He sees openings and measures angles, counts nanoseconds and senses trouble.
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He is capable of producing open looks for teammates in nanoseconds.
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They place trades and cancel them in nanoseconds, leaving the responder's price naked.
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A fifth of my working life was gone in what felt like nanoseconds.
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For instance, the 1/24th of a second around which the entire film industry is based on is equal to 2000… on and on forever (even attempting to use nanoseconds to represent these durations ends up creating fractions of nanoseconds).
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What never changes is the Doctor's ability to think quickly, down to literal nanoseconds.
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Scanning the entire field in this way takes about ten nanoseconds (billionths of a second).
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Powerful fields generated by lasers typically last for nanoseconds — or 1/1,000th of a microsecond.
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"We react emotionally around our financial decisions, and it occurs literally in nanoseconds," Horwitz said.
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Instead of operating in seconds, VFX artists, producers, and programmers will sometimes work in nanoseconds.
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In one case, a sample of water transitioned to ice VII in just 10 nanoseconds.
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It was only around for about 21860 nanoseconds, but that was long enough to confirm its existence.
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Correction (January 5th 2018): Speculative execution, which is explained in the third paragraph, saves nanoseconds, not milliseconds.
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The shortest, E1, lasts for nanoseconds, but can damage electronic components such as computers and electricity infrastructure.
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Who better to teach about nanoseconds than Grace Hopper, navy admiral and inventor of the first compiler?
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Imagine terrorism in the virtual world, where pathogens — computer viruses turned deadly — can span the world in nanoseconds.
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For example, digital coin transactions still take longer: about 10 minutes for blockchain transactions versus nanoseconds for traditional payments.
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So, it comes down to, why should I waste nanoseconds, wear and tear on my SSD, to launch Epic's launcher?
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But working in nanoseconds can result in some messy math and coding, as they aren't easily converted to standard video frame rates.
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Just wait another 22013 years, when Blue Ivy's comeback album is streamed directly into our skulls nanoseconds after we think about it.
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Hard drives are great for data storage but not very efficient data movers (delivering data in milliseconds, as compared to memory's nanoseconds).
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Those packets of particles collide every handful of nanoseconds, so the camera must be able to take around 40 million pictures per second.
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In order to save valuable nanoseconds when running a program, processors tackle some snippets of code ahead of time, a trick called "speculative execution".
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Today, technology plays a massive role in marketing strategy and execution: Automation has turned guesswork into a precise science and months of planning into nanoseconds.
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The site explains that the tech takes two nanoseconds to recognize a face and that it'll work in all sorts of different lighting situations, too.
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Ms. Freeman, who edited the Library of America edition of Hamilton's writings, said she had emailed the auction house "within nanoseconds" of hearing about the sale.
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He owes a good deal to a brilliant cross from Dani Alves, taken with pace on a ball that was nanoseconds from crossing the back line.
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Few A.I. applications carry the responsibility of automotive safety systems, where actions must be carried out in nanoseconds and an ill-considered response may have costly consequences.
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"It was a matter of nanoseconds, but you felt the train was coming to a screeching halt, then it eased up a bit, then another screech," Forbes said.
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To give you a sense of how this coherence has been progressing, it was just a few nanoseconds when researchers started looking at this in the late 90s.
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SDE is also digital in the sense that it creates a perfect digital representation of the electricity signal, within nanoseconds, upon which it can run algorithms to determine corrections.
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It can cut a circuit in just 250 nanoseconds, which is substantially faster than a mechanical version, says Trued Holmquist, a Swedish information-technology entrepreneur who helped found Manetos.
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The fact we have instant messaging systems—so you can take a picture and distribute it within nanoseconds—means that crimes like sextortion will only be on the rise.
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Moreover, if a starchip did encounter a planet, then its near-luminal impact velocity would create an explosion with a yield of about a kilotonne, blasting it into plasma in nanoseconds.
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As the researchers discovered, the addition of this nanocrystalline structure decreased the photoluminescent lifetime of the phosphor from the order of microseconds characteristic of traditional LEDs down to just seven nanoseconds.
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In one demonstration described in Nature, the sensor was set up so that images of simplified letters falling on it would be recognized in nanoseconds because of their distinctive voltage response.
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But they caution us that just because Trump often discusses withdrawing from these deals — and sometimes with burning urgency in Oval Office meetings — that doesn't mean he's nanoseconds away from doing so.
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Sensitive information can be fed into complex computer programs capable of executing large volumes of financial trades in nanoseconds, making a head start of even five seconds an age for sophisticated investors.
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This hurdle becomes insurmountable at larger distances: If someone is in the same room as you, the light only takes a few nanoseconds to reach you and let you know what they're doing.
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When a flight attendant told Brafford to return to his seat, the 29-year-old man went from "zero to 60 in nanoseconds," according to the complaint, and began screaming at the flight crew.
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There are lots of triggers that if we were using AI to effectively in nanoseconds, milliseconds monitor these kinds of things, you could instantly if not solve the problem you could mitigate it dramatically. Right.
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Via Science News: From "A tiny switch could redirect light between computer chips in mere nanoseconds": Microscopic switches that route light signals between computer chips like tiny traffic conductors could help make faster, more efficient electronics.
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As soon as the restaurant (widely considered one of the world's best, if not the best) releases future seats, 20,000 people around the globe frantically scramble to book them, with months of reservations selling out in literally nanoseconds.
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This was a spectacular self- immolation by Roseanne who woke up this morning with the most popular show, within nanoseconds it seemed ABC pulling the plug, which is going to cost ABC a lot of money, by the way.
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For example, if you were flipping a coin, the chances of it landing on heads or tails is 50/50—flipping the coin in 10 seconds or 10 nanoseconds doesn't change the probability of it landing on heads or tails.
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I enjoy following and writing about technology because of its constant progress, whether it's measured in millimeters shaven off a device's thickness, nanoseconds of improvements in touch responsiveness, or discrete new capabilities like wireless charging, contactless payments, and biometric authentication.
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The speed bump slows trades down by only 350 microseconds — or millionths of a second — but that is an eternity in a stock exchange universe in which computers can buy and sell stocks in nanoseconds — or billionths of a second.
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They claim that the sound waves in their chip travels five orders of magnitude slower than light would, but the signal still lasted only around 3.5 nanoseconds in their chip, and wasn't perfectly efficient, according to the paper published in Nature Communications.
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We humans have sophisticated methods of extracting depth data by comparing the images from our two slightly offset visual fields, but if we could shoot lasers out of our eyes instead and count the nanoseconds until they return, that might be even better.
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Programmers already use built in tools in C++ to manage these sorts of exact frame syncing, especially when it comes to designing visual effects in CGI, but the most exact timing possible in C++ is nanoseconds, which doesn't divide evenly into most frame rates.
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The respective clock uncertainty declined from 10,000 nanoseconds per day to 0.5 nanoseconds per day in 5 decades.James Jespersen and Jane Fitz-Randolph (1999). From sundials to atomic clocks : understanding time and frequency.
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The 74181 performs these operations on two four-bit operands generating a four-bit result with carry in 22 nanoseconds (45 MHz). The 74S181 performs the same operations in 11 nanoseconds (90 MHz), while the 74F181 performs the operations in 7 nanoseconds (143 MHz) (typical). Multiple 'slices' can be combined for arbitrarily large word sizes. For example, sixteen 74S181s and five 74S182 look ahead carry generators can be combined to perform the same operations on 64-bit operands in 28 nanoseconds (36 MHz).
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A complete barrel "rotation" occurred in 1000 nanoseconds (100 nanoseconds per PP), and an instruction could take from one to five "rotations" of the barrel to be completed, or more if it was a data transfer instruction.
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The pulse typically rises to its peak value in some five nanoseconds. Its magnitude typically decays by half within 200 nanoseconds. (By the IEC definition, this E1 pulse ends 1000 nanoseconds after it begins.) This process occurs simultaneously on about 1025 electrons. The simultaneous action of the electrons causes the resulting pulse from each electron to radiate coherently, adding to produce a single large amplitude, but narrow, radiated pulse.
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The 2Π state is predicted to have a radiative lifetime of about 6 nanoseconds.
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GPS time is theoretically accurate to about 14 nanoseconds, due to the clock drift that atomic clocks experience in GPS transmitters, relative to International Atomic Time. Most receivers lose accuracy in the interpretation of the signals and are only accurate to 100 nanoseconds.
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Typical pulses are around 1 millijoule (mJ) of pulse energy in 10 to 20 nanoseconds.
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Ultrafast spectroscopy of these compounds has revealed exceptionally fast isomerization lifetimes ranging from 1.5 nanoseconds to 48 picoseconds.
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This frequency was chosen to minimize the chrominance beat interference pattern that would be visible in areas of high color saturation in the transmitted picture. At certain times, the chrominance signal represents only the U signal, and 70 nanoseconds (NTSC) later, the chrominance signal represents only the V signal. (This is the nature of the quadrature amplitude modulation process that created the chrominance signal.) About 70 nanoseconds later still, -U, and another 70 nanoseconds, -V. So to extract U, a synchronous demodulator is utilized, which uses the subcarrier to briefly gate (sample) the chroma every 280 nanoseconds, so that the output is only a train of discrete pulses, each having an amplitude that is the same as the original U signal at the corresponding time.
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The IBM System/360 Model 85, when configured with 2,097,152 (2 MB, 360/85 K85) or 4,194,304 (4 MB, 360/85 L85) bytes, uses the IBM 2385 instead of the IBM 2365 Processor Storage. The IBM 2385 has a cycle time of 960 nanoseconds compared to 1,040 nanoseconds for the IBM 2365 model 5.
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It supports registered ECC SDRAM, with capacity up to 2 GiB per DIMM on 16 GiB version and 4 GiB per DIMM on 32 GiB version. Seek time was reduced from 40 microseconds to 1100 nanoseconds read and 250 nanoseconds write. It also reduces the power consumption by 30% and employs gold plated DIMM sockets.
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The system has a CPU cycle time of 500 nanoseconds, 25% faster than the Model 40 and 40% slower than the Model 65. Processor storage is magnetic core memory that transfers four bytes per 2 microsecond cycle. It has "protected" and "local" core storage for registers and internal buffers with cycle times of 200 and 500 nanoseconds respectively.
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Lithium-12 has a considerably shorter half-life of around 10 nanoseconds. It decays by neutron emission into 11Li, which decays as mentioned above.
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The shortest-lived are 29Cl and 30Cl, with half-lives less than 10 picoseconds and 30 nanoseconds, respectively—the half-life of 28Cl is unknown.
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In nuclear engineering and astrophysics contexts, the shake is sometimes used as a conveniently short period of time. 1 shake is defined as 10 nanoseconds.
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They then compared this plot against a plot of the arrival times of the 15,223 detected neutrinos. This comparison indicated neutrinos had arrived at the detector 57.8 nanoseconds faster than if they had been traveling at the speed of light in vacuum. An alternative analysis in which each detected neutrino was checked against the waveform of its associated proton spill (instead of against the global probability density function) led to a compatible result of approximately 54.5 nanoseconds. The November main analysis, which showed an early arrival time of 57.8 nanoseconds, was conducted blind to avoid observer bias, whereby those running the analysis might inadvertently fine-tune the result toward expected values.
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Flight times of ions to the orbitrap were mass dependent, but for a given mass, ions were injected in bunches less than 100 nanoseconds wide (fwhm).
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In addition to its use in navigation, the Global Positioning System (GPS) can also be used for clock synchronization. The accuracy of GPS time signals is ±10 nanoseconds.
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Protactinium (91Pa) has no stable isotopes. The three naturally occurring isotopes allow a standard atomic weight to be given. Thirty radioisotopes of protactinium have been characterized, with the most stable being 231Pa with a half-life of 32,760 years, 233Pa with a half-life of 26.967 days, and 230Pa with a half-life of 17.4 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives less than 1.6 days, and the majority of these have half-lives less than 1.8 seconds. This element also has five meta states, 217mPa (t1/2 1.15 milliseconds), 220m1Pa (t1/2 = 308 nanoseconds), 220m2Pa (t1/2 = 69 nanoseconds), 229mPa (t1/2 = 420 nanoseconds), and 234mPa (t1/2 = 1.17 minutes).
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Typical pulses are of tens of nanoseconds in duration and are therefore capable of resolving the first nucleation sites of domain reversal and then observing how these sites evolve.
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The inventor of time travel cannot escape dying in a hotel fire, no matter how many millions of times he tries or how many lives he lives between the nanoseconds.
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If neutrino and light speed were the same, a subtraction value of 1043.4 nanoseconds should have been obtained for the correction. However, the actual subtraction value amounted to only 985.6 nanoseconds, corresponding to an arrival time 57.8 nanoseconds earlier than expected. Two facets of the result came under particular scrutiny within the neutrino community: the GPS synchronization system, and the profile of the proton beam spill that generated neutrinos. The second concern was addressed in the November rerun: for this analysis, OPERA scientists repeated the measurement over the same baseline using a new CERN proton beam which circumvented the need to make any assumptions about the details of neutrino production during the beam activation, such as energy distribution or production rate.
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For example, in 2009 the London Stock Exchange bought a technology firm called MillenniumIT and announced plans to implement its Millennium Exchange platform which they claim has an average latency of 126 microseconds. This allows sub-millisecond resolution timestamping of the order book. Off-the-shelf software currently allows for nanoseconds resolution of timestamps using a GPS clock with 100 nanoseconds precision. Spending on computers and software in the financial industry increased to $26.4 billion in 2005.
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In nuclear physics, a shake is 10 nanoseconds, the approximate time for a generation within a nuclear chain reaction. The term comes from the expression "two shakes of a lamb's tail", meaning quickly.
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PsH is constructed from one proton, two electrons, and one positron. The binding energy is . The lifetime of the molecule is 0.65 nanoseconds. The lifetime of positronium deuteride is indistinguishable from the hydride.
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The lifetime of an excimer is very short, on the order of nanoseconds. Binding of a larger number of excited atoms forms Rydberg matter clusters, the lifetime of which can exceed many seconds.
