This is different from what was seen in the Altai Neandertal who was quite inbred.
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"And it should put to rest the paleophrenoloigcal arguments about Neandertal abilities derived from their skulls."
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The findings about the Neanderthal, also spelled Neandertal, were published Tuesday in the journal Nature Communications.
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The ear canals of the Neandertal fossil Shanidar 1 show serious deformities that would likely have caused profound deafness.
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"I am really curious about how the straightness of the Neandertal lower back, combined with the shape of the ribcage, impacts forces in the lower spine and pelvis," Kramer said.
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"This unknown population could represent an isolated Neandertal population yet to be discovered, or may be from a potentially larger population in Africa related to modern humans," said a statement from Stéphane Peyrégne, study author and PhD student in evolutionary genetics at the Planck Institute.
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"It is striking that we find this Neandertal/Denisovan child among the handful of ancient individuals whose genomes have been sequenced," Svante Pääbo, lead author of the study and director of the Department of Evolutionary Genetics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, said in a statement.
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"From that information, however, I think what was most interesting to me was the evidence that ancient modern humans interbred with Neanderthals really early (we see this in the Neandertal genomes) during a time that was prior to when we think the big movement out of Africa occurred (that resulted in the colonization of the rest of the world by modern humans)," Stone told Gizmodo.
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D. L. Hoffmann. et al., U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art. Sciencie, Vol.
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Vergleiche dazu: faz.net vom 9. September 2002: Auf den Spuren des Neandertalers. Oberarmknochen sowie ein Milchzahn komplettieren die Funde aus dem Neandertal.
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Location of Neandertal, Germany The Neandertal (, also , ; sometimes called "the Neander Valley" in English) is a small valley of the river Düssel in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, located about east of Düsseldorf, the capital city of North Rhine-Westphalia. The valley lies within the limits of the towns of Erkrath and Mettmann. In August, 1856, the area became famous for the discovery of Neanderthal 1, one of the first specimens of Homo neanderthalensis to be found. Neanderthal Museum, Mettmann The Neandertal was originally a limestone canyon widely known for its rugged scenery, waterfalls and caves.
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Thus, it is possible that the archaic humans in Asia were a mixture of a Neandertal relatives and an already widespread Asian Erectus population.
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The cave got its name from the nearby large farm of the Feldhof.Schmitz, R W.; Thissen, J. Neandertal: Die Geschichte geht weiter. Heidelberg: Spektrum; 2000.
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What remains of alt=A grass field with 16 white-red-white-red poles spaced in diagonal lines, several plus-shaped stone blocks behind them, and a road is visible behind trees in the background Neanderthals are named after the valley, the Neandertal, in which the first identified specimen was found. The valley was spelled Neanderthal and the species was spelled Neanderthaler in German until the spelling reform of 1901. The spelling Neandertal for the species is occasionally seen in English, even in scientific publications, but the scientific name, H. neanderthalensis, is always spelled with th according to the principle of priority. The vernacular name of the species in German is always Neandertaler ("inhabitant of the Neander Valley"), whereas Neandertal always refers to the valley.
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A world map of Neanderthal and Denisovan ancestry in modern humans. March 28, 2016. For example, comparative studies in the mid-2010s found several traits related to neurological, immunological,Human- Neandertal Comparisons. Tara Marathe.
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Rendu, William, et al. "Evidence supporting an intentional Neandertal burial at La Chapelle-aux-Saints." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111.1 (2014): 81-86. Secondary burial is a frequent feature of megalithic tombs and tumuli.
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247 (1991): 318-325. The findings are often interpreted in terms of the contemporaneity of Neandertal and modern man, "as the product of acculturation at the boundary of Middle and Upper Paleolithic."Allsworth- Jones, Philip, 2004. The Szeletian revisited.
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This museum has a permanent collection of Paul Dardé's work. Outside the museum is a copy of the famous statue of a Neandertal done by Paul Dardé in 1930 known as "L'homme de Cro-Magnon" although Dardé called it "L'homme primitif".
