is stored in digestive organelles called food vacuoles. Amoeba, like other unicellular eukaryotic organisms, reproduces asexually by mitosis and cytokinesis.

Paraphyses are sterile cells' often with swollen tips and are at high turgor pressure. Tips of the paraphyses are very tightly together at the surface of the hymenium and create a barrier; the epithecium. A high osmotic pressure in the cells of the epithecium prevent marauding microfauna that would otherwise penetrate and feed on the rich protoplasm below. To disperse spores, asci push between the paraphyses from below, shoot off their spores then collapse.

In 1911 he was instrumental in opening a dedicated physiological institute, and two years later chaired the 25th International Physiological Congress in Groningen. Between 1902 and 1904 he published Osmotischer Druck und Ionenlehre in den medecinischen Wissenschaften ("Osmotic pressure and ion science in the medical sciences"). Work on these books had started while still in Utrecht. Hamburger was serving as rector magnificus of the university when in 1914 it celebrated its 300th anniversary.

Journal, 174(4), 448-448. By decreasing the restrictiveness of the barrier, it is much easier to get a molecule to pass through it. These drugs increase the permeability of the blood–brain barrier temporarily by increasing the osmotic pressure in the blood which loosens the tight junctions between the endothelial cells. By loosening the tight junctions normal injection of drugs through an [IV] can take place and be effective to enter the brain.

Aspergillus on a tomato in detail Aspergillus is defined as a group of conidial fungi—that is, fungi in an asexual state. Some of them, however, are known to have a teleomorph (sexual state) in the Ascomycota. With DNA evidence, all members of the genus Aspergillus are members of the Ascomycota. Members of the genus possess the ability to grow where a high osmotic pressure exists (high concentration of sugar, salt, etc.).

Discharge mechanism of a nematocyst The cnidocyst capsule stores a large concentration of calcium ions, which are released from the capsule into the cytoplasm of the cnidocyte when the trigger is activated. This causes a large concentration gradient of calcium across the cnidocyte plasma membrane. The resulting osmotic pressure causes a rapid influx of water into the cell. This increase in water volume in the cytoplasm forces the coiled cnidae tubule to eject rapidly.

In many cases, creation of functional tissues and biological structures in vitro requires extensive culturing to promote survival, growth and inducement of functionality. In general, the basic requirements of cells must be maintained in culture, which include oxygen, pH, humidity, temperature, nutrients and osmotic pressure maintenance. Tissue engineered cultures also present additional problems in maintaining culture conditions. In standard cell culture, diffusion is often the sole means of nutrient and metabolite transport.

Marine teleost fishes consume large quantities of seawater to reduce osmotic dehydration. The excess of ions absorbed from seawater is pumped out of the teleost fishes via the ionocytes. These cells use active transport on the basolateral (internal) surface to accumulate chloride, which then diffuses out of the apical (external) surface and into the surrounding environment. Such mitochondrion- rich cells are found in both the gill lamellae and filaments of teleost fish.

This spontaneous alteration of phenotype seems to allow individuals to detach from erythrocytes by the alteration or concealment of surface antigens. This may facilitate the persistence of M. haemofelis within the host by disguising or eliminating antigens that might elicit an immune response. Parasitized red blood cells often lose their biconcave shape. This decreases surface area, increases osmotic fragility, and increases the likelihood that these cells will be captured and destroyed by the spleen.

Pollen germination has three stages; hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced enabling it to be more easily transported from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does not take place in the anther. Hydration allows the plasma membrane of the pollen grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic membrane.

The pronunciation of the compound reflects its origin and first isolation from sugar beets (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris), and does not derive from the Greek letter beta (β), however, it often is pronounced beta- INE or BEE-tayn. In biological systems, many naturally occurring betaines serve as organic osmolytes. These are substances synthesized or taken up from the environment by cells for protection against osmotic stress, drought, high salinity, or high temperature.

The panglial syncytium is a large network of interconnected glial cells, which are extensively linked by gap junctions. The panglial syncytium spreads through central nervous system where it provides metabolic and osmotic support, as well as ionic regulation of myelinated axons in white matter tracts. The three types of macroglial cells within network of panglial syncytium are astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and ependymocytes. Originally it was believed that there was homologous gap junction between oligodendrocytes.

This kinase has been shown to be important in activating certain potassium, sodium, and chloride channels. Expression of this gene in hepatocytes is stimulated by transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), which participates in the pathophysiology of diabetic complications. Since both TGF-beta expression and SGK expression are elevated in diabetic nephropathy, an involvement of SGK in the development of this condition is suggested. The SGK1 kinase regulates the myo-inositol transporter during osmotic stress.

This drainage prevents loss of water by both lowering volume and increasing concentration of the urine. Angiotensin, on the other hand, causes vasoconstriction on the systemic arterioles, and acts as a dipsogen for ostriches. Both of these antidiuretic hormones work together to maintain water levels in the body that would normally be lost due to the osmotic stress of the arid environment. The end-product of catabolism of protein metabolism in animals is nitrogen.

In a dynamic osmometer flow of solvent is measured and a counteracting pressure is created to stop the flow. Flow rate of the solvent is measured by the movement of an air bubble in a capillary tube of the solvent. The pressure of the solvent compartment is directly changed by raising or lowering a reservoir of solvent connected to the solvent compartment. The pressure difference between the two compartments is the osmotic pressure.

Most polar molecules have low solubility in the hydrocarbon core of a lipid bilayer and, as a consequence, have low permeability coefficients across the bilayer. This effect is particularly pronounced for charged species, which have even lower permeability coefficients than neutral polar molecules. Anions typically have a higher rate of diffusion through bilayers than cations. Compared to ions, water molecules actually have a relatively large permeability through the bilayer, as evidenced by osmotic swelling.

Factory farms supplement fodder with TMG and lysine to increase livestock's muscle mass (and, therefore, "carcass yield", the amount of usable meat). Salmon farms apply TMG to relieve the osmotic pressure on the fishes' cells when workers transfer the fish from freshwater to saltwater. TMG supplementation decreases the amount of adipose tissue in pigs; however, research in human subjects has shown no effect on body weight, body composition, or resting energy expenditure.

These effects are attributed to the osmotic effect of unabsorbed vitamin C passing through the intestine. In theory, high vitamin C intake may cause excessive absorption of iron. A summary of reviews of supplementation in healthy subjects did not report this problem, but left as untested the possibility that individuals with hereditary hemochromatosis might be adversely affected. There is a longstanding belief among the mainstream medical community that vitamin C increases risk of kidney stones.

RPTOR is a 150 kDa mTOR binding protein that is part of the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1). This complex contains mTOR, MLST8, RPTOR, AKT1S1/PRAS40, and DEPTOR. mTORC1 both binds to and is inhibited by FKBP12-rapamycin. mTORC1 activity is upregulated by mTOR and MPAK8 by insulin-stimulated phosphorylation at Ser-863. MAPK8 also causes phosphorylation at Ser-696, Thr-706, and Ser-863 as a result of osmotic stress.

EIF2AK1 inhibits protein synthesis at the translation initiation level, in response to various stress conditions, including oxidative stress, heme deficiency, osmotic shock and heat shock. EIF2AK1 exerts its function through the phosphorylation of EIF2S1 at 'Ser-48' and 'Ser-51', thus preventing its recycling. Binds hemin forming a 1:1 complex through a cysteine thiolate and histidine nitrogenous coordination. This binding occurs with moderate affinity, allowing it to sense the heme concentration within the cell.

The beating of these flagella resemble a flame, giving the cell its name. The cup is attached to a tube cell, whose inner surface is also coated in cilia, which help to move liquid through the tube cell. The tube opens externally through a nephropore, or, in the trematoda, into an excretory bladder. The function of these cells is to regulate the osmotic pressure of the worm, and maintain its ionic balance.

The water that is osmotically flowing into the lens fibers is not accompanied by ions such as Na+, K+, and Cl−, and so the electrolyte concentration inside the lens is simply diluted by the influx of water. The net concentration of the individual ions does not change during the initial vacuolar stage however. In Fig. 7, note the decrease in electrolyte concentration due to osmotic swelling during the initial vacuolar stage of galactosemic cataract.

Osmolytes are low-molecular weight organic compounds that influence the properties of biological fluids. Their primary role is to maintain the integrity of cells by affecting the viscosity, melting point, and ionic strength of the aqueous solution. When a cell swells due to external osmotic pressure, membrane channels open and allow efflux of osmolytes which carry water with them, restoring normal cell volume.Review of Medical Physiology, William F. Ganong, McGraw-Hill Medical, .

Reverse osmosis uses an applied pressure gradient across a semipermeable membrane to overcome osmotic pressure and remove water molecules from the solution with hardness ions. The membrane has pores large enough to admit water molecules for passage; hardness ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ will not fit through the pores. The resulting soft water supply is free of hardness ions without any other ions being added. Membranes are a type of water filter requiring regular cleaning or replacement maintenance.

If the patient is an adult many surgeons and doctors now recommend moving little and often and within the pain limits of the medication. Discs respond to osmotic pressure therefore movement is beneficial to increase their blood flow and fluid dynamics. This is why disc patients are no longer told to bed rest. In children whether to bed rest or move a little is decided on an individual basis, depending on the site and severity of the discitis.

It is not known how mitochondria maintain osmotic balance across the inner mitochondrial membrane, although the membrane contains aquaporins that are believed to be conduits for regulated water transport. Mitochondrial matrix has a pH of about 7.8, which is higher than the pH of the intermembrane space of the mitochondria, which is around 7.0–7.4. Mitochondrial DNA was discovered by Nash and Margit in 1963. One to many double stranded mainly circular DNA is present in mitochondrial matrix.

Also osmosis is another principle that makes dialysis work. During osmosis, fluid moves from areas of high water concentration to lower water concentration across a semi-permeable membrane until equilibrium. In dialysis, excess fluid moves from sample to the dialysate through a membrane until the fluid level is the same between sample and dialysate. Finally, Ultrafiltration which is the convective flow of water and dissolved solute down a pressure gradient caused by hydrostatic forces or osmotic forces.

The stomach opens into a short intestine that terminates in a cloaca on the posterior dorsal surface of the animal. Up to seven salivary glands are present in some species, emptying to the mouth in front of the oesophagus, while the stomach is associated with two gastric glands that produce digestive enzymes. A pair of protonephridia open into a bladder that drains into the cloaca. These organs expel water from the body, helping to maintain osmotic balance.

A study has been performed exploring the use of bittern as a natural magnesium supplement used to decrease cholesterol spikes after a meal (postprandial hyperlipidemia). Due to its high salinity, bittern can also be used as a draw solution for an osmotic process that concentrates sucrose in sugarcane juice. Because forward osmosis is being used, the process is relatively energy-efficient. Epsom salt can also be taken from the bittern draw solution once it is used.

Osmotic Power Prototype at Tofte (Hurum), Norway Salinity gradient energy is called pressure-retarded osmosis. In this method, seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber that is at a pressure lower than the difference between the pressures of saline water and fresh water. Freshwater is also pumped into the pressure chamber through a membrane, which increases both the volume and pressure of the chamber. As the pressure differences are compensated, a turbine is spun creating energy.

This will cause the organisms to release after which they can then be shaken free from the substrate and filtered out through a 45 μm mesh and immediately returned to fresh filtered seawater. Many organisms will come through this process unharmed as long as the osmotic shock does not last too long. The second methodology is the use of an anaesthetic. The preferred solution for meiobenthologists is isotonic magnesium chloride (7.5g MgCl2·6H2O in 100 ml of distilled water).

Microfluidic sample separation can be achieved by capillary electrophoresis or continuous-flow separation. In capillary electrophoresis, a long thin tube separates analytes by voltage as they migrate by electro- osmotic flow. For continuous-flow separation, the general idea is to apply a field at an angle to the flow direction to deflect the sample flow path toward different channels. Examples of continuous-flow separation techniques include continuous-flow electrophoresis, isoelectric focusing, continuous-flow magnetic separations, and molecular sieving.

Potassium channels play a role in many cellular processes including the maintenance of the action potential, muscle contraction, hormone secretion, osmotic regulation, and ion flow. This gene encodes the K2P4.1 protein, a lipid-gated ion channel that belongs to the superfamily of potassium channel proteins containing two pore-forming P domains. K2P4.1 homodimerizes and functions as an outwardly rectifying channel. It is expressed primarily in neural tissues and is stimulated by membrane stretch and polyunsaturated fatty acids.

These charges may originate from tightly adsorbed ions, dissociated surface groups, or substituted ions within the crystal lattice. The second layer corresponds to the diffuse layer, which contains the neutralizing charge consisting of accumulated counterions and depleted coions. The resulting potential profile between these two objects leads to differences in the ionic concentrations within the gap between these objects with respect to the bulk solution. These differences generate an osmotic pressure, which generates a force between these objects.

This copepod species has also been used as a model system in which to look at some questions in animal physiology including both neurobiology and osmoregulation. In response to increasing or decreasing environmental salinities T. californicus changes the amount of amino acids within its cells to maintain water balance.Burton, R. S. & Feldman, M. W. (1982) Changes in free amino acid concentrations during osmotic response in the intertidal copepod Tigriopus californicus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 73A, 441-445.

Another study showed that analyzed the functionality of DBF1 in abiotic stress responses and found that Arabidopsis plants over-expressing DBF1 were more tolerant to osmotic stress than control plants.Maize DBF1-interactor protein 1 containing an R3H domain is a potential regulator of DBF1 activity in stress responses. Saleh, A., Lumbreras, V., Lopez, C., Kizis, E.D., Pagès, M. Plant J. (2006) DBF1 is the binding factor that is found in the helping Apetala 2 carry out transcription factors.

Achlya is a genus of Oomycete (water mold). The genus includes several plant pathogens including Achlya conspicua and Achlya klebsiana. Unlike many other microorganisms, cell expansion is governed by changes in cell wall strength rather than changes in osmotic pressure.Extension growth of the water mold Achlya: interplay of turgor and wall strength The genome of Achlya hypogyna has been sequenced and can be accessed on public online databases, for example on the NCBI website (National Center for Biotechnology Information).

Some act as sensors of osmotic pressure, volume, stretch, and vibration. Most of the channels are activated or inhibited by signaling lipids and contribute to a family of lipid-gated ion channels. These ion channels have a relatively non- selective permeability to cations, including sodium, calcium and magnesium. TRP channels were initially discovered in the so-called "transient receptor potential" mutant (trp-mutant) strain of the fruit fly Drosophila, hence their name (see #History of Drosophila TRP channels below).

Homogenization of tissue in solution is often performed simultaneously with cell lysis. To prevent lysis however, the tissue (or collection of cells, e.g. from cell culture) can be kept at temperatures slightly above zero to prevent autolysis, and in an isotonic solution to prevent osmotic damage. If freezing the tissue is possible, cryohomogenization can be performed under "dry" conditions, and is often the method of choice whenever it is desirable to collect several distinct molecular classes (e.g.

Ernest Henry Starling (17 April 1866 – 2 May 1927) was a British physiologist who contributed many fundamental ideas to this subject. These ideas were important parts of the British contribution to physiology, which at that time led the world. He made at least four significant contributions: 1. In the capillary, water is forced out through the pores in the wall by hydrostatic pressure and driven in by the osmotic pressure of plasma proteins (or oncotic pressure).

Like many other protists, species of Amoeba control osmotic pressures with the help of a membrane-bound organelle called the contractile vacuole. Amoeba proteus has one contractile vacuole which slowly fills with water from the cytoplasm (diastole), then, while fusing with the cell membrane, quickly contracts (systole), releasing water to the outside by exocytosis. This process regulates the amount of water present in the cytoplasm of the amoeba. Immediately after the contractile vacuole (CV) expels water, its membrane crumples.

Osmotic pressure can also play a significant role regarding this passive membrane transport. Environmental effects have been suggested to trigger conditions under which a transport of larger molecules, such as DNA and RNA, across the membranes of protocells is possible. For example, it has been proposed that electroporation resulting from lightning strikes could enable such transport. Electroporation is the rapid increase in bilayer permeability induced by the application of a large artificial electric field across the membrane.

Considerations for treatment include symptom severity, time to onset, volume status, underlying cause, and sodium levels. If the sodium level is <120 mEq/L, the person can be treated with hypertonic saline as extremely low levels are associated with severe neurological symptoms. In non-emergent situations, it is important to correct the sodium slowly to minimize risk of osmotic demyelination syndrome. If a person has low total body water and low sodium they are typically given fluids.

When filtration occurs the local concentration of rejected material at the membrane surface increases and can become saturated. In UF, increased ion concentration can develop an osmotic pressure on the feed side of the membrane. This reduces the effective TMP of the system, therefore reducing permeation rate. The increase in concentrated layer at the membrane wall decreases the permeate flux, due to increase in resistance which reduces the driving force for solvent to transport through membrane surface.

The parameters may be derived from various experimental data such as the osmotic coefficient, mixed ion activity coefficients, and salt solubility. They can be used to calculate mixed ion activity coefficients and water activities in solutions of high ionic strength for which the Debye–Hückel theory is no longer adequate. They are more rigorous than the equations of specific ion interaction theory (SIT theory), but Pitzer parameters are more difficult to determine experimentally than SIT parameters.

Stéphane Leduc Stéphane Leduc (1 November 1853 – 8 March 1939) was a French biologist who sought to contribute to understanding of the chemical and physical mechanisms of life. He was a scientist in the fledgling field of synthetic biology, particularly in relation to diffusion and osmosis. He was a professor at the École de Médecine de Nantes and worked on osmotic crystallisation and the physiological effects of electric current. He was an Officier de la Légion d'honneur.

Mannitol acts as an osmotic laxative in oral doses larger than 20 g, and is sometimes sold as a laxative for children. The use of mannitol, when inhaled, as a bronchial irritant as an alternative method of diagnosis of exercise-induced asthma has been proposed. A 2013 systematic review concluded evidence to support its use for this purpose at this time is insufficient. Mannitol is commonly used in the circuit prime of a heart lung machine during cardiopulmonary bypass.

Osmotic challenge: American eels spawn in the sea but spend most of their adult life in freshwater, returning only to spawn. The skin of a teleost is largely impermeable to water, and the main interface between the fish's body and its surroundings is the gills. In freshwater, teleost fish gain water across their gills by osmosis, while in seawater they lose it. Similarly, salts diffuse outwards across the gills in freshwater and inwards in salt water.

Microtox can be applied to a variety of matrices including drinking water, stormwater runoff, effluent, industrial discharges, soils and sediments. Most samples do not require special preparation before testing besides adjusting the salinity to 2%. However, samples that have certain characteristics, such as high turbidity levels, may require special preparation. If samples require a salinity adjustment to lower the salinity, this can be accomplished by adding an appropriate amount of Microtox Osmotic Adjusting Solution to dilute the sample.

Southern bluefin tuna migrate between a variety of different ocean regions, however the osmotic conditions faced by the tuna stay relatively similar. This species of tuna inhabits ocean areas that are relatively high in salinity compared to the rest of the world's oceans. Like other marine teleost fish, the southern bluefin tuna maintain a constant ion concentration in both their intracellular and extracellular fluids. This regulation of an internal ion concentration classifies southern bluefin tuna as osmoregulators.

At the Eddy Potash Mine in New Mexico, a technology called "salinity gradient solar pond" (SGSP) is being utilized to provide the energy needed by the mine. This method does not harness osmotic power, only solar power (see: solar pond). Sunlight reaching the bottom of the saltwater pond is absorbed as heat. The effect of natural convection, wherein "heat rises", is blocked using density differences between the three layers that make up the pond, in order to trap heat.

June 2006. Janssen. 26 October 2006 The oral solution is better absorbed. The cyclodextrin contained in the oral solution can cause an osmotic diarrhea, and if this is a problem, then half the dose can be given as oral solution and half as capsule to reduce the amount of cyclodextrin given. "Sporanox" itraconazole capsules should always be taken with food, as this improves absorption, however the manufacturers of "Lozanoc" assert that it may be taken "without regard to meals".

The hormone vasopressin, stimulates the activity of NKCC2. Vasopressin stimulates sodium chloride reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of the nephron by activating signaling pathways. Vasopressin increases the traffic of NKCC2 to the membrane and phosphorylates some serine and threonine sites on the cytoplasmic N-terminal of the NKCC2 located in the membrane, increasing its activity. Increased NKCC2 activity aids in water reabsorption in the collecting duct through aquaporin 2 channels by creating a hypo-osmotic filtrate.

Aquatic organism exposure risk to terrestrial formulations with POEA is limited to drift or temporary water pockets. While laboratory studies can show effects of glyphosate formulations on aquatic organisms, similar observations rarely occur in the field when instructions on the herbicide label are followed. Studies in a variety of amphibians have shown the toxicity of products containing POEA to amphibian larvae. These effects include interference with gill morphology and mortality from either the loss of osmotic stability or asphyxiation.

GSDMD-N can oligomerize and form transmembrane pores that have an inner diameter of 10-14 nm. The pores allow secretion of IL-1β and IL-18 and various cytosolic content to extracellular space, and they also disrupt the cellular ionic gradient. The resulting increase in osmotic pressure causes an influx of water followed by cell swelling and bursting. Notably, GSDMD-N is autoinhibited by GSDMD C-terminal domain before cleavage to prevent cell lysis in normal conditions.

Known for its antioxidant activity because of its ability to create large amount of carotenoids, it is used in cosmetics and dietary supplements. Few organisms can survive like D. salina does in such highly saline conditions as salt evaporation ponds. To survive, these organisms have high concentrations of β-carotene to protect against the intense light, and high concentrations of glycerol to provide protection against osmotic pressure. This offers an opportunity for commercial biological production of these substances.

Both of these solutes are disaccharide heterosides which are extremely rare in thermophiles. Both are important in osmotic adaptation in microbes as well. With many questions to be answered about these two solutes, further research could benefit biotechnology in application to production of things such as food preservatives and textiles. Also, for scientists who are looking to further answer why and how hyperthermophiles survive, these two solutes could help fill in the missing pieces of the puzzle.

This refreshing beverage can also be used as a cocktail mixer paired with other spirits. Lychee wine is a low- alcohol and high-flavored Chinese beverage made of fresh lychee fruits using partial osmotic dehydration techniques. Most of the time, it contains 10-18% alcohol, 1-4% sugar and 0.3-1%% acid. The nutrients and flavour are concentrated and retained thanks to dehydration pretreatment and this is also can tell from the product the usage of untreated fruits.

The epiblast gives rise to the fetus itself while the trophoblast develops into part of the placenta and the primitive endoderm becomes the yolk sac. In mouse embryo, blastocoel formation begins at the 32-cell stage. During this process, water enters the embryo, aided by an osmotic gradient which is the result of Na+/K+ ATPases that produce a high Na+ gradient on the basolateral side of the trophectoderm. This movement of water is facilitated by aquaporins.

They behave differently in different organisms and therefore it may be possible to design drugs that target acidocalcisomes in parasites but not those in the host. Acidocalcisomes have been implied in osmoregulation. They were detected in vicinity of the contractile vacuole in Trypanosoma cruzi and were shown to fuse with the vacuole when the cells were exposed to osmotic stress. Presumably the acidocalcisomes empty their ion contents into the contractile vacuole, thereby increasing the vacuole's osmolarity.

The DuPont evaluations of the 1950s era indicated that polyamide-1,6 was less acid stable than nylon 66, and melts over 300–325 °C, with some decomposition. However, films were reported to have been successfully pressed at 275–290 °C. Molecular weight determined to be ~22,000–34,000 via an osmotic pressure method. The polymer was believed to be significantly branched and cross-linked owing to side reactions occurring during the acid catalyzed polymerization, but this was not conclusively established.

Ion release from guard cells causes stomatal pore closing: Other ion channels have been identified that mediate release of ions from guard cells, which results in osmotic water efflux from guard cells due to osmosis, shrinking of the guard cells, and closing of stomatal pores (Figures 1 and 2). Specialized potassium efflux channels participate in mediating release of potassium from guard cells.Schroeder JI (1988) K+ transport properties of K+ channels in the plasma membrane of Vicia faba guard cells.

Aquatic organism exposure risk to terrestrial formulations with POEA is limited to drift or temporary water pockets. While laboratory studies can show effects of glyphosate formulations on aquatic organisms, similar observations rarely occur in the field when instructions on the herbicide label are followed. Studies in a variety of amphibians have shown the toxicity of GBFs containing POEA to amphibian larvae. These effects include interference with gill morphology and mortality from either the loss of osmotic stability or asphyxiation.

"Moving Spirit" is a science fiction short story by British writer Arthur C. Clarke, first published in 1957. The story within a comic story is narrated by Harry Purvis, who is called to assist a scientist relative of his in a trial. The scientist has been brought before the local magistrate's court on charges of illegally distilling liquor. Purvis manages to get him acquitted, by arguing that he was actually working on a fictional "osmotic bomb".

When a paint coating is applied on a metallic surface contaminated with soluble salts, an osmotic blistering process takes place (Figure 8.10). Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules (water) through a semipermeable membrane (coating film) into a region of higher solute concentration (the salt contaminated substrate). The process drives to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides, but because salt cannot pass through the membrane (coating) it can never equalize. Water continues to permeate into the region.

Imagine now a nano-sized polymer such as DNA or protein placed in one of the chambers. This molecule also has a net charge that feels a force from the electric field when it is found in the capture region. The molecule approaches this capture region aided by brownian motion and any attraction it might have to the surface of the membrane. Once inside the nanopore, the molecule translocates through via a combination of electro-phoretic, electro-osmotic and sometimes thermo- phoretic forces.

Vertebrates originated in fresh water, where water was drawn into their bodies by the osmotic pressure of their body fluids. Their kidneys excreted the extra water while also retrieving their supply of small solutes. He concludes with an admiring discussion of another of his interests: how rapidly the piano can be played by an educated nervous system sustained by the kidneys. He also served on the board of trustees of Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, from 1952–1955.

Both methods use the same level of suction, and so can be considered equivalent in terms of effectiveness and safety.Baird (2001), pp. 4-6. The clinician places a speculum into the vagina and cleanses the cervix then uses a local anesthetic using lidocaine in a paracervical block or intracervical injection into the cervix. The clinician may use instruments called "dilators" to gently open the cervix, or sometimes medically induce cervical dilation with drugs or osmotic dilators administered before the procedure.