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Eight bit paper tape was (somewhat) standard input (the software could handle data input in either the ASCII or the rather idiosyncratic KDF9 character codes) – but a high speed 1000-characters per second electrostatic reader made by Facit was capable of projecting paper tape across a room in spectacular fashion. A high-speed printer was provided. The major machine cycle time was around 800 nanoseconds, with inner cycles around 200 nanoseconds. Most early programming was performed in very amenable and complete assembly code.
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The generator was originally designed to produce a current pulse with a maximum of 1.8 million amperes in 240 nanoseconds (150 nanoseconds rise time). At present the machine is operated with a maximum current of approximately 1.4 million amperes and operates as a z-pinch facility. The generator consists of four voltage multipliers (Marx generators), each one containing 24 capacitors. At the maximum charging voltage of 100 kilo-volts, an output voltage of 2.4 million volts is produced and delivered into the load section.
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The length of each word is 60 binary digits (bits). The highly efficient address and data control mechanisms involved permit a word to be moved into or out of central memory in as little as 100 nanoseconds.
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A microsecond is equal to 1000 nanoseconds or of a millisecond. Because the next SI prefix is 1000 times larger, measurements of 10−5 and 10−4 seconds are typically expressed as tens or hundreds of microseconds.
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A container of ice allowed to melt at room temperature takes hours, while in semiconductors the heat transfer that occurs in the device transition from an on to off state could be on the order of a few nanoseconds.
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A given dataset (clock waveform) is first compared to some reference. Phase error (usually measured in nanoseconds) is calculated for an observation interval. This phase shift is known as time interval error (TIE). MTIE is a function of the observation interval.
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The delay of this equipment was 10,085 nanoseconds and this value had to be added to the time stamp. The data from the transducer arrived at the computer with a 580 nanoseconds delay, and this value had to be subtracted from the time stamp. To get all the corrections right, physicists had to measure exact lengths of the cables and the latencies of the electronic devices. On the detector side, neutrinos were detected by the charge they induced, not by the light they generated, and this involved cables and electronics as part of the timing chain. Fig.
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This beam provided proton pulses of 3 nanoseconds each with up to 524 nanosecond gaps. This meant a detected neutrino could be tracked uniquely to its generating 3 nanoseconds pulse, and hence its start and end travel times could be directly noted. Thus, the neutrino's speed could now be calculated without having to resort to statistical inference. In addition to the four analyses mentioned earlier-- September main analysis, November main analysis, alternative analysis, and the rerun analysis--the OPERA team also split the data by neutrino energy and reported the results for each set of the September and November main analyses.
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A single internal unit, called the "C-Unit", supported up to sixteen channels using the very same hardware for all supported channels. Two internal "C-Units" were possible, supporting up to 32 total channels. Each "C-Unit" independently performed a process generally called a "shifting channel state processor" (a type of barrel processor), which implemented a specialized finite state machine (FSM). Each CPU cycle, every 32 nanoseconds in the 470/V6 and /V5 and every 26 nanoseconds in the 470/V7 and /V8, the "C-unit" read the complete status of next channel in priority sequence and its I/O Channel in-tags.
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The excited species will after some time, usually in the order of few nanoseconds to microseconds, de- excite and emit light at a wavelength longer than the excitation wavelength. This fluorescent light is typically recorded with a photomultiplier tube (PMT) or filtered photodiodes.
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To achieve this, SMR uses very short transmitter's pulse length of typically 40 nanoseconds. It use a carrier-frequency in X-Band (9 GHz) or Ku-band (15 to 17 GHz), and antennas with a very narrow beam (about 0.25 degrees in azimuth).
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RDC measurement provides information on the global folding of the protein or protein complex. As opposed to traditional NOE based NMR structure determinations, RDCs provide long distance structural information. It also provides information about the dynamics in molecules on time scales slower than nanoseconds.
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A typical Q-switched laser (e.g. a Nd:YAG laser) with a resonator length of e.g. 10 cm can produce light pulses of several tens of nanoseconds duration. Even when the average power is well below 1 W, the peak power can be many kilowatts.
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A wavelength shifter is a photofluorescent material that absorbs higher frequency photons and emits lower frequency photons. The material absorbs one photon, and emits one or multiple lower-energy photons. The relaxation time of the excited molecule is usually in the order of nanoseconds.
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The two distributions were expected to have similar shapes, but be separated by 2.4 milliseconds, the time it takes to travel the distance at light speed. The experimenters used an algorithm, maximum likelihood, to search for the time shift that best made the two distributions to coincide. The shift so calculated, the statistically measured neutrino arrival time, was approximately 60 nanoseconds shorter than the 2.4 milliseconds neutrinos would have taken if they traveled just at light speed. In a later experiment, the proton pulse width was shortened to 3 nanoseconds, and this helped the scientists to narrow the generation time of each detected neutrino to that range.
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This is longer than conventional volatile memory devices like modern DRAM, which have a switching time on the order of two nanoseconds. However, a January 2006 Samsung Electronics patent application indicates PRAM may achieve switching times as fast as five nanoseconds. A more recent advance pioneered by Intel and ST Microelectronics allows the material state to be more carefully controlled, allowing it to be transformed into one of four distinct states; the previous amorphic or crystalline states, along with two new partially crystalline ones. Each of these states has different electrical properties that can be measured during reads, allowing a single cell to represent two bits, doubling memory density.
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Black and burst can also be used to synchronise colour phase. This provided timing accuracy in the order of tens of nanoseconds which was necessary to perform e.g. analogue video mixing. Black and burst exists for various colour TV standards, such as PAL, NTSC and SECAM.
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A similar problem exists in holography. The total energy required when exposing holographic film using a continuous wave laser (i.e. for several seconds) is significantly less than the total energy required when exposing holographic film using a pulsed laser (i.e. around 20-40 nanoseconds) due to a reciprocity failure.
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One research goal is to develop new materials where the SCO response time can be decreased from nanoseconds, as we know it, to femtoseconds. One of the advantages of SCO phenomena is the absence of fatigue, because there is an intraelectronic transition instead of an electron displacement through space.
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The Photron FASTCAM SPECTRA is a 256 x 256 High-speed camera coupled with an image intensifier. The image intensifier can shutter to 20 nanoseconds and has a spectral response between 180 nm to 800 nm. It is part of the Photron FASTCAM line of cameras, introduced in 1998.
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It is also the date from which ANSI dates are counted and were adopted by the American National Standards Institute for use with COBOL and other computer languages. All versions of the Microsoft Windows operating system from Windows 95 onward count units of one hundred nanoseconds from this epoch.
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The writing lasers form a grating by modulating density of matter or by localizing matter (trapping) on the regions of maxima (or minima) of the writing interference fields. A thermal grating is an example. Matter gratings have slow dynamics (milliseconds) compared to population and phase gratings (potentially nanoseconds and faster).
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Organic scintillators are aromatic hydrocarbon compounds which contain benzene ring structures interlinked in various ways. Their luminescence typically decays within a few nanoseconds. Some organic scintillators are pure crystals. The most common types are anthracene (, decay time ≈30 ns), stilbene (, 4.5 ns decay time), and naphthalene (, few ns decay time).
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The first UNIVAC 418-III was delivered in 1969. It was available with 32,768 to 131,072 words of memory. Memory cycle time was reduced to 750 nanoseconds. New instructions were added for floating-point arithmetic, binary-to-decimal and decimal-to-binary conversions, and block transfers up to 64 words.
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After OPERA found the superluminal result, the time calibration was rechecked both by a CERN engineer and the German Institute of Metrology (PTB). Time-of- flight was eventually measured to an accuracy of 10 nanoseconds. The final error bound was derived by combining the variance of the error for the individual parts.
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The MP (multiprocessor) model was added supporting from 512K to 2MB of system memory. The system can also attach IBM 2361 Large Capacity Storage (LCS) modules which provide up to 8MB of additional storage, however with a considerably slower memory cycle time of 8 microseconds compared to the 750 nanoseconds of processor storage.
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The achievable jitter may be below 5 nanoseconds. The required trigger pulse voltage is about 200–2000 volts; higher voltages decrease the switching delay to some degree. Commutation time can be somewhat shortened by increasing the trigger pulse rise time. A given krytron tube will give very consistent performance to identical trigger pulses (low jitter).
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Ultrafast laser spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique that uses ultrashort pulse lasers for the study of dynamics on extremely short time scales (attoseconds to nanoseconds). Different methods are used to examine the dynamics of charge carriers, atoms, and molecules. Many different procedures have been developed spanning different time scales and photon energy ranges; some common methods are listed below.
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It has a half-life of 87 days. The next longest-lived radioisotope is sulfur-38, with a half-life of 170 minutes. The shortest-lived is 49S, with a half-life shorter than 200 nanoseconds. When sulfide minerals are precipitated, isotopic equilibration among solids and liquid may cause small differences in the δ34S values of co-genetic minerals.
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All models other than the model 1 consist of two memory stacks. Addressing for the stacks is interleaved, so the first 64-bit word is in one stack, the second in the other stack, and so forth. This improved performance when doing sequential access. All models other than the model 5 have a cycle time of 750 nanoseconds.
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Experimental lifetimes were around 100 nanoseconds. Fast electrical and optical measurements were made with detectors having sub-ns resolution time. In 2003, Nellis retired from LNLL and joined the Department of Physics at Harvard University as an Associate. Since leaving LLNL, Nellis has collaborated with scientists in Japan, Russia, China and Sweden, as well as in the United States.
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Ice VII has a triple point with liquid water and ice VI at 355 K and 2.216 GPa, with the melt line extending to at least and 10 GPa. Ice VII can be formed within nanoseconds by rapid compression via shock- waves. It can also be created by increasing the pressure on ice VI at ambient temperature.
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The outer layer of the pellet is ablated, providing a reaction force that compresses the central 10% of the fuel by a factor of 10 or 20 to 103 or times solid density. These microplasmas disperse in a time measured in nanoseconds. For a fusion power reactor, a repetition rate of several per second will be needed.
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The FPS AP-120B was a 38-bit, pipeline-oriented array processor manufactured by Floating Point Systems. It was designed to be attached to a host computer such as a DEC PDP-11 as a fast number-cruncher. Data transfer was accomplished using direct memory access. Processor cycle time was 167 nanoseconds, giving a speed of 6 MHz.
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Temporal resolution down to hundreds of femtoseconds and spatial resolution comparable to that available with a Schottky field emission source is possible in ultrafast TEM, but the technique can only image reversible processes that can be reproducibly triggered millions of times. Dynamic TEM can resolve irreversible processes down to tens of nanoseconds and tens of nanometers.
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Radioactive isotopes at or above mass number 93 decay by electron emission, whereas those at or below 89 decay by positron emission. The only exception is 88Zr, which decays by electron capture. Five isotopes of zirconium also exist as metastable isomers: 83mZr, 85mZr, 89mZr, 90m1Zr, 90m2Zr and 91mZr. Of these, 90m2Zr has the shortest half-life at 131 nanoseconds.
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The 3031 features a machine cycle time of 115 nanoseconds (ns). It has a cache (called "high speed buffer storage" in IBM terminology) size of 32 KB. Main storage may be 2 to 6 MB, in 1 MB increments. One group of six channels is standard. This group of channels contains one byte multiplexer and five block multiplexer channels.
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Fluorescence, chemiluminescence and phosphorescence are 3 different types of luminescence properties, i.e. emission of light from a substance. Fluorescence is a property where light is absorbed and remitted within a few nanoseconds (approx. 10ns) at a lower energy (=higher wavelength), while bioluminescence is biological chemiluminescence, a property where light is generated by a chemical reaction of an enzyme on a substrate.
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Sometimes, the excited state is metastable, so the relaxation back down from the excited state to lower states is delayed (necessitating anywhere from a few nanoseconds to hours depending on the material). The process then corresponds to one of two phenomena: delayed fluorescence or phosphorescence. The correspondence depends on the type of transition and hence the wavelength of the emitted optical photon.
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The E1 pulse is the very fast component of nuclear EMP. E1 is a brief but intense electromagnetic field that induces high voltages in electrical conductors. E1 causes most of its damage by causing electrical breakdown voltages to be exceeded. E1 can destroy computers and communications equipment and it changes too quickly (nanoseconds) for ordinary surge protectors to provide effective protection from it.
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The second is the International System of Units (SI) unit of time duration. It is also the standard single-unit time representation in many programming languages, most notably C, and part of UNIX/POSIX standards used by Linux, Mac OS X, etc.; to convert fractional days to fractional seconds, multiply the number by 86400. Fractional seconds are represented as milliseconds (ms), microseconds (μs) or nanoseconds (ns).
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The high performance of the Model 75 was attributed to half a dozen advanced features, including Parallel arithmetic, Overlapped memory fetch, and Parallel addition for address calculation. Furthermore, independent storage sections provided two-way (H75) or four-way (I75, J75) interleaving of memory access. Even with only two-way interleaving, "an effective sequential access rate of 400 nanoseconds per double word (eight bytes) is possible".
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To this end, old and incomplete values for distances and delays from the year 2006 were initially adopted. With the final correction needed not yet known, the intermediate expected result was also an unknown. Analysis of the measurement data under those 'blind' conditions gave an early neutrino arrival of 1043.4 nanoseconds. Afterward, the data were analyzed again taking into consideration the complete and actual sources of errors.
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The NCR 315-RMC, released in July 1965, was the first commercially available computer to employ thin-film memory. This reduced the clock cycle time to 800 nanoseconds. It also included floating- point logic to allow scientific calculations, while retaining the same instruction set as previous NCR 315 and NCR 315-100. The thin film is wrapped around "rods" to allow faster reading and writing of memory.
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NCP is collaborating with CERN in the field of experimental high-energy physics. NCP and CERN are involved in the development, testing and fabrication of 432 Resistive Plate Chambers (RPC) required for the CMS muon detector at CERN. The RPC has an excellent time resolution i.e. of the order of 1–2 nanoseconds and it will be used for the bunch tagging at LHC.
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Atomic electron transitions cause the emission or absorption of photons. Their statistics are Poissonian, and the time between jumps is exponentially distributed. The damping time constant (which ranges from nanoseconds to a few seconds) relates to the natural, pressure, and field broadening of spectral lines. The larger the energy separation of the states between which the electron jumps, the shorter the wavelength of the photon emitted.