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Looking at DNA can give insight into lifestyles of people of the past. Neandertal DNA shows that they lived in small temporary communities. DNA analysis can also show dietary restrictions and mutations, such as the fact that Homo neanderthalensis was lactose-intolerant.
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Hublin's demonstration that modern behaviors were present in the very last Neandertals was a major contribution to the field. His work on Late Neandertal sites, such as those of Saint-Césaire and Arcy-sur-Cure (France)(list of Neandertal sites), provided evidence for the late survival of Neandertals in Europe after the arrival of modern humans and the beginning of a genuinely “Upper Paleolithic” culture on the continent. He was one of the first to promote the “acculturation hypothesis”, which seeks to explain the cultural evolution of the latest western Neandertals through the distant influence of the first modern populations already present in central Europe.
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In 1992, alleged cut marks on the skeletal remains were published, particularly those at the edges of the skull, which might suggest a specific burial rite.R. W. Schmitz, W. Pieper: Schnittspuren und Kratzer. Anthropogene Veränderungen am Skelett des Urmenschenfundes aus dem Neandertal – vorläufige Befundaufnahme. In: Das Rheinische Landesmuseum Bonn.
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The thickness of the described given was 35-40 cm. According to Asadulla Jafarzadeh, the discovery of the cave of Buzeyir proves that the ancient paleolithic man inhabited 60-80 thousand years ago here. According to Hajiyev's scientific-archeological research, neandertal type of people have hunted 15 species of animals in Buzeyir cave.
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Virchow described the bones as a "remarkable individual phenomenon" and as "plausible individual formation", this being the reason why the characteristics of the Neandertal finds were seen as a form of pathological change in the skeleton of modern man in German-speaking countries for many years to come. William King Even the accurate assessment of geologist Charles LyellCharles Lyell: The geological evidences of the antiquity of man. John Murray, London 1863 did not change this, who as early as 1863 after a visit to Fuhlrott and the Neandertal had confirmed the antiquity of the find. Yet seen with the benefit of hindsight, the turning point towards the recognition of the find as not being pathologically had already occurred in 1863/64.
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Erkrath is situated on the river Düssel, directly east of Düsseldorf and west of Wuppertal, close to the famous Neandertal. It has two stations, Erkrath station, which is served by Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn line S 8, and Erkrath Nord station, which is served by S-Bahn line S 28, both at 20-minute intervals.
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Since the initial discovery of the specimen of the valley there have been additional excavations. Multiple artifacts and human skeletal fragments have been found in the valley. Excavations have found two cranial fragments that seem to fit onto the original Neandertal 1 calotte (bones of the cranial vault). Excavations performed in 1997 and 2000 found new human skeletal pieces.
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In that part of Neandertal, which is located in Erkrath, in the summer of 1856, quarry workers discovered the fossilised remains of what became known as the Neanderthal man or Homo Neanderthalensis in Feldhof cave. The name Erkrath was first mentioned in 1148. Erkrath received town rights in 1966. In 1975, the municipality of Hochdahl was incorporated into Erkrath.
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Type specimen, Neanderthal 1 Location of Neander valley, Germany Feldhofer 1, or Neanderthal 1 is the scientific name of the 40,000-year-old type specimen fossil of the species Homo neanderthalensis,Die Schreibung des Lemmas Neandertal 1 folgt: Wilhelm Gieseler: Germany. In: Kenneth P. Oakley et al. (Hrsg.): Catalogue of Fossil Hominids: Europe Pt. 2. Smithsonian Institution Proceedings, 1971, S. 198–199.
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Even Thomas Henry Huxley, a supporter of Darwin's theory of evolution, saw in the find of Engis a "man of low degree of civilization". The finding in the Neandertal he also interpreted to be within the range of variation of modern humans.Thomas Henry Huxley: On some fossil remains of man. Kapitel 3 in: Evidence as to man's place in nature.