The power plant uses the osmotic gradient that occurs when fresh water and salt water meet, separated by a permeable membrane. The salt water pulls fresh water through the membrane and the pressure increases on the salt water side; this pressure increase can be used to produce electrical power with the use of a normal hydroelectric turbine/generator setup. The plant is a prototype developed together with Sintef and began test power production on 24 November 2009.November 24, 2009, cnet.

Osmotic diarrhea, distension of the small bowel leading to crampy abdominal pain, and reduced blood volume can result. Late dumping syndrome occurs 2 to 3 hours after a meal. It results from excessive movement of sugar into the intestine, which raises the body's blood glucose level and causes the pancreas to increase its release of the hormone insulin. The increased release of insulin causes a rapid drop in blood glucose levels, a condition known as alimentary hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar.

A large portion of the soil has been affected by over salinity and it has been known to limit the growth of many plants. Globally, the total area of saline soil was 397,000,000 ha and in continents like Africa, it makes up 2 percent of the soil. The amount of soil salinization has reached 19.5% of the irrigated land and 2.1% of the dry-land agriculture around the world. Soil salinization affects the plants using osmotic potential by net solute accumulation.

Many genes under RpoS control confer stress resistance to assaults such as DNA damage, presence of reactive oxygen species and osmotic shock. The product of xthA is an exonuclease that participates in DNA repair by recognizing and removing 5’ monophosphates near abasic sites in damaged DNA. Likewise, catalases HPI and HPII, encoded by katG and katE convert harmful hydrogen peroxide molecules to water and oxygen. The otsBA gene product trehalose functions as an osmoprotectant and is needed for desiccation resistance.

The agarose is gelled at 4 °C and the coverslip removed. The agarose forms a matrix of carbohydrate fibres that encapsulate the cells, anchoring them in place. The agarose is considered to be osmotic-neutral, therefore solutions can penetrate the gel and affect the cells without cells shifting position. In an in vitro study the cells would be exposed to a test agent – typically UV light, ionising radiation, or a genotoxic chemical – to induce DNA damage in the encapsulated cells.

Sandy soils will involve mainly capillary binding, and will therefore release most of the water at higher potentials, while clayey soils, with adhesive and osmotic binding, will release water at lower (more negative) potentials. At any given potential, peaty soils will usually display much higher moisture contents than clayey soils, which would be expected to hold more water than sandy soils. The water holding capacity of any soil is due to the porosity and the nature of the bonding in the soil.

Without such a concentrated medulla, water has less of an osmotic driving force to leave the collecting duct system, ultimately resulting in increased urine production. Loop diuretics cause a decrease in the renal blood flow by this mechanism. This diuresis leaves less water to be reabsorbed into the blood, resulting in a decrease in blood volume. A secondary effect of loop diuretics is to increase the production of prostaglandins, which results in vasodilation and increased blood supply to the kidney.

The human body has evolved to balance salt intake with need through means such as the renin–angiotensin system. In humans, salt has important biological functions. Relevant to risk of cardiovascular disease, salt is highly involved with the maintenance of body fluid volume, including osmotic balance in the blood, extracellular and intracellular fluids, and resting membrane potential. The well known effect of sodium on blood pressure can be explained by comparing blood to a solution with its salinity changed by ingested salt.

Osmolarity and tonicity are related but distinct concepts. Thus, the terms ending in -osmotic (isosmotic, hyperosmotic, hyposmotic) are not synonymous with the terms ending in -tonic (isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic). The terms are related in that they both compare the solute concentrations of two solutions separated by a membrane. The terms are different because osmolarity takes into account the total concentration of penetrating solutes and non-penetrating solutes, whereas tonicity takes into account the total concentration of non- freely penetrating solutes only.

Ranirestat is aldose reductase inhibitor that acts by reducing sorbitol accumulation in cells. Aldose reductase is an enzyme that catalyzes one of the steps in sorbitol (polyol) pathway which is responsible for formation of fructose from glucose. Aldose reductase activity is increased, parallel to glucose blood levels, in tissues that are not insulin sensitive, including lenses, peripheral nerves and renal glomeruli. Sorbitol does not diffuse through cell membranes easily and therefore accumulates in these tissues, causing osmotic damage, leading to retinopathy and neuropathy.

In total this segment accounts for approximately 25-30% of total Na+ reabsorption along the nephron. This is of clinical importance since commonly used "loop diuretics" act by inhibiting the NKCC2. This active transport enables the kidney to establish an osmotic gradient that is essential to the kidneys ability to concentrate the urine past isotonicity. K+ is passively transported along its concentration gradient through a K+ leak channel in the apical aspect of the cells, back into the lumen of the ascending limb.

Dapagliflozin inhibits subtype 2 of the sodium-glucose transport proteins (SGLT2) which are responsible for at least 90% of the glucose reabsorption in the kidney. Blocking this transporter mechanism causes blood glucose to be eliminated through the urine. In clinical trials, dapagliflozin lowered HbA1c by 0.6 versus placebo percentage points when added to metformin. Regarding its protective effects in heart failure, this is attributed primarily to haemodynamic effects, where SGLT2 inhibitors potently reduce intravascular volume through osmotic diuresis and natriuresis.

Reverse Osmosis is the finest separation membrane process available, pore sizes range from 0.0001 μm to 0.001 μm. RO is able to retain mostly all molecules except for water and due to the size of the pores, the required osmotic pressure is significantly greater than that for MF. Both reverse osmosis and nanofiltration are fundamentally different since the flow goes against the concentration gradient, because those systems use pressure as a means of forcing water to go from low pressure to high pressure.

In tissues where sorbitol dehydrogenase is low or absent, such as in the retina, lens, kidney, and nerve cells, sorbitol can accumulate under conditions of hyperglycemia. In uncontrolled diabetes, large amounts of glucose enter these tissues and is then converted to sorbitol by aldose reductase. Sorbitol then accumulates, causing water to be drawn into the cell due to the increased osmotic pressure, impairing tissue function. Retinopathy, cataract formation, nephropathy, and peripheral neuropathy seen in diabetes are partly due to this phenomenon.

Penicillin inhibits activity of enzymes that are needed for the cross linking of peptidoglycans in bacterial cell walls, which is the final step in cell wall biosynthesis. It does this by binding to penicillin binding proteins with the beta-lactam ring, a structure found on penicillin molecules. This causes the cell wall to weaken due to fewer cross links and means water uncontrollably flows into the cell because it cannot maintain the correct osmotic gradient. This results in cell lysis and death.

The chvE-gguAB gene in Agrobacterium tumefaciens encodes glucose and galactose importers that are also associated with virulence. Transporters are extremely vital in cell survival such that they function as protein systems that counteract any undesirable change occurring in the cell. For instance, a potential lethal increase in osmotic strength is counterbalanced by activation of osmosensing ABC transporters that mediate uptake of solutes. Other than functioning in transport, some bacterial ABC proteins are also involved in the regulation of several physiological processes.

The only active mechanism involved is the constant pumping out of water through the bladder walls by active transport. As water is pumped out, the bladder's walls are sucked inwards by the partial vacuum created, and any dissolved material inside the bladder becomes more concentrated. The sides of the bladder bend inwards, storing potential energy like a spring. Eventually, no more water can be extracted, and the bladder trap is 'fully set' (technically, osmotic pressure rather than physical pressure is the limiting factor).

Cephalosporins are a broad class of bactericidal antibiotics that include the β-lactam ring and share a structural similarity and mechanism of action with other β-lactam antibiotics (e.g. penicillins, carbapenems and monobactams). The cephalosporins (and other β-lactams) have the ability to kill bacteria by inhibiting essential steps in the bacterial cell wall synthesis which in the end results in osmotic lysis and death of the bacterial cell. Cephalosporins are widely used antibiotics because of their clinical efficiency and desirable safety profile.

The unabsorbed sugars and fermentation products also raise the osmotic pressure of the colon, causing an increased flow of water into the bowels (diarrhea). The LCT gene provides the instructions for making lactase. The specific DNA sequence in the MCM6 gene helps control whether the LCT gene is turned on or off. At least several thousand years ago, some humans developed a mutation in the MCM6 gene that keeps the LCT gene turned on even after breast feeding is stopped.

Because of its hyperosmolarity, Donat Mg is a natural osmotic laxative. It is classified as a saline laxative. Its effectiveness as a laxative is due to sulphate salts (magnesium sulphate or Epsom salt and sodium sulphate or Glauber’s salt) and around 1000 mg/l of magnesium. Sulphates draw water from the cells of the intestinal wall by osmosis, increasing the volume of intestinal content 3 to 5 times; this exerts pressure on the intestinal wall and triggers its peristalsis or movement.

Diabetic ketoacidosis arises because of a lack of insulin in the body. The lack of insulin and corresponding elevation of glucagon leads to increased release of glucose by the liver (a process that is normally suppressed by insulin) from glycogen via glycogenolysis and also through gluconeogenesis. High glucose levels spill over into the urine, taking water and solutes (such as sodium and potassium) along with it in a process known as osmotic diuresis. This leads to polyuria, dehydration, and polydipsia.

Fluid is push out through the intercellular cleft at the arterial end of the capillary because that's where the pressure is the highest. However, most of this fluid returns into the capillary at the venous end, creating capillary fluid dynamics. Two opposing forces achieve this balance; hydrostatic pressure and colloid osmotic pressure, using the intercellular clefts are fluid entrances and fluid exits4. In addition, the size of the intercellular clefts and pores in the capillary will influence this fluid exchange.

'''' Primary and secondary roots in a cotton plant 'Root Pressure'. It is the transverse osmotic pressure within the cells of a root system that causes sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves. Root pressure occurs in the xylem of some vascular plants when the soil moisture level is high either at night or when transpiration is low during the day. When transpiration is high, xylem sap is usually under tension, rather than under pressure, due to transpirational pull.

Smaller molecules such as carbon dioxide, water, and oxygen can pass through the plasma membrane freely by diffusion or osmosis. Larger molecules needed by the cell are assisted by proteins through active transport. The plasma membrane of a cell has multiple functions. These include transporting nutrients into the cell, allowing waste to leave, preventing materials from entering the cell, averting needed materials from leaving the cell, maintaining the pH of the cytosol, and preserving the osmotic pressure of the cytosol.

Because of its pronounced hygroscopicity, isosorbide is used as a humectant and in medicine as an osmotic diuretic (for the treatment of hydrocephalus) and acute angle- closure glaucoma. The two secondary hydroxy groups make isosorbide a versatile platform chemical accessible from renewable resources. As a diol, isosorbide can be mono- or biderivatized using the standard methods of organic chemistry, such as nitration, esterification, etherification, tosylation, etc., and converted into compounds with interesting properties or into monomeric units for novel polymers.

Furthermore, nitrous oxide, which is produced during denitrification, attacks the atmospheric ozone layer. Many saltwater fish manufacture large amounts of trimethylamine oxide to protect them from the high osmotic effects of their environment; conversion of this compound to dimethylamine is responsible for the early odour in unfresh saltwater fish. In animals, free radical nitric oxide (derived from an amino acid), serves as an important regulatory molecule for circulation. Nitric oxide's rapid reaction with water in animals results in production of its metabolite nitrite.

Adult worker honey bees require 4 mg of utilizable sugars per day and larvae require about 59.4 mg of carbohydrates for proper development. Honey bees require water to maintain osmotic homeostasis, prepare liquid brood food, and to cool the hive through evaporation. A colony's water needs can generally be met by nectar foraging as it has high water content. Occasionally on hot days or when nectar is limited, foragers will collect water from streams or ponds to meet the needs of the hive.

Angelo Battelli (28 March 1862 – 11 December 1916) was an Italian scientist, notable for having measured temperatures and heats of fusion of non-metallic substances, metallic conductivities and thermoelectric effects in magnetic metals, and the Thomson effect. He investigated osmotic pressures, surface tensions, and physical properties of carbon disulfide (CS2), water (H2O), and alcohols, especially their vapor pressures, critical points, and densities. He studied X-rays and cathode rays. He investigated the resistance of solenoids to high-frequency alternating currents.

The p38 MAPK pathway is required to be activated by dual phosphorylation of the amino acids: tyrosine and threonine and also environmental stress and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Examples of environmental stress than can activate the p38 MAP Kinase include UV radiation and osmotic stress. Examples of pro-inflammatory cytokines that can activate the p38 MAP Kinase include tumor necrosis factor, Interleukin-1, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The p38 MAP kinase plays an important role in regulating Interleukin-10 synthesis and toll-like receptor signaling.

Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are a diverse class of molecular chaperones that assist in folding under stress. While originally identified in heat stress response (hence the name “heat shock”), inducible HSP expression is a consequence of all known stressors (pH, osmotic, temperature, energy depletion, ion concentration, etc.). Genetic stress, a result of deleterious mutations, also increases HSP expression. HSPs are ubiquitous across all domains of life (Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya) and have been found in every species for which they have been tested.

Plant cells can inherently produce hydrostatic pressure due to a solute concentration gradient between the cytoplasm and external surroundings (osmotic potential). Further, plants can adjust this concentration through the movement of ions across the cell membrane. This then changes the shape and volume of the plant as it responds to this change in hydrostatic pressure. This pressure derived shape evolution is desirable for soft robotics and can be emulated to create pressure adaptive materials through the use of fluid flow.

The excessive absorption of fluid will rapidly dilute the serum sodium concentration. This fall in sodium concentration will create an osmotic gradient between intra- and extra- fluid within the brain, leading to net fluid shift away from intra-vascular compartment resulting in cerebral oedema and raised intra-cranial pressure. The symptoms resulting from hyponatraemia will depend on both the severity of the drop as well as the speed at which the concentration decreased. Sodium concentration below 120mMol/L defines severe TURP syndrome.

Another prominent issue is radiation exposure. Yearly, the average human on earth is exposed to approximately 0.30 rem of radiation, while an astronaut aboard the International Space Station for 90 days is exposed to 9 rem. To tackle the issue, Clynes and Kline theorized a cyborg containing a sensor that would detect radiation levels and a Rose osmotic pump "which would automatically inject protective pharmaceuticals in appropriate doses." Experiments injecting these protective pharmaceuticals into monkeys have shown positive results in increasing radiation resistance.

Cold is often applied to the site of injury by hosing cold water onto the area (hydrotherapy), icing, or medical devices such as the Game Ready system that provides both cold therapy and compression. Cold salt-water spas are also available, and are used to bathe a patient's injury in aerated, hypertonic, cold water. This combines the benefits of cryotherapy with the osmotic effect of salt, producing better analgesia and reduction of inflammation. Heat (thermotherapy) is usually applied at least 48–72 hours after the initial injury.

Phloem sap is a sugary liquid low in amino acids, so insects have to process large quantities to meet their nutritional requirements. Xylem sap is even lower in amino acids and contains monosaccharides rather than sucrose, as well as organic acids and minerals. No digestion is required (except for the hydrolysis of sucrose) and 90% of the nutrients in the xylem sap can be utilised. Some phloem sap feeders selectively mix phloem and xylem sap to control the osmotic potential of the liquid consumed.

In 2012, Taipei, a major human trial with 42 hypercholesterolemic volunteers were randomly divided into three groups: reverse osmotic (RO) water, DOM (Mg: 395 mg/L, hardness 1410ppm), and magnesium-chloride fortified (MCF) water (Mg: 386 mg/L, hardness 1430ppm). Serum low-density lipoprotein- cholesterol (LDL-C) was also decreased by DOM. Further, total cholesterol levels of subjects in the DOM group were significantly lower than those in the MCF water or RO water groups. In 2013, Taichung University researchers published an extended rat trial.

Unlike other mammals, camels' red blood cells are oval rather than circular in shape. This facilitates the flow of red blood cells during dehydration and makes them better at withstanding high osmotic variation without rupturing when drinking large amounts of water: a camel can drink of water in three minutes. Camels are able to withstand changes in body temperature and water consumption that would kill most other mammals. Their temperature ranges from at dawn and steadily increases to by sunset, before they cool off at night again.

Variations in seasonal temperatures can shift metabolic needs of microorganisms in synchrony with shifts in plant nutrient requirements. Agricultural practices such as fertilizer amendments and tillage can change the spatial distribution of resources, resulting in altered exoenzyme activity in the soil profile. Introduction of moisture exposes soil organic matter to enzyme catalysis and also increases loss of soluble monomers via diffusion. Additionally, osmotic shock resulting from water potential changes can impact enzyme activities as microbes redirect energy from enzyme production to synthesizing osmolytes to maintain cellular structures.

However, TRPV2 channels can open by noxious temperatures greater than 52 °C. TRPV2 initially was characterized as a noxious heat sensor channel, but more evidence suggest its importance in various osmosensory and mechanosensory mechanisms. The channel can open in response to a variety of stimuli including hormones, growth factors, mechanical stretching, heat, osmotic swelling, lysophospholipids, and cannabinoids. These channels are expressed in medium to large diameter neurons, motor neurons, and other non-neuronal tissues like the heart and lungs, which indicates its versatile function.

As growth progresses and the gill becomes more developed, ionocytes can be found on the gill arch and gill filament. In larval fishes, the number, size, and density of ionocytes can be quantified as a relative ionocyte area, which has been proposed as a proxy for osmotic, ionic, and/or acid-base capacity of the organism. Ionocytes are also known to be plastic. Ionocyte's apical openings can widen during periods of high activity, and new ionocytes can develop along the gill lamellae during periods of environmental stress.

Thigmonastic movements, those that occur in response to touch, are used as a defense in some plants. The leaves of the sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica, close up rapidly in response to direct touch, vibration, or even electrical and thermal stimuli. The proximate cause of this mechanical response is an abrupt change in the turgor pressure in the pulvini at the base of leaves resulting from osmotic phenomena. This is then spread via both electrical and chemical means through the plant; only a single leaflet need be disturbed.

As a model organism, the Arabidopsis thaliana response to salinity is studied to aid understanding of other more economically important crops. High concentration of salt in the soil has negative effects on plants. For example, it reduces the yield that crop plants can produce in 7% of the land. On the other side, some plants show adaptations to changes in soil salinity, in that the plant's exposure to salt initiates certain mechanisms for cell osmotic regulation and causes changes in this plant's water obtaining and loss behaviors.

The simulated flow velocity profile across a microfluidic channel as a function of depth into the channel from the wall (y-axis) for several different applied voltages. A flowFET relies on the principal of electro-osmotic flow (EOF). In many liquid-solid interfaces, there is an electrical double layer that develops due to interactions between the two phases. In the case of a microfluidic channel, this results in a charged layer of liquid on the periphery of the fluid column which surrounds the bulk of the liquid.

The bacterial growth inhibiting properties of S53P4 derive from two simultaneous chemical and physical processes, occurring once the bioactive glass reacts with body fluids. Sodium (Na) is released from the surface of the bioactive glass and induces an increase in pH (alkaline environment), which is not favorable for the bacteria, thus inhibiting their growth. The released Na, Ca, Si and P ions give rise to an increase in osmotic pressure due to an elevation in salt concentration, i.e. an environment where bacteria cannot grow.

Bacteria can enter the VBNC state as a response to stress, due to adverse nutrient, temperature, osmotic, oxygen, and light conditions. The cells that are in the VBNC state are morphologically smaller, and demonstrate reduced nutrient transport, rate of respiration, and synthesis of macromolecules. Sometimes, VBNC bacteria can remain in that state for over a year. It has been shown that numerous pathogens and non-pathogens can enter the VBNC state, and therefore it has significant implications in pathogenesis, bioremediation, and other branches of microbiology.

Preservatives are used to halt the action of decomposing organisms, deprive these organisms of nutrition, and alter chemical structures in the body to prevent decomposition. Various modifying agents are used to maintain the moisture, pH, and osmotic properties of the tissues along with anticoagulants to keep blood from clotting within the cardiovascular system. Other chemicals may also be used to keep the tissue from carrying displeasing odors or particularly unnatural colors. Embalming practice has changed a great deal in the last few hundred years.

The ciliary epithelium of the ciliary processes produces aqueous humor, which is responsible for providing oxygen, nutrients, and metabolic waste removal to the lens and the cornea, which do not have their own blood supply. Eighty percent of aqueous humor production is carried out through active secretion mechanisms (the Na+K+ATPase enzyme creating an osmotic gradient for the passage of water into the posterior chamber) and twenty percent is produced through the ultrafiltration of plasma. Intraocular pressure affects the rate of ultrafiltration, but not secretion.

Because the ionic strength of the cobalt solution inside the membrane is higher than the sodium silicate solution's, which forms the bulk of the tank contents, osmotic effects will increase the pressure within the membrane. This will cause the membrane to tear, forming a hole. The cobalt cations will react with the silicate anions at this tear to form a new solid. In this way, growths will form in the tanks; they will be colored (according to the metal anion) and may look like plant-like structures.

If Osmotherapy using osmotic agents fails in treating cerebral edema, other therapies using barbiturates and corticosteroids could be developed. Barbiturates like pentobarbital can act like free radical scavengers as well decrease intracranial blood volume by reducing cerebral metabolic demand. However, administration of barbiturates poses risks such as hypotension, induced coma and infection limiting their potential clinical application. Although corticosteroids are not very effective in treating cerebral edema resulting from ischemic stroke and intracerebral hemorrhage, they are very effective in treating vasogenic edema resulting from brain tumors.

Artery walls are analogous to a selectively permeable membrane, and they allow solutes, including sodium and chloride, to pass through (or not), depending on osmosis. Circulating water and solutes in the body maintain blood pressure in the blood, as well as other functions such as regulation of body temperature. When salt is ingested, it is dissolved in the blood as two separate ions – Na+ and Cl−. The water potential in blood will decrease due to the increase solutes, and blood osmotic pressure will increase.

The plant usually uses C3 carbon fixation, but when it becomes water- or salt-stressed, it is able to switch to Crassulacean acid metabolism. Like many salt-tolerant plants, M. crystallinum accumulates salt throughout its life, in a gradient from the roots to the shoots, with the highest concentration stored in epidermal bladder cells. The salt is released by leaching once the plant dies. This results in a detrimental osmotic environment preventing the growth of other, non-salt-tolerant species while allowing M. crystallinum seeds to germinate.

Modernization takes place within the institutional frameworks of society but does not operate against them. It follows from this that Silberrad communicates what must seem small-scale changes to an existing worldview but never opts for its radical discontinuation. This may sometimes disappoint in its calm if not cautious detachment from the radicalism of the modernist movement. However, Silberrad's writing reveals the osmotic and thus gradual domestication of modern thinking in the wider realms of British society in the early decades of the 20th century.

Type A (essential hypernatremia syndrome) involves an increase of the level in which solvent molecules can pass through cell membranes (osmotic threshold) for vasopressin release and the activation of the feeling of thirst. This is the most characterized sub-type of adipsia, however there is no known cause for Type A adipsia. There is debate over whether osmoreceptor resetting could lead to the increase in threshold. Other studies have shown that it is the loss of osmoreceptors, not resetting, that cause the change in threshold.

An ability to tolerate minimal aeration and high osmotic pressure enables P. boydii to grow on soil, polluted and stagnant water and manure. Although this fungus is commonly found in temperate climates, it is thermotolerant and can survive in tropical climates and in environments with low oxygen pressure. Growth of P. boydii can be seen in environments where nitrogen-containing compounds are common, usually due to human pollution. Its ability to use natural gas and other volatile organic compounds suggests a capacity for bioremediation.

The enzymes that hydrolyze the peptidoglycan cross-links continue to function, even while those that form such cross-links do not. This weakens the cell wall of the bacterium, and osmotic pressure becomes increasingly uncompensated—eventually causing cell death (cytolysis). In addition, the build-up of peptidoglycan precursors triggers the activation of bacterial cell wall hydrolases and autolysins, which further digest the cell wall's peptidoglycans. The small size of the penicillins increases their potency, by allowing them to penetrate the entire depth of the cell wall.

'Sol- gel conversion describes the contraction and relaxation events which are enforced by osmotic pressure and other ionic charges.' For example, when an amoeba moves, it extends a gelatinous, cytosolic pseudopodium, which then results in the more fluid cytosol (plasma sol) flowing after the gelatinous portion (plasma gel) where it congeals at the end of the pseudopodium. This results in the extension of this appendage. On the opposite (posterior) end of the cell, plasma gel is then converted to plasma sol and streamed toward the advancing pseudopodium.

The swelling pressure due to osmotic effect under constant volume can be as high as 200 bar. If not properly managed, this high pressure can cause fractures in the near field of a disposal gallery of bituminised medium-level waste. When the bituminised matrix has been altered by swelling, encapsulated radionuclides are easily leached by the contact of ground water and released in the geosphere. The high ionic strength of the concentrated saline solution also favours the migration of radionuclides in clay host rocks.

DNA condensation can be induced in vitro either by applying external force to bring the double helices together, or by inducing attractive interactions between the DNA segments. The former can be achieved e.g. with the help of the osmotic pressure exerted by crowding neutral polymers in the presence of monovalent salts. In this case, the forces pushing the double helices together are coming from entropic random collisions with the crowding polymers surrounding DNA condensates, and salt is required to neutralize DNA charges and decrease DNA-DNA repulsion.

The pressure flow hypothesis, also known as the mass flow hypothesis, is the best-supported theory to explain the movement of sap through the phloem.Translocation of Food It was proposed by Ernst Münch, a German plant physiologist in 1930. A high concentration of organic substances, particularly sugar, inside cells of the phloem at a source, such as a leaf, creates a diffusion gradient (osmotic gradient) that draws water into the cells from the adjacent xylem. This creates turgor pressure, also known as hydrostatic pressure, in the phloem.

Their target, aldose reductase, is an enzyme that is normally present in many other parts of the body, and catalyzes one of the steps in the sorbitol(polyol) pathway that is responsible for fructose formation from glucose. Aldose reductase activity increases as the glucose concentration rises in diabetes in those tissues that are not insulin sensitive, which include the lenses, peripheral nerves and glomerulus. Sorbitol does not diffuse through cell membranes easily and therefore accumulates, causing osmotic damage which leads to retinopathy and neuropathy.

Light-mantled albatrosses share some identifying features with other Procellariiformes. They have nasal tubes on the upper bill called naricorns, though with albatrosses these are on the sides of the upper mandible rather than the top. They also have a salt gland above the nasal passage which excretes a concentrated saline solution to maintain osmotic balance, due to the amount of seawater imbibed.Ehrlich, Paul R. (1988) The bills of the Procellariiformes are unique in that they are covered with from seven to nine horny plates.