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Atomic electron transition is a change of an electron from one energy level to another within an atomSchombert, James. "Quantum physics" University of Oregon Department of Physics or artificial atom. It appears discontinuous as the electron "jumps" from one energy level to another, typically in a few nanoseconds or less. It is also known as an electronic (de-)excitation or atomic transition or quantum jump.
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GeSbTe (germanium-antimony-tellurium or GST) is a phase-change material from the group of chalcogenide glasses used in rewritable optical discs and phase- change memory applications. Its recrystallization time is 20 nanoseconds, allowing bitrates of up to 35 Mbit/s to be written and direct overwrite capability up to 106 cycles. It is suitable for land-groove recording formats. It is often used in rewritable DVDs.
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It used alternating layers of lead with 15,000 kilometers of scintillating fibers before passing the energy from the fibers through 4880 photomultipliers. It was able to determine the energy released by a given particle to within 15% precision, and was able to distinguish between particles occurring at least 0.2 nanoseconds apart, but was limited to the computer's ability to calculate a maximum of 2000 events per second.
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The crystallization of ice from supercooled water is generally initiated by a process called nucleation. Because of the speed and size of nucleation, which occurs within nanoseconds and nanometers. The surface environment does not play a decisive role in the formation of ice and snow. The density fluctuations inside drops result in that the possible freezing regions cover the middle and the surface regions.
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A nanosecond (ns) is an SI unit of time equal to one billionth of a second, that is, of a second, or 10 seconds. The term combines the prefix nano- with the basic unit for one-sixtieth of a minute. A nanosecond is equal to 1000 picoseconds or microsecond. Time units ranging between 10 and 10 seconds are typically expressed as tens or hundreds of nanoseconds.
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The Nova laser as a whole was capable of delivering approximately 100 kilojoules of infrared light at 1054 nm, or 40-45 kilojoules of frequency tripled light at 351 nm (the third harmonic of the Nd:Glass fundamental line at 1054 nm) in a pulse duration of about 2 to 4 nanoseconds and thus was capable of producing a UV pulse in the range of 16 trillion watts.
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For work at high frequencies and with fast digital signals, the bandwidth of the vertical amplifiers and sampling rate must be high enough. For general-purpose use, a bandwidth of at least 100 MHz is usually satisfactory. A much lower bandwidth is sufficient for audio-frequency applications only. A useful sweep range is from one second to 100 nanoseconds, with appropriate triggering and (for analog instruments) sweep delay.
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Although phosphorus (15P) has 23 isotopes from 25P to 47P, only 31P is stable; as such, phosphorus is considered a monoisotopic element. The longest-lived radioactive isotopes are 33P with a half-life of 25.34 days and 32P with a half-life of 14.268 days. All others have half-lives of under 2.5 minutes, most under a second. The least stable is 25P with a half-life shorter than 30 nanoseconds.
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The most stable isotope of astatine is astatine-210, which has a half-life of about 8.1 hours. This isotope's primary decay mode is positron emission to the relatively long- lived alpha emitter, polonium-210. In total, only five isotopes of astatine have half-lives exceeding one hour: those between 207 and 211. The least stable ground state isotope is astatine-213, with a half-life of about 125 nanoseconds.
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The original NRSE setup was designed in a transverse configuration (T-NRSE, Figure 1. b)) where the field B0 lies transverse to the spin direction. In this form the energy resolution of the setup is limited by the production accuracy of the B0 coils to a few nanoseconds. The space between the transverse NRSE coils needs to be free of field, and is therefore shielded by a mu-metal housing.
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To solve this problem HiPER uses a technique known as chirped pulse amplification (CPA). CPA starts with a short pulse from a wide-bandwidth (multi-frequency) laser source, as opposed to the driver which uses a monochromatic (single-frequency) source. Light from this initial pulse is split into different colours using a pair of diffraction gratings and optical delays. This "stretches" the pulse into a chain several nanoseconds long.
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The basic CPU cycle time is 54 nanoseconds (ns). The system has a high degree of parallelism and can process up to seven operations at a time. The system can be configured with 1, 2, or 4 MB of magnetic core memory (models 195J, 195K, and 195L) with a cycle time of 756 ns. A 32 KB cache, called a buffer memory in the IBM announcement, is standard.
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New Zealand standard time is maintained by the Measurement Standards Laboratory (MSL), part of New Zealand Government. New Zealand standard time is based on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). UTC is kept within 200 nanoseconds of the international atomic time scale maintained by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris. It is disseminated by various means, including time pips broadcast on Radio New Zealand, speaking clock and Network Time Protocol.
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Signal induced on the readout electrode of a Micromegas detector (Simulation). The blue curve shows the part of the signal induced by electrons and the red one by ions. The signal is induced by the movement of charges between the micro-mesh and the readout electrode (this volume is called the amplification gap). The 100 nanoseconds signal consists of an electron peak (blue) and an ion tail (red).
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At the location of the correlator, the data are played back. The timing of the playback is adjusted according to the atomic clock signals, and the estimated times of arrival of the radio signal at each of the telescopes. A range of playback timings over a range of nanoseconds are usually tested until the correct timing is found. Playing back the data from each of the telescopes in a VLBI array.
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Charged particles in the shower, mostly electrons and positrons, are deflected slightly in Earth's magnetic field. As these particles change direction, they emit synchrotron radiation. This radiation is visible as a bright flash on the sky for several nanoseconds at frequencies up to a few hundred MHz. It is hoped that the LOPES project will pave the way for more cosmic ray experiments with digital radio telescopes, such as LOFAR.
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Since the advent of GPS, highly precise, yet affordable timing is available from many commercial GPS receivers. Its initial system design expected general timing precision better than 340 nanoseconds using low-grade "coarse mode" and 200 ns in precision mode. A GPS receiver functions by precisely measuring the transit time of signals received from several satellites. These distances combined geometrically with precise orbital information identify the location of the receiver.
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In addition, optical fibers were used for signal transmission at LNGS. The temporal distribution of the proton extractions was statistically compared with approximately 16000 neutrino events. OPERA measured an early neutrinos arrival of approximately 60 nanoseconds, as compared to the expected arrival at the speed of light, thus indicating a neutrino speed faster than that of light. Contrary to the MINOS result, the deviation was 6σ and thus apparently significant.
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The transfer was one 16-bit word/850 nanoseconds, or 2.2MB/s. The printed backplane of the I/O bus was modular in groups of 8 interface slots. Interfaces for mass storages as disk, drum, magnetic tape, etc., were built with one interface card to be plugged at the appropriate place in the bus system, the remaining control cards (6-7) were placed in one of the backplane modules.
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This includes the task scheduler, timers, I/O operations, and channel communication. By eliminating sources of timing uncertainty (interrupts, caches, buses and other shared resources), xCORE can provide deterministic and predictable performance for many applications. A task can typically respond in nanoseconds to events such as external I/O or timers. This makes it possible to program xCORE devices to perform hard real-time tasks that would otherwise require dedicated hardware.
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These critical phases last typically tens of nanoseconds for a small (kJ, 100 kA) focus machine to around a microsecond for a large (MJ, several MA) focus machine. The process, including axial and radial phases, may last, for the Mather DPF machine, a few microseconds (for a small focus) to 10 microseconds for a larger focus machine. A Filippov focus machine has a very short axial phase compared to a Mather focus.
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These systems supported up to 64 K words (KW) of MOS memory with a cycle time or 650 nanoseconds. All three models all featured the Megabus, which was a proprietary asynchronous bus architecture. By 1978 the line had been extended downwards with the introduction of the 6/23 and 6/33, and upwards with the 6/43, 6/47, 6/53, and 6/57. The 6/23 did not support the Megabus.
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Electron transitions cause the emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the form of quantized units called photons. Their statistics are Poissonian, and the time between jumps is exponentially distributed. The damping time constant (which ranges from nanoseconds to a few seconds) relates to the natural, pressure, and field broadening of spectral lines. The larger the energy separation of the states between which the electron jumps, the shorter the wavelength of the photon emitted.
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In modern computers, hard disk drives (HDDs) or solid-state drives (SSDs) are usually used as secondary storage. The access time per byte for HDDs or SSDs is typically measured in milliseconds (one thousandth seconds), while the access time per byte for primary storage is measured in nanoseconds (one billionth seconds). Thus, secondary storage is significantly slower than primary storage. Rotating optical storage devices, such as CD and DVD drives, have even longer access times.
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Whenever partial discharge is initiated, high frequency transient current pulses will appear and persist for nanoseconds to a microsecond, then disappear and reappear repeatedly as the voltage sinewave goes through the zero crossing. The PD happens near the peak voltage both positive and negative. PD pulses are easy to measure using the HFCT method. The HFCT is a "high frequency" current transducer which is clamped around the case ground of the component being tested.
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The Model 50 uses a 90 bit (or 85 bit, depending on definition) "horizontal microcode" instruction format, with each word containing 15 (or 25) separate fields. There are 2816 words of microcode storage. Read-only control storage for microcode employs "balanced capacitor technology" (BCROS) with cycle time of 500 nanoseconds, designed by Anthony Proudman in IBM's Hursley laboratory and implemented by Fernando "Fred" Neves. This technology uses two capacitors to represent each bit.
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Otherwise, it is analogous to making conclusions about how a human walks when only looking at less than one footstep. Most scientific publications about the dynamics of proteins and DNA use data from simulations spanning nanoseconds (10−9 s) to microseconds (10−6 s). To obtain these simulations, several CPU-days to CPU-years are needed. Parallel algorithms allow the load to be distributed among CPUs; an example is the spatial or force decomposition algorithm.
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" In the late 1980s, the "computer revolution" was not only responsible for corporate downsizing, but also increased the demand of employee output. Social critic Jeremy Rifkin states, "Back in the agriculture-based society, people were more attuned to generatively, and middle-stress disorders and diseases of affluence were not part of life. They weren't triggered until the Industrial Age, and now the Information Age has worsened them. Nowadays, instead of seconds, it's nanoseconds.
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The voltage required for inducing a phase change of \pi is called the half-wave voltage (V_\pi). For a Pockels cell, it is usually hundreds or even thousands of volts, so that a high-voltage amplifier is required. Suitable electronic circuits can switch such large voltages within a few nanoseconds, allowing the use of EOMs as fast optical switches. Liquid crystal devices are electro-optical phase modulators if no polarizers are used.
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The DCI 1966 DATA/620 was a parallel, binary 16-bit general-purpose digital computer with magnetic-core memory expandable to 32,768 words. An 18-bit word length (for data, not addresses) was optionally available. A basic machine cycle took 1.8 microseconds, and the core memory read time was 700 nanoseconds. The computers uses two's complement arithmetic and had four main registers - accumulator A, accumulator extension B, an index register X and a program counter register.
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Specialized Imaging in the UK also manufactures these cameras, which achieve rates at up to a billion frames per second. However, the minimum exposure time is 3 nanoseconds which limits the effective framing rate to several hundred million frames per second. In 2003, Stanford Computer Optics introduced the multi-framing camera, XXRapidFrame. It allows Image sequences of up to 8 images with a shutter time down to 200 picoseconds at a frame rate of several billion frames per second.
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The generation lasers are short pulse (from tens of nanoseconds to femtoseconds) and high peak power lasers. Common lasers used for ultrasound generation are solid state Q-Switched Nd:YAG and gas lasers (CO2 or Excimers). The physical principle is of thermal expansion (also called thermoelastic regime) or ablation. In the thermoelastic regime, the ultrasound is generated by the sudden thermal expansion due to the heating of a tiny surface of the material by the laser pulse.
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A pulse with duration of 25 nanoseconds and 0.5–4.2 joules of energy from a Q-switched ruby laser can initiate detonation of a PETN surface coated with a 100 nm thick aluminium layer in less than half of a microsecond. PETN has been replaced in many applications by RDX, which is thermally more stable and has a longer shelf life.US Army – Encyclopedia of Explosives and Related Items, vol.8 PETN can be used in some ram accelerator types.
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The simulations are measured at various time frames which include ficoseconds (fs), picoseconds (ps), and nanoseconds (ns). A typical simulation is composed of approximately 128 POPC lipids and 8000 solvent molecules which include water and ethanol. In each simulation ethanol molecules, water molecules, head group regions, acyl chains, and the monovalent ions are all color-coded which aids in interpreting the results of the simulations. The concentrations of ethanol are 2.5, 5.0, 15.0 and 30 mol%.
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All MOVs have response times measured in nanoseconds, while test waveforms usually used to design and calibrate surge protectors are all based on modeled waveforms of surges measured in microseconds. As a result, MOV-based protectors have no trouble producing impressive response-time specs. Slower-responding technologies (notably, GDTs) may have difficulty protecting against fast spikes. Therefore, good designs incorporating slower but otherwise useful technologies usually combine them with faster-acting components, to provide more comprehensive protection.
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This feature does not affect the disk format. ; Improved timestamps : As computers become faster in general, and as Linux becomes used more for mission-critical applications, the granularity of second-based timestamps becomes insufficient. To solve this, ext4 provides timestamps measured in nanoseconds. In addition, 2 bits of the expanded timestamp field are added to the most significant bits of the seconds field of the timestamps to defer the year 2038 problem for an additional 408 years.
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A smaller conductor attenuates the signal more than a larger conductor. Typical propagation delay for a 1553B cable is 1.6 nanoseconds per foot. Thus, the end-to-end would have a 160 nanosecond propagation delay, which is equal to the average rise time of a 1553B signal. According to MIL- HDBK-1553A, when a signal's propagation delay time is more than 50% of the rise or fall time, it is necessary to consider transmission line effects.
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The obtained pulse is called a chirped pulse as its frequency is changing with time, and it is typically a few nanoseconds long. The analog signal is modulated onto this chirped pulse using an electro-optic intensity modulator. Subsequently, the modulated pulse is stretched further in the second dispersive medium which has much higher dispersion value. Finally, this obtained optical pulse is converted to the electrical domain by a photodetector, giving the stretched replica of the original analog signal.