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Der Streit um unsere Ahnen, S. 77. Before Virchow had the opportunity to see the Neanderthal bones in person in 1872, he left them to Bonn anatomist and eye specialist August Franz Josef Karl Mayer, "a resolute supporter of the Christian belief of creation in its traditionalist form".Martin Kuckenberg: Lag Eden im Neandertal? Auf der Suche nach dem frühen Menschen.
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Ralf W. Schmitz et al.: The Neandertal type site revisited: Interdisciplinary investigations of skeletal remains from the Neander Valley, Germany. In: PNAS. Band 99, Nr. 20, 2002, S. 13342–13347, Underneath layers of residue, loam fillings and blasting rubble of the limestone quarry, a number of stone tools and a total of more than 20 Neanderthal bone fragments were discovered.
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In addition to Early Mesolithic stone tools and two red deer head-dresses, well-preserved bones of red deer, roe deer, aurochs, dogs and different species of birds and fish were also found in what is described as a discard area.Street, M. 1999. Remains of aurochs (Bos primigenius) from the early Mesolithic site Bedburg-Königshoven (Rhineland, Germany). Wissenschaftliche Schriften des Neandertal Museums (1): pp. 173-194.
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The remains of settlements from the Old and New Stone Ages, between 220,000 and 120,000 BC, have been found in Rheindahlen. They could be fossils of Homo erectus (Homo heidelbergensis) and Neandertal Man. Rheindahlen is also an extremely rich site for fossil remains that have survived in the soil which is mainly clay. In archaeological circles the site has been nationally well known since 1908.
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There are questions as to whether these remains are those of Neandertals. Two cranial pieces were unearthed: one, a left zygomatic and partial body and second, a right piece of temporal bone. These pieces appeared to fit the Neandertal 1 calotte perfectly, although these pieces are not specifically from Neandertals. These discoveries may or may not be attributable to the Neandertals but exhibit similar characteristics.
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Ralf W. Schmitz, D. Serre, G. Bonani, S. Feine, F. Hillgruber, H. Krainitzki, S. Pääbo, F. H. Smith: The Neandertal type site revisited. Interdisciplinary investigations of skeletal remains from the Neander Valley, Germany. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 99,20 (2002) 13342–13347, hier: S. 13344. The site was turned into an archaeological garden, its installations symbolize the eventful history of the place.
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The arm had healed, but the injury may have caused some paralysis down his right side, leading to deformities in his lower legs and feet. Studies show that this individual had suffered from two broken legs. This would have resulted in him walking with a pronounced, painful limp. These findings in Shanidar 1’s skeleton propose that he was unlikely to be able to provide for himself in a Neandertal society.
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Ancient monuments from the Paleolithic era consist of simple stone and bone objects. Some of the earliest remaining historical features include 100,000-year-old bones of a Neandertal man near Krapina, Hrvatsko Zagorje. The most interesting Copper Age or Eneolithic finds are from Vučedol culture. Out of that culture sprung out Bronze Age Vinkovci culture (named after the city of Vinkovci) that is recognizable by bronze fibulas that were replacing objects like needles and buttons.
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This phase thus probably coincides with the establishment of a form of proto-agricultural economy, consisting of a strategy of selective and intensive gathering of grasses. In the layers dated to the 8th mill. BC, the pottery is also associated with grinding materials (grindstones and crushers).Huysecom E. 2012. Un Néolithique « très » ancien en Afrique de l’Ouest ? Dossier Pour la Science 76 : L’homme de Neandertal et l’invention de la culture, juillet-septembre 2012, 86-91.
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Particular attention was given to the discovery of a third humerus: two humeruses were already known since 1856. The third humerus represents the remains of a second, more delicately built individual; at least three other bone fragments are also present twice. Called Neandertal 2, the find was dated at 39 240 ± 670 years old, exactly as old as Neanderthal 1. Moreover, a milk tooth was recovered and attributed to an adolescent Neanderthal.