The southern bluefin tuna acquires its water by drinking seawater: its only available water source. Since the osmotic pressure of the fluids in the tuna must be hyposmotic to the seawater that has been taken up, there is a net loss in ions from the tuna. Ions diffuse across their concentration gradient from the fluids of the tuna to the external seawater. The result is a net movement of water into the fluid of the bluefin tuna, with the net movement of ions being into the seawater.

The bacterial cell wall provides strength and rigidity to counteract internal osmotic pressure, and protection against the environment. The peptidoglycan layer gives the cell wall its strength, and helps maintain the overall shape of the cell. The basic peptidoglycan structure of both Gram-positive and Gram- negative bacteria comprises a sheet of glycan chains connected by short cross- linking polypeptides. Biosynthesis of peptidoglycan is a multi-step (11-12 steps) process comprising three main stages: # formation of UDP-N- acetylmuramic acid (UDPMurNAc) from N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc).

Gaping causes water loss by evaporation from the lining of the mouth, and on land, water is also lost through the skin. Large animals are better able to maintain homeostasis at times of osmotic stress than smaller ones. Newly hatched crocodilians are much less tolerant of exposure to salt water than are older juveniles, presumably because they have a higher surface-area- to-volume ratio. The kidneys and excretory system are much the same as in other reptiles, but crocodilians do not have a bladder.

This water from the lower layer, the storage zone, is pumped out and the heat is used to produce energy, usually by turbine in an organic Rankine cycle.Salinity Gradient Solar Pond Technology Applied to Potash Solution Mining In theory a solar pond could be used to generate osmotic power if evaporation from solar heat is used to create a salinity gradient, and the potential energy in this salinity gradient is harnessed directly using one of the first three methods above, such as the capacitive method.

The researchers claim this is 1,000 times the yield of other known techniques for harvesting osmotic energy and makes boron nitride nanotubes an extremely efficient solution for harvesting the energy of salinity gradients for usable electrical power. The team claimed that a membrane could generate around 4 kW and be capable of generating up to 30 MWh per year. At the 2019 fall meeting of the Materials Research Society a team from Rutgers University reported creating a membrane that contained around 10 million BNNTs per cubic centimeter.

It has been found that NFAT5 expression, following hyperosmolarity, depends on p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). The addition of a p38 MAPK inhibitor was found to correlate with decreased NFAT5 expression, even in the presence of osmotic stress signals. However, the downstream transcription of the NFAT5 gene by p38 MAPK is currently not yet characterized. It is hypothesized that p38 MAPK phosphorylation activates c-Fos and interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), which bind to AP-1-binding sites and ISRES (Interferon Stimulated Response Element) respectively.

Thus, a buildup of calcium starts and slowly falls from the first trigger. When the second action potential is fired within the time interval, it reaches the Calcium threshold to depolarize the cell, closing the trap on the prey within a fraction of a second. Together with the subsequent release of positive potassium ions the action potential in plants involves an osmotic loss of salt (KCl). Whereas, the animal action potential is osmotically neutral because equal amounts of entering sodium and leaving potassium cancel each other osmotically.

In sports beverages, for instance, isotonicity (osmotic pressure equal to that of fluids in the body) can be maintained during storage over the beverage's shelf-life. Isomaltulose finds application in baked goods, pastry glazings and icings, breakfast cereals, cereal bars, dairy produce, sugar confectionery (e.g. chocolates, jellies, chewy confections and chewing or bubble gum), frozen desserts, fruit-juice beverages, malt beverages, sports beverages, energy drinks, instant drinks, and special and clinical nutrition feeds. Isomaltulose in permitted for use in foods and drinks in many regions worldwide.

For example, freshwater and saltwater aquarium fish placed in water of a different salinity than that to which they are adapted to will die quickly, and in the case of saltwater fish, dramatically. Another example of a harmful osmotic effect is the use of table salt to kill leeches and slugs. Suppose an animal or a plant cell is placed in a solution of sugar or salt in water. # If the medium is hypotonic relative to the cell cytoplasm — the cell will gain water through osmosis.

He studied in Freiburg im Breisgau, Munich and Breslau. Stern completed his studies at the University of Breslau in 1912 with a doctoral dissertation in physical chemistry under supervision of Otto Sackur on the kinetic theory of osmotic pressure in concentrated solutions. He then followed Albert Einstein to Charles University in Prague and in 1913 to ETH Zurich. Stern served in World War I doing meteorological work on the Russian front while still continuing his studies and in 1915 received his Habilitation at the University of Frankfurt.

The snail's quiescent periods during heat and drought are known as aestivation; its quiescence during winter is known as overwintering. When overwintering, Cornu aspersum avoids the formation of ice in its tissues by altering the osmotic components of its blood (or haemolymph); this permits it to survive temperatures as low as -5 °C (23 °F). During aestivation, the mantle collar has the ability to change its permeability to water. The snail also has an osmoregulatory mechanism that prevents excessive absorption of water during hibernation.

Modern Water's containerised forward osmosis desalination plant at Al Khaluf, Oman Desalinated water can be produced from the diluted draw / osmotic agent solution, using a second process. This may be by membrane separation, thermal method, physical separation or a combination of these processes. The process has the feature of inherently low fouling because of the forward osmosis first step, unlike conventional reverse osmosis desalination plants where fouling is often a problem. Modern Water has deployed forward osmosis based desalination plants in Gibraltar and Oman.

In the case where the desired product is fresh water that does not contain draw solutes, a second separation step is required. The first separation step of FO, driven by an osmotic pressure gradient, does not require a significant energy input (only unpressurized stirring or pumping of the solutions involved). The second separation step, however does typically require energy input. One method used for the second separation step is to employ RO. This approach has been used, for instance, in the treatment of landfill leachate.

Halobacterium species are rod-shaped and enveloped by a single lipid bilayer membrane surrounded by an S-layer made from the cell-surface glycoprotein. They grow on amino acids in aerobic conditions. Although Halobacterium NRC-1 contains genes for glucose degradation, as well as genes for enzymes of a fatty acid oxidation pathway, it does not seem able to use these as energy sources. Though the cytoplasm retains an osmotic equilibrium with the hypersaline environment, the cell maintains a high potassium concentration using many active transporters.

Urea is accumulated in tissues in preparation for overwintering, and liver glycogen is converted in large quantities to glucose in response to internal ice formation. Both urea and glucose act as "cryoprotectants" to limit the amount of ice that forms and to reduce osmotic shrinkage of cells. Frogs can survive many freeze/thaw events during winter if no more than about 65% of the total body water freezes. Research exploring the phenomenon of "freezing frogs" has been performed primarily by the Canadian researcher, Dr. Kenneth B. Storey.

Related to the idea of stabilizing selection is that of the requirement that organisms function adequately in their environment. Thus, where stabilizing selection acts because of the particular niche that is occupied, mechanical and physico- chemical constraints act in a more general manner. For example, the acceleration caused by gravity places constraints on the minimum bone density and strength for an animal of a particular size. Similarly, the properties of water mean that tissues must have certain osmotic properties in order to function properly.

Tolerance of high salt conditions can be obtained through several routes. High levels of salt entering the plant can trigger ionic imbalances which cause complications in respiration and photosynthesis, leading to reduced rates of growth, injury and death in severe cases. To be considered tolerant of saline conditions, the protoplast must show methods of balancing the toxic and osmotic effects of the increased salt concentrations. Halophytic vascular plants can survive on soils with salt concentrations around 6%, or up to 20% in extreme cases.

It has a secondary laxative effect in the colon, where it is fermented by the gut flora, producing metabolites which have osmotic powers and peristalsis- stimulating effects (such as acetate), but also methane associated with flatulence. Lactulose is metabolized in the colon by bacterial flora to short- chain fatty acids, including lactic acid and acetic acid. These partially dissociate, acidifying the colonic contents (increasing the H+ concentration in the gut). This favors the formation of the nonabsorbable from NH3, trapping NH3 in the colon and effectively reducing plasma NH3 concentrations.

This may either occur at regular intervals throughout the day, known as continuous ambulatory dialysis, or at night with the assistance of a machine, known as automated peritoneal dialysis. The solution is typically made of sodium chloride, hydrogen carbonate, and an osmotic agent such as glucose. Peritoneal dialysis was first carried out in the 1920s; however, long term use did not come into medical practice until the 1960s. The solution used for peritoneal dialysis is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system.

Most epoxies or urethanes or polymer applications are not permeable so the water will stop at the polymer coating. However, the pressure from the water does not stop, forcing the water to collect directly in between the concrete and the layer of epoxy/urethane. This collection creates the notorious “osmotic blister” that is commonly feared by coating specialists. For steel substrates: The presence of soluble salts (particularly sulfates and chlorides) at the metal/paint interface is known to have a detrimental effect on the integrity of most paint systems including fluorocoatings.

Polymer molecule within a brush. The drawing shows the chain elongation decreasing from the attachment point and vanishing at free end. The "blobs", schematized as circles, represent the (local) length scale at which the statistics of the chain change from a 3D random walk (at smaller length scales) to a 2D in-plane random walk and a 1D normal directed walk (at larger length scales). Polymer molecules within a brush are stretched away from the attachment surface as a result of the fact that they repel each other (steric repulsion or osmotic pressure).

Thus, the glomerular filtrate becomes more concentrated, which is one of the steps in forming urine. Reabsorption allows many useful solutes (primarily glucose and amino acids), salts and water that have passed through Bowman's capsule, to return to the circulation. These solutes are reabsorbed isotonically, in that the osmotic potential of the fluid leaving the proximal convoluted tubule is the same as that of the initial glomerular filtrate. However, glucose, amino acids, inorganic phosphate, and some other solutes are reabsorbed via secondary active transport through cotransport channels driven by the sodium gradient.

There have been no controlled studies regarding this treatment. Additionally, fresh frozen plasma and human albumin transfusions can help replace the extreme protein losses seen in severe cases and help assure adequate tissue healing. However, this is controversial with the availability of safer colloids such as Hetastarch, as it will also increase the colloid osmotic pressure without the ill effect of predisposing that canine patient to future transfusion reaction. Once the dog can keep fluids down, the IV fluids are gradually discontinued, and very bland food slowly introduced.

Late embryogenesis abundant proteins (LEA proteins) are proteins in plants, and some bacteria and invertebrates that protect against protein aggregation due to desiccation or osmotic stresses associated with low temperature. LEA proteins were initially discovered accumulating late in embryogenesis of cotton seeds. Although abundant in seeds and pollens, LEA proteins have been found to protect against desiccation, cold, or high salinity in a variety of organisms, including the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans, nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, Artemia (brine shrimp), and rotifers. LEA proteins function by mechanisms which are distinct from those displayed by heat shock molecular chaperones.

The most common cause of polyuria in both adults and children is uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, which causes osmotic diuresis, when glucose levels are so high that glucose is excreted in the urine. Water follows the glucose concentration passively, leading to abnormally high urine output. In the absence of diabetes mellitus, the most common causes are decreased secretion of aldosterone due to adrenal cortical tumor, primary polydipsia (excessive fluid drinking), central diabetes insipidus and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Polyuria may also be due to various chemical substances, such as diuretics, caffeine, and ethanol.

The diffusion rate of water was evaluated as 1 cm/hour. Boehm's paper also showed that graphite oxide can be used as cation exchange membrane and reports measurements of osmotic pressures, membrane potentials in KCl, HCl, CaCl2, MgCl2, BaCl2 solutions. The membranes were also reported to be permeable by large alkaloid ions as they are able to penetrate between graphene oxide layers. In 2012 some of the properties of graphite oxide membranes discovered by Boehm were re-discovered: the membranes were reported to be not permeable by helium but permeable by water vapors.

Screening programs are available to identify thalassemia patients among the general public. Couples are in particular the target group of screening for early identification of carriers who bear risks of having children with thalassemia. Screenings targeted at them are done by detecting heterozygotes in the thalassemia gene. Whereas screening of fetus is done by one-tube osmotic fragility test (identification of red blood cells resistance to hemolysis), red blood cell tests (measurement of mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular haemoglobin) or dischlorophenol indophenol precipitation tests (detection of mutation).

It is also likely that transgenic plants would be more resilient to osmotic stress caused by drought or salinity, as the activation of SBPase is shown to be inhibited in chloroplasts exposed to hypertonic conditions, though this has not been directly tested. Overexpression of SBPase in transgenic tobacco plants resulted in enhanced photosynthetic efficiency and growth. Specifically, transgenic plants exhibited greater biomass and improved carbon dioxide fixation, as well as an increase in RuBisCO activity. The plants grew significantly faster and larger than wild-type plants, with increased sucrose and starch levels.

As well as closing their stomata, most plants can also respond to drought by altering their water potential (osmotic adjustment) and increasing root growth. Plants that are adapted to dry environments (Xerophytes) have a range of more specialized mechanisms to maintain water and/or protect tissues when desiccation occurs. Waterlogging reduces the supply of oxygen to the roots and can kill a plant within days. Plants cannot avoid waterlogging, but many species overcome the lack of oxygen in the soil by transporting oxygen to the root from tissues that are not submerged.

SGK1 has also been shown to increase the activity of cell volume-regulated Cl− channel ClC2. The activation of these Cl− channels result in the exit of Cl− and eventually the exit of K+, and the cellular loss of KCl results in a decrease of regulatory cell volume. However, the functional significance of SGK1 in cell volume regulation, along with its stimulation of cation channels, is still not clearly understood. "Moreover, the molecular identity of the cation channels and the mechanisms of their regulation by glucocorticoids and osmotic cell shrinkage have remained elusive".

Animals with a need for very concentrated urine (such as desert animals) have very long loops of Henle to create a very large osmotic gradient. Animals that have abundant water on the other hand (such as beavers) have very short loops. The vasa recta have a similar loop shape so that the gradient does not dissipate into the plasma. The mechanism of counter current multiplication works together with the vasa recta's counter current exchange to prevent the wash out of salts and maintain a high osmolarity at the inner medulla.

Canagliflozin is an inhibitor of subtype 2 sodium- glucose transport proteins (SGLT2), which is responsible for at least 90% of renal glucose reabsorption (the remaining 10% is done by SGLT1). Blocking this transporter causes up to 119 grams of blood glucose per day to be eliminated through the urine, corresponding to 476 kilocalories. Additional water is eliminated by osmotic diuresis, resulting in a lowering of blood pressure. This mechanism is associated with a low risk of hypoglycaemia (too low blood glucose) compared to other types of anti-diabetic drugs such as sulfonylurea derivatives and insulin.

Without the stiffness of the plant cells the plant would fall under its own weight. Turgor pressure allows plants to stay firm and erect, and plants without turgor pressure (known as flaccid) wilt. A cell will begin to decline in turgor pressure only when there is no air spaces surrounding it and eventually leads to a greater osmotic pressure than that of the cell. Vacuoles play a role in turgor pressure when water leaves the cell due to hyperosmotic solutions containing solutes such as mannitol, sorbitol, and sucrose.

The efferent arterioles of the juxtamedullary glomeruli are much different. They do break up, but they form bundles of vessels (arteriolae recti) that cross the outer zone of the medulla to perfuse the inner zone. Vessels returning from the inner medulla (venulae recti) intersperse themselves in a highly regular fashion among the descending arteriolae recti to form a well- organized rete mirabile. This rete is responsible for the osmotic isolation of the inner medulla from the rest of the kidney and so permits the excretion of a hypertonic urine when circumstances require.

There are a wide variety of methods for extracting meiofauna from the samples of their habitat depending upon whether live or fixed specimens are required. For extracting live meiofauna one has to contend with the large number of species that cling or attach themselves to the substrate when disturbed. In order to get the meiofauna to release their grip there are three methodologies available. The first, and simplest, is osmotic shock, this is achieved by submerging the sample in fresh water (clearly this will only work for marine samples) for a few seconds.

Cellular osmolytes are polar small molecules that are synthesized or taken up by cells to maintain the integrity of cellular components during periods of osmotic or other forms of stress. Osmolytes are diverse in chemical structure, and include polyols, sugars, methylamines, and free amino acids and their derivatives. Examples of these include glycerol, trehalose, trimethylamine n-oxide (TMAO), and glycine. Despite being most active at relatively high concentrations, osmolytes don’t display any effects on normal cellular processes – for this reason, they are also commonly referred to as “compatible solutes”.

One of the kidneys’ important functions is to reabsorb water after glomerular filtration. The complex process of reabsorption is usually one of the first renal functions to be affected by disease. The specific gravity of urine is a measure of its density compared to H2O and depends on the quantity and density of solutes (molecules with more mass per volume increase measure of specific gravity). The measurement of specific gravity should not be confused with the measurement of osmotic concentration, which is more related to the number of particles than with their mass.

In the gut of the host the spore germinates, it builds up osmotic pressure until its rigid wall ruptures at its thinnest point at the apex. The posterior vacuole swells, forcing the polar filament to rapidly eject the infectious content into the cytoplasm of the potential host. Simultaneously the material of the filament is rearranged to form a tube which functions as a hypodermic needle and penetrates the gut epithelium. Once inside the host cell, a sporoplasm grows, dividing or forming a multinucleate plasmodium, before producing new spores.

Applications involving chemical extraction and bioethanol production processes have posed similar multi-objective problems. In 2013, Abakarov et al proposed an alternative technique to solve multi- objective optimization problems arising in food engineering. The Aggregating Functions Approach, the Adaptive Random Search Algorithm, and the Penalty Functions Approach were used to compute the initial set of the non-dominated or Pareto-optimal solutions. The Analytic Hierarchy Process and Tabular Method were used simultaneously for choosing the best alternative among the computed subset of non-dominated solutions for osmotic dehydration processes.

Reabsorption of molecules and ions back into the blood from the proximal tube is done via epithelial cells. The epithelial cell create a low Na+ concentration within the cell by actively pumping out Na+ into the blood via a Na+/K+ ATPase pump on the basolateral membrane. The osmotic gradient allows for the cotransport of Na+ with molecules such as Cl-, glucose, and vitamins into the epithelial cell from the apical side (side facing the proximal tubule). Water freely crosses the apical side into the epithelial cell following the solutes entering actively.

Since the capillary fluid is constantly and rapidly renewed by the flow of the blood, its composition dominates the equilibrium concentration that is achieved in the capillary bed. This ensures that the watery environment of the body's cells is always close to their ideal environment (set by the body's homeostats). A small proportion of the solution that leaks out of the capillaries is not drawn back into the capillary by the colloid osmotic forces. This amounts to between 2-4 liters per day for the body as a whole.

This blood leaves the glomerulus via the efferent arteriole, which supplies the peritubular capillaries. The higher osmolarity of the blood in the peritubular capillaries creates an osmotic pressure which causes the uptake of water. Other ions can be taken up by the peritubular capillaries via solvent drag. Water is also driven into the peritubular capillaries due to the higher fluid pressure of the interstitium, driven by reabsorption of fluid and electrolytes via active transport, and the low fluid pressure of blood entering the peritubular capillaries due to the narrowness of the efferent arteriole.

The breakdown of collagen fibers results in a net increase in water content. This increase occurs because whilst there is an overall loss of proteoglycans (and thus a decreased osmotic pull), it is outweighed by a loss of collagen. Without the protective effects of the proteoglycans, the collagen fibers of the cartilage can become susceptible to degradation and thus exacerbate the degeneration. Inflammation of the synovium (joint cavity lining) and the surrounding joint capsule can also occur, though often mild (compared to the synovial inflammation that occurs in rheumatoid arthritis).

Currently, osmotherapy is the only way to reduce cerebral edema, and hypertonic saline appears to be better than other osmotic agents. According to some researchers, glycerol can be best administered as a basal treatment whereas mannitol can be administered to control sudden rises in ICP. Compared to mannitol, there's evidence that the improvement in ICP, cerebral blood flow, and CPP due to administration of hypertonic saline lasts longer. In addition, hypertonic saline also shows significant effect in improving blood rheology such as hematocrit and shear rate at the level of the internal carotid artery (ICA).

There is a consensus among experts that this new channel is involved in the translocation of the toxin's light chain from the inside of the vesicle to the neuron cytosol, but the mechanism is not well understood or agreed upon. It has been proposed that the channel could allow the light chain (unfolded from the low pH environment) to leave through the toxin pore, or that the pore could alter the electrochemical gradient enough, by letting in or out ions, to cause osmotic lysis of the vesicle, spilling the vesicle's contents.

The chloroplast of Dunaliella also has an eyespot that sits at an anterior peripheral position and is made of one to two rows of lipids. The reason Dunaliella is able to be so halo- tolerant is due to its very effective osmoregulatory process. Firstly, the lack of cell wall allows the cell to easily expand and contract to maintain liveable internal salt concentrations. Secondly, when triggered by the changes in cell volumes and in levels of inorganic phosphate and pH following osmotic shock, plasma membrane sensors and various soluble metabolites activate glycerol synthesis.

A common laxative regimen for OIC is the combination of docusate and bisacodyl. Osmotic laxatives, including lactulose, polyethylene glycol, and milk of magnesia (magnesium hydroxide), as well as mineral oil (a lubricant laxative), are also commonly used for OIC. Peripherally acting u-opioid receptor antagonist has been shown to be effective and durable for patients with OIC. If laxatives are insufficiently effective (which is often the case), opioid formulations or regimens that include a peripherally-selective opioid antagonist, such as methylnaltrexone bromide, naloxegol, alvimopan, or naloxone (as in oxycodone/naloxone), may be tried.

MscS channel was found after studies in E. coli spheroplasts. The identification of the gene family necessitated for MS of small conductance was as two different channels. YggB encoding MscS and KefA encoding MscK in E. coli further confirm its role osmotic regulation. Mutagenesis studies showed that when both genes YggB and KefA were deleted MscS lost its function, but maintain MscL and MscM, but mutants deficient of YggB and MscL showed that the function of those channel is to open in respond to pressure range right before cell rupture.

TRPY, Y for "yeast", is highly localized to the yeast vacuole, which is the functional equivalent of a lysosome in a mammalian cell, and acts as a mechanosensor for vacuolar osmotic pressure. Patch clamp techniques and hyperosmotic stimulation have illustrated that TRPY plays a role in intracellular calcium release. Phylogenetic analysis has shown that TRPY1 does not form a part with the other metazoan TRP groups one and two, and is suggested to have evolved after the divergence of metazoans and fungi. Others have indicated that TRPY are more closely related to TRPP.

It can also be caused by a change in the osmolality of the extracellular fluids of the body, hypokalemia, decreased blood volume (as occurs during major hemorrhage), and other conditions that create a water deficit. This is usually a result of osmotic diuresis. Polydipsia is also a symptom of anticholinergic poisoning. Zinc is also known to reduce symptoms of polydipsia by causing the body to absorb fluids more efficiently (reduction of diarrhea, induces constipation) and it causes the body to retain more sodium; thus a zinc deficiency can be a possible cause.

Wounded soldier being given blood plasma in Sicily, 1943. A blood-collection program was initiated in the US in 1940 and Edwin Cohn pioneered the process of blood fractionation. He worked out the techniques for isolating the serum albumin fraction of blood plasma, which is essential for maintaining the osmotic pressure in the blood vessels, preventing their collapse. Gordon R. Ward, writing in the correspondence columns of the British Medical Journal, proposed the use of blood plasma as a substitute for whole blood and for transfusion purposes as early as 1918.

Since dapagliflozin leads to heavy glycosuria (sometimes up to about 70 grams per day) it can lead to rapid weight loss and tiredness. The glucose acts as an osmotic diuretic (this effect is the cause of polyuria in diabetes) which can lead to dehydration. The increased amount of glucose in the urine can also worsen the infections already associated with diabetes, particularly urinary tract infections and thrush (candidiasis). Rarely, use of a SGLT2 drug, including dapagliflozin, is associated with necrotizing fasciitis of the perineum, also called Fournier gangrene.

Within the inner ear, the main role is to provide osmotic balance in supporting epithelium cells within the organ of Corti by recycling K+. Another specific role AQP4 plays is to help odorant molecules bind to target receptors and binding proteins within olfactory epithelium. Within the retina, the role of AQP-4 is to maintain homeostasis. Aquaporin-4 is essential in the formation of memory as well as synaptic plasticity. Other performances that aquaporin-4 is involved in are synaptic plasticity, astrocyte migration, regulation of extracellular space volume, and the homeostasis of potassium.

Guy's had no physiological laboratories, but Starling's enthusiasm changed all this, and he published nine papers on lymph and capillary function between 1893 and 1897. He showed that there are opposing forces across the capillary wallan outward movement of water due to hydrostatic pressure (derived from the heart's contraction) and an inward movement, secondary to the osmotic pressure of the plasma proteins within the capillary. Without awareness of these forces, the physician cannot begin to understand such conditions as edema. The inward and outward forces are often referred to as "Starling forces".

Several plasmid vectors were developed to facilitate the expression and purification of such fusion proteins. When the recombinant MBP includes a signal peptide, the fusion protein can be exported into the periplasmic space, which facilitate its purification since the periplasmic fluid contains only a limited number of proteins and can be recovered either by an osmotic shock or by permeabilization of the outer membrane with antibiotics, e.g. Polymyxin B Sulfate. Such an export of the fusion protein into the periplasmic space enables the formation of disulfide bonds in the passenger protein, e.g.

Dehydration-induced proteins in plants were first observed in 1989, in a comparison of barley and corn cDNA from plants under drought conditions. The protein has since been referred to as dehydrin and has been the identified as the genetic basis of drought tolerance in plants. However, the first direct genetic evidence of dehydrin playing a role in cellular protection during osmotic shock was not observed until 2005, in the moss, Physcomitrella patens. In order to show a direct correlation between DHN and stress recovery, a knockout gene was created, which interfered with DHNA’s functionality.

As a further result of inward movement, the osmolarity of the RBC increases causing osmotic influx of water and cell swelling. The dilution of the cell contents causes further spatial separation of hemoglobin from the inorganic phosphates and again serves to increase Hb-O2 affinity. Intertidal hypoxia-tolerant triplefin fish (Family Tripterygiidae) species seem to take advantage of intracellular acidosis and appears to "bypasse" the traditional oxidative phosphorylation and directly drives mitochondrial ATP synthesis using the cytosolic pool of protons that likely accumulates in hypoxia (via lactic acidosis and ATP hydrolysis).