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TRF offers a solution to this issue. It relies on the use of very specific fluorescent molecules, called lanthanides, that have the unusual property of emitting over long periods of time (measured in milliseconds) after excitation, when most standard fluorescent dyes (e.g. fluorescein) emit within a few nanoseconds of being excited. As a result, it is possible to excite lanthanides using a pulsed light source (Xenon flash lamp or pulsed laser for example) and measure after the excitation pulse.
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NADH in solution has an emission peak at 340 nm and a fluorescence lifetime of 0.4 nanoseconds, while the oxidized form of the coenzyme does not fluoresce. The properties of the fluorescence signal changes when NADH binds to proteins, so these changes can be used to measure dissociation constants, which are useful in the study of enzyme kinetics. These changes in fluorescence are also used to measure changes in the redox state of living cells, through fluorescence microscopy.
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In more recent follow up observations, more giant pulses have been found. These giant pulses have been observed to occur at the trailing edge of both the pulse and interpulse. The duration of these giant pulses is short compared to the period of the pulsar, lasting on the order of 10 nanoseconds. The flux density of observed pulses is somewhat variable, but has been observed to be as high as 6.5 Wm−2Hz−1 (6.5 janskys).
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Electronic Gating (or 'gating') is a means by which an image intensifier tube may be switched ON and OFF in a controlled manner. An electronically gated image intensifier tube functions like a camera shutter, allowing images to pass through when the electronic "gate" is enabled. The gating durations can be very short (nanoseconds or even picoseconds). This makes gated image intensifier tubes ideal candidates for use in research environments where very short duration events must be photographed.
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The key attributes of Sandia's Z machine are its 18 million amperes and a discharge time of less than 100 nanoseconds. The array of tungsten wires is called a "liner." In 1999, Sandia tested the idea of nested wire arrays; the second array, out of phase with the first, compensates for Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities. In 2001, Sandia introduced the Z-Beamlet laser (from surplus equipment of the National Ignition Facility) as a tool to better image the compressing pellet.
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In particle physics, a pion (or a pi meson, denoted with the Greek letter pi: ) is any of three subatomic particles: , , and . Each pion consists of a quark and an antiquark and is therefore a meson. Pions are the lightest mesons and, more generally, the lightest hadrons. They are unstable, with the charged pions and decaying after a mean lifetime of 26.033 nanoseconds ( seconds), and the neutral pion decaying after a much shorter lifetime of 84 attoseconds ( seconds).
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Magnetostatics is the study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady (not changing with time). It is the magnetic analogue of electrostatics, where the charges are stationary. The magnetization need not be static; the equations of magnetostatics can be used to predict fast magnetic switching events that occur on time scales of nanoseconds or less. Magnetostatics is even a good approximation when the currents are not static -- as long as the currents do not alternate rapidly.
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It also assures that the polarizers do not influence each other, being too distant from one another. As a consequence, Aspect's experimental set-up has polarizers P1 and P2 set 6 metres apart from the source, and 12 metres apart from one another. With this setup, only 20 nanoseconds elapse between the emission of the photons and their detection. During this extremely short period of time, the experimenter has to decide on the polarizers' orientation and to then orient them.
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Multi-spectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT), also known as functional photoacoustic tomography (fPAT), is an imaging technology that generates high- resolution optical images in scattering media, including biological tissues. MSOT illuminates tissue with light of transient energy, typically light pulses lasting 1-100 nanoseconds. The tissue absorbs the light pulses, and as a result undergoes thermo-elastic expansion, a phenomenon known as the optoacoustic or photoacoustic effect. This expansion gives rise to ultrasound waves (photoechoes) that are detected and formed into an image.
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Column Address Strobe (CAS) latency, or CL, is the delay time between the READ command and the moment data is available. In asynchronous DRAM, the interval is specified in nanoseconds (absolute time). In synchronous DRAM, the interval is specified in clock cycles. Because the latency is dependent upon a number of clock ticks instead of absolute time, the actual time for an SDRAM module to respond to a CAS event might vary between uses of the same module if the clock rate differs.
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The analog canceller is most effective at handling strong signals with a short delay spread. A digital canceller is most effective at handling weak signals with delays greater than 1,000 nanoseconds. The analog canceller should contribute at least 60 dB of cancellation. The digital canceller must process both linear and non-linear signal components, producing about 50 dB of cancellation. Both the analog and digital cancellers consist of a number of “taps” composed of attenuators, phase shifters, and delay elements.
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The book was shortlisted for the 800-CEO-Read Awards and is an international bestseller. It has been translated into the languages of the following countries: Bulgaria, China, Holland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Brazil, Russia, Spain, Portugal, Thailand, Vietnam, and Serbia. Ferrante's third book titled, The Three Pound Crystal Ball: How the Dreaming Brain Can See the Future. combines physics, psychology, personal experience, extensive research, and neuroscience to establish that the dreaming brain can see nanoseconds into the future.
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In comparison, MD codes running on general-purpose parallel computers with hundreds or thousands of processor cores achieve simulation rates of up to a few hundred nanoseconds per day on the same chemical system. The first 512-node Anton machine became operational in October 2008. The multiple petaFLOP, distributed-computing project Folding@home has achieved similar aggregate ensemble simulation timescales, comparable to the total time of a single continuous simulation on Anton, specifically achieving the 1.5-millisecond range in January 2010.
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"Clocks need to be accurate to ± 500 nanoseconds to provide the one microsecond time standard needed by each device performing synchrophasor measurement." For 60 Hz systems, PMUs must deliver between 10 and 30 synchronous reports per second depending on the application. The PDC correlates the data, and controls and monitors the PMUs (from a dozen up to 60). At the central control facility, the SCADA system presents system wide data on all generators and substations in the system every 2 to 10 seconds.
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Lacking the European mechanistic devices of marking time (clocks, watches, calendars), they depended on the cycles of nature: sunrise to sunset, winter to summer. Their stories and histories are not marked by decades and centuries, but remain close in, as they circle around the constant rhythms of the natural world. Within the last decades our time scale has expanded from unimaginably small (nanoseconds) to unimaginably large (deep time). In comparison, our working concept of time as {past : present : future} looks almost quaint.
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APDs are manufactured in small modules, which count photons out-of-the-box with a dead time of a few nanoseconds and output a pulse corresponding to each photon with a jitter of tens of picoseconds. In contrast, TES detectors must be operated in a cryogenic environment, output a signal that must be further analyzed to identify photons, and have a jitter of approximately 100 ns. Furthermore, a single-photon spike on a TES detector lasts on the order of microseconds.
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Mutual exclusion has a Lock convoy problem, in which threads may pile up on a lock, causing the JVM to need to maintain expensive queues of waiters and to 'park' the waiting threads. It is expensive to park and unpark a thread, and a slow context switch may occur. Context switches require from microseconds to milliseconds, while the Map's own basic operations normally take nanoseconds. Performance can drop to a small fraction of a single Threads' throughput as contention increases.
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The metastability problem is a significant issue in digital circuit design, and metastable states are a possibility wherever asynchronous inputs (digital signals not synchronized to a clock signal) occur. The ultimate reason the problem is manageable is that the probability of a metastable state persisting longer than a given time interval t is an exponentially declining function of t. In electronic devices, the probability of such an "undecided" state lasting longer than a matter of nanoseconds, while always possible, can be made negligibly low.
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Finally, the carrier system cools down under the emission of phonons. This can take up to several nanoseconds, depending on the material system, the lattice temperature, and the excitation conditions such as the surplus energy. Initially, the carrier temperature decreases fast via emission of optical phonons. This is quite efficient due to the comparatively large energy associated with optical phonons, (36meV or 420K in GaAs) and their rather flat dispersion, allowing for a wide range of scattering processes under conservation of energy and momentum.
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Fusion events may consist of over a half million atoms interacting for hundreds of microseconds. This complexity limits typical computer simulations to about ten thousand atoms over tens of nanoseconds: a difference of several orders of magnitude. The development of models to predict the mechanisms of membrane fusion will assist in the scientific understanding of how to target the process with antiviral drugs. In 2006, scientists applied Markov state models and the Folding@home network to discover two pathways for fusion and gain other mechanistic insights.
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CMOS logic dissipates less power than NMOS logic circuits because CMOS dissipates power only when switching ("dynamic power"). On a typical ASIC in a modern 90 nanometer process, switching the output might take 120 picoseconds, and happens once every ten nanoseconds. NMOS logic dissipates power whenever the transistor is on, because there is a current path from Vdd to Vss through the load resistor and the n-type network. Static CMOS gates are very power efficient because they dissipate nearly zero power when idle.
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At this time in Europe, an IEC device was developed as a commercial neutron source by Daimler- Chrysler and NSD Fusion. The next year, the Z-machine was upgraded and opened to the public by the US Army in August 1998 in Scientific American. The key attributes of Sandia's Z machine are its 18 million amperes and a discharge time of less than 100 nanoseconds. This generates a magnetic pulse, inside a large oil tank, this strikes an array of tungsten wires called a liner.
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Because the confinement properties of conventional approaches to fusion such as the tokamak and laser pellet fusion are marginal, most proposals for aneutronic fusion are based on radically different confinement concepts, such as the Polywell and the Dense Plasma Focus. In 2013 a research team led by Christine Labaune at École Polytechnique in Palaiseau, France, reported a new fusion rate record for proton-boron fusion, with an estimated 80 million fusion reactions during 1.5 nanoseconds laser fire, over 100 times more than previous proton-boron experiments.
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It really only comes down to the very last few nanoseconds of footage that you realize the cause is lost." Simon also stated about the filming of Jonathan Pryce's, who portrays the High Sparrow, final scene, "we had a very big nice round of applause when that took place. I remember that scene very well; we had 200 or so supporting actors in there, all of whom were so committed. They stayed there all day and did wonderful reactions to all the really intense bits.
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In effect, these pulses are discrete-time analog samples of the U signal. The pulses are then low-pass filtered so that the original analog continuous-time U signal is recovered. For V, a 90-degree shifted subcarrier briefly gates the chroma signal every 280 nanoseconds, and the rest of the process is identical to that used for the U signal. Gating at any other time than those times mentioned above will yield an additive mixture of any two of U, V, -U, or -V.
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When xenon atoms becomes energized, however, they can form an excimer (excited dimer) until the electrons return to the ground state. This entity is formed because the xenon atom tends to complete the outermost electronic shell by adding an electron from a neighboring xenon atom. The typical lifetime of a xenon excimer is 1–5 nanoseconds, and the decay releases photons with wavelengths of about 150 and 173 nm. Xenon can also form excimers with other elements, such as the halogens bromine, chlorine, and fluorine.
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Under such conditions, new states of matter may be created which are not otherwise reachable under equilibrium, ergodic system evolution. Such states are usually unstable and decay very rapidly, typically in nanoseconds or less. The difficulty is in distinguishing a genuine hidden state from one which is simply out of thermal equilibrium. Probably the first instance of a photoinduced state is described for the organic molecular compound TTF-CA, which turns from neutral to ionic species as a result of excitation by laser pulses.
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Two primary approaches have developed to attack the fusion energy problem. In the inertial confinement approach the fuel is quickly squeezed to extremely high densities, increasing the internal temperature in the process. There is no attempt to maintain these conditions for any period of time, the fuel explodes outward as soon as the force is released. The confinement time is on the order of nanoseconds, so the temperatures and density have to be very high in order to any appreciable amount of the fuel to undergo fusion.
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Researchers at Ballard Power Systems used the PEMFC module in CFD-ACE+ to improve the design of its latest fuel-cell.Sanjiv Kumar, Sekhar Radhakrishnan, "Flow simulation improves robustness of fuel-cell design ," Automotive Engineering International, October 2007. Amongst other energy applications, CFD-ACE+ was employed by ABB researchers to simulate the three-dimensional geometry of a high-current constricted vacuum arc drive by a strong magnetic field. Flow velocities were up to several thousand meters per second so the time step of the simulation was in the range of tens of nanoseconds.
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Only two nuclear isomers (long-lived excited nuclear states), fluorine-18m and fluorine-26m, have been characterized. The half-life of 18mF before gamma ray emission is 162(7) nanoseconds. This is less than the decay half-life of any of the fluorine radioisotope nuclear ground states except for mass numbers 14–16, 28, and 31. The half-life of 26mF is 2.2(1) milliseconds; it decays mainly to the ground state of 26F or (rarely, via beta-minus decay) to one of high excited states of 26Ne with delayed neutron emission.
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This field cage maintains a uniform electric field between the cathode and the anode, so that drift electron trajectories deviate as little as possible from the shortest path between the point of ionization and the anode plane. This is intended to prevent distortion of particle trajectory during event reconstruction. A light-collection system often accompanies the basic LArTPC as a means of extracting more information from an event by scintillation light. It can also play an important role in triggering, because it collects scintillation light only nanoseconds after the particle passes through the detector.
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A selection of the better performing windowing functions are shown in the graph of Beamwidth × Bandwidth as sidelobe level. The lowest full line on the graph is for Dolph-Chebyshev weighting which, as already mentioned, sets the narrowest lobe possible for a given sidelobe level. So, from this plot, if a sidelobe level of −40 dB is desired, the graph shows that the smallest achievable half-power beamwidth × bandwidth is 1.2. Thus a chirp sweeping over a 20 MHz frequency band will have a compressed pulsewidth of 60 nanoseconds (at least).
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The strong electromagnetic pulse (EMP) that results has several components. In the first few tenths of nanoseconds, about a tenth of a percent of the weapon yield appears as powerful gamma rays with energies of one to three mega-electron volts (MeV, a unit of energy). The gamma rays penetrate the atmosphere and collide with air molecules, depositing their energy to produce huge quantities of positive ions and recoil electrons (also known as Compton electrons). The impacts create MeV-energy Compton electrons that then accelerate and spiral along the Earth's magnetic field lines.
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Surge protectors don't operate instantaneously; a slight delay exists, some few nanoseconds. With longer response time and depending on system impedance, the connected equipment may be exposed to some of the surge. However, surges typically are much slower and take around a few microseconds to reach their peak voltage, and a surge protector with a nanosecond response time would kick in fast enough to suppress the most damaging portion of the spike. Thus response time under standard testing is not a useful measure of a surge protector's ability when comparing MOV devices.
