So 80D, "clustered," is actually I [NACL] UMP — IN A CLUMP.
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This is it: fleur de sel, the NaCl molecule in its most sophisticated form, the nirvana of salt.
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In that same box, replace SALT with its chemical formula, NACL, and your down entries will make sense.
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As the new research suggests, some of this surface stuff might actually be sodium chloride (NaCl), also known as table salt.
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If you can recall basic chemical formulations, you might make the leap from SALT, the compound, to its molecular ingredients, sodium and chlorine to form NaCl.
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It was he who combined those abbreviations with numbers, indicating the proportions involved, to make formulae for chemical compounds: H2O (water), H2SO4 (sulphuric acid), NaCl (table salt).
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The spectra showed a distinct absorption feature in the sunlight reflected off of Europa's surface, near a wavelength of 450 nm, which indicates the presence of irradiated NaCl.
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Google says "we are big supporters of open web standards," but Earth launched on the web with Chrome-only Native Client (NaCl) technology as there wasn't a standard available to support what it wanted to do.
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Very little chlorine exists naturally in the upper atmosphere as it generally emerges near Earth's surface -- for example from salt (sodium chloride, or NaCl) in sea spray -- in water-soluble forms that are "washed out" of the atmosphere by snow and rain.
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Like WhatsApp, Siilo also uses end-to-end encryption — though in its case it says this is based on the opensource NaCl library It also specifies that user messaging data is stored encrypted on European ISO-27001 certified servers — and deleted "as soon as we can".
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"SGK1 plays at least a dual role in mineralocorticoid-regulated NaCl homeostasis. SGK1 dependence of both NaCl intake and renal NaCl reabsorption suggests that excessive SGK1 activity leads to arterial hypertension by simultaneous stimulation of oral NaCl intake and renal NaCl retention".
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CCC family proteins can catalyze NaCl/KCl symport, NaCl symport, or KCl symport depending on the system. The NaCl/KCl symporters are specifically inhibited by bumetanide while the NaCl symporters are specifically inhibited by thiazide. One member of the CCC family, the thiazide-sensitive NaCl cotransporter (NCC) of man is involved in 5% of the filtered load of NaCl in the kidney. Mutations in NCC cause the recessive Gitelman syndrome.
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For example, a 3 Osm solution might consist of: 3 moles glucose, or 1.5 moles NaCl, or 1 mole glucose + 1 mole NaCl, or 2 moles glucose + 0.5 mole NaCl, or any other such combination.
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In general, obligate heterofermentative Lactobacilli are more sensitive to NaCl compared to other Lactobacilli. For instance, L. pontis and L. sanfranciscensis are inhibited by 4% NaCl, while L. paraplantarius and L. amylovorus can tolerate up to 6% NaCl.
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Normal saline (NS) is the commonly used term for a solution of 0.9% w/v of NaCl, about 300 mOsm/L.Note that in chemistry, a one normal of NaCl (see normality) is 0.5 molar (see molarity) NaCl assuming complete dissociation. Physiological dissociation is approximately 1.7 ions per mole, so one normal of NaCl is 1/1.7 = 0.588 molar. This is roughly 4 times more concentrated than medical "normal saline" of 0.154 molar.
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Salinicoccus kunmingensis is a standard gram-positive bacteria in the genus Salinicoccus and Staphylococcaceae family. It is moderaly halophilic growing in 0.5-25% NaCl solution, with an optimum at 8-10% NaCl solution.
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Cobetia amphilecti is a Gram-negative, aerobic, oxidase-negative, catalase- positive, bacterium. It has non-pigmented, rod-shaped cells, 0.8–0.9 µm in diameter and 1.1–1.3 µm long, motile by means of one polar and/or two or three lateral flagella. Growth is observed in 0–20 % NaCl with an optimum at 5 % NaCl, and at 4–42 °C with an optimum at 37 °C. Growth is slow in the absence of NaCl and in the presence of 0.5 % NaCl.
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There are also plans to make NaCl available on handheld devices. Portable Native Client (PNaCl) is an architecture-independent version. PNaCl apps are compiled ahead-of-time. PNaCl is recommended over NaCl for most use cases.
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NaCl +HCl +2H20 -> HClO + OCl- + Na+ + 2H2 Net of the last two.
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At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, CsH has the same structure as NaCl.
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Replacement of NaCl for isosmotic sorbitol produced a slight depolarization of the membrane.
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ZeroVM creates a sandbox around a single process, using technology based on Google Native Client (NaCl). The sandbox ensures that the application executed cannot access data in the host operating system, so it is safe to execute untrusted code. The programs executed in ZeroVM must first be cross-compiled to the NaCl platform. ZeroVM can only execute NaCl code compiled for the x86-64 platform, not the portable Native Client (PNaCl) format.
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A. marina growth on a rhodospirillaceae medium (DSMZ Medium 27), at 25°C, with 3% NaCl, and is anaerobic in light.[3] A. pfennigii growth on a (DSMZ Medium 27), at 28°C, supplemented with 1% NaCl and 0.15% NaHCO3, and is anaerobic in light.[6] A. sp. growth on a centenum medium (DSMZ Medium 650), at 30°C, without vitamins B12 and pyruvate, with 25.0 g/l NaCl, and is anaerobic in light.
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The results showed that sodium polyacrylate with low salt levels had an adequate curing efficiency with a significant reduction (>65%) of TDS. Around 40% NaCl is used in conventional curing processes but the process conducted with sodium polyacrylate used 15% NaCl and 5% sodium polyacrylate.