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Most scholars simply declared the early Neanderthal fossils to be representatives of early "races" of modern man. Thomas Henry Huxley, a future supporter of Darwin's theory of evolution, saw in the Engis 2 fossil a "man of low degree of civilization". The discovery in the Neandertal he interpreted as to be within the range of variation of modern humans.Thomas Henry Huxley: On some fossil remains of man. Kapitel 3 in: Evidence as to man's place in nature.
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Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York His views on Neandertal evolution were later fully confirmed by various discoveries, in particular, by the spectacular discovery of the fossil series from Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca, Spain). He is best known for having proposed the ‘accretion model’ for the emergence of the Neandertals, a model that emphasizes the role of the environment, demographic fluctuations, and genetic drift in recent human evolution. This model has found much support in subsequent paleogenetical works.
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The Neanderthal Museum is a museum in Mettmann, Germany. Located at the site of the first Neanderthal man discovery in the Neandertal, it features an exhibit centered on human evolution. The museum was constructed in 1996 to a design by the architects Zamp Kelp, Julius Krauss and Arno Brandlhuber and draws about 170,000 visitors per year. The museum also includes an archaeological park on the original discovery site, a Stone Age workshop, as well as an art trail named "human traces".
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Upon removing the sediment fillings, the workers unearthed fossilized bones in a depth of which, initially unnoticed, were disposed of among mud and debris and dispersed into the valley. The bones came to the attention of the cave's owner Wilhelm Beckershoff, who assumed them to be the remains of a cave bear. Beckershoff and quarry co-owner Friedrich Wilhelm PieperGerd-Christian Weniger: Mettmann – Fundort Neandertal. In: Heinz Günter Horn (Hrsg.): Neandertaler + Co. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein 2006, S. 183, .
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In 1856, workers in a lime quarry in the nearby canyon called Gesteins or Neandertal (southwest of Mettmann) showed him bones they had found in a cave and thought to belong to a bear. Fuhlrott identified them as human and thought them to be very old. He recognized them to be different from the usual bones of humans and showed them to the Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bonn, Hermann Schaaffhausen. Together they announced the discovery publicly in 1857.
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HHaA is a human pseudogene believed to be responsible for fur-like body hair. In humans the gene has become deactivated making it a pseudogene, however there is variation in the degree of body hair among human beings and occasional examples have been found of people where the gene is active leading to very thick body hair as a result. Although the mutation was dated to 240 000 by Winter et al., it is also present in the Vindija Neandertal and Altai Denisovan sequences.
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Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger discovered bones and other remnants of a Neandertal, subsequently named Homo krapiniensis, on a hill near the town of Krapina. Palaeolithic site on Hušnjakovo near Krapina, counted among the largest and richest sites in the world where Neanderthal remains have been found. During excavations from 1899 to 1905, led by the palaeontologist and geologist Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger, abundant remains of Palaeolithic items and the bones of extinct prehistoric animals were discovered. The Krapina finds are estimated to be 130,000 years old.
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The CD cover was designed by the artist Ingo A. Müller from Bremen who processed impressions of his trip to America. In October 1994, Crown of Creation presented the CD in their first tour in France to the general public. Separates out later was given the title "Memory" for the charity compilation in favor of injured children because of fire "Paulinchen" (2001, there track # 1). "Frustsong", a composition by Silke Kasten, Matthias Blazek and Rick J. Jordan, had already been published in 1985 by Die Matzingers on their tape "Neandertal".
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Toussaint M, Olejniczak AJ, El Zaatari S, Cattelain P, Flas D, Letourneux C, Pirson S., "The Neandertal lower right deciduous second molar from Trou de l'Abîme at Couvin, Belgium", Journal of Human Evolution, 2010 Jan;58(1):56-67. doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.09.006. The 1905 artifacts have been associated with a variety of prehistoric cultures, such as Solutrean, Mousterian, Proto- Solutrean and a transitional culture in between the Middle and Upper Paleolithic. As of 2016 the assemblage from both the 1905 excavation and the 1980s excavations is considered to be Mousterian.