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Initially, these mechanisms, because of this oxocarbenium characteristic of the transition state, were suggested to be SN1 reactions proceeding through a discrete oxocarbenium ion intermediate. However, more recent evidence suggests that these oxocarbenium ion states have lifetimes of 10 femtoseconds - 0.1 nanoseconds (similar to that of a bond vibration period). These lifetimes are too short to assign to a reaction intermediate. From this evidence, it appears that these reactions, while having an SN1 appearance due to the oxocarbenium ion characteristics of their transition states, must be qualitatively SN2 reactions.
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Since a sundial has only one "hand," a minute probably only meant "a short time." It took centuries for technology to make measurements precise enough for minutes (and later seconds) to become fixed meaningful units—longer still for milliseconds, nanoseconds, and further subdivisions. When the water clock was invented, time could also be measured at night—though there was significant variation in flow rate and less accuracy and precision. With water clocks, and also candle clocks, modifications were made to have them make sounds on a regular basis.
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Typically, diamond is formed by heating carbon at very high temperatures (>5,000 K) and pressures (>120,000 atmospheres). However, Narayan and his group used kinetics and time control of pulsed nanosecond laser melting to overcome thermodynamic limitations and create a supercooled state that enables conversion of carbon into Q-carbon and diamond at ambient temperatures and pressures. The process uses a high-powered laser pulse, similar to that used in eye surgery, lasting approximately 200 nanoseconds. This raises the temperature of the carbon to approximately 4,000 K (3,700 °C; 6,700 °F) at atmospheric pressure.
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It is designed to produce brighter, more penetrating, higher-energy x rays than can be obtained with conventional radiographic techniques. When complete, ARC will be the world's highest-energy short-pulse laser, capable of creating picosecond-duration laser pulses to produce energetic x rays in the range of 50-100 keV for backlighting NIF experiments. NIC runs restarted in May 2011 with the goal of timing the four laser shock waves that compress the fusion target to very high precision. The shots tested the symmetry of the X-ray drive during the first three nanoseconds.
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The “Micromegas “ (Micro-MEsh Gaseous Structure) detector is a gaseous particle detector coming from the development of wire chamber. Invented in 1992 by Georges Charpak and Ioannis Giomataris, the Micromegas detectors are mainly used in experimental physics, in particular in particle physics, nuclear physics and astrophysics for the detection of ionising particles. A Micromegas detector in function on the COMPASS spectrometer The Micromegas are light detectors in order to minimize the perturbation on the impinging particle. From their small amplification gap, they have fast signals in the order of 100 nanoseconds.
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There are two levels of service provided – a free service to civilians and licensed service to the Chinese government and military. The free civilian service has a 10-metre location-tracking accuracy, synchronizes clocks with an accuracy of 10 nanoseconds, and measures speeds to within 0.2 m/s. The restricted military service has a location accuracy of 10 centimetre, can be used for communication, and will supply information about the system status to the user. In 2019, the International GNSS Service started providing precise orbits of BeiDou satellites in experimental products.
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Upon receipt of an interrupt, the MPU will "awaken" in one clock cycle and resume execution at the instruction immediately following . Hence interrupt latency will be very short (70 nanoseconds at 14 megahertz), resulting in the most rapid response possible to an external event. Similar in some ways to is the ' (SToP, opcode ) instruction, which completely shuts down the MPU while waiting for a single interrupt input. When is executed, the MPU halts its internal clock (but does retain all data in its registers) and enters a low power state.
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Thin-film memory is a high-speed alternative to core memory developed by Sperry Rand in a government-funded research project. Instead of threading individual ferrite cores on wires, thin-film memory consisted of 4 micrometre thick dots of permalloy, an iron-nickel alloy, deposited on small glass plates by vacuum evaporation techniques and a mask. The drive and sense lines were then added using printed circuit wiring over the alloy dots. This provided very fast access times in the range of 670 nanoseconds, but was very expensive to produce.
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When the trigger is activated, the tubule shaft of the cnidocyst is ejected and, in the case of the penetrant nematocyst, the forcefully ejected tubule penetrates the target organism. This discharge takes a few microseconds, and is able to reach accelerations of about 40,000 g. Recent research suggests the process occurs in as little as 700 nanoseconds, thus reaching an acceleration of up to 5,410,000 g. After penetration, the toxic content of the nematocyst is injected into the target organism, allowing the sessile cnidarian to capture the immobilized prey.
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HP prototyped a crossbar latch memory that can fit 100 gigabits in a square centimeter, and proposed a scalable 3D design (consisting of up to 1000 layers or 1 petabit per cm3). In May 2008 HP reported that its device reaches currently about one-tenth the speed of DRAM. The devices' resistance would be read with alternating current so that the stored value would not be affected. In May 2012, it was reported that the access time had been improved to 90 nanoseconds, which is nearly one hundred times faster than the contemporaneous Flash memory.
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Decoherence is irreversible, as it is effectively non-unitary, and is usually something that should be highly controlled, if not avoided. Decoherence times for candidate systems in particular, the transverse relaxation time T2 (for NMR and MRI technology, also called the dephasing time), typically range between nanoseconds and seconds at low temperature. Currently, some quantum computers require their qubits to be cooled to 20 millikelvins in order to prevent significant decoherence. A 2020 study argues that ionizing radiation such as cosmic rays can nevertheless cause certain systems to decohere within millisections.
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The de-ionized water section of the machine has been reduced to about half the previous size while the oil section has been expanded significantly in order to house larger intermediate storage lines (i-stores) and new laser towers, which used to sit in the water section. The refurbishment was completed in October 2007. The newer Z machine can now shoot around 26 million amperes (instead of 18 million amperes previously) in 95 nanoseconds. The radiated power has been raised to 350 terawatts and the X-ray energy output to 2.7 megajoules.
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In cases where the relaxation time is shorter than the dead-time of the instrument, the experimental temperature is lowered (thus increasing the viscosity of water/buffer) to increase the relaxation time to a few milliseconds. On the other hand, for fast-folding proteins (i.e., those with a relaxation rate of 1 to 100 microseconds), pressure jump (dead time~few microseconds), temperature jump (T-jump; dead time~few nanoseconds) or continuous flow mixing (dead time~few microseconds), can be carried out at different denaturant concentrations to obtain a chevron plot.
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The gas pressure in a nitrogen laser ranges from a few mbar to as much as several bar. Air provides significantly less output energy than pure nitrogen or a mixture of nitrogen and helium. The pulse energy ranges from 1 μJ to about 1 mJ; peak powers between 1 kW and 3 MW can be achieved. Pulse durations vary from a few hundred picoseconds (at 1 atmosphere partial pressure of nitrogen) to about 30 nanoseconds at reduced pressure (typically some dozens of Torr), though FWHM pulsewidths of 6 to 8 ns are typical.
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In telecommunication and horology, a slave clock is a clock that depends for its accuracy on another clock, a master clock. Many modern clocks are synchronized, either through the Internet or by radio time signals, to a worldwide time standard called Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) based on a network of master atomic clocks in many countries. For scientific purposes, precision clocks can be synchronized to within a few nanoseconds by dedicated satellite channels. Slave clock synchronization is usually achieved by phase-locking the slave clock signal to a signal received from the master clock.
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It is similar to a first-order chemical reaction in which the first-order rate constant is the sum of all of the rates (a parallel kinetic model). If the rate of spontaneous emission, or any of the other rates are fast, the lifetime is short. For commonly used fluorescent compounds, typical excited state decay times for photon emissions with energies from the UV to near infrared are within the range of 0.5 to 20 nanoseconds. The fluorescence lifetime is an important parameter for practical applications of fluorescence such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer and fluorescence- lifetime imaging microscopy.
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Organic solutions such anthracene or stilbene, dissolved in benzene or toluene, fluoresce with ultraviolet or gamma ray irradiation. The decay times of this fluorescence are on the order of nanoseconds, since the duration of the light depends on the lifetime of the excited states of the fluorescent material, in this case anthracene or stilbene. Scintillation is defined a flash of light produced in a transparent material by the passage of a particle (an electron, an alpha particle, an ion, or a high-energy photon). Stilbene and derivatives are used in scintillation counters to detect such particles.
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The clocks at CERN and LNGS had to be in sync, and for this the researchers used high-quality GPS receivers, backed up with atomic clocks, at both places. This system timestamped both the proton pulse and the detected neutrinos to a claimed accuracy of 2.3 nanoseconds. But the timestamp could not be read like a clock. At CERN, the GPS signal came only to a receiver at a central control room, and had to be routed with cables and electronics to the computer in the neutrino-beam control room which recorded the proton pulse measurement (Fig. 3).
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In addition, to sharpen resolution from the standard GPS 100 nanoseconds to the 1 nanosecond range metrology labs achieve, OPERA researchers used Septentrio's precise PolaRx2eTR GPS timing receiver, along with consistency checks across clocks (time calibration procedures) which allowed for common-view time transfer. The PolaRx2eTR allowed measurement of the time offset between an atomic clock and each of the Global Navigation Satellite System satellite clocks. For calibration, the equipment was taken to the Swiss Metrology Institute (METAS). In addition, highly stable cesium clocks were installed both at LNGS and CERN to cross-check GPS timing and to increase its precision.
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This is the probability that the bacterium dies within an infinitesimal window of time around 5 hours, where dt is the duration of this window. For example, the probability that it lives longer than 5 hours, but shorter than (5 hours + 1 nanosecond), is (2 hour−1)×(1 nanosecond) ≈ (using the unit conversion nanoseconds = 1 hour). There is a probability density function f with f(5 hours) = 2 hour−1. The integral of f over any window of time (not only infinitesimal windows but also large windows) is the probability that the bacterium dies in that window.
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By quickly changing the state between fully on and fully off (typically less than 100 nanoseconds), the power dissipation in the switches can be quite low compared to the power being delivered to the load. Modern semiconductor switches such as MOSFETs or insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are well suited components for high-efficiency controllers. Frequency converters used to control AC motors may have efficiencies exceeding 98%. Switching power supplies have lower efficiency due to low output voltage levels (often even less than 2 V for microprocessors are needed) but still more than 70–80% efficiency can be achieved.
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Some applications of lasers depend on a beam whose output power is constant over time. Such a laser is known as continuous wave (CW). Many types of lasers can be made to operate in continuous wave mode to satisfy such an application. Many of these lasers actually lase in several longitudinal modes at the same time, and beats between the slightly different optical frequencies of those oscillations will, in fact, produce amplitude variations on time scales shorter than the round-trip time (the reciprocal of the frequency spacing between modes), typically a few nanoseconds or less.
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Naturally occurring manganese (25Mn) is composed of one stable isotope, 55Mn. 25 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 53Mn with a half-life of 3.7 million years, 54Mn with a half-life of 312.3 days, and 52Mn with a half-life of 5.591 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 3 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than a minute, but only 45Mn has an unknown half- life. The least stable is 44Mn with a half-life shorter than 105 nanoseconds.
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Since it is physically impossible to modify a polarizer's orientation within such a time span, two polarizers — one for each side — were used and pre-oriented in different directions. A high-frequency shunting randomly oriented towards one polarizer or the other. The setup corresponded to one polarizer with a randomly tilting polarization angle. Since it was not possible either to have the emitted photons provoke the tilting, the polarizers shunted periodically every 10 nanoseconds (asynchronously with the photon's emission) thus assuring the referral device would tilt at least once between the emission of the photon and its detection.
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A coarse analogy would be a photo with a certain opening time instead of the SANS like snapshot(So we can analyze the vibration frequency of the molecules as well as arrangement). The opening time corresponds to the Fourier time which depends on the setting of the NSE spectrometer, it is proportional to the magnetic field (integral) and to the third power of the neutron wavelength. Values up to several hundreds of nanoseconds are available. Note that the spatial resolution of the scattering experiment is in the nanometer range, which means that a time range of e.g.
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Several new safety features were added to the WL line-up. Such include brake assist, electronic brakeforce distribution, Electronic Stability Program and LED tail lamps. The new LED lamps give an additional of warning to trailing motorists travelling at because they illuminate in 60 nanoseconds, compared to 1,000 for conventional incandescent light bulbs. In 2005, General Motors began exporting the Statesman to China, where it was badged as the Buick Royaum (别克荣御 in Chinese). The Royaum was initially equipped with the 3.6-litre Alloytec engine fitted to the Statesman, however the 2.8-litre LP1 engine followed later in the year.
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This design, dating from the late 1940s, is still capable of pulse-power performance that even the most advanced semiconductors (even IGBTs) cannot match easily. Krytrons and sprytrons are capable of handling high-current high-voltage pulses, with very fast switching times, and constant, low jitter time delay between application of the trigger pulse and switching on. Krytrons can switch currents of up to about 3000 amperes and voltages up to about 5000 volts. Commutation time of less than 1 nanosecond can be achieved, with a delay between the application of the trigger pulse and switching as low as about 30 nanoseconds.
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For small-molecule solvents such as water or methanol at ambient temperature, solvent relaxation time is on the order of some tens of picoseconds whereas chromophore excited state lifetimes range from a few picoseconds to a few nanoseconds. Immediately after the transition to the ground electronic state, the solvent molecules must also rearrange themselves to accommodate the new electronic configuration of the chromophore. Figure 7 illustrates the Franck–Condon principle applied to solvation. When the solution is illuminated by light corresponding to the electronic transition energy, some of the chromophores will move to the excited state.
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A long transmission line can also provide a delay element. The delay time of an analog delay line may be only a few nanoseconds or several milliseconds, limited by the practical size of the physical medium used to delay the signal and the propagation speed of impulses in the medium. Analog delay lines are applied in many types of signal processing circuits; for example the PAL television standard uses an analog delay line to store an entire video scanline. Acoustic and electromechanical delay lines are used to provide a "reverberation" effect in musical instrument amplifiers, or to simulate an echo.