The disease has symptoms that consist of watery and/or acidic diarrhea which is the result of water retention in the intestinal lumen and osmotic loss created by non-absorbed glucose, galactose and sodium. Glucose-Galactose malabsorption can cause death due to loss of water from diarrhea if the disease is not treated. To counteract the disease and the effects of acute diarrhea and dehydration, the sodium glucose cotransporter 1 protein is targeted for its mechanistic benefits with ion transfers by oral rehydration therapy through increasing sodium, glucose, and water concentrations for intestinal reabsorption.

Wounded soldier is given blood plasma in Sicily, 1943. A blood collection program was initiated in the US in 1940 and Edwin Cohn pioneered the process of blood fractionation. He worked out the techniques for isolating the serum albumin fraction of blood plasma, which is essential for maintaining the osmotic pressure in the blood vessels, preventing their collapse. The use of blood plasma as a substitute for whole blood and for transfusion purposes was proposed as early as 1918, in the correspondence columns of the British Medical Journal, by Gordon R. Ward.

However, the taeniae coli and accompanying haustra are not found in either carnivorans or ruminants. The rectum of mammals (other than monotremes) is derived from the cloaca of other vertebrates, and is, therefore, not truly homologous with the "rectum" found in these species. In fish, there is no true large intestine, but simply a short rectum connecting the end of the digestive part of the gut to the cloaca. In sharks, this includes a rectal gland that secretes salt to help the animal maintain osmotic balance with the seawater.

Aldosterone levels vary as an inverse function of sodium intake as sensed via osmotic pressure. The slope of the response of aldosterone to serum potassium is almost independent of sodium intake. Aldosterone is increased at low sodium intakes, but the rate of increase of plasma aldosterone as potassium rises in the serum is not much lower at high sodium intakes than it is at low. Thus, potassium is strongly regulated at all sodium intakes by aldosterone when the supply of potassium is adequate, which it usually is in "primitive" diets.

Animation of Synthesis of Peptidoglycan Layer Peptidoglycan serves a structural role in the bacterial cell wall, giving structural strength, as well as counteracting the osmotic pressure of the cytoplasm. Peptidoglycan is also involved in binary fission during bacterial cell reproduction. The peptidoglycan layer is substantially thicker in Gram- positive bacteria (20 to 80 nanometers) than in Gram-negative bacteria (7 to 8 nanometers). Depending on pH growth conditions, the peptidoglycan forms around 40 to 90% of the cell wall's dry weight of Gram-positive bacteria but only around 10% of Gram-negative strains.

HHS is usually precipitated by an infection, myocardial infarction, stroke or another acute illness. A relative insulin deficiency leads to a serum glucose that is usually higher than 33 mmol/L (600 mg/dL), and a resulting serum osmolarity that is greater than 320 mOsm. This leads to excessive urination (more specifically an osmotic diuresis), which, in turn, leads to volume depletion and hemoconcentration that causes a further increase in blood glucose level. Ketosis is absent because the presence of some insulin inhibits hormone-sensitive lipase-mediated fat tissue breakdown.

The destruction of microvilli can occur in certain diseases because of the rearrangement of cytoskeleton in host cells. This can lead to malabsorption of nutrients and persistent osmotic diarrhea, often accompanied by fever. This is seen in infections caused by EPEC subgroup Escherichia coli, in celiac disease, and microvillus inclusion diseaseMalathy Kapali, MD, Ronald Jaffe, MD and Rocco M Agostini Jr. B.Sc. Final Diagnosis: Microvillus Inclusion Disease. (an inherited disease characterized by defective microvilli and presence of cytoplasmic inclusions of the cell membrane other than the apical surface).

Vacuoles can also increase the size of the cell, which elongates as water is added, and they control the turgor pressure (the osmotic pressure that keeps the cell wall from caving in). Like lysosomes of animal cells, vacuoles have an acidic pH and contain hydrolytic enzymes. The pH of vacuoles enables them to perform homeostatic procedures in the cell. For example, when the pH in the cells environment drops, the H+ ions surging into the cytosol can be transferred to a vacuole in order to keep the cytosol's pH constant.

Liquid paraffin is primarily used as a pediatric laxative in medicine and is a popular treatment for constipation and encopresis. Because of its ease of titration, the drug is convenient to synthesize. It acts primarily as a stool lubricant, and is thus not associated with abdominal cramps, diarrhea, flatulence, disturbances in electrolytes, or tolerance over long periods of usage, side effects that osmotic and stimulant laxatives often engender (however, some literature suggests that these may still occur). The drug acts by softening the feces and coats the intestine with an oily film.

Substances in the circulation can also increase the amount of circulating fluid by increasing the osmolarity of the blood. This has the effect of pulling water from the interstitial space, making more water available in the blood, and causing the kidney to compensate by removing it as urine. In hypotension, often colloids are used intravenously to increase circulating volume in themselves, but as they exert a certain amount of osmotic pressure, water is therefore also moved, further increasing circulating volume. As blood pressure increases, the kidney removes the excess fluid as urine.

Dentin hypersensitivity (DH, DHS) is dental pain which is sharp in character and of short duration, arising from exposed dentin surfaces in response to stimuli, typically thermal, evaporative, tactile, osmotic, chemical or electrical; and which cannot be ascribed to any other dental disease. A degree of dentin sensitivity is normal, but pain is not usually experienced in everyday activities like drinking a cooled drink. Therefore, although the terms dentin sensitivity and sensitive dentin are used interchangeably to refer to dental hypersensitivity, the latter term is the most accurate.

A marine fish has an internal osmotic concentration lower than that of the surrounding seawater, so it tends to lose water and gain salt. It actively excretes salt out from the gills. Most fish are stenohaline, which means they are restricted to either salt or fresh water and cannot survive in water with a different salt concentration than they are adapted to. However, some fish show a tremendous ability to effectively osmoregulate across a broad range of salinities; fish with this ability are known as euryhaline species, e.g.

A classic sucrose gap technique is typically set up with three chambers that each contain a segment of the neuron or cells that are being studied. The test chamber contains a physiological solution, such as Krebs or Ringer's solution, which mimics the ion concentration and osmotic pressure of the cell's natural environment. Test drugs can also be added to this chamber to study the effect that they have on cellular function. Ag-AgCl or platinum wire electrodes are generally used for stimulating the cells in the test solution.

Many have played a role in developing dialysis as a practical treatment for renal failure, starting with Thomas Graham of Glasgow, who first presented the principles of solute transport across a semipermeable membrane in 1854.Graham T. The Bakerian lecture: on osmotic force. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in London. 1854;144:177–228. The artificial kidney was first developed by Abel, Rountree, and Turner in 1913,Abel, J. J., Rountree, L. G., and Turner, B. B. The removal of diffusible substances from the circulating blood by means of dialysis.

Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen, and is the causative agent of Q fever. The genus Coxiella is morphologically similar to Rickettsia, but with a variety of genetic and physiological differences. C. burnetii is a small Gram-negative, coccobacillary bacterium that is highly resistant to environmental stresses such as high temperature, osmotic pressure, and ultraviolet light. These characteristics are attributed to a small cell variant form of the organism that is part of a biphasic developmental cycle, including a more metabolically and replicatively active large cell variant form.

Mannitol, an osmotic diuretic, appears to be equally effective at reducing ICP. Some concerns, however, have been raised regarding some of the studies performed. Diuretics, drugs that increase urine output to reduce excessive fluid in the system, may be used to treat high intracranial pressures, but may cause hypovolemia (insufficient blood volume). Hyperventilation (larger and/or faster breaths) reduces carbon dioxide levels and causes blood vessels to constrict; this decreases blood flow to the brain and reduces ICP, but it potentially causes ischemia and is, therefore, used only in the short term.

In sediments, the Simple Cabled Instrument for Measuring Parameters In-Situ (SCIMPI) is designed to remain and take measurements after a borehole has collapsed. Packers are also used in the continental subsurface, along with devices such as the flow-through in situ reactor (FTISR). Various methods are used to extract fluids from these sites, including passive gas samplers, U-tube systems and osmotic gas samplers. In narrow (less than 50 millimeter) holes, polyamide tubes with a back-pressure valve can be lowered to sample an entire column of fluid.

Cells can alternatively synthesize enzymes and transporters that increase intracellular concentration of organic osmolytes, which are less toxic than excess ions but which also aid in water retention. Under conditions of hyperosmolarity, NFAT5 is synthesized and accumulates in the nucleus. NFAT5 stimulates the transcription of genes for aldose reductase (AR), the sodium chloride-betaine cotransporter (SLC6A12) the sodium/myo-inositol cotransporter (SLC5A3), the taurine transporter (SLC6A6) and neuropathy target esterase which are involved in the production and uptake of organic osmolytes. Additionally, NFAT5 induces heat shock proteins, Hsp70, and osmotic stress proteins.

It will also cause an increase in the selectivity of the ions that are able to cross the barrier and be absorbed, slowly becoming more susceptible to large osmotic changes. The apoplastic nature of the exodermis means that selectivity should decrease with age not increase, however evidence and conflicting results between studies suggest otherwise and warrants further investigation. Clarkson DT, Robards AW, Stephens JE, Stark M (1987-01-06). "Suberin lamellae in the hypodermis of maize ( Zea mays ) roots; development and factors affecting the permeability of hypodermal layers".

Appropriate ADH release can be a result of hypovolemia, a so-called non-osmotic trigger of ADH release. This may be true hypovolemia, as a result of dehydration with fluid losses replaced by free water. It can also be perceived hypovolemia, as in the conditions of congestive heart failure (CHF) and cirrhosis in which the kidneys perceive a lack of intravascular volume. The hyponatremia caused by appropriate ADH release (from the kidneys' perspective) in both CHF and cirrhosis have been shown to be an independent poor prognostic indicator of mortality.

The process of osmosis over a semi-permeable membrane. The blue dots represent particles driving the osmotic gradient. Osmosis () is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a selectively permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides.Osmosis, Encyclopædia Britannica on-line It may also be used to describe a physical process in which any solvent moves across a selectively permeable membrane (permeable to the solvent, but not the solute) separating two solutions of different concentrations.

This is done by using stool softeners (which work by pulling water into the stool while in the colon), addition of fiber to the diet, and use of osmotic laxatives (which help fluid movement through the colon, improving overall motility). Improving a persons gut motility can reduce the straining during defection and decrease the risk of developing of anal fissures. Anal fissures are associated with pain and blood on the toilet paper, and require time for healing. Treatment includes topical nitrates or calcium channel blockers and surgical interventions for chronic or complex cases.

Electroosmotic flow (or electro-osmotic flow, often abbreviated EOF; synonymous with electroosmosis or electroendosmosis) is the motion of liquid induced by an applied potential across a porous material, capillary tube, membrane, microchannel, or any other fluid conduit. Because electroosmotic velocities are independent of conduit size, as long as the electrical double layer is much smaller than the characteristic length scale of the channel, electroosmotic flow will have little effect. Electroosmotic flow is most significant when in small channels. Electroosmotic flow is an essential component in chemical separation techniques, notably capillary electrophoresis.

Batrachotoxin interferes with heart conduction, causing arrhythmias, extrasystoles, ventricular fibrillation and other changes which lead to cardiac arrest. Batrachotoxin induces a massive release of acetylcholine in nerves and muscles and destruction of synaptic vesicles, as well. Batrachotoxin R is more toxic than related batrachotoxin A. Structural changes in nerves and muscles are due to a massive influx of sodium ions, which produces osmotic alterations. It has been suggested that there may also be an effect on the central nervous system, although it is not currently known what such an effect may be.

For instance the loss of draw solution may affect the feed solution perhaps due to environmental issues or contamination of the feed stream, such as in osmotic membrane bioreactors. An additional distinction between the reverse osmosis (RO) and forward osmosis (FO) processes is that the permeate water resulting from an RO process is in most cases fresh water ready for use. In the FO process, this is not the case. The membrane separation of the FO process in effect results in a "trade" between the solutes of the feed solution and the draw solution.

An area of current research in FO involves direct removal of draw solutes, in this case by means of a magnetic field. Small (nanoscale) magnetic particles are suspended in solution creating osmotic pressures sufficient for the separation of water from a dilute feed. Once the draw solution containing these particles has been diluted by the FO water flux, they may be separated from that solution by use of a magnet (either against the side of a hydration bag, or around a pipe in-line in a steady state process).

But when comparing it to the dry weight of the ions, note that there is no change in individual ion concentration at this stage. However, Kinoshita's experiments showed a remarkable upswing in electrolyte concentration toward the latter stages of the galactosemic cataract and in the nuclear stage in particular. This observation seems to be explained by the continuous increase in lens permeability due to the osmotic swelling from galactitol accumulation. Cation and anion distribution becomes erratic, with N+ and Cl− concentrations increasing while K+ concentration decreases as seen in Figures 8 and 9.

However, in certain conditions, such as diabetes mellitus, the concentration of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia) exceeds the maximum reabsorption capacity of the kidney. When this happens, glucose remains in the filtrate, leading to the osmotic retention of water in the urine. Glucosuria causes a loss of hypotonic water and Na+, leading to a hypertonic state with signs of volume depletion, such as dry mucosa, hypotension, tachycardia, and decreased turgor of the skin. Use of some drugs, especially stimulants, may also increase blood glucose and thus increase urination..

Neurons in the subfornical organ have receptors for many hormones that circulate in the blood but which do not cross the blood–brain barrier, including angiotensin, atrial natriuretic peptide, endothelin and relaxin. The role of the SFO in angiotensin regulation is particularly important, as it is involved in communication with the nucleus medianus (also called the median preoptic nucleus). Some neurons in the SFO are osmoreceptors, being sensitive to the osmotic pressure of the blood. These neurons project to the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus to regulate the activity of vasopressin-secreting neurons.

Yield and related morphological characters responded better at certain of the field capacity compared when with other treatments. A study was conducted in the experimental field of Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, in Dhaka, Bangladesh to study the effect of water stress on fruit quality and osmotic adjustment in different types. The plants had a tendency to adjust against drop in potential in soil by producing organic solutes such as glucose, fructose, sucrose and proline. The quality of fruits was improved as a result of the synthesis of ascorbic acid, citric acid and malic acid.

Certain conditions, such as extraordinarily high blood levels of lipid (hyperlipidemia/hypertriglyceridemia) or protein (hyperparaproteinemia), magnify the electrolyte exclusion effect. This interferes with the measurement of serum sodium concentration by certain methods, leading to an erroneously low measurement of sodium, or pseudohyponatremia. The methods affected are the flame-photometric and indirect (but not direct) ion-selective electrode assays. This is distinct from a true dilutional hyponatremia that can be caused by an osmotic shift of water from cells to the bloodstream after large infusions of mannitol or intravenous immunoglobulin.

This resulted in increased drought tolerance, but did not appear to have any effect on cold tolerance. Overexpressing a vacuolar Na+/H+ antiport (AtNHX1) from A. thaliana lead to salt accumulating in the leaves of the plants, but not in the fruit and allowed them to grow more in salt solutions than wildtype plants. They were the first salt-tolerant, edible plants ever created. Tobacco osmotic genes overexpressed in tomatoes produced plants that held a higher water content than wildtype plants increasing tolerance to drought and salt stress.

The turgor pressure of guard cells is controlled by movements of large quantities of ions and sugars into and out of the guard cells. Guard cells have cell walls of varying thickness and differently oriented cellulose microfibers, causing them to bend outward when they are turgid, which in turn, causes stomata to open. Stomata close when there is an osmotic loss of water, occurring from the loss of K+ to neighboring cells, mainly potassium (K+) ionsImamura S (1943) Untersuchungen uber den mechanismus der turgorschwankung der spaltoffnungs-schliesszellen. Jap. J. Bot. 12:251-346.

Spa park Luhačovice mineral water is a heavily mineralized (9,854 milligrams of minerals / liter, osmotic pressure 634.7 kPa), naturally effervescent residual seawater, indicated for diseases of vocal cords and breathing pathways, metabolic diseases, stomach and duodenal ulcers, liver cirrhosis, diabetes mellitus, chronic pancreatitis, and excessive consumption of alcohol. The water is bottled under the brand name Vincentka. There are three wells of Vincentka in Luhačovice. The original one is available to the public in Hall of Vincentka, it is however too low- yield (10–12 liters per minute) to be used for bottling.

These sense organs are known as domed pressure receptors (DPRs). Post-Cranial: While alligators and caimans have DPRs only on their jaws, crocodiles have similar organs on almost every scale on their bodies. The function of the DPRs on the jaws is clear; to catch prey, but it is still not clear what the function is of the organs on the rest of the body. The receptors flatten when exposed to increased osmotic pressure, such as that experienced when swimming in sea water hyperosmotic to the body fluids.

These normally beat so that the propulsion stroke is away from the mouth, although they can also reverse direction. Hence ctenophores usually swim in the direction in which the mouth is eating, unlike jellyfish. When trying to escape predators, one species can accelerate to six times its normal speed; some other species reverse direction as part of their escape behavior, by reversing the power stroke of the comb plate cilia. It is uncertain how ctenophores control their buoyancy, but experiments have shown that some species rely on osmotic pressure to adapt to the water of different densities.

The Hydrodynamic or Fluid Movement theory is one of the main theories in dentistry to explain the mechanism by which a tooth perceives the sensation of pain. It is currently the most widely accepted theory used to explain tooth sensitivity. There are three main theories of dentine hypersensitivity: # Direct Innervation (DI) Theory # Odontoblast Receptor (OR) Theory # Fluid Movement/Hydrodynamic Theory The hydrodynamic theory, first proposed by M. Brännström in 1966, suggested that dentine hypersensitivity is due to the abrupt movement of fluid within the dentinal tubules in response to cold and heat (thermal), osmotic (e.g. eating sugary foods), mechanical (e.g.

Reverse osmosis (RO) technology is employed at the plant to desalinate the sea water, which contains up to 6.4 ppm aluminium and about 50 NTU of turbidity. Energy recovery units help increase the efficiency of the system by recovering kinetic energy from the brine solution and transferring the same to the desalinated water that has passed through the osmotic membrane. Pre-treatment of the raw sea water includes coagulation-flocculation, gravity, and pressure filtration. The filtered water is then pumped to the plant where it undergoes various preliminary treatments before being passed through the RO trains.

Nernst's early studies in electrochemistry were inspired by Arrhenius' dissociation theory which first recognised the importance of ions in solution. In 1889, Nernst elucidated the theory of galvanic cells by assuming an "electrolytic pressure of dissolution," which forces ions from electrodes into solution and which was opposed to the osmotic pressure of the dissolved ions. He applied the principles of thermodynamics to the chemical reactions proceeding in a battery. In that same year he showed how the characteristics of the current produced could be used to calculate the free energy change in the chemical reaction producing the current.

Yeasts are facultative anaerobes meaning that they can exist in both the presence and absence of oxygen. While fermentation is traditionally thought of as an anaerobic process done in the absence of oxygen, early exposure of the yeast to oxygen can be a vital component in the successful completion of that fermentation. This is because oxygen is important in the synthesis of cell "survival factors" such as ergosterol and lanosterol. These sterols are important in maintaining the selective permeability of the yeast cell membrane which becomes critical as the yeast becomes exposed to increasing osmotic pressure and levels of alcohol in the wine.

The action of the Na+/K+/2Cl− transporter therefore creates a hypoosmolar solution in the tubular fluid and a hyperosmolar fluid in the interstitium, since water cannot follow the solutes to produce osmotic equilibrium. Equilibration: Since the descending limb of the loop of henle consists of very leaky epithelium, the fluid inside the descending limb becomes hyperosmolar. Shift: The movement of fluid through the tubules causes the hyperosmotic fluid to move further down the loop. Repeating many cycles causes fluid to be near isosmolar at the top of Henle's loop and very concentrated at the bottom of the loop.

Freshwater Atlantic stingrays have only 30–50% the concentration of urea and other osmolytes in their blood compared to marine populations. However, the osmotic pressure between their internal fluids and external environment still causes water to diffuse into their bodies, and they must produce large quantities of dilute urine (at 10 times the rate of marine individuals) to compensate. Like other stingrays, the Atlantic stingray is viviparous. Both marine and freshwater populations in Florida have an annual mating season from September or October to April, though ovulation does not occur until late March or early April.

Therefore, without neglecting gravity the bubbles cannot be spherical. In addition, as z increases, this causes the difference in RA and RB too, which means the bubble deviates more from its shape the larger it grows. Foam destabilization occurs for several reasons. First, gravitation causes drainage of liquid to the foam base, which Rybczynski and Hadamar include in their theory; however, foam also destabilizes due to osmotic pressure causes drainage from the lamellas to the Plateau borders due to internal concentration differences in the foam, and Laplace pressure causes diffusion of gas from small to large bubbles due to pressure difference.

In reverse osmosis desalination systems, seawater pressure is raised above the natural osmotic pressure, forcing pure water through membrane pores to the fresh water side. Reverse osmosis (RO) is the most common desalination process in terms of installed capacity due to its superior energy efficiency compared to thermal desalination systems, despite requiring extensive water pre- treatment. Furthermore, part of the consumed mechanical energy can be reclaimed from the concentrated brine effluent with an energy recovery device. Solar-powered RO desalination is common in demonstration plants due to the modularity and scalability of both photovoltaic (PV) and RO systems.

This is due to the presence of the enzyme glutamine synthetase, which is able to detoxify ammonia through the amidation of glutamate, producing glutamine in the process. Swelling occurs in these astrocytes due to the increased intracellular glutamine levels which induces osmotic stress on the cell and results in edema. This hypothesis is called the glutamine/osmolyte hypothesis, and has yet to be researched among scientists extensively. However, it is generally thought that ammonia-induced astrocyte swelling can be attributed to oxidative stress that glutamine can exert on the cell, as well as the creation of free radicals that may cause astrocytic damage.

This "hasty conclusion" drew a lot of ridicule at the time from scientists who could not believe that any molecule could be that big. Gilbert Smithson Adair confirmed Engelhart's results in 1925 by measuring the osmotic pressure of hemoglobin solutions. The oxygen-carrying property of hemoglobin was discovered by Hünefeld in 1840. In 1851, German physiologist Otto Funke published a series of articles in which he described growing hemoglobin crystals by successively diluting red blood cells with a solvent such as pure water, alcohol or ether, followed by slow evaporation of the solvent from the resulting protein solution.

It is mostly water (up to 95% by volume), and contains important dissolved proteins (6–8%) (e.g., serum albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen), glucose, clotting factors, electrolytes (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3−, Cl−, etc.), hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation), and oxygen. It plays a vital role in an intravascular osmotic effect that keeps electrolyte concentration balanced and protects the body from infection and other blood disorders. Blood plasma is separated from the blood by spinning a tube of fresh blood containing an anticoagulant in a centrifuge until the blood cells fall to the bottom of the tube.

The cumulative effect of volume-changes in these motor cells manifests itself on the tissue/organ level as a swelling or shrinking of one or both sides of the pulvinus, which results in the reorientation of the adjacent leaf. Potassium and chloride have been shown to be the major osmolytes involved in the process, and plasma membrane-located proton pumps and ion transporters have been shown to play a critical role in creating osmotic potential.Suh, S., Moran, N. and Lee, Y. (2000) Blue light activates potassium-efflux channels in flexor cells from Samanea saman motor organs via two mechanisms. Plant Physiol.

Nonketotic hyperosmolar coma (HNS) is an acute complication sharing many symptoms with DKA, but an entirely different origin and different treatment. A person with very high (usually considered to be above 300 mg/dl (16 mmol/L)) blood glucose levels, water is osmotically drawn out of cells into the blood and the kidneys eventually begin to dump glucose into the urine. This results in loss of water and an increase in blood osmolarity. If fluid is not replaced (by mouth or intravenously), the osmotic effect of high glucose levels, combined with the loss of water, will eventually lead to dehydration.

In the first half of the 20th century, the Morse name was mainly associated with his work in this area. With the help of a grant from the Carnegie Institution of Washington, he published a report entitled The Osmotic Pressure of Aqueous Solutions, which summarized the work he performed between 1899 and 1913. For this work he was awarded the Avogadro Medal by the Academy of Sciences of Turin (Academia della Scienze di Turino)--the Piedmontese academy of which Avogadro was member. The medal was a unique prize awarded on the centennial anniversary of Avogadro's law.

Daghighi, and D. Li, A Novel Design of an Induced-Charge Electrokinetic Micro- Mixer, Analytica Chimica Acta, 763 (2013) 28–37C. K. Harnett, J. Templeton, K. A. Dunphy-Guzman, Y. M. Senousy and M. P. Kanouff, Model based design of a microfluidic mixer driven by induced charge electroosmosis, Lab on a Chip - Miniaturisation for Chemistry and Biology, 8 (2008) pp. 565-572M. Jain, A. Yeung and K. Nandakumar, Induced charge electro osmotic mixer: Obstacle shape optimization, Biomicrofluidics, 3 (2009) This phenomenon even is used to trap the micron and submicron particles floating in flow inside a microchannel.

More recently he has demonstrated thermally initiated microemulsion polymerization in bicontinuous microemulsions, wherein the expansion of the correlation length was only 20% relative to the precursor microemulsion, surpassing competitive attempts by two orders of magnitude. In more recent years, he has become a leading innovator in the fields of stimuli responsive polymers and polymerized ionic liquids. Microemulsion polymerization of ionic liquid surfactant acrylates was used to produce transparent gels that reversibly undergo spinodal decomposition to open cell membranes and monoliths. Related nanolatexes have been formulated that appear to be the first experimental realizations of osmotic spheres.

Colloid solutions used in intravenous therapy belong to a major group of volume expanders, and can be used for intravenous fluid replacement. Colloids preserve a high colloid osmotic pressure in the blood, and therefore, they should theoretically preferentially increase the intravascular volume, whereas other types of volume expanders called crystalloids also increase the interstitial volume and intracellular volume. However, there is still controversy to the actual difference in efficacy by this difference, and much of the research related to this use of colloids is based on fraudulent research by Joachim Boldt. Another difference is that crystalloids generally are much cheaper than colloids.