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She has worked on campfire remains at many Neanderthal sites including in El Salt and Abric del Pastor, near the town of Alcoy (southeastern Spain), as well as Middle Paleolithic remains in France, Georgia, Armenia and Uzbekistan. She has been Principal Investigator of 3 consecutive major research projects funded by the Leakey Foundation on Neandertal Fire Technology. From 2014-2016: (Co-PI). MISTI Co-PI of a MISTI Global Seeds Fund project (MIT) on “Paleoenvironmentary and Paleodietary Reconstruction of Early Hominin Sites”, and was awarded a European Research Council Consolidator 2014 grant (PALEOCHAR).
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The same year, for his co-authorship of the Science article A draft sequence and preliminary analysis of the Neandertal genome he received the Newcomb Cleveland Prize of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the prize for the best article of the year. In October 2010, he became a junior professor at the Institute of Scientific Archaeology in Tübingen. Since then he has headed the working group on paleogenetics at the Institute. In the summer of 2014, it was announced that the Max Planck Institute of Economics in Jena would receive a different mandate.
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Findings consist of canine, hand fragments, foot remains, right patella, tibia and fibula. The height of this person estimated to be nearly 164 cm and weight to be 78 kg. The gender of this Neandertal is controversial, as some scholars (Alexeev) assumed that it was female, however, according to the tibial maximum and body proportions of Neandertals, it is presumed that the skeleton belonged to a man. Kizil-Koba 2 – the more intact skeleton was discovered close to the adult's remains in a separate grave and considered to be belong to an infant (younger than 12 months old at death).
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Dibble was director or co-director of three projects: excavations at the cave of Roc de Marsal on oldstoneage.com., Campagne, Dordogne, France from 2004 to 2010; excavations at the Grotte des Contrabandiers (Smugglers' Cave)Smugglers' Cave - La Grotte des Contrebandiers - Morocco, on oldstoneage.com. in Témara, Morocco in 2006; and the Abydos Survey for Paleolithic SitesAbydos Survey for Paleolithic Sites, on oldstoneage.com. in the high desert surrounding Abydos, Egypt from 2000 to 2007. In 2011 he began directing excavations at La Ferassie, also in the Dordogne region, where 6 Neandertal skeletons were found in 1913 and one in 1972.
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In the recent past, in the southern part of the borough, near an old brickworks, archaeological excavations took place that have contributely decisively to the understanding of the hunting and settlement areas of Neandertal man. A thirteen-fold enlarged bronze replica of the hand hammer found in 1994 has been on display in the centre of Rheindahlen since 2003; it recalls the early history of the village. From the 3rd century A.D. a Roman settlement is known to have existed in the Hardt Forest to the north. This was discovered in 1954 during the construction of the NATO Headquarters northwest of Rheindahlen.
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The La Chapelle-aux-Saints cave, bordering the Sourdoire valley, revealed many archeological artifacts belonging to the late Mousterian techno-complex,BINANT P., 1991 - Les sépultures du Paléolithique. Paris : Errance including the first ever recognized Neanderthal burial discovered on August 3, 1908.POSTEL B., 2008 - Neandertal et la mort. Archéologia n°458 : 6-11 Jean and Amédée Bouyssonie, as well as L. Bardon, led archaeological digs in the cave from 1905 to 1908, discovering over 1,000 pieces of stone industry (mainly flint), bones of different fauna including reindeer, bovid, horse, fox, wolf and even a rhinoceros’ tooth.
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Since neither nor was a native sound in Latin, the tendency must have emerged early, and at the latest by medieval Latin, to substitute . Thus, in many modern languages, including French and German, the digraph is used in Greek loan-words to represent an original , but is now pronounced : examples are French théâtre, German Theater. In some cases, this etymological , which has no remaining significance for pronunciation, has been transferred to words in which there is no etymological justification for it. For example, German Tal ('valley', cognate with English dale) appears in many place-names with an archaic spelling Thal (contrast Neandertal and Neanderthal).