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The time of flight corresponds to the T_MEASURED. Picture reproduced from Time of flight (ToF) localization approach takes timestamps provided by the wireless interfaces to calculate the ToF of signals and then use this information to estimate the distance and relative position of one client device with respect to access points. The granularity of such time measurements is in the order of nanoseconds and systems which use this technique have reported localization errors in the order of 2m. Typical applications for this technology are tagging and locating assets in buildings, for which room-level accuracy (~3m) is usually enough.
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Wavelength-time spectroscopy, which also relies on photonic time-stretch technique, permits real-time single-shot measurements of rapidly evolving or fluctuating spectra. Time stretch quantitative phase imaging (TS-QPI) is an imaging technique based on time-stretch technology for simultaneous measurement of phase and intensity spatial profiles. In time stretched imaging, the object's spatial information is encoded in the spectrum of laser pulses within a pulse duration of sub-nanoseconds. Each pulse representing one frame of the camera is then stretched in time so that it can be digitized in real-time by an electronic analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
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The Espinaςo Range represents a typical site for orographic thunderstorms, which develop from the ascent of air along mountain ranges. These storms have the highest rate of lightning occurrence and are therefore useful for studying the effects of such atmospheric discharges. These discharges have peculiar features: velocities of and plasma temperatures of are achieved in nanoseconds in lightning channels. Evidences of the effect of lightning on rock are the presence of beta-quartz (T > , called "flashstones" by local diggers), melted barbed wires (T > ); furrows in soils and colluvium up to long with the presence of cristobalite, the high-temperature modification of quartz ().
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An inter-node link is composed of two equal one-way links (one traveling in each direction), with each one-way link having 50.6 Gbit/s of bandwidth. Each one-way link is composed of 11 lanes, where a lane is a differential pair of wires signaling at 4.6 Gbit/s. The per-hop latency in Anton's network is 50 ns. Each ASIC is also attached to its own DRAM bank, enabling large simulations. The performance of a 512-node Anton machine is over 17,000 nanoseconds of simulated time per day for a protein-water system consisting of 23,558 atoms.
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Intensity changes with lengths of nanoseconds are amplified by the Kerr-lensing process and the pulselength further shrinks to achieve higher field strengths in the center of the pulse. This sharpening process is only limited by the bandwidth achievable with the laser material and the cavity- mirrors as well as the dispersion of the cavity. The shortest pulse achievable with a given spectrum is called the bandwidth-limited pulse. Chirped mirror technology allows to compensate for timing mismatch of different wavelengths inside the cavity due to material dispersion while keeping the stability high and the losses low.
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Pockels cells are used in a variety of scientific and technical applications. A Pockels cell, combined with a polarizer, can be used for switching between no optical rotation and 90° rotation, creating a fast shutter capable of "opening" and "closing" in nanoseconds. The same technique can be used to impress information on the beam by modulating the rotation between 0° and 90°; the exiting beam's intensity, when viewed through the polarizer, contains an amplitude-modulated signal. This modulated signal can be used for time-resolved electric field measurements when a crystal is exposed to an unknown electric field.
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Once the hydroxyl radicals are formed on the electrode surface, they rapidly react with organic pollutants, resulting in a lifetime of few nanoseconds. However, a transfer of ions from the bulk of the solution to the proximity of the electrode surface is required for the reaction to occur. Above a certain potential, the active species formed near the electrode are immediately consumed and the diffusion through the boundary layer near the electrode surface becomes the limiting step of the process. This explains why the observed rate of some fast electrode reactions can be low due to transport limitations.
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Software timekeeping systems vary widely in the precision of time measurement (granularity); some systems may use time units as large as a day, while others may use nanoseconds. For example, for an epoch date of midnight UTC (00:00) on , and a time unit of a second, the time of the midnight (24:00) between and is represented by the number 86400, the number of seconds in one day. When times prior to the epoch need to be represented, it is common to use the same system, but with negative numbers. Such representation of time is mainly for internal use.
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These are detected when they reach a scintillator in the scanning device, creating a burst of light which is detected by photomultiplier tubes or silicon avalanche photodiodes (Si APD). The technique depends on simultaneous or coincident detection of the pair of photons moving in approximately opposite directions (they would be exactly opposite in their center of mass frame, but the scanner has no way to know this, and so has a built-in slight direction-error tolerance). Photons that do not arrive in temporal "pairs" (i.e. within a timing-window of a few nanoseconds) are ignored.
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The raw data collected by a PET scanner are a list of 'coincidence events' representing near-simultaneous detection (typically, within a window of 6 to 12 nanoseconds of each other) of annihilation photons by a pair of detectors. Each coincidence event represents a line in space connecting the two detectors along which the positron emission occurred (i.e., the line of response (LOR)). Analytical techniques, much like the reconstruction of computed tomography (CT) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) data, are commonly used, although the data set collected in PET is much poorer than CT, so reconstruction techniques are more difficult.
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Time-of-flight (TOF) PET: For modern systems with a higher time resolution (roughly 3 nanoseconds) a technique called "Time-of-flight" is used to improve the overall performance. Time-of-flight PET makes use of very fast gamma-ray detectors and data processing system which can more precisely decide the difference in time between the detection of the two photons. Although it is technically impossible to localize the point of origin of the annihilation event exactly (currently within 10 cm) thus image reconstruction is still needed, TOF technique gives a remarkable improvement in image quality, especially signal- to-noise ratio.
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In this way, measurements of relaxation times can provide information of motions within a molecule on the atomic level. In NMR studies of protein dynamics, the nitrogen-15 isotope is the preferred nucleus to study because its relaxation times are relatively simple to relate to molecular motions This, however, requires isotope labeling of the protein. The T1 and T2 relaxation times can be measured using various types of HSQC- based experiments. The types of motions that can be detected are motions that occur on a time-scale ranging from about 10 picoseconds to about 10 nanoseconds.
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Pyrene and its derivatives are used commercially to make dyes and dye precursors, for example pyranine and naphthalene-1,4,5,8-tetracarboxylic acid. It has strong absorbance in UV-Vis in three sharp bands at 330 nm in DCM. The emission is close to the absorption, but moving at 375 nm. The morphology of the signals change with the solvent. Its derivatives are also valuable molecular probes via fluorescence spectroscopy, having a high quantum yield and lifetime (0.65 and 410 nanoseconds, respectively, in ethanol at 293 K). Pyrene was the first molecule for which excimer behavior was discovered.
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One of the possible configurations is a ring magnet with the explosive charge in its center.S.I. Shkuratov et al., Loki Incorporated, Rolla, MO 65409, U.S.A. "Explosive-driven mini-system based on shock wave ferromagnetic seed source and loop magnetic flux compression generator" EDFMGs are especially well suited as seed power sources for explosively pumped flux compression generators and can be used for charging capacitor banks. A generator coupling an EDFMG containing an 8.75 cm3 of magnetic material with a spiral vector inversion generator yielded a pulse of amplitude over 40 kilovolts with a rise time of 6.2 nanoseconds.
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In a analysis of their data, scientists of the OPERA collaboration reported evidence that neutrinos they produced at CERN in Geneva and recorded at the OPERA detector at Gran Sasso, Italy, had traveled faster than light. The neutrinos were calculated to have arrived approximately 60.7 nanoseconds (60.7 billionths of a second) sooner than light would have if traversing the same distance in a vacuum. After six months of cross checking, on , the researchers announced that neutrinos had been observed traveling at faster-than-light speed. Similar results were obtained using higher-energy (28 GeV) neutrinos, which were observed to check if neutrinos' velocity depended on their energy.
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The third analysis of November focused on a different experimental setup ('the rerun') which changed the way the neutrinos were created. In the initial setup, every detected neutrino would have been produced sometime in a 10,500 nanoseconds (10.5 microseconds) range, since this was the duration of the proton beam spill generating the neutrinos. It was not possible to isolate neutrino production time further within the spill. Therefore, in their main statistical analyses, the OPERA group generated a model of the proton waveforms at CERN, took the various waveforms together, and plotted the chance of neutrinos being emitted at various times (the global probability density function of the neutrino emission times).
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Of the three types of naturally occurring radioactivities (α, β, and γ), only alpha decay is a type of decay resulting from the nuclear strong force. The other proton and neutron decays occurred much earlier in the life of the atomic species and before the earth was formed. Thus, alpha-decay can be considered either a form of particle decay or, less frequently, as a special case of nuclear fission. The timescale for the nuclear strong force is much faster than that of the nuclear weak force or the electromagnetic force, so the lifetime of nuclei past the drip lines are typically on the order of nanoseconds or less.
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The first accurate caesium clock was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK. Caesium clocks have improved over the past half-century and are regarded as "the most accurate realization of a unit that mankind has yet achieved." These clocks measure frequency with an error of 2 to 3 parts in 1014, which corresponding to an accuracy of 2 nanoseconds per day, or one second in 1.4 million years. The latest versions are more accurate than 1 part in 1015, about 1 second in 20 million years. The caesium standard is the primary standard for standards- compliant time and frequency measurements.
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Sanford further developed the Z-pinch with wire arrangements, which had previously been successfully tested in Russia by Valentin Smirnov, via the Saturn experiment to the Z-machine. It was the strongest X-ray source in the mid-2000s (2 megajoules in 6 nanoseconds with 200 terawatts of power), which also generated record temperatures of 2 to 3 billion Kelvin for a short time. Two cylindrical shells of wire assemblies, through which a high current (20 megaamps) is sent, implode onto a central target, where high-intensity X-rays are generated for inertial fusion experiments or other studies. This was studied with the dynamic hohlraum X-ray source.
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The DAG produces 64 bit timestamps in fixed-point format with 32 fractional bits, giving a potential precision of 2^{-32} seconds or 233 picoseconds. The actual precision offered varies with the particular model of DAG, the oldest giving 24 fractional bits (60 nanoseconds) and better precisions offered in DAGs for higher bandwidth networks. The timestamp is derived from a free-running clock provided by a crystal oscillator but the accuracy of crystals drift with both temperature and age. The DAG's solution is to use direct digital synthesis using the 1 Hz pulse- per-second output that many GPS receivers provide as its reference clock.
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For example, if at each stage an average of 5 new electrons are produced for each incoming electron, and if there are 12 dynode stages, then at the last stage one expects for each primary electron about 512 ≈ 108 electrons. This last stage is called the anode. This large number of electrons reaching the anode results in a sharp current pulse that is easily detectable, for example on an oscilloscope, signaling the arrival of the photon(s) at the photocathode ≈50 nanoseconds earlier. The necessary distribution of voltage along the series of dynodes is created by a voltage divider chain, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
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Many also have a LED light to indicate if the MOVs are still functioning. The joule rating is commonly quoted for comparing MOV-based surge protectors. An average surge (spike) is of short duration, lasting for nanoseconds to microseconds, and experimentally modeled surge energy can be less than 100 joules. Well-designed surge protectors consider the resistance of the lines that supply the power, the chance of lightning or other seriously energetic spike, and specify the MOVs accordingly. A little battery charger might include a MOV of only 1 watt, whereas a surge strip will have a 20 watt MOV or several of them in parallel.
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The memory preserves the rotation invariance of the vector beam, making it possible to use it in conjunction with qubits encoded for maladjusted immune quantum communication. The first storage structure, a real single photon, was achieved with electromagnetically induced transparency in rubidium magneto-optical trap. The predicted single photon generated by spontaneous four-wave mixing in one magneto-optical trap is prepared by an orbital angular momentum unit using spiral phase plates, stored in the second magneto-optical trap and recovered. The dual-orbit setup also proves coherence in multimode memory, where a preannounced single photon stores the orbital angular momentum superposition state for 100 nanoseconds.
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This allowed the system to work on different problems when the data was too small to demand the entire 256-PE array. Based on a 25 MHz clock, with all 256-PEs running on a single program, the machine was designed to deliver 1 billion floating point operations per second, or in today's terminology, 1 GFLOPS. This made it much faster than any machine in the world; the contemporary CDC 7600 had a clock cycle of 27.5 nanoseconds, or 36 MIPS, although for a variety of reasons it generally offered performance closer to 10 MIPS. To support the machine, an extension to the Digital Computer Laboratory buildings were constructed.
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Salon writer Andrew Leonard said of Attack of the Mutant Artificial Christmas Trees, "(the game is) diverting for about three nanoseconds -- less, if you give in to the urge to pelt the annoying elf, for which you are unfairly punished". Despite Leonard's assessment, the game was played by 75,000 people in the first week of its release. While the game was meant as light hearted, some artificial tree producers were not amused. The CEO of Balsam Hill Company, a U.S. artificial tree manufacturer, said he was surprised at the negativity of the tree growers ad campaign, adding that it was not exactly "warm and fuzzy".
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Outside these regions of enhanced stability, fission barriers are expected to drop significantly due to loss of stabilization effects, resulting in fission half- lives below 10−18 seconds, especially in even-even nuclei for which hindrance is even lower due to nucleon pairing. In general, alpha decay half-lives are expected to increase with neutron number, from nanoseconds in the most neutron-deficient isotopes to seconds closer to the beta-stability line. For nuclei with only a few neutrons more than a magic number, binding energy substantially drops, resulting in a break in the trend and shorter half-lives. The most neutron deficient isotopes of these elements may also be unbound and undergo proton emission.
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On the other hand, melt expulsion, the means by which a hole is created through melting the material, dominates when a flashtube pumped Nd:YAG laser is used. A Q-switched Nd:YAG laser normally has pulse duration in the order of nanoseconds, peak power on the order of ten to hundreds of MW/cm2, and a material removal rate of a few micrometers per pulse. A flash lamp pumped Nd:YAG laser normally has a pulse duration on the order of hundreds of microseconds to a millisecond, peak power in the order of sub MW/cm2, and material removal rate of ten to hundreds of micrometers per pulse. For machining processes by each laser, ablation and melt expulsion typically coexist.
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Transient absorption spectroscopy helps study the mechanistic and kinetic details of chemical processes occurring on the time scales of few picoseconds to femto-seconds. These chemical events are initiated by an ultrafast laser pulse and are further probed by a probe pulse. With the help of TA measurements, one can look into non-radiative relaxation of higher electronic states (~femtoseconds), vibrational relaxations (~picoseconds) and radiative relaxation of excited singlet state (occurs typically on nanoseconds time scale). Transient absorption spectroscopy can be used to trace the intermediate states in a photo-chemical reaction; energy, charge or electron transfer process; conformational changes, thermal relaxation, fluorescence or phosphorescence processes, optical gain spectroscopy of semiconductor laser materials. etc.