In nature, Staphylococcus aureus secretes alpha-hemolysin monomers that bind to the outer membrane of susceptible cells. Upon binding, the monomers oligomerize to form a water- filled transmembrane channel that facilitates uncontrolled permeation of water, ions, and small organic molecules. Rapid discharge of vital molecules such as ATP, dissipation of the membrane potential and ion gradients, and irreversible osmotic swelling leading to the cell wall rupture (lysis) can cause death of the host cell. This pore consists of seven alpha-hemolysin subunits, which represent the major cytotoxic agent that is freed by this kind of bacterium.

For example, their cellular machinery is adapted to high salt concentrations by having charged amino acids on their surfaces, allowing the cell to keep its water molecules around these components. The osmotic pressure and these amino acids help to control the amount of salt within the cell. For instance, N. magadii is an aerobic chemoorganotrophic, dual extremophile requiring alkaline conditions and hypersalinity for optimal growth. Those harsh conditions resulted in changed composition of charged amino acids in the proteins (average isoelectric point is only 4.64, whereas other organisms average is 6.5) with almost all proteins being highly acidic.

The VOLT is one of the four sensory circumventricular organs providing information to other brain regions (others are median eminence, subfornical organ, and area postrema).Fry Mark, Ferguson Alastair V., (2007) The sensory circumventricular organs: Brain targets for circulating signals controlling ingestive behavior, Physiology & Behavior, Volume 91, Issue 4, 24 July 2007, Pages 413-423, , . VOLT capillaries do not have a blood-brain barrier, and so neurons in this region can respond to circulating factors present in the systemic circulation. Neurons in the VOLT are osmoreceptors sensitive to the sodium content and osmotic pressure of blood.

With all the essential molecules inside the epithelial cell, some such as Cl-, glucose and vitamins pass through their respective channels on the basal lateral side into the blood. Na+ continues to be pumped into the blood maintaining the osmotic gradient allowing for continuous reabsorption of these molecules and ions.Muller, Michael, "The Excretory System" , "University of Illinois at Chicago, Department of Biological Sciences", 2004 Terrestrial birds like the Corvus corax produce urine that is osmotically more concentrated then its blood plasma. This is likely due to the fact that water is not as abundant in raven habitat.

The ions that need to be excreted as waste are secreted from the capillaries into the nephron to be sent towards the bladder and out of the body. Essentially, the peritubular capillaries reabsorb useful substances such as glucose and amino acids and secrete certain mineral ions and excess water into the tubule. The majority of exchange through the peritubular capillaries occurs because of chemical gradients osmosis and hydrostatic pressure. Movement of water into the peritubular capillaries is due to the loss of water from the glomerulus during filtration, which increases the colloid osmotic pressure of the blood.

It is also envisaged that water-soluble molecules and biological molecules would be able to be delivered to cells in this way. Self-assemblying LEGO peptides can form biologically compatible scaffolds for tissue repair and engineering. this area is of great potential as a large number of diseases cannot be cured by small molecule drugs; a cell-based therapy approach is needed and peptides could potentially play a huge role in this. Cyclic peptide nanotubes formed from self-assembly are able to act as ion channels, which forms pores through the cell membrane and causes cellular osmotic collapse.

In the well-studied sea urchin model system, the granule contents modify a protein coat on the outside of the plasma membrane (the vitelline layer) so that it is released from the membrane. The released cortical granule proteins exert a colloid osmotic pressure causing water to enter the space between the plasma membrane and the vitelline layer, and the vitelline layer expands away from the egg surface. This is easily visible through a microscope and is known as "elevation of the fertilization envelope". Some of the former granule contents adhere to the fertilization envelope, and it is extensively modified and cross-linked.

The cytosol is conversely categorized as hypotonic, opposite of the outer solution. When plant cells are in a hypertonic solution, the flexible cell membrane pulls away from the rigid cell wall, but remains joined to the cell wall at points called plasmodesmata. The cells often take on the appearance of a pincushion, and the plasmodesmata almost cease to function because they become constricted, a condition known as plasmolysis. In plant cells the terms isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic cannot strictly be used accurately because the pressure exerted by the cell wall significantly affects the osmotic equilibrium point.

The amino acid proline is subject to strict regulation in response to changes in salinity and this may be a common mechanism of osmoregulation across crustaceans.Burton, R. S. (1992) Proline synthesis during osmotic stress in megalopa stage larval of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus. Biol. Bull. 182, 409-415. For neurobiology, one study looked at the central nervous system of this copepod to get an idea of the organization of the central nervous system of the ancestors to the crustaceans and insects to complement the neurobiological work that has been done in a group of distantly related copepods (the calanoid copepods).

Pitting edema of the lower extremities commonly seen in conditions associated hypoalbuminemia. Patients with hypoalbuminemia are more likely to present with it as a sign of an underlying disease process than as a primary disease process. By itself, hypoalbuminemia decreases the total protein concentration in blood plasma, also known as the colloid osmotic pressure, which causes fluid to exit the blood vessels into tissues to equalize the concentrations. This leads to fluid-induced swelling of the extremities known as edema, build- up of fluid in the abdomen known as ascites, and fluid surrounding internal organs known as effusions.

Osmotherapy is the use of osmotically active substances to reduce the volume of intracranial contents. Osmotherapy serves as the primary medical treatment for cerebral edema. The primary purpose of osmotherapy is to improve elasticity and decrease intracranial volume by removing free water, accumulated as a result of cerebral edema, from brain's extracellular and intracellular space into vascular compartment by creating an osmotic gradient between the blood and brain. Normal serum osmolality ranges from 280-290 mOsm/kg and serum osmolality to cause water removal from brain without much side effects ranges from 300-320 mOsm/kg.

Raccoons have learned to pull a toad away from a pond by the back leg, turn it on its back and start feeding on its belly, a strategy that keeps the raccoon well away from the poison glands. Unlike other vertebrates, this amphibian obtains water mostly by osmotic absorption across its abdomen. Toads in the family bufonidae have a region of skin known as "the seat patch", which extends from mid abdomen to the hind legs and is specialized for rapid rehydration. Most of the rehydration is done through absorption of water from small pools or wet objects.

Either produced via photosynthesis or starch degradation, intracellular glycerol allows the cells to adapt to the high osmotic stress by counterbalancing the external and pressures and thus, preventing cell swelling. Freshwater species of Dunaliella are much more rare and thus, less studied. Their descriptions have hardly changed since their original publications and various ones are still being debated for whether they warrant the classification as Dunaliella due to certain species having differently placed pyrenoids, missing eye spots, unusual cell division, etc. The nucleus of Dunaliella lies more or less centrally in the anterior part of the cell and has a defined nucleolus.

The detergent dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (DDS) is also commonly given in oral fluids. It is more effective in softening an impaction than mineral oil, and helps stimulate intestinal motility, but can inhibit fluid absorption from the intestine and is potentially toxic so is only given in small amounts, two separate times 48 hours apart. Epsom salts are also useful for impactions, since they act both as an osmotic agent, to increase fluid in the GI tract, and as a laxative, but do run the risk of dehydration and diarrhea. Strong laxatives are not recommended for treating impactions.

It is believed to be unrelated to squamous cell carcinoma of the breast which probably arises from different cell types. The keratin plugs (debris) produced by SMOLD have been proposed as the cause for recurrent subareolar abscesses by causing secretory stasis. The epidermalized lining has also different permeability than the normal lining, hindering resorption of glandular secretions. The resorption is necessary to dispose of stalled secretions inside the duct - and at least equally important it affects osmotic balance which in turn is an important mechanism in the control of lactogenesis (this is relevant both in puerperal and nonpuerperal mastitis).

Adélie penguins are faced with extreme osmotic conditions, as their frozen habitats offer little fresh water. Such desert conditions mean that the vast majority of the available water is highly saline, causing the diets of Adélie penguins to be heavy in salt. They manage to circumvent this problem by eating krill with internal concentrations of salt at the lower end of their possible concentrations, helping to lower the amount of ingested salts. The amount of sodium imposed by this sort of diet is still relatively heavy, and can create complications when considering the less tolerant chicks.

Mechanosensitive channels, mechanosensitive ion channels or stretch-gated ion channels (not to be confused with mechanoreceptors). They are present in the membranes of organisms from the three domains of life: bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. They are the sensors for a number of systems including the senses of touch, hearing and balance, as well as participating in cardiovascular regulation and osmotic homeostasis (e.g. thirst). The channels vary in selectivity for the permeating ions from nonselective between anions and cations in bacteria, to cation selective allowing passage Ca2+, K+ and Na+ in eukaryotes, and highly selective K+ channels in bacteria and eukaryotes.

Using cats Bayliss demonstrated that if the salt solution contains five percent gelatin or gum arabic the rise in blood pressure is sustained and shock is alleviated. The explanation had been revealed earlier by Starling: molecules too large to escape from the blood plasma while it passes through the capillaries generate the osmotic pressure needed to pull fluid from the extracellular fluid back into the circulation (although Bayliss suggested they might act by increasing blood viscosity). In November 1917 gum-saline was infused into wound shocked men who recovered. However, it was March 1918 before gum-saline was shipped to the front.

Because of their large mouths, these frogs are particularly susceptible to impaction, a condition whereby the frog's gastrointestinal tract is obstructed by a foreign body accidentally swallowed. The foreign body can be almost anything, but in Pacman frogs kept as pets, it is commonly a small rock or piece of gravel used as substrate. Impaction often leads to constipation and malnutrition, and possibly death unless treated promptly with laxatives such as the osmotic diuretic lactulose. In severe cases, the volume of feces in the intestines is so large that the lungs are obstructed and the frog's breathing is impaired.

It has been suggested that they may provide a cell-wall like barrier to isolate intracellular chemistry from the marine environment. More specific, defensive properties of coccoliths may include protection from osmotic changes, chemical or mechanical shock, and short-wavelength light. It has also been proposed that the added weight of multiple layers of coccoliths allows the organism to sink to lower, more nutrient rich layers of the water and conversely, that coccoliths add buoyancy, stopping the cell from sinking to dangerous depths. Coccolith appendages have also been proposed to serve several functions, such as inhibiting grazing by zooplankton.

Table salt is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6g serving (1teaspoon) contains about 2,400mg of sodium. Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs (fluid balance). Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt. The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia.

The treatment of fecal impaction requires both the remedy of the impaction and treatment to prevent future recurrences. Decreased motility of the colon results in dry, hard stools that in the case of fecal impaction become compacted into a large, hard mass of stool that cannot be expelled from the rectum. Various methods of treatment attempt to remove the impaction by softening the stool, lubricating the stool, or breaking it into pieces small enough for removal. Enemas and osmotic laxatives can be used to soften the stool by increasing the water content until it is soft enough to be expelled.

Counter current multiplier diagram The loop of Henle is supplied by blood in a series of straight capillaries descending from the cortical efferent arterioles. These capillaries (called the vasa recta; recta is from the Latin for "straight") also have a countercurrent multiplier mechanism that prevents washout of solutes from the medulla, thereby maintaining the medullary concentration. As water is osmotically driven from the descending limb into the interstitium, it readily enters the capillaries. The low bloodflow through the vasa recta allows time for osmotic equilibration, and can be altered by changing the resistance of the vessels' efferent arterioles.

Rangeomorph communities are similar in structure to those of modern, suspension-feeding animals, but it is difficult to relate their morphology to any modern animals. They have at times been aligned to a range of modern animal and protist groups, but none of these classifications has withstood scrutiny; they probably represent an extinct stem group to either the animals or fungi. Whilst the fractal construction may represent a convergent adaptation to osmotic feeding, most workers now consider it to be an apomorphy which establishes the rangeomorph clade as a valid taxonomic entity. The quilted construction suggests a close affinity to the erniettomorphs.

Leduc believed that it is necessary to appreciate biological processes from a physical perspective and constructed models from physics and chemistry to try to explain development and growth; these would typically involve ingenious combinations of chemicals to produce systems which mimicked the appearance of living processes such as karyokinesis and "remarkable fungus-like forms". He "[repudiated] extra-physical forces in the phenomena of life". According to Keller, these models were largely unsuccessful, "not just because of the conspicuous artificiality of his osmotic growths". Leduc sought to synthesise life "by directing the physical forces which are its cause" (in his own words).

This clot tends to stick the parietal and visceral pleura together and has the potential to lead to scarring within the pleura, which if extensive leads to the condition known as a fibrothorax. Following the initial loss of blood, a small hemothorax may irritate the pleura, causing additional fluid to seep out, leading to a bloodstained pleural effusion. Furthermore, as enzymes in the pleural fluid begin to break down the clot, the protein concentration of the pleural fluid increases. As a result, the osmotic pressure of the pleural cavity increases, causing fluid to leak into the pleural cavity from the surrounding tissues.

Water passes because of a small osmotic pressure to the buffer liquid in this example at 300 mg/L (NaCl / H2O). Further up the loop there is a continued flow of water out of the tube and into the buffer, gradually raising the concentration of NaCl in the tube until it reaches 1199 mg/L at the tip. The buffer liquid between the two tubes is at a gradually rising concentration, always a bit over the incoming fluid, in this example reaching 1200 mg/L. This is regulated by the pumping action on the returning tube as will be explained immediately.

In 1901 he was awarded by the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions".The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1901, Nobel Prizes and Laureates, official website. After van 't Hoff, chemical kinetics deals with the experimental determination of reaction rates from which rate laws and rate constants are derived. Relatively simple rate laws exist for zero order reactions (for which reaction rates are independent of concentration), first order reactions, and second order reactions, and can be derived for others.

C5b initiates the membrane attack pathway, which results in the membrane attack complex (MAC), consisting of C5b, C6, C7, C8, and polymeric C9. MAC is the cytolytic endproduct of the complement cascade; it forms a transmembrane channel, which causes osmotic lysis of the target cell. Kupffer cells and other macrophage cell types help clear complement- coated pathogens. As part of the innate immune system, elements of the complement cascade can be found in species earlier than vertebrates; most recently in the protostome horseshoe crab species, putting the origins of the system back further than was previously thought.

Such a concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an osmotic flow for the water. Osmosis, in biological systems involves a solvent, moving through a semipermeable membrane similarly to passive diffusion as the solvent still moves with the concentration gradient and requires no energy. While water is the most common solvent in cell, it can also be other liquids as well as supercritical liquids and gases. 2\. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters: Transmembrane proteins extend through the lipid bilayer of the membranes; they function on both sides of the membrane to transport molecules across it.

The critical event leading to the activation of p53 is the phosphorylation of its N-terminal domain. The N-terminal transcriptional activation domain contains a large number of phosphorylation sites and can be considered as the primary target for protein kinases transducing stress signals. The protein kinases that are known to target this transcriptional activation domain of p53 can be roughly divided into two groups. A first group of protein kinases belongs to the MAPK family (JNK1-3, ERK1-2, p38 MAPK), which is known to respond to several types of stress, such as membrane damage, oxidative stress, osmotic shock, heat shock, etc.

Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma. Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation), and blood cells themselves. Albumin is the main protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood.

T2 weighted magnetic resonance scan image showing bilaterally symmetrical hyperintensities in caudate nucleus (small, thin arrow), putamen (long arrow), with sparing of globus pallidus (broad arrow), suggestive of extrapontine myelinolysis (osmotic demyelination syndrome) Symptoms depend on the regions of the brain involved. Prior to its onset, patients may present with the neurological signs and symptoms of hyponatraemic encephalopathy such as nausea and vomiting, confusion, headache and seizures. These symptoms may resolve with normalisation of the serum sodium concentration. Three to five days later, a second phase of neurological manifestations occurs correlating with the onset of myelinolysis.

To minimise the risk of this condition developing from its most common cause, overly rapid reversal of hyponatremia, the hyponatremia should be corrected at a rate not exceeding 10 mmol/L/24 h or 0.5 mEq/L/h; or 18 mEq/L/48hrs; thus avoiding demyelination. No large clinical trials have been performed to examine the efficacy of therapeutic re-lowering of serum sodium, or other interventions sometimes advocated such as steroids or plasma exchange. Alcoholic patients should receive vitamin supplementation and a formal evaluation of their nutritional status. Once osmotic demyelination has begun, there is no cure or specific treatment.

Activation of aortic smooth muscle doesn't significantly alter the lumenal diameter but serves to increase the viscoelasticity of the vascular wall. In the digestive tract, smooth muscle contracts in a rhythmic peristaltic fashion, rhythmically forcing foodstuffs through the digestive tract as the result of phasic contraction. A non-contractile function is seen in specialized smooth muscle within the afferent arteriole of the juxtaglomerular apparatus, which secretes renin in response to osmotic and pressure changes, and also it is believed to secrete ATP in tubuloglomerular regulation of glomerular filtration rate. Renin in turn activates the renin–angiotensin system to regulate blood pressure.

In 1864 Traube was the first to produce artificial semipermeable membranes, recognizing them as molecular sieves and using them in developing the first physical-chemical theory of plant cell growth. The artificial cells were created by putting droplets of glue in tannic acid; these grew under infusion of water. (Other membranes were created with tannic acid plus verdigris or potassium ferrocyanide plus copper chloride). These membranes laid the foundation for research into osmotic pressure in solutions (Wilhelm Pfeffer and Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff used them), and Traube himself did research on the manifestations of diffusion and osmosis.

Asakura and Oosawa described the second case as consisting of two plates in a solution of rod like macromolecules. The rod like macromolecules are described as having a length, l, where l^2 \ll A, the area of the plates. As the length of the rods increases, the concentration of the rods between the plates is decreased as it becomes more difficult for the rods to enter between the plates due to steric hindrances. As a result, the force acting on the plates increases with the length of the rods until it becomes equal to the osmotic pressure.

Worldwide amphibian populations have been on a steady decline due to an increase in the disease Chytridiomycosis, caused by this Bd fungus. Bd can be introduced to an amphibian primarily through water exposure, colonizing the digits and ventral surfaces of the animal's body most heavily and spreading throughout the body as the animal matures. Potential effects of this pathogen are hyperkeratosis, epidermal hyperplasia, ulcers, and most prominently the change in osmotic regulation often leading to cardiac arrest. The death toll on amphibians is dependent on a variety of factors but most crucially on the intensity of infection.

Simple PRO power generation scheme Osmotic Power Prototype at Tofte (Hurum), Norway One method to utilize salinity gradient energy is called pressure-retarded osmosis.Salinity-gradient power: Evaluation of pressure-retarded osmosis and reverse electrodialysis In this method, seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber that is at a pressure lower than the difference between the pressures of saline water and fresh water. Freshwater is also pumped into the pressure chamber through a membrane, which increase both the volume and pressure of the chamber. As the pressure differences are compensated, a turbine is spun, providing kinetic energy.

Though expressed highly in eye lens and muscle tissues, αBC can also be found in several types of cancer, among which head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) and breast carcinomas, as well as in patients with tuberous sclerosis. αBC expression is associated with metastasis formation in HNSCC and in breast carcinomas and in other types of cancer, expression is often correlated with poor prognosis as well. The expression of αBC can be increased during various stresses, like heat shock, osmotic stress or exposure to heavy metals, which then may lead to prolonged survival of cells under these conditions.

Dehydration occurs when water intake is not enough to replace free water lost due to normal physiologic processes, including breathing, urination, and perspiration, or other causes, including diarrhea and vomiting. Dehydration can be life-threatening when severe and lead to seizures or respiratory arrest, and also carries the risk of osmotic cerebral edema if rehydration is overly rapid. The term "dehydration" itself has sometimes been used incorrectly as a proxy for the separate, related condition hypovolemia, which specifically refers to a decrease in volume of blood plasma. The two are regulated through independent mechanisms in humans; the distinction is important in guiding treatment.

Red light hits leaves and depolarizes the plasma membrane of plant cells via photosensitive calcium and chloride ion channels. Chloride leaves the cells, while calcium enters. This depolarization causes an osmotic shift in ionic concentrations in the apoplast, which concurrently causes an increase in turgor pressure based on apoplastic solute potentials, forming an electrical gradient across the plasma membrane. The increase in turgor pressure causes the cells to expand, enabling the chloroplasts to shift to a different area, and the collective expansion of all the cells at once causes the leaf itself to become larger and more rigid.

Lysis ( ; Greek λύσις lýsis, "a loosing" from λύειν lýein, "to unbind") is the breaking down of the membrane of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or osmotic (that is, "lytic" ) mechanisms that compromise its integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed cells is called a lysate. In molecular biology, biochemistry, and cell biology laboratories, cell cultures may be subjected to lysis in the process of purifying their components, as in protein purification, DNA extraction, RNA extraction, or in purifying organelles. Many species of bacteria are subject to lysis by the enzyme lysozyme, found in animal saliva, egg white, and other secretions.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 4 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MAP3K4 gene. The central core of each mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is a conserved cascade of 3 protein kinases: an activated MAPK kinase kinase (MAPKKK) phosphorylates and activates a specific MAPK kinase (MAPKK), which then activates a specific MAPK. While the ERK MAPKs are activated by mitogenic stimulation, the CSBP2 (p38α) and JNK MAPKs are activated by environmental stresses such as osmotic shock, UV irradiation, wound stress, and inflammatory factors. This gene encodes a MAPKKK, the MEKK4 protein, also called MTK1.

This is problematic for some organisms with pervious skins or with gill membranes, whose cell membranes may burst if excess water is not excreted. Some protists accomplish this using contractile vacuoles, while freshwater fish excrete excess water via the kidney. Although most aquatic organisms have a limited ability to regulate their osmotic balance and therefore can only live within a narrow range of salinity, diadromous fish have the ability to migrate between fresh water and saline water bodies. During these migrations they undergo changes to adapt to the surroundings of the changed salinities; these processes are hormonally controlled.

The diagnosis of hereditary elliptocytosis is usually made by coupling a family history of the condition with an appropriate clinical presentation and confirmation on a blood smear. In general it requires that at least 25% of erythrocytes in the specimen are abnormally elliptical in shape, though the observed percentage of elliptocytes can be 100%. This is in contrast to the rest of the population, in which it is common for up to 15% of erythrocytes to be elliptical. If some doubt remains regarding the diagnosis, definitive diagnosis can involve osmotic fragility testing, an autohaemolysis test, and direct protein assaying by gel electrophoresis.

Sensitivity tests assess the sensory response of a tooth to an external stimulus, results which may be extrapolated to indirectly determine pulpal health status. Sensory stimuli, such as heat, cold or an electrical current, are applied to the tooth in question in order to stimulate the nocireceptors within the pulp. The type of sensory fibres activated and therefore the response felt by the patient depends on the stimulus used. Sensibility testing is based on Brännström's Hydrodynamic Theory, which postulates that the activation of nocireceptors is caused by fluid movement within the dentinal tubules in response to thermal, electrical, mechanical or osmotic stimuli.

These general anxiety-linked behaviors are likely induced through the CRF type 1 receptor, and the appetite behaviors are likely induced through the CRF type 2 receptor. The reduction in appetite from urocortin treatment could be a result of suppression of gastric emptying and/or hypoglycemia, which have been shown to result from urocortin treatment. Urocortin expression is stimulated in response to osmotic stress; water deprivation in rats has been shown to induce urocortin expression in the supraoptic nucleus. Montane Voles and Meadow Voles are closely related species of voles which are regularly studied as a model for social and mating behavior.

Additionally, they were able to plasmolyze the bacteriophages so that they went into osmotic shock, which effectively created a solution containing most of the 32P and a heavier solution containing structures called "ghosts" that contained the 35S and the protein coat of the virus. It was found that these "ghosts" could adsorb to bacteria that were susceptible to T2, although they contained no DNA and were simply the remains of the original bacterial capsule. They concluded that the protein protected the DNA from DNAse, but that once the two were separated and the phage was inactivated, the DNAse could hydrolyze the phage DNA.

One example is Chromohalobacter beijerinckii, found in salted beans preserved in brine and in salted herring. Tetragenococcus halophilus is found in salted anchovies and soy sauce. Artemia is a ubiquitous genus of small halophilic crustaceans living in salt lakes (such as Great Salt Lake) and solar salterns that can exist in water approaching the precipitation point of NaCl (340 g/L) and can withstand strong osmotic shocks due to its mitigating strategies for fluctuating salinity levels, such as its unique larval salt gland and osmoregulatory capacity. North Ronaldsay sheep are a breed of sheep originating from Orkney, Scotland.

Several salt-tolerance mechanisms of H. werneckii have been studied on molecular level. For example, it is known that its major compatible solutes are glycerol, erythritol, arabitol, and mannitol; melanin accumulation of the cell wall aids in retention of at least glycerol inside of the cell. Several components of the high osmolarity glycerol (HOG) signalling pathway (which controls responses to osmotic shock) have been studied in detail and some seem to differ in function compared to their counterparts in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Adaptation to high concentrations of salt are also accompanied by changes in membrane lipid composition, mainly by increasing the unsaturation of the phospholipid fatty acids.

Trapping of the cationic compound also draws water into the lysosome through an osmotic effect, which can sometimes lead to vacuolization seen in in vitro cultured cells. Diagram showing how protonation of weak bases like chloroquine in the acidic environment of the lysosome results in ion trapping, or accumulation of the weak base in the lysosome. Bafilomycin inhibits this trapping through its action on V-ATPase, which normally acidifies the lysosome. When one of these drugs is co-applied to cells with bafilomycin A1, the action of bafilomycin A1 prevents the acidification of the lysosome, therefore preventing the phenomenon of ion trapping in this compartment.

Since the glucose that normally enters the cells is unable to do so without insulin, it begins to build up in the blood where it can be seen as hyperglycemia or high blood glucose levels. The tubules of the kidneys are normally able to re-absorb glucose, but they are unable to handle and process the amount of glucose they are being presented with. At this point, which is called the renal threshold, the excess glucose spills into the urine (glycosuria), where it can be seen in urine glucose testing. It is the polyuria, or over-frequent urination, which causes polydipsia, or excessive water consumption, through an osmotic process.

However, to determine the alkali equivalent content (Na2Oeq) in cement, because the need to maintain electroneutrality in solids or in solution, one directly measures the contents of cement in Na and K elements and one conservatively considers that their counter ions are the hydroxide ions. As Na+ and K+ cations are hydrated species, they also contribute to retain water in alkali-silica reaction products. Osmotic processes (Chatterji et al., 1986, 1987, 1989) and the electrical double layer (EDL) play also a fundamental role in the transport of water towards the concentrated liquid alkali gel explaining their swelling behavior and the deleterious expansion of aggregates responsible of ASR damages in concrete.