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A gene for type I hair keratin was lost in the human lineage. Keratins are a major component of hairs. Humans still have nine functional type I hair keratin genes, but the loss of that particular gene may have caused the thinning of human body hair. Based on the assumption of a constant molecular clock, the study predicts the gene loss occurred relatively recently in human evolution—less than 240 000 years ago, but both the Vindija Neandertal and the high-coverage Denisovan sequence contain the same premature stop codons as modern humans and hence dating should be greater than 750 000 years ago.
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Due to all of the injuries and side effects of trauma, it was very unlikely that this individual could provide for his family or contribute to society in a meaningful way. With that being said, this individual may have been kept alive due to a high status within society or a repository of cultural knowledge. This evidence has led to speculation that the Neandertals had some sort of altruistic characteristics with the possibility of the presence of ethos within the Neandertal community. The discovery of stone tools found in proximity to these individuals allows us to deduce that the Neandertals exhibited enough intelligence to make everyday life easier for themselves.
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Paleolithic cave paintings from Lascaux in France (c 15,000 BC) Stonehenge in the United Kingdom (Late Neolithic from 3000–2000 BC). Homo erectus georgicus, which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia, is the earliest hominid to have been discovered in Europe. Other hominid remains, dating back roughly 1 million years, have been discovered in Atapuerca, Spain.The million year old tooth from Atapuerca, Spain, found in June 2007 Neanderthal man (named after the Neandertal valley in Germany) appeared in Europe 150,000 years ago (115,000 years ago it is found already in Poland) and disappeared from the fossil record about 28,000 years ago, with their final refuge being present-day Portugal.
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A Neanderthal skull was found in Forbes' Quarry in Gibraltar in 1848 making it the second territory after Belgium where remains of Neanderthals were found. Neanderthals were not recognized as a separate species until the discovery of remains in Neandertal, Germany in 1856, though their classification as a separate species has recently been called into question. Subsequent Neanderthal discoveries in Gibraltar have also been made including the skull of a four-year-old child and preserved excrement on top of baked mussel shells. The Neanderthals were present in Iberia until at least 28,000 or 27,000 BC. Evidence of their presence in this period is found in Columbeira, Figueira Brava and Salemas.
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Jose Maria Basabe studied 5 teeth from a young Neandertal found on the site. Jesus Altuna identified faunal remains from the site, while later on, A. Baldeón studied the stone tools. Renewed excavations at Axlor took place from 2000 to 2009, under the direction of J. González Urquijo and J. Ibañez Estévez. The new excavations continue to focus on the lithic and faunal assemblages, as well as human remains, but new approaches have also been incorporated into the project: micro-faunal fossil remains (essentially, rodents), the geological context of the "Indusi karst", the geological formation of different layers of rock, palynology (the study of pollen), and carpology (the study of other plant remains), among other disciplines.
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The hairless bat is mostly hairless but does have short bristly hairs around its neck, on its front toes, and around the throat sac, along with fine hairs on the head and tail membrane. Most hairless animals cannot go in the sun for long periods of time, or stay in the cold for too long. Humans are the only primate species that have undergone significant hair loss. The hairlessness of humans compared to related species may be due to loss of functionality in the pseudogene KRTHAP1 (which helps produce keratin) Although the researchers dated the mutation to 240 000 ya, both the Altai Neandertal and Denisovan have the loss- of-function mutation, indicating it is much older.