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On 16 July 1945, an implosion-type plutonium device was detonated at the Trinity site near Alamogordo, New Mexico. The code name for this device was "The gadget", and its design was very similar to the Fat Man weapon that was dropped on Nagasaki twenty four days later. In preparation for Trinity, Rossi designed instrumentation to record gamma radiation during the chain reaction, whose duration was expected to be approximately 10 nanoseconds. Observations on this time scale were almost beyond the state of the art in 1945, but Rossi designed and built a large cylindrical ionisation chamber whose speed of response was adequate because its coaxial electrodes were separated by a narrow gap of only .
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Addressing modes were direct, immediate and indexed. The instruction set had more than one hundred arithmetic, logic and control instructions and some variants supported microprogramming. These models used a hardware front panel console that allowed starting and stopping the machine, examining memory and registers and changing memory or registers with front-panel switches. It used "Versalogic" (discrete transistorized) circuits with a bit-sliced architecture. The 620/i shipped in June 1967; it and subsequent series were made with integrated circuit transistor–transistor logic from the 7400 series. The system was packaged in a 19-inch rack and consumed 340 watts at 120 V AC. The 620/F was a variation with a faster machine cycle time of 750 nanoseconds.
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Naturally occurring scandium (21Sc) is composed of one stable isotope, 45Sc. Twenty-five radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 46Sc with a half-life of 83.8 days, 47Sc with a half-life of 3.35 days, and 48Sc with a half-life of 43.7 hours and 44Sc with a half-life of 3.97 hours. All the remaining isotopes have half-lives that are less than four hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than two minutes, the least stable being proton unbound 39Sc with a half-life shorter than 300 nanoseconds. This element also has 13 meta states with the most stable being 44m2Sc (t1/2 58.6 h).
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The image, while in this photoelectron state, could be shuttered on and off as short as a few nanoseconds, and deflected to different areas of the large 70 and 90 mm diameter phosphor screens to produce sequences of up to 20+ frames. In the early 1970s these camera attained speeds up to 600 million frame/s, with 1 ns exposure times, with more than 20 frames per event. As they were analog devices there were no digital limitations on data rates and pixel transfer rates. However, image resolution was quite limited, due to the inherent repulsion of electrons and the grain of the phosphor screen, as well as the small size of each individual image.
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To solve this, the DAG generates timestamps in the hardware as close to the network interface as possible. Not only does this obviate latency, jitter and problems caused by interrupt coalescing, the hardware is capable of much greater accuracy and precision than software-generated timestamps. Precision comes from the freedom of custom hardware to assign as many bits to the timestamp as required and accuracy is assured by reference to an external time source such as GPS which is accurate to ± 40 nanoseconds. In contrast, the accuracy of NTP (by which kernel clocks can be corrected over the Internet) is in the order of milliseconds (about 100,000 times less accurate), depending on the conditions involved.
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This deflection can be as big as one-quarter wavelength hence creating diffraction effects on incident light that is reflected at an angle that is different from that of the incident light. The wavelength to diffract is determined by the spatial frequency of the ribbons. As this spatial frequency is determined by the photolithographic mask used to form the GLV device in the CMOS fabrication process, the departure angles can be very accurately controlled, which is useful for optical switching applications. Switching from undeflected to maximum ribbon deflection can occur in 20 nanoseconds, which is a million times faster than conventional LCD display devices, and about 1000 times faster than TI’s DMD technology.
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The team was then able to transfer individual phonons from the qubit to the resonator. The team was also able to transfer a superposition state, where the qubit was in a superposition of two states at the same time, onto the mechanical resonator.Markus Aspelmeyer, "Quantum mechanics: the surf is up", Nature 464, 685–686 (1 April 2010) This means the resonator "literally vibrated a little and a lot at the same time", according to the American Association for the Advancement of Science.Brandon Bryn, "Science: The breakthroughs of 2010 and insights of the decade", American Association for the Advancement of Science, December 16, 2010 The vibrations lasted just a few nanoseconds before being broken down by disruptive outside influences.
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Fast page mode DRAM was introduced in 1986 and was used with Intel 80486. Static column is a variant of fast page mode in which the column address does not need to be stored in, but rather, the address inputs may be changed with held low, and the data output will be updated accordingly a few nanoseconds later. Nibble mode is another variant in which four sequential locations within the row can be accessed with four consecutive pulses of . The difference from normal page mode is that the address inputs are not used for the second through fourth edges; they are generated internally starting with the address supplied for the first edge.
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The time between absorbing the neutron and undergoing fission is measured in nanoseconds. Szilard had noted that this reaction leaves behind fission products that may also release neutrons, but do so over much longer periods, from microseconds to as long as minutes. In a slow reaction like the one in a pile where the fission products build up, these neutrons account for about three percent of the total neutron flux. Fermi argued that by using the delayed neutrons, and by carefully controlling the reaction rates as the power is ramped up, a pile can reach criticality at fission rates slightly below that of a chain reaction relying solely on the prompt neutrons from the fission reactions.
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From these two energies, E1 and E2, the Compton scattering angle, angle θ, can be determined, along with the total energy, E1 \+ E2, of the incident photon. The positions of the interactions, in both the front and rear scintillators, was also measured. The vector, V, connecting the two interaction points determined a direction to the sky, and the angle θ about this direction, defined a cone about V on which the source of the photon must lie, and a corresponding "event circle" on the sky. Because of the requirement for a near coincidence between the two interactions, with the correct delay of a few nanoseconds, most modes of background production were strongly suppressed.
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The player takes command of a ship (presumably a graviton) on an x axis plane to collect and shoot electrons at a spinning atom to obtain a new atom. For example, if the player has one electron circling, he or she would shoot another electron in place to make a hydrogen element. If the electron misses the target and hits the nucleus, the atom becomes unstable and blows apart, sending electrons flying around the game screen, and the ship needs to find safety behind barriers located in three of the four corners of the arena. Atom is a timed game with a countdown timer in the upper left corner of the arena timed in nanoseconds (actually tenths).
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One limitation of the early experimental devices was that the magnetic domains could be pushed only slowly through the wires, requiring current pulses on the orders of microseconds to move them successfully. This was unexpected, and led to performance equal roughly to that of hard drives, as much as 1000 times slower than predicted. Recent research has traced this problem to microscopic imperfections in the crystal structure of the wires which led to the domains becoming "stuck" at these imperfections. Using an X-ray microscope to directly image the boundaries between the domains, their research found that domain walls would be moved by pulses as short as a few nanoseconds when these imperfections were absent.
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When a message processor decides to pay attention to a message because it appeals to their interests, and they allocate resources to information processing, the controlled message engagement subprocess begins; conversely, when a message processor is cued automatically, and they are paying attention, the same process of allocating cognitive resources begins to elicit message processing. First, message engagement, which is a stimulus approach/avoidance interaction engages the appetitive and aversive cognitive subprocesses. In the most lay terms, these are basic fight or flight responses that happen in mere nanoseconds. This information then can report to sensor stores in the brain; and if it is useful, it will move to short term memory and long term memory.
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ZIF socket SuperPro6100: USB interfaced stand alone Universal Programmer with plug-in Adapter Board The 3928, with up to seven sites, is made for programming large data devices, such as MCUs, eMMC HS400, NAND, NOR and Serial Flash devices. High-speed signals support devices up to 200 Mhz and the latest eMMC HS400 modes with data transfer rates of 2.5 nanoseconds per byte. A programmer, device programmer, chip programmer, device burner, or PROM writer is a piece of electronic equipment that arranges written software to configure programmable non-volatile integrated circuits, called programmable devices. The target devices include PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, Flash memory, eMMC, MRAM, FeRAM, NVRAM, PLDs, PLAs, PALs, GALs, CPLDs, FPGAs, and microcontrollers.
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Fluorescent moieties emit photons several nanoseconds after absorption following an exponential decay curve, which differs between dyes and depends on the surrounding solvent. When the dye is attached to a macromolecules the decay curve becomes multiexponential. Conjugated dyes generally have a lifetime between 1–10 ns, a small amount of longer lived exceptions exist, notably pyrene with a lifetime of 400ns in degassed solvents or 100ns in lipids and coronene with 200ns. On a different category of fluorphores are the fluorescent organometals (lanthanides and transition metal-ligand complexes) which have been previously described, which have much longer lifetimes due to the restricted states: lanthanides have lifetimes of 0.5 to 3 ms, while transition metal-ligand complexes have lifetimes of 10 ns to 10 µs.
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Since timing skew over a parallel bus can amount to a few nanoseconds, the resulting bandwidth limitation is in the range of hundreds of megahertz. Highly simplified topologies of the Legacy PCI Shared (Parallel) Interface and the PCIe Serial Point-to-Point Interface A serial interface does not exhibit timing skew because there is only one differential signal in each direction within each lane, and there is no external clock signal since clocking information is embedded within the serial signal itself. As such, typical bandwidth limitations on serial signals are in the multi-gigahertz range. PCI Express is one example of the general trend toward replacing parallel buses with serial interconnects; other examples include Serial ATA (SATA), USB, Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), FireWire (IEEE 1394), and RapidIO.
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Model-based reconstruction of gene networks can be used to organize the gene expression data in a systematic way and to guide future data collection. A major challenge here is to understand how gene regulation is controlling fundamental biological processes like biomineralisation and embryogenesis. The sub- processes like gene regulation, organic molecules interacting with the mineral deposition process, cellular processes, physiology and other processes at the tissue and environmental levels are linked. Rather than being directed by a central control mechanism, biomineralisation and embryogenesis can be viewed as an emergent behavior resulting from a complex system in which several sub- processes on very different temporal and spatial scales (ranging from nanometer and nanoseconds to meters and years) are connected into a multi- scale system.
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All of the remaining isotopes of lithium have half-lives that are shorter than 10 nanoseconds. The shortest-lived known isotope of lithium is lithium-4, which decays by proton emission with a half-life of about seconds, although the half-life of lithium-3 is yet to be determined, and is likely to be much shorter, like helium-2 (diproton) which undergoes proton decay within s. Lithium-7 and lithium-6 are two of the primordial nuclides that were produced in the Big Bang, with lithium-7 to be 10−9 of all primordial nuclides and amount of lithium-6 around 10−13. A small percentage of lithium-6 is also known to be produced by nuclear reactions in certain stars.
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The distance bound computed by a radio frequency distance bounding protocol is very sensitive to even the slightest processing delay. This is because any delay introduced, anywhere in the system, will be multiplied by approximately 299,792,458 m/s (the speed of light) in order to convert time into distance. This means that even delays on the order of nanoseconds will result in significant errors in the distance bound (a timing error of 1 ns corresponds to a distance error of 15 cm). Because of the extremely tight timing constraints and the fact that a distance bounding protocol requires that the prover apply an appropriate function to the challenge sent by the verifier, it is not trivial to implement distance bounding in actual physical hardware.
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To understand this aspect of lightning detection one needs to know that a lightning 'flash' generally consists of several strokes, a typical number of strokes from a CG flash is in the range 3 to 6 but some flashes can have more than 10 strokes. The initial stroke leaves an ionized path from the cloud to ground and subsequent 'return strokes', separated by an interval of about 50 milliseconds, go up that channel. The complete discharge sequence is typically about ½ second in duration while the duration of the individual strokes varies greatly between 100 nanoseconds and a few tens of microseconds. The strokes in a CG flash can be seen at night as a non-periodic sequence of illuminations of the lightning channel.
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The neutral pions decay almost immediately (with a lifetime of 85 attoseconds) into high- energy photons, but the charged pions decay more slowly (with a lifetime of 26 nanoseconds) and can be deflected magnetically to produce thrust. Charged pions ultimately decay into a combination of neutrinos (carrying about 22% of the energy of the charged pions) and unstable charged muons (carrying about 78% of the charged pion energy), with the muons then decaying into a combination of electrons, positrons and neutrinos (cf. muon decay; the neutrinos from this decay carry about 2/3 of the energy of the muons, meaning that from the original charged pions, the total fraction of their energy converted to neutrinos by one route or another would be about ).
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Plasma pencil The plasma pencil is a dielectric tube where two disk-shaped electrodes of about the same diameter as the tube are inserted, and are separated by a small gap. Each of the two electrodes is made of a thin copper ring attached to the surface of a centrally perforated dielectric disk. The plasma is ignited when nanoseconds-wide high voltage pulses at kHz repetition rate are applied between the two electrodes and a gas mixture (such as helium and oxygen) is flown through the holes of the electrodes. When a plasma is ignited in the gap between the electrodes, a plasma plume reaching lengths up to 12 cm is launched through the aperture of the outer electrode and into the surrounding room air.
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There were several loops in the microcode that were a single instruction long and many of the simpler p-code ops took 1 or 2 microcode instructions. With the wide microword and the way the busses were carefully arranged, as well as incrementing memory address registers, the cpu could execute operations inside the ALU while transferring a memory word directly to the onboard stack, or feed one source into the ALU while sending a previously computed register to the destination bus in a single microcycle. The cpu ran at three different clock speeds (using delay lines for a selectable clock); two bits in the microword selected the cycle time for that instruction. The clocks around 130, 150, and 175 nanoseconds.
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A high rate of rise of the current between MT1 and MT2 (in either direction) when the device is turning on can damage or destroy the TRIAC even if the pulse duration is very short. The reason is that during the commutation, the power dissipation is not uniformly distributed across the device. When switching on, the device starts to conduct current before the conduction finishes to spread across the entire junction. The device typically starts to conduct the current imposed by the external circuitry after some nanoseconds or microseconds but the complete switch on of the whole junction takes a much longer time, so too swift a current rise may cause local hot spots that can permanently damage the TRIAC.