LID can also be used to eliminate the need for stormwater ponds, which occupy expensive land. Incorporating LID into designs enables developers to build more homes on the same plot of land and maximize their profits. According to the co-benefits approach, LID is an opportunity to technically mitigate urban heat island (UHI) phenomenon with higher compatibilities in cool pavement and green infrastructures. Although there are some intrinsic discrepancies among understandings of LID and UHI mitigation towards blue infrastructure, the osmotic pool, wet pond, and regulating pond are essential supplements to urban water bodies, performing their roles in nourishing vegetation and evaporating for cooling in UHI mitigation.

The possibility that some proteins are non-covalent associations of such macromolecules was shown by Gilbert Smithson Adair (by measuring the osmotic pressure of hemoglobin) and, later, by Frederic M. Richards in his studies of ribonuclease S. The mass spectrometry of proteins has long been a useful technique for identifying posttranslational modifications and, more recently, for probing protein structure. Most proteins are difficult to purify in more than milligram quantities, even using the most modern methods. Hence, early studies focused on proteins that could be purified in large quantities, e.g., those of blood, egg white, various toxins, and digestive/metabolic enzymes obtained from slaughterhouses.

The initial design developed in 1982 by ALZA researchers was designated the Push-Pull Osmotic Pump (PPOP), and Procardia XL (nifedipine) was one of the first drugs to utilize this PPOP design. An animation illustrating the exterior/interior compositions of a tablet of Concerta, a PSOP OROS design. In the early 1990s, an ALZA-funded research program began to develop a new dosage form of methylphenidate for the treatment of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Methylphenidate's short half-life required multiple doses to be administered each day to attain long-lasting coverage, which made it an ideal candidate for the OROS technology.

This allows urea to leave the collecting duct into the medulla, creating a hyperosmotic solution that "attracts" water. Urea can then re-enter the nephron and be excreted or recycled again depending on whether ADH is still present or not. The 'single effect' describes the fact that the ascending thick limb of the loop of Henle is not permeable to water but is permeable to sodium chloride. This allows for a countercurrent exchange system whereby the medulla becomes increasingly concentrated, but at the same time setting up an osmotic gradient for water to follow should the aquaporins of the collecting duct be opened by ADH.

Infection by C. septicum was once thought to be extremely rare, however anaerobic laboratory techniques allowed for the discovery of the true potential of this infectious microbe. Infections are typically seen in settings of immunodeficiency, trauma, surgery, malignancy, skin infections/burns, and septic abortions. Sites prone to infection are those with poor vascular supply, although because of pH, electrolyte and osmotic differences, the colon may promote the growth of C. septicum better than most other anatomical regions. One of the more aggressive progenitors of gas gangrene, C. septicum infection progresses very rapidly, with a mortality rate of approximately 79% in adults, typically occurring within 48 hours of infection.

V2 receptor (V2R) differs from V1R primarily in the number of sites susceptible to N-linked glycosylation; the V1R has sites at both the amino-terminus and at the extracellular loop, whereas the V2R has a single site at the extracellular amino-terminus. The well known antidiuretic effect of vasopressin occurs via activation of V2R. Vasopressin regulates water excretion from the kidney by increasing the osmotic water permeability of the renal collecting duct – an effect that is explained by coupling of the V2R with the Gs signaling pathway, which activates cAMP. The V2R continues to activate Gs after being internalized by β-arrestin rather than being desensitized.

The morphology of Nafion membranes is a matter of continuing study to allow for greater control of its properties. Other properties such as water management, hydration stability at high temperatures, electro-osmotic drag, as well as the mechanical, thermal, and oxidative stability, are affected by the Nafion structure. Cluster-network model The first model for Nafion, called the cluster-channel or cluster-network model, consisted of an equal distribution of sulfonate ion clusters (also described as 'inverted micelles') with a 40 Å (4 nm) diameter held within a continuous fluorocarbon lattice. Narrow channels about 10 Å (1 nm) in diameter interconnect the clusters, which explains the transport properties.

When soil is irrigated with low pH / acidic water, the useful salts ( Ca, Mg, K, P, S, etc.) are removed by draining water from the acidic soil and in addition unwanted aluminium and manganese salts to the plants are dissolved from the soil impeding plant growth.Managing irrigation water quality, Oregon State University, USA, Retrieved on 2012-10-04. When soil is irrigated with high salinity water or sufficient water is not draining out from the irrigated soil, the soil would convert into saline soil or lose its fertility. Saline water enhance the turgor pressure or osmotic pressure requirement which impedes the off take of water and nutrients by the plant roots.

Its eggs are fed upon by the whelks Burnupena papyracea and B. lagenaria, which can pierce the outer covering to extract the yolk within. Like other sharks, the pyjama shark maintains osmotic balance with the environment by regulating its internal concentration of urea and other nitrogenous wastes. Experiments have shown that the shark's capacity for osmoregulation is dependent on how well it has fed. The pyjama shark feeds on a wide variety of small animals, including bony fishes such as anchovies, gurnards, and hakes, hagfishes, smaller sharks and rays and their egg cases, crustaceans, cephalopods, bivalves, and polychaete worms; it has also been known to scavenge on fish offal.

Synaptosomes have been widely used for the in vitro biochemical analysis of presynaptic function and as a test preparation in pharmaceutical industry, providing the basis of thousands of publications on the biochemistry of synaptic transmission. Using osmotic shock he subsequently showed that intact synaptic vesicles of high purity can be isolated by density gradient centrifugation from lysed synaptosomes. He demonstrated that these vesicles store the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, providing a biochemical basis for the mechanism of quantal transmitter release. Based on earlier work it had been hypothesized that the small electron-lucent vesicles observed by electron microscopy in cholinergic nerve terminals contained and released quantal packages of the neurotransmitter.

William John Dakin (23 April 1883 – 2 April 1950) was a zoologist who is remembered for the large number of his students who achieved prominence in the area of zoology and for the number of books and papers he wrote on many scientific fields. Dakin was born in Toxteth, a suburb of Liverpool, England in 1883, as the son of William and Elizabeth Dakin. His father was a coal merchant. Studying at the University of Liverpool he attained his BSc with first class honours in Zoology in 1905, his MSc in 1907 and his DSc in 1911 on osmotic pressure and the blood of fishes.

Dried ApricotsIntermediate moisture foods (IMF) are shelf-stable products that have water activities of 0.6-0.84, with a moisture content ranging from 15% - 40% and are edible without rehydration. These food products are below the minimum water activity for most bacteria (0.90), but are susceptible to yeast and mold growth. Historically, ancient civilizations would produce IMF using methods such as sun drying, roasting over fire and adding salt to preserve food for winter months or when preparing for travel. Currently, this form of processing is achieved by using one of four methods: partial drying, osmotic drying using a humectant, dry infusion and by formulation.

Unusual examples include Aureobasidium pullulans, which feeds on wall paint, and the kerosene fungus Amorphotheca resinae, which feeds on aircraft fuel (causing occasional problems for the airline industry), and may sometimes block fuel pipes. Other species can resist high osmotic stress and grow, for example, on salted fish, and a few ascomycetes are aquatic. The Ascomycota is characterized by a high degree of specialization; for instance, certain species of Laboulbeniales attack only one particular leg of one particular insect species. Many Ascomycota engage in symbiotic relationships such as in lichens—symbiotic associations with green algae or cyanobacteria—in which the fungal symbiont directly obtains products of photosynthesis.

A similar example is the cocurrent concentration exchange. The system consists of two tubes, one with brine (concentrated saltwater), the other with freshwater (which has a low concentration of salt in it), and a semi permeable membrane which allows only water to pass between the two, in an osmotic process. Many of the water molecules pass from the freshwater flow in order to dilute the brine, while the concentration of salt in the freshwater constantly grows (since the salt is not leaving this flow, while water is). This will continue, until both flows reach a similar dilution, with a concentration somewhere close to midway between the two original dilutions.

Large tortoises would have a greater chance of surviving the journey over water from the mainland as they can hold their heads a greater height above the water level and have a smaller surface area/volume ratio, which reduces osmotic water loss. Their significant water and fat reserves would allow the tortoises to survive long ocean crossings without food or fresh water, and to endure the drought-prone climate of the islands. A larger size allowed them to better tolerate extremes of temperature due to gigantothermy. Fossil giant tortoises from mainland South America have been described that support this hypothesis of gigantism that pre-existed the colonization of islands.

In contrast, the most proximal occlusions result in widespread effects that can lead to significant cerebral edema, increased intracranial pressure, loss of consciousness and could even be fatal. In such occasions, mannitol (osmotic diuretic) or hypertonic saline are given to draw fluid out of the edematous cerebrum to minimise secondary injury. Hypertonic saline is better than mannitol, as mannitol being a diuretic will decrease the mean arterial pressure and since cerebral perfusion is mean arterial pressure minus intracranial pressure, mannitol will also cause a decrease in cerebral perfusion. Contralateral hemiparesis and hemisensory loss of the face, upper and lower extremities is the most common presentation of MCA syndrome.

The lens epithelium, located in the anterior portion of the lens between the lens capsule and the lens fibers, is a simple cuboidal epithelium. The cells of the lens epithelium regulate most of the homeostatic functions of the lens. As ions, nutrients, and liquid enter the lens from the aqueous humor, Na+/K+-ATPase pumps in the lens epithelial cells pump ions out of the lens to maintain appropriate lens osmotic concentration and volume, with equatorially positioned lens epithelium cells contributing most to this current. The activity of the Na+/K+-ATPases keeps water and current flowing through the lens from the poles and exiting through the equatorial regions.

Abscisic acid is also produced in the roots in response to decreased soil water potential (which is associated with dry soil) and other situations in which the plant may be under stress. ABA then translocates to the leaves, where it rapidly alters the osmotic potential of stomatal guard cells, causing them to shrink and stomata to close. The ABA-induced stomatal closure reduces transpiration (evaporation of water out of the stomata), thus preventing further water loss from the leaves in times of low water availability. A close linear correlation was found between the ABA content of the leaves and their conductance (stomatal resistance) on a leaf area basis.

An ionocyte (formerly called a chloride cell) is a mitochondrion-rich cell within a teleost fish gill that contributes to the maintenance of optimal osmotic, ionic, and acid-base levels within the fish. By expending energy to power the enzyme Na+/K+-ATPase and in coordination with other protein transporters, marine teleost ionocytes pump excessive sodium and chloride ions against the concentration gradient into the ocean. Conversely, freshwater teleost ionocytes use this low intracellular environment to attain sodium and chloride ions into the organism, and also against the concentration gradient. In larval fishes with underdeveloped / developing gills, ionocytes can be found on the skin and fins.

Functionally, however, the SFO may be viewed in two portions, the dorsolateral peripheral (pSFO) division and the ventromedial core segment. As an important mechanism of both energy and osmotic homeostasis, the SFO has many efferent projections. In fact, SFO neurons have been experimentally shown to broadcast efferent projections to regions involved in cardiovascular regulation including the lateral hypothalamus with fibers terminating in the supraoptic (SON) and paraventricular (PVN) nuclei, and the anteroventral 3rd ventricle (AV3V) with fibers terminating in the VOLT and the median preoptic area. It seems that the most essential of all these connections is the SFO’s projections to the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus.

This method is being specifically studied by the Norwegian utility Statkraft, which has calculated that up to 2.85 GW would be available from this process in Norway.Recent Developments in Salinity Gradient Power Statkraft has built the world's first prototype PRO power plant on the Oslo fjord which was opened by Princess Mette-Marit of Norway Statkraft-osmotic-power on November 24, 2009. It aimed to produce enough electricity to light and heat a small town within five years by osmosis. At first, it did produce a minuscule 4 kilowatts – enough to heat a large electric kettle, but by 2015 the target was 25 megawatts – the same as a small wind farm.

Immune Complex Glomerulonephritis, as seen in Henoch- Schönlein purpura; this is an example of IgA involvement in a nephropathy The reaction can take hours, days, or even weeks to develop, depending on whether or not there is immunological memory of the precipitating antigen. Typically, clinical features emerge a week following initial antigen challenge, when the deposited immune complexes can precipitate an inflammatory response. Because of the nature of the antibody aggregation, tissues that are associated with blood filtration at considerable osmotic and hydrostatic gradient (e.g. sites of urinary and synovial fluid formation, kidney glomeruli and joint tissues respectively) bear the brunt of the damage.

These cyst wall properties allow the infective form of the parasite to persist for prolonged periods of time in extreme environments before it is ingested by the next host. Once ingested, the cyst travels through the digestive system unaffected until it reaches the small intestine, where it encounters several triggers, that have been found to induce excystation. Such triggers include, low glucose, osmotic shock, and a combination of water, bicarbonate, and bile. Eight pathogenic trophozoites emerge from each cyst (Brewer, 2008) and begin to feed on the bacteria that is naturally found in the reptilian gut in addition to mucin cells that make up the mucosal layer of the large intestine.

While doing fish research at Scripps, Keys would use statistical regressions to estimate the weight of fish from their length, at that time a pioneering use of biostatistics. Once in Copenhagen (1931), he continued to study fish physiology and developed techniques for gill perfusion that provided evidence that fish regulated their sodium by controlling chloride excretion through their gills. He would also use this perfusion method to study the effects of adrenaline and vasopressin ("pitressin") on gill fluid flow and osmotic regulation in fishes. He also designed an improved Kjeldahl apparatus, which improved upon Krogh's earlier design, and allowed for more rapid determination of nitrogen content in biological samples.

These new systems include pellets of medication coated with various time-release substances to permit medications to dissolve hourly across an 8–12 hour period (Metadate CD, Adderall XR, Focalin XR) and an osmotic pump that extrudes a liquid methylphenidate sludge across an 8–12 hour period after ingestion (Concerta). In 2003, atomoxetine (Strattera) received the first FDA approval for a nonstimulant drug to be used specifically for ADHD. In 2007, lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse) became the first prodrug for ADHD to receive FDA approval. In March 2019, a Purdue Pharma subsidiary received approval from the FDA for Adhansia XR, a methylphenidate medication to treat ADHD.

Interpretation of results is always easier if organisms are grown in chemically defined media and media could be very simple as would be expected for a saprophytic organism first isolated from ditch water. In this context it is worth noting that, although methionine is supplied in all culture media, the organisms can synthesise methionine and in their natural environment they probably use sulfide available at low concentration. Methionine is required for branching and, if added just before branching of a growing culture, hydrogen sulfide, cysteine and homocysteine can all be used. Methods based on vortex mixing and osmotic shock cause death of many spores.

Osmosis may be used directly to achieve separation of water from a solution containing unwanted solutes. A "draw" solution of higher osmotic pressure than the feed solution is used to induce a net flow of water through a semi- permeable membrane, such that the feed solution becomes concentrated as the draw solution becomes dilute. The diluted draw solution may then be used directly (as with an ingestible solute like glucose), or sent to a secondary separation process for the removal of the draw solute. This secondary separation can be more efficient than a reverse osmosis process would be alone, depending on the draw solute used and the feedwater treated.

The types and sizes of bioaerosols vary in marine environments and occur largely because of wet-discharges caused by changes in osmotic pressure or surface tension. Some types of marine originated bioaerosols excrete dry-discharges of fungal spores that are transported by the wind. One instance of impact on marine species was the 1983 die off of Caribbean sea fans and sea urchins that correlated with dust storms originating in Africa. This correlation was determined by the work of microbiologists and a Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer, which identified bacteria, viral, and fungal bioaerosols in the dust clouds that were tracked over the Atlantic Ocean.

The way and the extent > to which that need could be satisfied is different in various periods, but > the tendency for as pure and selective language can be noted even in Old > Dubrovnik writers, and in Vitezović. All the way to pre-Illyrian and > Illyrian efforts and by the end of the XIX. century, when the osmotic > influence of traditional Croatian literary heritage does not cease to > stop...That care of language purity which characterizes Croatian literary > expression even in the XIX. century, remains immanent in later > periods...Literary language of the Croats is in fact organic continuation of > older state of affairs in Croatian literature.

Among the Zygosaccharomyces spoilage species, Z. bailii possesses the most pronounced and diversified resistance characteristics, enabling it to survive and proliferate in very stressful conditions. It appears that Z. bailii prefers ecological environments characterized by high osmotic conditions. The most frequently described natural habitats are dried or fermented fruits, tree exudates (in vineyards and orchards), and at various stages of sugar refining and syrup production. Besides, it is seldom to encounter Z. bailii as a major spoilage agent in unprocessed foods; usually the yeast only attains importance in processed products when the competition with bacteria and moulds is reduced by intrinsic factors such as pH, water activity (aw), preservatives, etc.

This bleeding occurs when the soil begins to warm and osmotic forces pushes water, containing a low concentration of organic acids, hormones, minerals and sugars, up from the root system of the vine and it is expelled from the cuts (or "wounds") left over from pruning the vine. During this period a single vine can "bleed" up to of water.J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 82 Oxford University Press 2006 Tiny buds on the vine start to swell and eventually shoots begin to grow from the buds. Buds are the small part of the vine that rest between the vine's stem and the petiole (leaf stem).

Mimosa pudica It has been concluded that loss of turgor pressure within the leaves of Mimosa pudica is responsible for the reaction the plant has when touched. Other factors such as changes in osmotic pressure, protoplasmic contraction and increase in cellular permeability have been observed to affect this response. It has also been recorded that turgor pressure is different in the upper and lower pulvinar cells of the plant, and the movement of potassium and calcium ions throughout the cells cause the increase in turgor pressure. When touched, the pulvinus is activated and exudes contractile proteins, which in turn increases turgor pressure and closes the leaves of the plant.

Note that Sides 1 and 2 are no longer in osmotic equilibrium (i.e. the total osmolytes on each side are not the same) In vivo, ion balance does equilibriate at the proportions that would be predicted by the Gibbs–Donnan model, because the cell cannot tolerate the attendant large influx of water. This is balanced by instating a functionally impermeant cation, Na+, extracellularly to counter the anionic protein. Na+ does cross the membrane via leak channels (the permeability is approximately 1/10 that of K+, the most permeant ion) but, as per the pump-leak model, it is extruded by the Na+/K+-ATPase.

One early theoretician of cryopreservation was James Lovelock. In 1953, he suggested that damage to red blood cells during freezing was due to osmotic stress, and that increasing the salt concentration in a dehydrating cell might damage it. In the mid-1950s, he experimented with the cryopreservation of rodents, determining that hamsters could be frozen with 60% of the water in the brain crystallized into ice with no adverse effects; other organs were shown to be susceptible to damage. This work led other scientists to attempt the short-term freezing of rats by 1955, which were fully active 4 to 7 days after being revived.

Growth in cell size of bacteria in the Lenski experiment All twelve of the experimental populations show an increase in cell size concurrent with a decline in maximum population density, and in many of the populations, a more rounded cell shape. This change was partly the result of a mutation that changed the expression of a gene for a penicillin-binding protein, which allowed the mutant bacteria to outcompete ancestral bacteria under the conditions in the long-term evolution experiment. However, although this mutation increased fitness under these conditions, it also increased the bacteria's sensitivity to osmotic stress and decreased their ability to survive long periods in stationary phase cultures.

Chronic hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) injures the heart in patients without a history of heart disease or diabetes and is strongly associated with heart attacks and death in subjects with no coronary heart disease or history of heart failure. Also, life- threatening consequences of hyperglycemia is nonketotic hyperosmolar syndrome. Perioperative hyperglycemia has been associated with immunosuppression, increased infections, osmotic diuresis, delayed wound healing, delayed gastric emptying, sympatho-adrenergic stimulation, and increased mortality. In addition, it reduces skin graft success, exacerbates brain, spinal cord, and renal damage by ischemia, worsens neurologic outcomes in traumatic head injuries, and is associated with postoperative cognitive dysfunction following CABG.Miller, Miller’s Anesthesia, 7th edition, pp.

The sea offers a very large supply of energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity differences, and ocean temperature differences which can be harnessed to generate electricity. Forms of 'green' marine energy include tidal power, marine current power, osmotic power, ocean thermal energy and wave power. Tidal power: the 1 km Rance Tidal Power Station in Brittany generates 0.5 GW. Tidal power uses generators to produce electricity from tidal flows, sometimes by using a dam to store and then release seawater. The Rance barrage, long, near St Malo in Brittany opened in 1967; it generates about 0.5 GW, but it has been followed by few similar schemes.

In another study, the combination of positively charged peptide amphiphiles and negatively charged long biopolymers led to the formation of hierarchically ordered membranes. When the two solutions are brought into contact, electrostatic complexation between the components of each solution creates a diffusion barrier that prevents the mixing of the solutions. Over time, an osmotic pressure difference drives the reptation of polymer chains through the diffusion barrier into the peptide amphiphile compartment, leading to the formation of fibers perpendicular to the interface that grow over time. These materials can be made in the form of flat membranes or as spherical sacs by dropping one solution into the other.

When saturated, the soil may lose nutrients as the water drains. Water moves in a draining field under the influence of pressure where the soil is locally saturated and by capillarity pull to drier parts of the soil. Most plant water needs are supplied from the suction caused by evaporation from plant leaves (transpiration) and a lower fraction is supplied by suction created by osmotic pressure differences between the plant interior and the soil solution. Plant roots must seek out water and grow preferentially in moister soil microsites, but some parts of the root system are also able to remoisten dry parts of the soil.

This results in edema, as the oncotic pressure in tissue remains the same. Although decreased intravascular oncotic (i.e. osmotic) pressure partially explains the patient's edema, more recent studies have shown that extensive sodium retention in the distal nephron (collecting duct) is the predominant cause of water retention and edema in the nephrotic syndrome.The Nephrotic Syndrome Stephan R. Orth, M.D., and Eberhard Ritz, M.D. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:1202–1211 April 23, 1998 DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199804233381707 This is worsened by the secretion of the hormone aldosterone by the adrenal gland, which is secreted in response to the decrease in circulating blood and causes sodium and water retention.

The kidneys respond by excreting sodium ions into the urine, thereby normalizing the plasma sodium ion concentration. The low angiotensin II levels in the blood lower the arterial blood pressure as an inevitable concomitant response. The reabsorption of sodium ions from the tubular fluid as a result of high aldosterone levels in the blood does not, of itself, cause renal tubular water to be returned to the blood from the distal convoluted tubules or collecting ducts. This is because sodium is reabsorbed in exchange for potassium and therefore causes only a modest change in the osmotic gradient between the blood and the tubular fluid.

Fields of scientific research relevant to halotolerance include biochemistry, molecular biology, cell biology, physiology, ecology, and genetics. An understanding of halotolerance can be applicable to areas such as arid-zone agriculture, xeriscaping, aquaculture (of fish or algae), bioproduction of desirable compounds (such as phycobiliproteins or carotenoids) using seawater to support growth, or remediation of salt-affected soils. In addition, many environmental stressors involve or induce osmotic changes, so knowledge gained about halotolerance can also be relevant to understanding tolerance to extremes in moisture or temperature. Goals of studying halotolerance include increasing the agricultural productivity of lands affected by soil salination or where only saline water is available.

Researchers have also been able to develop alginate microcapsules with an altered form of alginate with enhanced biocompatibility and higher resistance to osmotic swelling. Another approach to increasing the biocompatibility of the membrane biomaterial is through surface modification of the capsules using peptide and protein molecules which in turn controls the proliferation and rate of differentiation of the encapsulated cells. One group that has been working extensively on coupling the amino acid sequence Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) to alginate hydrogels demonstrated that the cell behavior can be controlled by the RGD density coupled on the alginate gels. Alginate microparticles loaded with myoblast cells and functionalized with RGD allowed control over the growth and differentiation of the loaded cells.

It is essential that the microcapsules have adequate membrane strength (mechanical stability) to endure physical and osmotic stress such as during the exchange of nutrients and waste products. The microcapsules should be strong enough and should not rupture on implantation as this could lead to an immune rejection of the encapsulated cells. For instance, in the case of xenotransplantation, a tighter more stable membrane would be required in comparison to allotransplantation. Also, while investigating the potential of using APA microcapsules loaded with bile salt hydrolase (BSH) overproducing active Lactobacillus plantarum 80 cells, in a simulated gastro intestinal tract model for oral delivery applications, the mechanical integrity and shape of the microcapsules was evaluated.

The van 't Hoff factor (named after Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff) is a measure of the effect of a solute upon colligative properties such as osmotic pressure, relative lowering in vapor pressure, boiling-point elevation and freezing-point depression. The van 't Hoff factor is the ratio between the actual concentration of particles produced when the substance is dissolved and the concentration of a substance as calculated from its mass. For most non-electrolytes dissolved in water, the van 't Hoff factor is essentially 1. For most ionic compounds dissolved in water, the van 't Hoff factor is equal to the number of discrete ions in a formula unit of the substance.

NK cells are cytotoxic; small granules in their cytoplasm contain proteins such as perforin and proteases known as granzymes. Upon release in close proximity to a cell slated for killing, perforin forms pores in the cell membrane of the target cell, creating an aqueous channel through which the granzymes and associated molecules can enter, inducing either apoptosis or osmotic cell lysis. The distinction between apoptosis and cell lysis is important in immunology: lysing a virus-infected cell could potentially release the virions, whereas apoptosis leads to destruction of the virus inside. α-defensins, antimicrobial molecules, are also secreted by NK cells, and directly kill bacteria by disrupting their cell walls in a manner analogous to that of neutrophils.

In contrast to bony fish, with the exception of the coelacanth, the blood and other tissue of sharks and Chondrichthyes is generally isotonic to their marine environments because of the high concentration of urea (up to 2.5%) and trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), allowing them to be in osmotic balance with the seawater. This adaptation prevents most sharks from surviving in freshwater, and they are therefore confined to marine environments. A few exceptions exist, such as the bull shark, which has developed a way to change its kidney function to excrete large amounts of urea. When a shark dies, the urea is broken down to ammonia by bacteria, causing the dead body to gradually smell strongly of ammonia.

Gas vesicles occur primarily in aquatic organisms as they are used to modulate the cell's buoyancy and modify the cell's position in the water column so it can be optimally located for photosynthesis or move to locations with more or less oxygen. Organisms that could float to the air–liquid interface out competes other aerobes that cannot rise in a water column, through using up oxygen in the top layer. In addition, gas vesicles can be used to maintain optimum salinity by positioning the organism in specific locations in a stratified body of water to prevent osmotic shock. High concentrations of solute will cause water to be drawn out of the cell by osmosis, causing cell lysis.