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In 1863 British paleontologist George Busk, who had Schaaffhausen's treatise translated into English in 1861, came into possession of the 1848 in the Forbes' Quarry discovered Gibraltar 1 skull. Due to its similarity to Neandertal 1 he scoffed that even Professor Mayer should find it hard to suspect "that a "rickety" cossack of the campaign of 1814 would have holed up in the clefts of the rock of Gibraltar".zitiert aus Friedemann Schrenk, Stephanie Müller: Die Neandertaler, S. 18–19 Final recognition of Neanderthal man as a distinct species separate from Homo sapiens only came after 1886, after two almost complete Neanderthal skeletons were found in the Spy Cave in Belgium.Ian Tattersall: Neandertaler.
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Erik Trinkaus (born December 24, 1948) is a paleoanthropologist specializing in Neandertal and early modern human biology and human evolution. Trinkaus researches the evolution of the species Homo sapiens and recent human diversity, focusing on the paleoanthropology and emergence of late archaic and early modern humans, and the subsequent evolution of anatomically modern humanity. Trinkaus is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and the Mary Tileston Hemenway Professor Emeritus of Arts and Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis. He is a frequent contributor to publications such as Science, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, PLOS One, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, and the Journal of Human Evolution and has written/co-written or edited/co-edited fifteen books in paleoanthropology.
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The line actually starts in Kaarst at the Kaarster See station ("Lake of Kaarst") and follows the remaining section of the Neuss-Viersen railway until Neuss Hauptbahnhof. The line runs along the Mönchengladbach–Düsseldorf railway to Düsseldorf Hauptbahnhof and then along the Düsseldorf–Elberfeld railway to Düsseldorf-Gerresheim. At Neuss, Düsseldorf Hauptbahnhof and Düsseldorf- Gerresheim there are connections to the lines S1, S6, S5/S8, S11 and S68 (in peak hours), which runs into the direction of Solingen, Dortmund, Essen, Cologne, Mönchengladbach, Hagen, Bergisch Gladbach and Düsseldorf Airport. From Düsseldorf-Gerresheim to Mettmann the line runs along a remaining part of the largely closed Düsseldorf-Derendorf–Dortmund Süd railway through Neandertal and terminates in Mettmann-Stadtwald, which together with Mettmann- Jubiläumsplatz bus stop is an important traffic node.
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At the very end of this essay, in one of his footnotes, King mentions that one year prior he had given a lecture of similar contents at the geological section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,William King: On the Neanderthal Skull, or Reasons for believing it to belong to the Clydian Period and to a species different from that represented by Man. In: British Association for the Advancement of Science, Notices and Abstracts for 1863, Part II. London, 1864, S. 81 f. yet by now he is even more convinced that the fossil, which he at that time had called "Homo Neanderthalensis", is generally distinct from man. This casual name, chosen by King for the Neandertal fossil in footnote 27 has become the official species name in accordance with the international rules for zoological nomenclature.
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On the basis of this morphological affinity, it seems appropriate to group Ceprano with these fossils, and consider them as a single taxon. The available nomen for this putative species is H. heidelbergensis, whose distinctiveness stands on the retention of a number of archaic traits combined with features that are more derived and independent from any Neandertal ancestry. [...] This result would suggest that H. ergaster survived as a distinct species until 1 Ma, and would discard the validity of the species H. cepranensis, which was based on the claimed affinities between Daka and Ceprano that we did not observe. ...the mandible AT-888 associated with the SH5 cranium from Atapuerca has been shown to share affinities with the holotype of H. heidelbergensis: the Mauer mandible. Thus we can include the so-called “Ante-Neandertals” from Europe in the same taxonomical unit with other Mid-Pleistocene samples from Africa and continental Asia.