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In both cases the mechanism of the difference in arrival time is the same: the Sagnac effect. The Hafele–Keating experiment is also recognized as a counterpart to Sagnac effect physics. In the actual Hafele–Keating experiment the mode of transport (long-distance flights) gave rise to time dilation effects of its own, and calculations were needed to separate the various contributions. For the (theoretical) case of clocks that are transported so slowly that time dilation effects arising from the transport are negligible the amount of time difference between the clocks when they arrive back at the starting point will be equal to the time difference that is found for a relay of pulses that travels around the world: 207 nanoseconds.
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The metastability in flip- flops can be avoided by ensuring that the data and control inputs are held valid and constant for specified periods before and after the clock pulse, called the setup time (tsu) and the hold time (th) respectively. These times are specified in the data sheet for the device, and are typically between a few nanoseconds and a few hundred picoseconds for modern devices. Depending upon the flip-flop's internal organization, it is possible to build a device with a zero (or even negative) setup or hold time requirement but not both simultaneously. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to meet the setup and hold criteria, because the flip-flop may be connected to a real-time signal that could change at any time, outside the control of the designer.
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The VIA's shift register is bidirectional, 8 bits wide, and can run from either a timer-generated clock (from timer 2), the CPU clock, or an external source on line CB1. The serial input/output is on line `CB2`, and `CB1` can also be programmed to output a bit clock for external clocked serial devices. Due to a design defect, if the edge on `CB1` falls within a few nanoseconds of the falling edge of the ϕ2 (phase-2) clock, the `CB1 edge` will be ignored, causing the loss of a bit and framing errors on subsequent data. As a workaround, put the external clock signal into the `D` input of a 74AC74 flip-flop, run the flop's `Q` output to the 6522's `CB1` pin, and clock the flip-flop with ϕ0 or ϕ2.
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Naturally occurring vanadium (23V) is composed of one stable isotope 51V and one radioactive isotope 50V with a half-life of 1.5×1017 years. 24 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized (in the range of mass number between 40 and 65) with the most stable being 49V with a half-life of 330 days, and 48V with a half-life of 15.9735 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives shorter than an hour, the majority of them below 10 seconds, the least stable being 42V with a half-life shorter than 55 nanoseconds, with all of the isotopes lighter than it, and none of the heavier, have unknown half-lives. In 4 isotopes, metastable excited states were found (including 2 metastable states for 60V), which adds up to 5 meta states.
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Almost always, an ejection kicker is used to eject the entire particle train, emptying the synchrotron. This means that it has the entire tail-to-head gap in the synchrotron to function, and the switch-off time is essentially irrelevant. However, it must hold a stable field for longer (one full rotation of the synchrotron), and must generate a stronger magnetic field, as it is used to eject a higher energy beam that has been accelerated in the synchrotron. The magnets are powered by a high voltage (usually in the range of tens of thousands of volts) source called a power modulator which uses a pulse forming network to produce a short pulse of current (usually in the range of a few nanoseconds to a microsecond and thousands of amperes in amplitude).
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Only one isotope of fluorine occurs naturally in abundance, the stable isotope .. It has a high magnetogyric ratio and exceptional sensitivity to magnetic fields; because it is also the only stable isotope, it is used in magnetic resonance imaging.. Seventeen radioisotopes with mass numbers from 14 to 31 have been synthesized, of which is the most stable with a half-life of 109.77 minutes. Other radioisotopes have half-lives less than 70 seconds; most decay in less than half a second.. The isotopes and undergo β+ decay and electron capture, lighter isotopes decay by proton emission, and those heavier than undergo β− decay (the heaviest ones with delayed neutron emission).. Two metastable isomers of fluorine are known, , with a half-life of 162(7) nanoseconds, and , with a half-life of 2.2(1) milliseconds..
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The precise timing of EBWs is achieved by the detonator using direct physical effects of the vaporized bridgewire to initiate detonation in the detonator's booster charge. Given a sufficiently high and well known amount of electric current and voltage, the timing of the bridgewire vaporization is both extremely short (a few microseconds) and extremely precise and predictable (standard deviation of time to detonate as low as a few tens of nanoseconds). Conventional blasting caps use electricity to heat a bridge wire rather than vaporize it, and that heating then causes the primary explosive to detonate. Imprecise contact between the bridgewire and the primary explosive changes how quickly the explosive is heated up, and minor electrical variations in the wire or leads will change how quickly it heats up as well.
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The energy of the primary particle is determined from the total amount of Cherenkov light measured in each telescope, along with the distance of that telescope from the shower core. Each of the individual telescopes has a 12 m diameter aperture and a 3.5 degree field of view. The telescopes are built on a Davies-Cotton optical design, which uses a spherical reflector and is straight forward to construct and align. This design does cause some time spread in the arrival of Cherenkov photons at the camera, but this spread is small (~ 4 nanoseconds). The reflector consists of 350 individual mirror facets, hexagonal in shape, mounted on a rigid optical support structure. The camera on each telescope has 499 individual pixels (high-speed 26 mm-diameter photomultiplier tubes).
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This means that if one pathway is found to be more thermodynamically favorable than another, it is likely to be used more frequently in the pursuit of the native structure. As the protein begins to fold and assume its various conformations, it always seeks a more thermodynamically favorable structure than before and thus continues through the energy funnel. Formation of secondary structures is a strong indication of increased stability within the protein, and only one combination of secondary structures assumed by the polypeptide backbone will have the lowest energy and therefore be present in the native state of the protein. Among the first structures to form once the polypeptide begins to fold are alpha helices and beta turns, where alpha helices can form in as little as 100 nanoseconds and beta turns in 1 microsecond.
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The effects detected in such Earth-bound experiments are extremely small, with differences being measured in nanoseconds. Relative to Earth's age in billions of years, Earth's core is effectively 2.5 years younger than its surface. Demonstrating larger effects would require greater distances from the Earth or a larger gravitational source. Gravitational time dilation was first described by Albert Einstein in 1907A. Einstein, "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik 4, 411–462 (1907); English translation, in "On the relativity principle and the conclusions drawn from it", in "The Collected Papers", v.2, 433–484 (1989); also in H M Schwartz, "Einstein's comprehensive 1907 essay on relativity, part I", American Journal of Physics vol.45,no.6 (1977) pp.512–517; Part II in American Journal of Physics vol.
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The most significant fraction of electron–positron annihilations results in two 511 keV gamma photons being emitted at almost 180 degrees to each other; hence, it is possible to localize their source along a straight line of coincidence (also called the line of response, or LOR). In practice, the LOR has a non-zero width as the emitted photons are not exactly 180 degrees apart. If the resolving time of the detectors is less than 500 picoseconds rather than about 10 nanoseconds, it is possible to localize the event to a segment of a chord, whose length is determined by the detector timing resolution. As the timing resolution improves, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the image will improve, requiring fewer events to achieve the same image quality.
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Non-volatile memory (such as EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory) uses floating-gate memory cells, which consist of a single floating-gate MOS transistor per cell. Most types of semiconductor memory have the property of random access, which means that it takes the same amount of time to access any memory location, so data can be efficiently accessed in any random order. This contrasts with data storage media such as hard disks and CDs which read and write data consecutively and therefore the data can only be accessed in the same sequence it was written. Semiconductor memory also has much faster access times than other types of data storage; a byte of data can be written to or read from semiconductor memory within a few nanoseconds, while access time for rotating storage such as hard disks is in the range of milliseconds.
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A pulse per second (PPS or 1PPS) is an electrical signal that has a width of less than one second and a sharply rising or abruptly falling edge that accurately repeats once per second. PPS signals are output by radio beacons, frequency standards, other types of precision oscillators and some GPS receivers. M. Siccardi, About time measurements, EFTF 2012 Precision clocks are sometimes manufactured by interfacing a PPS signal generator to processing equipment that aligns the PPS signal to the UTC second and converts it to a useful display. Atomic clocks usually have an external PPS output, although internally they may operate at 9,192,631,770 Hz. PPS signals have an accuracy ranging from a 12 picoseconds to a few microseconds per second, or 2.0 nanoseconds to a few milliseconds per day based on the resolution and accuracy of the device generating the signal.
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Arriving at the scene he meets with local investigators and FBI Special Agent Paul Pryzwarra (Val Kilmer), and informs them of his findings. He learns about and is invited to examine a partially burned body pulled from the river, identified as Claire Kuchever (Paula Patton), which was reported to the authorities minutes before the explosion. Pryzwarra is impressed with Doug's detective expertise, and asks him to join a newly formed governmental detective unit whose first case is to investigate the bombing. Led by Dr Alexander Denny (Adam Goldberg), they investigate the events before the explosion by using a program called "Snow White", which enables them to look into the past (4 days, 6 hours, 3 minutes, 45 seconds, 14.5 nanoseconds) in detail by (according to Pryzwarra) using several satellites to form a triangulated image of events.
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For older analog cathode ray tube (CRT) technology, display lag is extremely low, due to the nature of the technology, which does not have the ability to store image data before display. The picture signal is minimally processed internally, simply for demodulation from a radio-frequency (RF) carrier wave (for televisions), and then splitting into separate signals for the red, green, and blue electron guns, and for the timing of the vertical and horizontal sync. Image adjustments typically involve reshaping the signal waveform but without storage, so the image is written to the screen as fast as it is received, with only nanoseconds of delay for the signal to traverse the wiring inside the device from input to the screen. For modern digital signals, significant computer processing power and memory storage is needed to prepare an input signal for display.
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The IBM 2365 model 5 is special because the System/360 model 85 accesses memory in 128-bit (16 byte) units, unlike the other System/360 models which supported the IBM 2365, all of which accessed 64-bit (8 byte) units. On the System/360 model 85, the IBM 2365 model 5 operates with a cycle time of 1040 nanoseconds, and two or four of them are required. Because the System/360 model 85 CPU is so much faster than memory, if there are two IBM 2365 model 5 components they are two-way interleaved, and if there are four IBM 2365 model 5 components they are four-way interleaved. Because the IBM 2365 model 5 is internally two-way interleaved, sequential 128-bit memory operations issued by the System/360 model 85 CPU traverse all the memory components before cycling back to the first.
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The term "plastic scintillator" typically refers to a scintillating material in which the primary fluorescent emitter, called a fluor, is suspended in the base, a solid polymer matrix. While this combination is typically accomplished through the dissolution of the fluor prior to bulk polymerization, the fluor is sometimes associated with the polymer directly, either covalently or through coordination, as is the case with many Li6 plastic scintillators. Polyethylene naphthalate has been found to exhibit scintillation by itself without any additives and is expected to replace existing plastic scintillators due to higher performance and lower price. The advantages of plastic scintillators include fairly high light output and a relatively quick signal, with a decay time of 2–4 nanoseconds, but perhaps the biggest advantage of plastic scintillators is their ability to be shaped, through the use of molds or other means, into almost any desired form with what is often a high degree of durability.
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Meanwhile, the MOSFET drivers also need to drive the MOSFETs between switching states as fast as possible to minimize the amount of time a MOSFET is in linear mode—the state between cut-off mode and saturation mode where the MOSFET is neither fully on nor fully off and conducts current with a significant resistance, creating significant heat. Driver failures that allow shoot-through and/or too much linear mode operation result in excessive losses and sometimes catastrophic failure of the MOSFETs.Analytical and numerical analysis of dead-time distortion in power inverters There are also problems with using PWM for the modulator; as the audio level approaches 100%, the pulse width can get so narrow as to challenge the ability of the driver circuit and the MOSFET to respond. These pulses can get down to just a few nanoseconds and can result in the above undesired conditions of shoot-through and/or linear mode.
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10–10000 Hz) and the modulated photoacoustic signal is analyzed with a lock-in amplifier for its amplitude and phase, or for the inphase and quadrature components. When the pressure is measured within the condensed phase of the probed specimen, one utilizes piezoelectric sensors inserted into or coupled to the specimen itself. In this case the time scale is between less than nanoseconds to many microseconds The photoacoustic signal, obtained from the various pressure sensors, depends on the physical properties of the system, the mechanism that creates the photoacoustic signal, the light-absorbing material, the dynamics of the excited state relaxation and the modulation frequency or the pulse profile of the radiation, as well as the sensor properties. This calls for appropriate procedures to (i) separate between the signals due to different mechanisms and (ii) to obtain the time dependence of the heat evolution (in the case of the photothermal mechanism) or the oxygen evolution (in the case of the photobaric mechanism in photosynthesis) or the time dependence of the volume changes, from the time dependence of the resulting photoacoustic signal.
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Mass resolution can be improved in axial MALDI-TOF mass spectrometer where ion production takes place in vacuum by allowing the initial burst of ions and neutrals produced by the laser pulse to equilibrate and to let the ions travel some distance perpendicularly to the sample plate before the ions can be accelerated into the flight tube. The ion equilibration in plasma plume produced during the desorption/ionization takes place approximately 100 ns or less, after that most of ions irrespectively of their mass start moving from the surface with some average velocity. To compensate for the spread of this average velocity and to improve mass resolution, it was proposed to delay the extraction of ions from the ion source toward the flight tube by a few hundred nanoseconds to a few microseconds with respect to the start of short (typically, a few nanosecond) laser pulse. This technique is referred to as "time-lag focusing" for ionization of atoms or molecules by resonance enhanced multiphoton ionization or by electron impact ionization in a rarefied gas and "delayed extraction" for ions produced generally by laser desorption/ionization of molecules adsorbed on flat surfaces or microcrystals placed on conductive flat surface.
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Millisecond pulsars are used because they appear not to be prone to the starquakes and accretion events which can affect the period of classical pulsars. The most interesting influence on these propagation properties is low-frequency gravitational waves, with a frequency of 10−9 to 10−6 hertz; the expected astrophysical sources of such gravitational waves are massive black hole binaries in the centres of merging galaxies, where tens of millions of solar masses are in orbit with a period between months and a few years. The gravitational waves cause the time of arrival of the pulses to vary by a few tens of nanoseconds over their wavelength (so, for a frequency of 3 x 10 −8 Hz, one cycle per year, you would find that pulses arrive 20 ns early in July and 20 ns late in January). This is an extremely delicate experiment, although millisecond pulsars are stable enough clocks that the time of arrival of the pulses can be predicted to the required accuracy; the experiments use collections of 20 to 50 pulsars to account for dispersion effects in the atmosphere and in the space between us and the pulsar.
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