Van 't Hoff derived his analogy based on data from experiments that Wilhelm Pfeffer, a professor of botany, had published a decade earlier under the title "Osmotische Untersuchungen" -- an account of his endeavors to measure osmotic pressure by means of porous cells lined with a semipermeable membrane consisting of copper(II)-hexacyanoferrate(II). After van 't Hoff's theory was published, experimenters had trouble to replicate Pfeffer's measurements, mainly because they could not find or make clay cells of suitable quality to support the semipermeable membrane, a problem that had affected Pfeffer as well. Furthermore, Morse showed that Pfeffer's cells were leaky at high pressure. Morse's main experimental contribution was an electrolytic method of depositing semi-permeable membranes.

Yasaman Daghighi and Dongqing Li, for the first time, experimentally illustrated these induced vortices around a 1.2mm diameter carbon-steel sphere under the 40V/cm direct current (DC) external electric filed. Chenhui Peng et al.C. Peng, I. Lazo, S. V. Shiyanovskii, O. D. Lavrentovich , Induced-charge electro-osmosis around metal and Janus spheres in water: Patterns of flow and breaking symmetries, arXiv preprint , (2014) also experimentally showed the patterns of electro-osmotic flow around an Au sphere when alternating current (AC) is involved (E=10mV/μm, f=1 kHz). Electrokinetics here refers to a branch of science related to the motion and reaction of charged particles to the applied electric filed and its effects on its environment.

Bacteria cells may enter the VBNC state as a result of some outside stressor such as "starvation, incubation outside the temperature range of growth, elevated osmotic concentrations (seawater), oxygen concentrations, or exposure to white light" (9). Any of these instances could very easily mean death for the bacteria if it was not able to enter this state of dormancy. It has also been observed that in may instances where it was thought that bacteria had been destroyed (pasteurization of milk) and later caused spoilage or harmful effects to consumers because the bacteria had entered the VBNC state. Effects on cells entering the VBNC state include "dwarfing, changes in metabolic activity, reduced nutrient transport, respiration rates and macromolecular synthesis".

Food vacuoles are formed through phagocytosis and typically follow a particular path through the cell as their contents are digested and broken down by lysosomes so the substances the vacuole contains are then small enough to diffuse through the membrane of the food vacuole into the cell. Anything left in the food vacuole by the time it reaches the cytoproct (anal pore) is discharged by exocytosis. Most ciliates also have one or more prominent contractile vacuoles, which collect water and expel it from the cell to maintain osmotic pressure, or in some function to maintain ionic balance. In some genera, such as Paramecium, these have a distinctive star shape, with each point being a collecting tube.

The first Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded in 1901 to Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, of the Netherlands, "for his discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions". From 1901 to 2018, the award has been bestowed on a total of 180 individuals. The 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna for the development of a method for genome editing known as CRISPR Cas-9 – the first time that two women have jointly won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Only five other women have received the prize, including Marie Curie, her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1964), Ada Yonath (2009), and Frances H. Arnold (2018).

Furosemide, like other loop diuretics, acts by inhibiting the luminal Na-K-Cl cotransporter in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle, by binding to the chloride transport channel, thus causing sodium, chloride, and potassium loss in urine. The action on the distal tubules is independent of any inhibitory effect on carbonic anhydrase or aldosterone; it also abolishes the corticomedullary osmotic gradient and blocks negative, as well as positive, free water clearance. Because of the large NaCl absorptive capacity of the loop of Henle, diuresis is not limited by development of acidosis, as it is with the carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Additionally, furosemide is a noncompetitive subtype-specific blocker of GABA-A receptors.

A red blood cell in a hypertonic solution, causing water to move out of the cell. A hypertonic solution has a greater concentration of solutes than another solution. In biology, the tonicity of a solution usually refers to its solute concentration relative to that of another solution on the opposite side of a cell membrane; a solution outside of a cell is called hypertonic if it has a greater concentration of solutes than the cytosol inside the cell. When a cell is immersed in a hypertonic solution, osmotic pressure tends to force water to flow out of the cell in order to balance the concentrations of the solutes on either side of the cell membrane.

It is possible to couple a thermodynamically favorable reaction (a transition from a high-energy state to a lower-energy state) to a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction (such as a separation of charges, or the creation of an osmotic gradient), in such a way that the overall free energy of the system decreases (making it thermodynamically possible), while useful work is done at the same time. The principle that biological macromolecules catalyze a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction if and only if a thermodynamically favorable reaction occurs simultaneously, underlies all known forms of life. Electron transport chains (most known as ETC) produce energy in the form of a transmembrane electrochemical potential gradient. This energy is used to do useful work.

Xylem sap (pronounced ) consists primarily of a watery solution of hormones, mineral elements and other nutrients. Transport of sap in xylem is characterized by movement from the roots toward the leaves. Over the past century, there has been some controversy regarding the mechanism of xylem sap transport; today, most plant scientists agree that the cohesion-tension theory best explains this process, but multiforce theories that hypothesize several alternative mechanisms have been suggested, including longitudinal cellular and xylem osmotic pressure gradients, axial potential gradients in the vessels, and gel- and gas-bubble-supported interfacial gradients. Xylem sap transport can be disrupted by cavitation—an "abrupt phase change [of water] from liquid to vapor"—resulting in air-filled xylem conduits.

After being placed in an environment with salt and osmotic stress and then later being returned to a standard growth medium, the P. patens wildtype was able to recover to 94% of its fresh weight while the P. patens mutant only reached 39% of its fresh weight. This study also concludes that DHN production allows plants to function in high salt concentrations. Another study found evidence of DHN’s impact in drought-stress recovery by showing that transcription levels of a DHN increased in a drought-tolerant pine, Pinus pinaster, when placed in a drought treatment. However, transcription levels of a DHN decreased in the same drought treatment in a drought-sensitive P. pinaster.

Calcium ion stabilizes the polysaccharide gel, protecting the embryonic receptacle from drying out during the growth of the egg. Potassium is required for the gelatinous layer to retain its osmotic pressure and retain water; high concentrations of the element are needed to support the rapid growth of the receptacle. The high concentration of elements suggests that the gelatinous layer has a "placenta- like" function—serving as a reservoir from which the receptacle may draw upon as it rapidly expands. Pigments responsible for the orange to red colors of the mature fruit bodies have been identified as carotenes, predominantly lycopene and beta-carotene—the same compounds responsible for the red and orange colors of tomatoes and carrots, respectively.

In the peripheral organs, the lymphatic system performs important immune functions and runs parallel to the blood circulatory system to provide a secondary circulation that transports excess interstitial fluid, proteins, and metabolic waste products from the systemic tissues back into the blood. The efficient removal of soluble proteins from the interstitial fluid is critical to the regulation of both colloidal osmotic pressure and homeostatic regulation of the fluid volume of the body. The importance of lymphatic flow is especially evident when the lymphatic system becomes obstructed. In lymphatic associated diseases, such as elephantiasis (where parasites occupying the lymphatic vessels block the flow of lymph), the impact of such an obstruction may be dramatic.

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that uses a partially permeable membrane to remove ions, unwanted molecules and larger particles from drinking water. In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure, a colligative property that is driven by chemical potential differences of the solvent, a thermodynamic parameter. Reverse osmosis can remove many types of dissolved and suspended chemical species as well as biological ones (principally bacteria) from water, and is used in both industrial processes and the production of potable water. The result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side.

To be "selective", this membrane should not allow large molecules or ions through the pores (holes), but should allow smaller components of the solution (such as solvent molecules, i.e., water, H2O) to pass freely. In the normal osmosis process, the solvent naturally moves from an area of low solute concentration (high water potential), through a membrane, to an area of high solute concentration (low water potential). The driving force for the movement of the solvent is the reduction in the Gibbs free energy of the system when the difference in solvent concentration on either side of a membrane is reduced, generating osmotic pressure due to the solvent moving into the more concentrated solution.

As a member of subfamily 7 of the aldehyde dehydrogenase gene family, antiquitin performs NAD(P)+-dependent oxidation of aldehydes generated by alcohol metabolism, lipid peroxidation, and other cases of oxidative stress, to their corresponding carboxylic acids . In addition, antiquitin plays a role in protecting cells and tissues from the damaging effects of osmotic stress, presumably through the generation of osmolytes. Antiquitin may also play a protective role for DNA in cell growth, as the protein is found to be up-regulated during the G1–S phase transition, which undergoes the highest degree of oxidative stress in the cell cycle. Furthermore, antiquitin functions as an aldehyde dehydrogenase for α-AASA in the pipecolic acid pathway of lysine catabolism.

Tunas have elevated levels of ion and water transfer due to their elevated gill and intestinal Na+/K+ ATPase activity, in which this activity is estimated to be about four to five times higher when compared to other freshwater vertebrates, such as rainbow trout. The gills, due to their large surface area, play a significant role toward osmoregulation in the tuna to maintaining water and ionic balance by excreting NaCl. The intestine also contributes toward compromising for the osmotic loss of water to the surroundings by absorbing NaCl to withdraw the needed water from the lumen contents. The kidney also plays a crucial role toward tuna osmoregulation by excreting divalent ionic salts such as magnesium and sulfate ions.

Pressure- retarded osmosis Salinity gradient power is a specific renewable energy alternative that creates renewable and sustainable power by using naturally occurring processes. This practice does not contaminate or release carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (vapor pressure methods will release dissolved air containing CO2 at low pressures—these non-condensable gases can be re- dissolved of course, but with an energy penalty). Also as stated by Jones and Finley within their article “Recent Development in Salinity Gradient Power”, there is basically no fuel cost. Salinity gradient energy is based on using the resources of “osmotic pressure difference between fresh water and sea water.”(Jones, A.T., W. Finley. “Recent developments in salinity gradient power”. Oceans. 2003.

Light production may first be triggered by nerve impulses which stimulate the photocyte to release the enzyme luciferase into a "reaction chamber" of luciferin substrate. In some species the release occurs continually without the precursor impulse via osmotic diffusion. Molecular oxygen is then actively gated through surrounding tracheal cells which otherwise limit the natural diffusion of oxygen from blood vessels; the resulting reaction with the luciferase and luciferin produces light energy and a by-product (usually carbon dioxide). Researchers once postulated that ATP was the source of reaction energy for photocytes, but since ATP only produces a fraction the energy of the luciferase reaction, any resulting light wave-energy would be too small for detection by a human eye.

Inflammation of the intestine leads to the secretion of a large amounts of electrolytes, primarily sodium and chloride, into its lumen, resulting in the osmotic movement of water. The production of fluid is thought to be due to active hypersecretion, passive secretion of proteins secondary to damage to epithelium of the mucosa and capillaries, and a functional ileus which prevents removal of this fluid. Massive fluid production results in extensive reflux, usually produced at a rate of 50–100 mL/min, in addition to distention of the proximal small intestine, dehydration, and possible shock secondary to hypovolemia. Proximal enteritis can also occur with inflammation of other organs in the gastrointestinal tract, including gastritis, ileitis, typhlitis, and colitis.

Facet cells (also known as capping cells, umbrella cells, superficial urotheliocytes) are a type of cells located in the renal pelvis, the ureter and the urethra. Facet cells form the outermost layer of the urothelium, which is a special type of epithelium found in the above-mentioned structures. Umbrella cells are special in that they can contain multiple nucleus, their apical cell membrane contains numerous invaginations which allows the cells to stretch during miction and they are linked together with tight junctions which: 1)prevents urine from leaking in the epithelium 2)creates an osmotic barrier. Indeed, urine osmolarity can range from 50 to 1200 mmol/L while the normal body osmolarity is 290 mmol/L.

Water follows down the water potential gradient from parenchyma cells into the xylem, ultimately leading to a decrease in pressure potential and osmotic potential in the adjacent cells to the xylem. The hydraulic sensor, which is yet to be known, resides on the inner membrane of the parenchyma cells and detects the decreases in pressure and solute potential through an unknown mechanism. After detection, the unidentified sensor initiates a signal cascade, leading to a calcium transient and subsequent reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. These ROS are proposed to go on to target ABA biosynthesis enzymes, leading to synthesis of ABA in the parenchyma and later export to regions of the plant requiring the appropriate responses.

Koch MC, Steinmeyer K, Lorenz C, Ricker K, Wolf F, Otto M, Zoll B, Lehmann-Horn F, Grzeschik KH, Jentsch TJ. The skeletal muscle chloride channel in dominant and recessive human myotonia. Science. 1992 Aug 7;257(5071):797-800. Biomechanical analyses of the consequence of the deficiencies in the cytoskeletal proteins dystrophin (the protein deficient in Duchenne muscular dystrophy)Menke A, Jockusch H. Decreased osmotic stability of dystrophin-less muscle cells from the mdx mouse. Nature. 1991 Jan 3;349(6304):69-71.) and desmin in isolated muscle fibres and muscle cell culturesWieneke S, Stehle R, Li Z, Jockusch H. Generation of tension by skinned fibers and intact skeletal muscles from desmin-deficient mice.

Entropic forces are important and widespread in the physics of colloids, where they are responsible for the depletion force, and the ordering of hard particles, such as the crystallization of hard spheres, the isotropic-nematic transition in liquid crystal phases of hard rods, and the ordering of hard polyhedra. Because of this, entropic forces can be an important driver of self-assembly Entropic forces arise in colloidal systems due to the osmotic pressure that comes from particle crowding. This was first discovered in, and is most intuitive for, colloid-polymer mixtures described by the Asakura–Oosawa model. In this model, polymers are approximated as finite-sized spheres that can penetrate one another, but cannot penetrate the colloidal particles.

Semen extender is a liquid diluent which is added to semen to preserve its fertilizing ability. It acts as a buffer to protect the sperm cells from their own toxic byproducts, and it protects the sperm cells from cold shock and osmotic shock during the chilling and shipping process (the sperm is chilled to reduce metabolism and allow it to live longer). The extender allows the semen to be shipped to the female, rather than requiring the male and female to be near to each other. Equine-Reproduction.com - FAQ-AI article Special freezing extender use also allows cryogenic preservation of sperm ("frozen semen"), which may be transported for use, or used on-site at a later date. Equine-Reproduction.

Osmotic absorption becomes more important during times of low water transpiration caused by lower temperatures (for example at night) or high humidity, and the reverse occurs under high temperature or low humidity. It is these process that cause guttation and wilting, respectively. Root extension is vital for plant survival. A study of a single winter rye plant grown for four months in one cubic foot (0.0283 cubic meters) of loam soil showed that the plant developed 13,800,000 roots, a total of 620 km in length with 237 square meters in surface area; and 14 billion hair roots of 10,620 km total length and 400 square meters total area; for a total surface area of 638 square meters.

A potentially fatal complication estimated to occur in roughly 2.5% of patients is encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis, in which the bowels become obstructed due to the growth of a thick layer of fibrin within the peritoneum. The fluid used for dialysis uses glucose as a primary osmotic agent, but this may lead to peritonitis, the decline of kidney and peritoneal membrane function and other negative health outcomes. The acidity, high concentration and presence of lactate and products of the degradation of glucose in the solution (particularly the latter) may contribute to these health issues. Solutions that are neutral, use bicarbonate instead of lactate and have few glucose degradation products may offer more health benefits though this has not yet been studied.

Most insects breath passively through their spiracles (special openings in the exoskeleton) and the air reaches every part of the body by means of a series of smaller and smaller tubes called 'trachaea' when their diameters are relatively large, and 'tracheoles' when their diameters are very small. The tracheoles make contact with individual cells throughout the body. They are partially filled with fluid, which can be withdrawn from the individual tracheoles when the tissues, such as muscles, are active and have a high demand for oxygen, bringing the air closer to the active cells. This is probably brought about by the buildup of lactic acid in the active muscles causing an osmotic gradient, moving the water out of the tracheoles and into the active cells.

By inhibiting α-2 antiplasmin, dextran serves as a plasminogen activator, so possesses thrombolytic features. Outside of these features, larger dextrans, which do not pass out of the vessels, are potent osmotic agents, thus have been used urgently to treat hypovolemia. The hemodilution caused by volume expansion with dextran use improves blood flow, thus further improving patency of microanastomoses and reducing thrombosis. Still, no difference has been detected in antithrombotic effectiveness in comparison of intra-arterial and intravenous administration of dextran. Dextrans are available in multiple molecular weights ranging from 3,000 Da to 2,000,000 Da. The larger dextrans (>60,000 Da) are excreted poorly from the kidney, so remain in the blood for as long as weeks until they are metabolized.

Leatherback sea turtles face an increased osmotic challenge compared to other species of sea turtle, since their primary prey are jellyfish and other gelatinous plankton, whose fluids have the same concentration of salts as sea water. The much larger lachrymal gland found in leatherback sea turtles may have evolved to cope with the higher intake of salts from their prey. A constant output of concentrated salty tears may be required to balance the input of salts from regular feeding, even considering leatherback sea turtle tears can have a salt ion concentration almost twice that of other species of sea turtle. Immature Hawaiian green sea turtle in shallow waters Hatchlings depend on drinking sea water immediately upon entering the ocean to replenish water lost during the hatching process.

L-forms can be generated in the laboratory from many bacterial species that usually have cell walls, such as Bacillus subtilis or Escherichia coli. This is done by inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis with antibiotics or treating the cells with lysozyme, an enzyme that digests cell walls. The L-forms are generated in a culture medium that is the same osmolarity as the bacterial cytosol (an isotonic solution), which prevents cell lysis by osmotic shock. L-form strains can be unstable, tending to revert to the normal form of the bacteria by regrowing a cell wall, but this can be prevented by long-term culture of the cells under the same conditions that were used to produce them - letting the wall-disabling mutations to accumulate by genetic drift.

However, it has also been reported that the nodulation by the species on chickpea was reduced by water deficiency. Dual-inoculation of Glomus mosseae and Mesorhizobium mediterraneum could help Lathyrus sativus resist sulphate salinity stress while growth of Mesorhizobium mediterraneum was also found to be intolerant of salt stress of 200 mM NaCl. Mesorhizobium mediterraneum helped chickpea resist osmotic stress by enhancing nodular peroxidase and ascorbate peroxidase activities. Besides chickpea, Mesorhizobium mediterraneum and/or its closely related taxa have also been found to form symbiotic relationships with many other crops and plants, including wild liquorice (Astragalus glycyphyllos), lentil (Lens culinaris Medik), the South African legume species of the genus Lessertia, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), Lotus tenuis, Caragana, and Astragalus cicer.

The movement of water out of the capillary at the arteriolar end causes the concentration of the substances that cannot cross the capillary wall to increase as the blood moves to the venular end of the capillary. The most important substances that are confined to the capillary tube are plasma albumin, the plasma globulins and fibrinogen. They, and particularly the plasma albumin, because of its molecular abundance in the plasma, are responsible for the so-called "oncotic" or "colloid" osmotic pressure which draws water back into the capillary, especially at the venular end. The net effect of all of these processes is that water moves out of and back into the capillary, while the crystalloid substances in the capillary and interstitial fluids equilibrate.

Bacterial mechanosensitive channels, MscL and MscS, reflect an intimate coupling of protein conformation with the mechanics of the surrounding membrane. The membrane serves as an adaptable sensor that responds to an input of applied force and converts it into an output signal. The cell can exploit this information in a number of ways: ensuring cellular viability in the presence of osmotic stress and perhaps also serving as a signal transducer for membrane tension. Studies have shown that the MscL pore expands to ~30Å in diameter when closed, with change of 15-16Å upon opening, which is the largest known conformational change in channel proteins. This large change accounts for the opening of the 30Å diameter pore, resulting in a 20 nm2 in-plane protein expansion.

Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness, slurred speech and vomiting, among other symptoms, and poisons the central nervous system, which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage. Its biochemistry, the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an essential trace element, although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified. Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells. Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day.

There are a number of methods by which tablets and capsules can be modified in order to allow for sustained release of the active compound as it moves through the digestive tract. One of the most common methods is to embed the active ingredient in an insoluble porous matrix, such that the dissolving drug must make its way out of the matrix before it can be absorbed. In other sustained release formulations the matrix swells to form a gel through which the drug exits. Another method by which sustained release is achieved is through an osmotic controlled-release oral delivery system, where the active compound is encased in a water-permeable membrane with a laser drilled hole at one end.

Although RASD1 is a member of the Ras superfamily of small G-proteins, which often promotes cell growth and tumor expansion, it plays an active role in preventing aberrant cell growth. It can be induced by corticosteroids and may play a role in the negative feedback loop controlling adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion. In the hypothalamus, RASD1 expression is induced in two ways: one by elevated glucocorticoids in response to stress, and one in response to increased plasma osmolality resulting from osmotic stress. Based on its inhibitory actions on CREB phosphorylation, increased RASD1 in vasopressin- expressing neurons may be essential in controlling the transcriptional responses to stressors in both the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus via modulation of the cAMP-PKA-CREB signaling pathway.

One fact to take note of is that heat from the surroundings is able to be converted into mechanical energy (water rising). Many thermodynamic explanations go into the concept of chemical potential and how the function of the water on the solution side differs from that of pure water due to the higher pressure and the presence of the solute counteracting such that the chemical potential remains unchanged. The virial theorem demonstrates that attraction between the molecules (water and solute) reduces the pressure, and thus the pressure exerted by water molecules on each other in solution is less than in pure water, allowing pure water to "force" the solution until the pressure reaches equilibrium. Osmotic pressure is the main cause of support in many plants.

PtdIns(3,5)P2 was first reported to occur in mouse fibroblasts and budding yeast S. cerevisiae in 1997.Whiteford CC, Brearley CA, Ulug ET. Phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate defines a novel PI 3-kinase pathway in resting mouse fibroblasts. Biochem J. 1997 May 1;323 ( Pt 3):597-601. In S. cerevisiae PtdIns(3,5)P2 levels increase dramatically during hyperosmotic shock.Dove SK, Cooke FT, Douglas MR, Sayers LG, Parker PJ, Michell RH. Osmotic stress activates phosphatidylinositol-3,5-bisphosphate synthesis. Nature. 1997 Nov 13;390(6656):187-92. The response to hyperosmotic challenge is not conserved in most tested mammalian cells except for differentiated 3T3L1 adipocytes. Sbrissa D, Shisheva A. Acquisition of unprecedented phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate rise in hyperosmotically stressed 3T3-L1 adipocytes, mediated by ArPIKfyve-PIKfyve pathway.

From least- to terminally-differentiated, the chondrocytic lineage is: # Colony-forming unit-fibroblast # Mesenchymal stem cell / marrow stromal cell # Chondrocyte # Hypertrophic chondrocyte Mesenchymal (mesoderm origin) stem cells are undifferentiated, meaning they can differentiate into a variety of generative cells commonly known as osteochondrogenic (or osteogenic, chondrogenic, osteoprogenitor, etc.) cells. When referring to bone, or in this case cartilage, the originally undifferentiated mesenchymal stem cells lose their pluripotency, proliferate and crowd together in a dense aggregate of chondrogenic cells (cartilage) at the location of chondrification. These chondrogenic cells differentiate into so-called chondroblasts, which then synthesize the cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM), consisting of a ground substance (proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans for low osmotic potential) and fibers. The chondroblast is now a mature chondrocyte that is usually inactive but can still secrete and degrade the matrix, depending on conditions.

Prior to the procedure, cervical preparation with osmotic dilators or medications is recommended in order to reduce risk of complications such as cervical laceration and to facilitate cervical dilation during the procedure. Although there is no consensus as to which method of cervical preparation is superior in terms of safety and technical ease of the procedure, one particular concern is reducing the risk of preterm birth. Concerns within the medical community have advised against or at least asked for further research concerning the safety of performing the dilation of the cervix on the same day as the surgery for some or all second trimester pregnancies. The concern is that performing the dilation too soon before the surgery could increase the risk of preterm birth should the woman ever carry a subsequent pregnancy to term.

It is known that Alzheimer's disease is characterized by extracellular deposits of neurotoxic amyloid peptides (Aβ), intracellular aggregation of hyper-phosphorylated tau protein, and neuronal death. Whereas chronic stress is characterized by its negative impacts on the effect of learning and memory and furthermore can exacerbate a number of disorders, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Previous studies have shown that the combination of chronic psychosocial stress and chronic infusion of a pathogenic dose of Aβ peptides impairs learning and memory and severely diminishes early phase long-term potentiation (E-LTP) in the hippocampal area CA1 of anesthetized rat. Chronic psychosocial stress was produced using a rat intruder model and the at-risk rat model of Alzheimer's disease was created by osmotic pump infusion of sub-pathological dose of Aβ (subAβ).

They carry the morphological features and most of the chemical properties of the original nerve terminal. Synaptosomes isolated from mammalian brain often retain a piece of the attached postsynaptic membrane, facing the active zone. Synaptosomes were first isolated in an attempt to identify the subcellular compartment corresponding to the fraction of so- called bound acetylcholine that remains when brain tissue is homogenized in iso-osmotic sucrose. Particles containing acetylcholine and its synthesizing enzyme choline acetyltransferase were originally isolated by Hebb and Whittaker (1958) at the Agricultural Research Council, Institute of Animal Physiology, Babraham, Cambridge, UK. In a collaborative study with the electron microscopist George Gray from University College London, Victor P. Whittaker eventually showed that the acetylcholine-rich particles derived from guinea-pig cerebral cortex were synaptic vesicle-rich pinched-off nerve terminals.

As the tubule passes through the nozzle, it opens the operculum and uncoils after. Ballistics in cnidarians nematocysts is driven by synthesis of osmotic propellant poly gamma glutamate synthase, PgsAA, while in Polykrikos it is thought to occur due induced pressure as a result of capsular fibre contraction in the capsule wall. Nucleus is uniquely characterised by a double-layered fibrous cortex that underlines evaginated nuclear envelope; cortex is hypothesized to provide strength and shape to the nucleus, while nuclear evaginations are thought to increase nuclear-cytoplasmic exchange area at cortex perforation sites. In Polykrikos, well-defined fibrous ribbons are involved in nuclear-flagellar connections, and anchoring to flagellar apparatus might serve in orientation of the nucleus in relation to flagella during processes of movement, mitosis and cell division.