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Subsequent major projects concerned with early modern humans include the Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Portugal) Dolní Věstonice and Pavlov Moravia, Czech Republic, Peştera cu Oase (Romania), Peştera Muierii (Romania), Mladeč (Czech Republic), Tianyuandong (China), and Sunghir (Russia). Additional Neandertal descriptions include those from Krapina (Croatia), Oliveira (Portugal), Kiik-Koba (Crimea), and Sima de las Palomas (Spain). To these can be added Middle Pleistocene human remains from Aubesier (France), Broken Hill (Zambia) and Hualongdong (China), plus late archaic humans remains from Xujiayao and Xuchang (China). These paleontological descriptions include both primary data on these fossils and a diversity of paleobiological interpretations of the remains and the Pleistocene human groups from which they derive. Trinkaus’s analyses of early modern human remains, especially those from Dolní Věstonice, Pavlov, Lagar Velho and Sunghir, have raised a series of questions regarding the nature and diversity of mortuary practices among these early modern humans.
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Originally misclassified as "modern", the fossil received little attention after its publication in the 19th century as it was compared to Engis 1 - the very good and almost perfectly preserved skull of an adult Homo sapiens. In 1758 Carl Linnaeus had published the 10th edition of his work Systema Naturae in which Homo sapiens as a species name was introduced to the public, yet without a thorough diagnosis and without a precise description of the species-specific characteristics. As a result, any criteria by which a fossil of the species Homo sapiens could be classified into and distinguished from the genus Homo did not exist in the early 19th century. Even Thomas Henry Huxley, a supporter of Darwin's theory of evolution, saw in the 1863 findings of the Engis cave a "man of low degree of civilization" and also interpreted the Neandertal 1 fossils of the Kleine Feldhofer Grotte unearthed in 1856 as belonging within the range of variations of modern man.
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Trinkaus has been primarily concerned with the biology and behavior of the Neandertals and early modern humans, through the Middle and Late Pleistocene, in order shed light on these past humans and to understand the emergence and establishment of modern humans. His work has therefore been primarily concerned with the comparative and functional anatomy, paleopathology and life history of these past humans. At the same time, because it dominates paleoanthropology, he has been involved in debates concerning the ancestry of modern humans, being one of the first to argue for an African origin of modern humans but with substantial Neandertal ancestry among Eurasian modern human populations. Although his early work emphasized differences between the Neandertals (and other archaic humans) and early modern humans, his work since the 1990s has documented many similarities across these human groups in terms of function, levels of activity, stress levels, and abilities to cope socially with the rigors of a Pleistocene foraging existence.
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On the basis of this morphological affinity, it seems appropriate to group Ceprano with these fossils, and consider them as a single taxon. The available nomen for this putative species is H. heidelbergensis, whose distinctiveness stands on the retention of a number of archaic traits combined with features that are more derived and independent from any Neandertal ancestry. [...] This result would suggest that H. ergaster survived as a distinct species until 1 Ma, and would discard the validity of the species H. cepranensis [...] Thus we can include the so-called “Ante-Neandertals” from Europe in the same taxonomical unit with other Mid- Pleistocene samples from Africa and continental Asia. Combining the results of the two approaches of our phenetic analysis, Ceprano should be reasonably accommodated as part of a Mid-Pleistocene human taxon H. heidelbergensis, which would include European, African, and Asian specimens. Moreover, the combination of archaic and derived features exhibited by the Italian specimen represents a “node” connecting the different poles of such a polymorphic humanity.
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The Gibraltar 1 skull, discovered in 1848 in Forbes' Quarry, was only the second Neanderthal skull and the first adult Neanderthal skull ever found. The Neanderthals in Gibraltar were among the first to be discovered by modern scientists and have been among the most well studied of their species according to a number of extinction studies which emphasize regional differences, usually claiming the Iberian Peninsula partially acted as a “refuge” for the shrinking Neanderthal populations and the Gibraltar community of Neanderthals as having been one of many dwindling communities of archaic human populations, existing just until around 42,000 years ago. Many other Neanderthal communities went extinct around the same time. The skull of a Neanderthal woman, discovered in a quarry in 1848, was only the second Neanderthal skull ever found and the first adult Neanderthal skull to be discovered, eight years before the discovery of the skull for which the species was named in Neandertal, Germany; had it been recognised as a separate species, it might have been called Calpican (or Gibraltarian) rather than Neanderthal Man.
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