The macula densa region of the kidney's juxtaglomerular apparatus is another modulator of blood osmolality. The macula densa responds to changes in osmotic pressure through changes in the rate of sodium ion (Na+) flow through the nephron. Decreased Na+ flow stimulates tubuloglomerular feedback to autoregulate, a signal (thought to be regulated by adenosine) sent to the nearby juxtaglomerular cells of the afferent arteriole, causing the juxtaglomerular cells to release the protease renin into circulation. Renin cleaves the zymogen angiotensinogen, always present in plasma as a result of constitutive production in the liver, into a second inactive form, angiotensin I, which is then converted to its active form, angiotensin II, by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), which is widely distributed in the small vessels of the body, but particularly concentrated in the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs.

The inability of the polymers to penetrate the colloids leads to a region around the colloids in which the polymer density is reduced. If the regions of reduced polymer density around two colloids overlap with one another, by means of the colloids approaching one another, the polymers in the system gain an additional free volume that is equal to the volume of the intersection of the reduced density regions. The additional free volume causes an increase in the entropy of the polymers, and drives them to form locally dense-packed aggregates. A similar effect occurs in sufficiently dense colloidal systems without polymers, where osmotic pressure also drives the local dense packing of colloids into a diverse array of structures that can be rationally designed by modifying the shape of the particles.

Because of the high solute concentration of the rumen fluid under such conditions, considerable water is translocated from the blood to the rumen along the osmotic potential gradient, resulting in dehydration which cannot be relieved by drinking, and which can ultimately lead to hypovolemic shock. As more lactate accumulates and rumen pH drops, the ruminal concentration of undissociated lactic acid increases. Undissociated lactic acid can cross the rumen wall to the blood, where it dissociates, lowering blood pH. Both L and D isomers of lactic acid are produced in the rumen; these isomers are metabolized by different metabolic pathways, and activity of the principal enzyme involved in metabolism of the D isomer declines greatly with lower pH, tending to result in an increased ratio of D:L isomers as acidosis progresses.

Of equal importance to the storage and movement of water in soil is the means by which plants acquire it and their nutrients. Most soil water is taken up by plants as passive absorption caused by the pulling force of water evaporating (transpiring) from the long column of water (xylem sap flow) that leads from the plant's roots to its leaves, according to the cohesion-tension theory. The upward movement of water and solutes (hydraulic lift) is regulated in the roots by the endodermis and in the plant foliage by stomatal conductance, and can be interrupted in root and shoot xylem vessels by cavitation, also called xylem embolism. In addition, the high concentration of salts within plant roots creates an osmotic pressure gradient that pushes soil water into the roots.

Mushi Santappa (2 October 1923 – 26 February 2017) was an Indian polymer chemist, leather technologist and a vice chancellor of Sri Venkateswara University and the University of Madras. He was one of the founder directors of Avanti Leathers Limited and was known for his researches on the synthesis of graft copolymers, the properties of macromolecules, and osmotic techniques. He was an elected Fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Sciences, India, Royal Institute of Chemistry and New York Academy of Sciences and a founder fellow of the Academy of Sciences, Chennai. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, the apex agency of the Government of India for scientific research, awarded him the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology, one of the highest Indian science awards, in 1967, for his contributions to chemical sciences.

The kidney and heart of Strubellia and other Acochlidiidae are enlarged compared to otherwise marine Acochlidiacea; this is thought to be an adaptation to the osmotic stresses of life in freshwater. Strubellia species are unusual among slugs in being sequential hermaphrodites, they become mature as males and later turn into females after copulation (protandry); this involves reorganization of the reproductive organs including loss of the elaborate copulatory organ. Strubellia, and other Acochlidiidae, are thought to have an amphidromous life cycle: they spawn in freshwater; their swimming veliger larvae are then swept downstream into the river’s mouth or sea where they undergo metamorphosis to benthic snails. It is not known how and when larvae or juveniles do this and recolonize their freshwater habitat; it has been suggested that this may even happen by larger, more mobile dispersal vectors.

During the first half of the growing season, PSIm was below turgor loss point. The osmotic potential at turgor loss point decreased after planting to -2.3 MPa 28 days later. In the greenhouse, minimum values of PSIT were -2.5 MPa (in the first day after planting. the maximum bulk modulus of elasticity was greater in white spruce than in similarly treated jack pine and showed greater seasonal changes. Relative water content (RWC) at turgor loss was 80-87%. Available turgor (TA), defined as the integral of turgor over the range of RWC between PSIb and xylem pressure potential at the turgor loss point) was 4.0% for white spruce at the beginning of the season compared with 7.9% for jack pine, but for the rest of the season TA for jack pine was only 2%, to 3% that of white spruce.

These functions include regulation of colloid osmotic pressure or protein concentration within the blood plasma, transport of free fatty acids and other molecules to the liver (unconjugated bilirubin, metals, ions) for storage or utilization, binding of drugs and alteration of pharmacokinetics (half-life, biological activity levels, metabolism), buffering plasma pH, scavenging reactive oxygen species to avoid inflammation and associated damage, functioning as a reservoir of nitric oxide for the regulation of blood pressure, and prevention of coagulation and platelet aggregation in an action similar to the commonly used anticoagulant heparin. It also inhibits inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α and complement 5a (C5a) to reduce the overall inflammatory response. A number of hormones (e.g. thyroxine, cortisol, testosterone), drugs, and other molecules are bound to albumin in the bloodstream and must be released from albumin before becoming biologically active.

Mechanisms for drug targeting in the brain involve going either "through" or "behind" the BBB. Modalities for drug delivery to the brain in unit doses through the BBB entail its disruption by osmotic means, or biochemically by the use of vasoactive substances, such as bradykinin, or even by localized exposure to high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). Other methods used to get through the BBB may entail the use of endogenous transport systems, including carrier-mediated transporters, such as glucose and amino acid carriers, receptor-mediated transcytosis for insulin or transferrin, and the blocking of active efflux transporters such as p-glycoprotein. Some studies have shown that vectors targeting BBB transporters, such as the transferrin receptor, have been found to remain entrapped in brain endothelial cells of capillaries, instead of being ferried across the BBB into the targeted area.

Gerhard Damköhler was born on 16 March 1908 in Klingenmunster in West Central Germany, the son of a physician. Following the usual primary and gymnasium education, he enrolled in the summer of 1926 at the University of Munich to study chemistry with A. Sommerfeld, graduating five years later summa cum laude with a doctor of philosophy for a dissertion entitled “Individuality of the Osmotic Behavior of Alkalihalogenides.” He remained at the university for three more years as a grant supported research fellow, during which time he began to display a marked ability for developing and applying analytical methods to practical problems in chemical engineering. This work attracted the notice of Arnold Eucken, the director of Göttingen University’s Institute of Physical Chemistry, who offered Damköhler a position as an assistant that he took up in December 1934.

Reverse osmosis production train, North Cape Coral Reverse Osmosis PlantIn 1977 Cape Coral, Florida became the first municipality in the United States to use the RO process on a large scale with an initial operating capacity of 11.35 million liters (3 million US gal) per day. By 1985, due to the rapid growth in population of Cape Coral, the city had the largest low-pressure reverse-osmosis plant in the world, capable of producing 56.8 million liters (15 million US gal) per day (MGD).2012 Annual Consumer Report on the Quality of Tap Water. City of Cape Coral Formally, reverse osmosis is the process of forcing a solvent from a region of high solute concentration through a semipermeable membrane to a region of low-solute concentration by applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure.

Under these circumstances, the low or absent insulin levels in the blood, combined with the inappropriately high glucagon concentrations, induce the liver to produce glucose at an inappropriately increased rate, causing acetyl-CoA resulting from the beta-oxidation of fatty acids, to be converted into ketone bodies. The resulting very high levels of ketone bodies lower the pH of the blood plasma, which reflexively triggers the kidneys to excrete urine with very high acid levels. The high levels of glucose and ketones in the blood also spill passively into the urine (the inability of the renal tubules to reabsorb glucose and ketones from the tubular fluid, being overwhelmed by the high volumes of these substances being filtered into the tubular fluid). The resulting osmotic diuresis of glucose causes the removal of water and electrolytes from the blood resulting in potentially fatal dehydration.

Glutamate racemase has emerged as a potential antibacterial target since the product of this enzyme, D-glutamate, is an essential component of bacterial walls. Inhibiting the enzyme will prevent bacterial wall formation and ultimately result in lysis of the bacteria cell by osmotic pressure. Furthermore, glutamate racemase is not expressed nor is the product of this enzyme, D-glutamate is normally found in mammals, hence inhibiting this enzyme should not result in toxicity to the mammalian host organism. Possible inhibitors to MurI includes aziridino-glutamate that would alkylate the catalytic cysteines; N-hydroxy glutamate that by mimicking Wat2 (the bound water molecule that interacts with glutamate amino group) would prevent binding of the substrate; or 4-substituted D-glutamic acid analogs bearing aryl-, heteroaryl-, cinnamyl-, or biaryl-methyl substituents that would also prevent binding of substrate.

The median portion of the wall of the forebrain consists of a thin lamina, the lamina terminalis, which stretches from the interventricular foramen (Foramen of Monro) to the recess at the base of the optic stalk (optic nerve) and contains the vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, which regulates the osmotic concentration of the blood. The lamina terminalis is immediately anterior to the tuber cinereum; together they form the pituitary stalk. The lamina terminalis can be opened via endoscopic neurosurgery in an attempt to create a path that cerebrospinal fluid can flow through when a person has hydrocephalus and when it is not possible to perform an Endoscopic third ventriculostomy, but the effectiveness of this technique is not certain. This is the rostral end (tip) of the neural tube (embryological central nervous system) in the early weeks of development.

The new resin was designed to be fire retardant, and was originally developed to the specifications of the US military late in the Vietnam War. It is widely suspected that the new resin was responsible for extensive non-osmotic blistering of the hulls, deck, and cabin-house structures in boats built between 1976-1981. Many of the "blister boats" were "repaired" by stripping the outer layers of fiberglas off the exterior of the hull (either undersides and topsides, or just undersides below the water line). The repair then involved drying out the stripped hull for several months (commonly in the California or Mexico desert), followed by reglassing the exterior with several layers of fiberglas with vinylester resin or polyester resin. However many of the blisters have returned on "blister boats" (hull Nos 120 to 249) despite major repairs.

Transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 4 is an ion channel protein that in humans is encoded by the TRPV4 gene. The TRPV4 gene encodes TRPV4, initially named "vanilloid-receptor related osmotically activated channel" (VR-OAC) and "OSM9-like transient receptor potential channel, member 4 (OTRPC4)", a member of the vanilloid subfamily in the transient receptor potential (TRP) superfamily of ion channels. The encoded protein is a Ca2+-permeable, nonselective cation channel that has been found involved in multiple physiologic functions, dysfunctions and also disease. It functions in the regulation of systemic osmotic pressure by the brain, in vascular function, in liver, intestinal, renal and bladder function, in skin barrier function and response of the skin to ultraviolet-B radiation, in growth and structural integrity of the skeleton, in function of joints, in airway- and lung function, in retinal and inner ear function, and in pain.

Ostwald suggested that he stay in Leipzig as a private lecturer, but Walden declined, hoping for a better career in Riga. In the summer of 1892 he was appointed assistant professor of physical chemistry. A year later he defended his doctorate on osmotic phenomena in sedimentary layers and in September 1894 became professor of analytical and physical chemistry at the Riga Technical University. He worked there until 1911 and during 1902–1905 was rector of the University. In 1895, Walden made his most remarkable discovery which was later named Walden inversion, namely that various stereoisomers can be obtained from the same compound via certain exchange reactions involving hydrogen. This topic became the basis for his habilitation thesis defended in March 1899 at St. Petersburg University. After that, Walden became interested in electrochemistry of nonaqueous solutions. In 1902, he proposed a theory of autodissociation of inorganic and organic solvents.

With a diet with sufficient salt concentrations the Corvus corax rarely is desperate for salt intake, instead it focusses on water intake primarily through the food it eats, but if this is not sufficient it will drink water or consume snow in the winter as required. Overall the Corvus corax does quite well in many different terrestrial environments using the adaptations of not only its kidneys but as well its enormously vast and varying diet to keep its osmotic pressures of its blood in check. The Corvus corax truly is the master of its domain, being not only a great hunter but a master scavenger, this species of bird can seemingly withstand any change in its environment and physiological conditions in order to survive and prosper.Edt. Glen P. Semenchuck, "The Atlas of Breeding birds of Alberta", Federation of Alberta Naturalists, PO Box 1472, Edmonton AB, T5J 2N5, 1992.

Transpiration in leaves creates tension (differential pressure) in the cell walls of mesophyll cells. Because of this tension, water is being pulled up from the roots into the leaves, helped by cohesion (the pull between individual water molecules, due to hydrogen bonds) and adhesion (the stickiness between water molecules and the hydrophilic cell walls of plants). This mechanism of water flow works because of water potential (water flows from high to low potential), and the rules of simple diffusion. Over the past century, there has been a great deal of research regarding the mechanism of xylem sap transport; today, most plant scientists continue to agree that the cohesion-tension theory best explains this process, but multiforce theories that hypothesize several alternative mechanisms have been suggested, including longitudinal cellular and xylem osmotic pressure gradients, axial potential gradients in the vessels, and gel- and gas-bubble-supported interfacial gradients.

Extremely fast movements such as the explosive spore dispersal techniques of Sphagnum mosses may involve increasing internal pressure via dehydration, causing a sudden propulsion of spores up or through the rapid opening of the "flower" opening triggered by insect pollination. Fast movement can also be demonstrated in predatory plants, where the mechanical stimulation of insect movement creates an electrical action potential and a release of elastic energy within the plant tissues. This release can be seen in the closing of a Venus flytrap, the curling of sundew leaves, and in the trapdoor action and suction of bladderworts. Slower movement, such as the folding of Mimosa pudica leaves, may depend on reversible, but drastic or uneven changes in water pressure in the plant tissues This process is controlled by the fluctuation of ions in and out of the cell, and the osmotic response of water to the ion flux.

A) Filamentous Mycoplasma pneumoniae cells B) M. pneumoniae cells (M) attached to ciliated mucosal cells by the attachment organelle (indicated by arrow) Mycoplasmas, which are among the smallest self-replicating organisms, are parasitic species that lack a cell wall and periplasmic space, have reduced genomes, and limited metabolic activity. Mycoplasma pneumoniae cells have an elongated shape that is approximately 0.1–0.2 µm (100-200 nm) in width and 1-2 µm (1000-2000 nm) in length. The extremely small cell size means they are incapable of being examined by light microscopy; a stereomicroscope is required for viewing the morphology of M. pneumoniae colonies, which are usually less than 100 µm in length. The inability to synthesize a peptidoglycan cell wall is due to the absence of genes encoding its formation and results in an increased importance in maintenance of osmotic stability to avoid desiccation.

The superior part of the posterior border constitutes the habenular commissure, while more centrally it the pineal gland, which regulates sleep and reacts to light levels. Caudal of the pineal gland is the posterior commissure; nerve fibres reach the posterior commissure from the adjacent midbrain, but their onward connection is currently uncertain. The commissures create concavity to the shape of the posterior ventricle border, causing the suprapineal recess above the habenular, and the deeper pineal recess between the habenular and posterior commissures; the recesses being so-named due to the pineal recess being bordered by the pineal gland. The hypothalmic portion of the third ventricle (upper right), and surrounding structures The anterior wall of the ventricle forms the lamina terminalis, within which the vascular organ monitors and regulates the osmotic concentration of the blood; the cerebrum lies beyond the lamina, and causes it to have a slightly concave shape.

Overview of GSDMD activation and pore-forming mechanism After the proteolytic cleavage, GSDMD-C remains in the cytosol while the N-terminal cleavage product localises to the plasma membrane by anchoring to membrane lipids. GSDMD-N specifically interacts with phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate [PI(4)P] and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P] on the inner leaflet of mammalian cell membrane strongly, through charge-charge interactions between the negatively-charged head groups of PI and the positively-charged surface on GSDMD-N exposed after cleavage. Hence, collateral damage to tissues during an infection is minimised as the extracellular outer leaflet lacks PI. Lipid binding allows GSDMD-N to insert into the lipid bilayer and induces high-order oligomerisation within the membrane, forming extensive pores with approximately 16 subunits and an inner diameter of 10-14 nm. The osmotic potential is disrupted by pore formation, leading to cell swelling and lysis, the morphologic hallmarks of pyroptosis.

Activation of p38 MAPK pathway has been implicated in a variety of stress response in addition to inflammation, including osmotic shock, heat, and oxidative stress. The canonical pathway for p38 MAPK activation involve a cascade of protein kinases, including MAP3K such as MEKK1, 2, 3 and 4, TGFβ-activated kinase (TAK1), TAO1-3, mixed-lineage kinase 2/3 (MLK2/3), and apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1/2 (ASK1/2), as well as MAP2Ks, such as MKK3, 6 and 4. MAP2K mediated phosphorylation of the TGY motif results in conformational change of p38 MAPK which allows kinase activation and accessibility to substrates. In addition, TAK1-binding protein 1 (TAB1) and ZAP70 can induce p38 MAPK via non-canonical autophosphorylation. Furthermore, acetylation of p38 MAPK at lys-53 of the ATP-binding pocket also enhances p38 MAPK activity during cellular stress Under basal conditions, p38α MAPK is detected in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

It is composed primarily of outflow from the Baltic Sea (50% of its freshwater input) through the Skagerrak into the North Sea (10% of its freshwater input) circulation, joining with a fraction of the North Atlantic Drift (the western turn of the northward Gulf Stream). The current is seasonally affected but on average has inputs of fjords and rivers of Norway being 40% of its freshwater input. North-west of the Skagerrak (Baltic's access) the current has about 2100 m3/s of freshwater, 75% of which is Baltic outflow, 15% North Sea outflow and 10% runoff from Norway and Sweden It is thus seen from a saline osmotic pressure viewpoint as a continuation of the Baltic Current and means relatively less salty ocean water than would intuitively be expected counterbalances the naturally non-saline precipitation and ice melt topping up the Arctic (and outcrop Barents) Seas. The current uses the Norwegian Trench picking up fresh and brackish water.

Cell culture in a small Petri dish Epithelial cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) Cell culture is the process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside their natural environment. After the cells of interest have been isolated from living tissue, they can subsequently be maintained under carefully controlled conditions. These conditions vary for each cell type, but generally consist of a suitable vessel with a substrate or medium that supplies the essential nutrients (amino acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals), growth factors, hormones, and gases (CO2, O2), and regulates the physio-chemical environment (pH buffer, osmotic pressure, temperature). Most cells require a surface or an artificial substrate (adherent or monolayer culture) whereas others can be grown free floating in culture medium (suspension culture). The lifespan of most cells is genetically determined, but some cell culturing cells have been “transformed” into immortal cells which will reproduce indefinitely if the optimal conditions are provided.

Familial forms of CCM occur at three known genetic loci. The gene for CCM1 encodes KRIT1 (krev interaction trapped 1), and has been found to bind to ICAP1alpha (integrin cytoplasmic domain associated protein alpha), a beta1 integrin associated protein. A particular mutation in CCM1 (the Q455X mutation), accounts for a cluster of cases in the Southwestern United States. This cluster, particularly in northern New Mexico, is an example of the founder effect; it has been traced back to early Spanish settlers. The gene for CCM2 encodes a protein named malcavernin that contains a phosphotyrosine (PTB) binding domain. The exact biological function of CCM2 is not clear. Recently, it has been shown that CCM1 and CCM2 proteins as well as ICAP1alpha form a macromolecular complex in the cell. In addition, it appears that CCM2 protein may function as a scaffolding protein for MAP kinases that are essential in p38 activation responding to osmotic stress including MEKK3 and MKK3.

In 1885, Eugene Goldstein named the cathode ray, later discovered to be composed of electrons, and the canal ray, later discovered to be positive hydrogen ions that had been stripped of their electrons in a cathode ray tube; these would later be named protons. The year 1885 also saw the publishing of J. H. van 't Hoff's L'Équilibre chimique dans les Systèmes gazeux ou dissous à I'État dilué (Chemical equilibria in gaseous systems or strongly diluted solutions), which dealt with this theory of dilute solutions. Here he demonstrated that the "osmotic pressure" in solutions which are sufficiently dilute is proportionate to the concentration and the absolute temperature so that this pressure can be represented by a formula which only deviates from the formula for gas pressure by a coefficient i. He also determined the value of i by various methods, for example by means of the vapor pressure and François-Marie Raoult's results on the lowering of the freezing point.

This caused him to be fascinated with the effect of countercurrents in multiplying a very small single effect to significant separations. (Journal of the American Society of Nephrology website) and confirmed by laboratory findings in 1958 by Professor Carl W. Gottschalk.. The theory was acknowledged a year later after a meticulous study showed that there is almost no osmotic difference between liquids on both sides of nephrons.. See also History of the urinary concentrating mechanism an article in 'Kidney'—the Journal of International Society of Nephrology, where Prof. Gottschalk points to the heated debate prior to the acceptance of the theory of the countercurrent multiplier action of the kidney Homer Smith, a considerable contemporary authority on renal physiology, opposed the model countercurrent concentration for 8 years, until conceding ground in 1959.Smith, Homer W., The fate of sodium and water in the renal tubules, Bull. New York Academy of Medicine 35:293–316, 1959.

The largest and most important application of reverse osmosis is the separation of pure water from seawater and brackish waters; seawater or brackish water is pressurized against one surface of the membrane, causing transport of salt-depleted water across the membrane and emergence of potable drinking water from the low-pressure side. The membranes used for reverse osmosis have a dense layer in the polymer matrix—either the skin of an asymmetric membrane or an interfacially polymerized layer within a thin-film- composite membrane—where the separation occurs. In most cases, the membrane is designed to allow only water to pass through this dense layer while preventing the passage of solutes (such as salt ions). This process requires that a high pressure be exerted on the high-concentration side of the membrane, usually 2–17 bar (30–250 psi) for fresh and brackish water, and 40–82 bar (600–1200 psi) for seawater, which has around 27 bar (390 psi) natural osmotic pressure that must be overcome.

Fungal growth is affected by the presence of optimal nutrients necessary for growth, by the presence of minerals, by temperature, by pH and by osmotic pressure. The presence of organic nutrients in the medium that C. coronatus finds itself in favors the formation of vegetative germ tubes, with glucose inducing vegetative germ growth far more effectively than asparagine. In terms of necessary nutrients for growth and survival, glucose and trehalose are both good sources of carbon for C. coronatus, other adequate sources of carbon are fructose, mannose, maltose, glycerol, oleate, stearate, palmitate and casamino acids, whereas galactose, starch and glycogen are all poor sources of carbon for C. coronatus. When looking at nitrogen, complex nitrogen sources seem to be best suited for optimal C. coronatus growth, however L-asparagine, ammonium salts, L-aspartic acid, glycine, L-alanine, L-serine, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and urea can all adequately be used by the fungus as nitrogen sources to varying extents.

As ingestion of OPS can potentially induce osmotic diarrhea and result in depletion of body fluid, adequate hydration is recommended before and after the procedure to prevent episodes of hypotension. It is unknown whether water or electrolyte-containing solutions would adequately compensate the electrolyte imbalance following the use of OSP. The recommended volume of fluid when using OSP as a bowel preparation agent varies from 0.7 to 2.2 L, with the optimal amount greater than 3.7 L. It is still unknown whether lowering the standard doses of OSP from 45/45 ml to 45/30 mL in 9–12 hours apart would be safer to use, as lower OSP dose was reported to cause moderate elevation of serum phosphorus. In addition, there are other relevant bowel- preparation agents that can be used in line with the colonoscopy guidelines including electrolyte-based purgatives such as Golytely, Polyethylene glycol (PEG), sodium picosulfate, and sodium laxatives.

Modern Water's containerised forward osmosis desalination plant at Al Khaluf, Oman Modern Water has developed a number of Forward Osmosis (FO) membrane processes including: desalination, evaporative cooling systems, enhanced oil recovery and hydro osmotic power (HOP). Modern Water has deployed Forward Osmosis"The Most Promising Desalination Technology Developed by Modern water and Surrey Scientists". University of Surrey. as a platform technology to produce both desalinated water and evaporative cooling make-up water , with sites in Oman and at a pilot plant in Gibraltar. In 2014, Modern Water is the only company in the world with a commercialFirst commercial forward osmosis desalination plant contract awarded Forward Osmosis plant which is located in Al Najdah in Oman. Construction of the plant was completed in September 2012 and it is now being operated by Modern Water. In March 2010, National Geographic magazine cited forward osmosis as one of three technologies that promised to reduce the energy requirements of desalination. In 2013, Modern Water contracted to build desalination projects in China,"Modern Water set for first FO desalination plant in China".

In the 1940s, Francis Ernest Lloyd conducted extensive experiments with carnivorous plants, including Utricularia, and settled many points which had previously been the subject of conjecture. He proved that the mechanism of the trap was purely mechanical by both killing the trigger hairs with iodine and subsequently showing that the response was unaffected, and by demonstrating that the trap could be made ready to spring a second (or third) time immediately after being set off if the bladder's excretion of water were helped by a gentle squeeze; in other words, the delay of at least fifteen minutes between trap springings is due solely to the time needed to excrete water, and the triggers need no time to recover irritability (unlike the reactive trigger hairs of Venus Flytraps, for example). He tested the role of the velum by showing that the trap will never set if small cuts are made to it; and showed that the excretion of water can be continued under all conditions likely to be found in the natural environment, but can be prevented by driving the osmotic pressure in the trap beyond normal limits by the introduction of glycerine.

Several explanations of the rule have been given. They include: # Because of the reduced speed of development at low temperatures, most species cannot complete development during the short time of phytoplankton bloom, on which planktotrophic species depend; # Most species cannot synchronize hatching with the phytoplankton bloom; # Slower development increases the risk of predation on pelagic larvae; # Non-pelagic larvae can settle close to the parent, i.e. in a favourable environment; # Small pelagic larvae may have osmotic difficulties in Arctic and Antarctic summers, due to the melting ice; # Small larvae may not be able to survive at very low temperatures; # Cold temperature may select for large size at the beginning of development, resulting in non- pelagic larvae; and # In cold waters it is more difficult to precipitate dissolved calcium, which results in reduced body size of animals supported by calcium skeletons, leading to viviparity. Most of these explanations can be excluded for the Monogenea, whose larvae are never planktotrophic (therefore eliminating explanations 1 and 2), their larvae are always short-lived (3), Gyrodactylidae are most common not only close to melting ice but in cold seas generally (5).