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The genus Cladosporium is very closely related to black yeasts in the order Dothideales. Cladosporium species are often highly osmotolerant, growing easily on media containing 10% glucose or 12–17% NaCl. They are rarely grown on media containing 24% NaCl or 50% glucose and never isolated from medium with 32% NaCl or greater. Most species have very fragile spore chains, making it extremely difficult to prepare a mount for microscopic observation in which the conidial chains are preserved intact.
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Industrially, sodium chlorate is produced by the electrolysis of a hot sodium chloride solution: :NaCl + 3 H2O → NaClO3 \+ 3 H2 This reaction progresses in heat (at least 70 °C), and controlled pH. In lower temperature or with high pH another reaction progresses: :2 NaCl + H2O → NaClO + NaCl + H2 The sodium chlorate process is not to be confused with the Chloralkali process, which is an industrial process for the electrolytic production of sodium hydroxide and chlorine gas.
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When grown on solid medium AOM1, colonies were light-pink pigmented, circular, convex, relatively small (2–4 mm) in size after one week of incubation at 60 °C. Chthonomonas calidirosea has an optimum temperature at 68 °C with a range of 50–73 °C. The optimum pH for growth was 5.3 with a range of 4.5–5.8. Optimum growth was observed in NaCl free medium, although growth was observed in NaCl amended FSV1 medium up to 2% NaCl.
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Reference implementation is written in C, often with several inline assembler. C++ and Python are handled as wrappers. NaCl has a variety of programming language bindings such as PHP, and forms the basis for Libsodium, a cross-platform cryptography library created in 2013 which is API compatible with NaCl.
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For example, there was pH 8.2 and 84 ppm NaCl on the lake locality in the Wrangel Island.
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Treatment consists of NaCl infusion to correct ECF volume contraction and administration of K+ to replace urinary losses.
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Levofloxacin and NaCl injection, specification is 100mL / 750mg Levofloxacin is available in tablet form, injection, and oral solution.
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One website uses NaCL on the server to let users experiment with the Go programming language from their browsers.
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Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus are Gram-negative and rod shaped. Their cells are, on average, are 0.3-0.6 µm in diameter and 2-3 µm long. Their ability to produce flagella is largely dependent on the NaCl concentration of their environment. In solutions with NaCl concentrations of 0.6-1.5M, Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus produce and move by the movement of “a single unsheathed polar flagellum.” In solutions with NaCl concentrations <0.2 or >1.5, M. hydrocarbonoclasticus are unable to produce flagella, and are thereby unable to influence their movement through medium.
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Repeating units will help to show how easy it is and clear it is to represent molecules through balls that represent atoms. Fig. 2. Sodium chloride (NaCl) lattice, showing close-packed spheres representing a face-centered cubic AB lattice similar to that of NaCl and most other alkali halides. In this model the spheres are equal sizes whereas more "realistic" models would have different radii for cations and anions. The binary compounds sodium chloride (NaCl) and caesium chloride (CsCl) have cubic structures but have different space groups.
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The species can be cultivated in media with up to 25% NaCl or 18% glycerol. Growth rate increases in solutions with ≥ 1M NaCl or KCl, with sodium and potassium ions playing a very important role in the mechanisms involved in maintaining osmobalance. The species can survive a pH range between 3 and 10.
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The formation of a crystal lattice is exothermic, i.e., the value of ΔHlattice is negative because it corresponds to the coalescing of infinitely separated gaseous ions in vacuum to form the ionic lattice. Sodium chloride crystal lattice The concept of lattice energy was originally developed for rocksalt-structured and sphalerite-structured compounds like NaCl and ZnS, where the ions occupy high-symmetry crystal lattice sites. In the case of NaCl, lattice energy is the energy released by the reaction : Na+ (g) + Cl− (g) -> NaCl (s) which would amount to -786 kJ/mol.
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Square, non-motile, pigmented archaea dominate in most thalassic NaCl-saturated environments, reaching population densities of over 107 cells per ml.
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The image has the low signal-to-noise ratio due to the high concentration of NaCl. (C) Cryo- transmission electron micrograph of a focused ion beam-thinned cell in 3 M NaCl plus 81 mM MgSO4. The periodicity of the gas vesicle is clearly discerned. (A) Adapted from Pfeifer (2015), (B, C) from Bollschweiler et al.
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Maximum growth temperature is 98 °C. It prefers a pH of 6.5, can grow in a pH of 4.5 to 8.5, and favors 1–3.5% NaCl concentrations. Staphylothermus hellenicus was isolated in shallow, hypothermal vents off the coast of Greece in 1996.[5] It grows at an optimum temperature of 85 °C, pH 6 and 3–4% NaCl concentrations.
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The osmolarity of normal saline, 9 grams NaCl dissolved in water to a total volume of one liter, is a close approximation to the osmolarity of NaCl in blood (about 290 mOsm/L). Thus, normal saline is almost isotonic to blood plasma. Neither sodium nor chloride ions can freely pass through the plasma membrane, unlike urea.
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Of the 5 steroids and benzene, only testosterone could be resolved from the other peaks below the LCST (5 °C, LCST=20 °C in 1M NaCl). Above the LCST (25 °C, LCST=20 °C in 1M NaCl), all of the peaks are well resolved, and there is an increasing trend of retention time versus temperature up to 50 °C.
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NUN buffer contains: HEPES [pH 7.6], Urea, NaCl, DDT, PIC 1 & 2, 1.1% NP-40, Sodium orthovanadate, β-glycerol phosphate and water.
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Defect-free NaCl crystals have an optical transmittance of about 90% for infrared light, specifically between 200 nm and 20 µm. They were therefore used in optical components (windows and prisms) operating in that spectral range, where few non-absorbing alternatives exist and where requirements for absence of microscopic inhomogeneities are less strict than in the visible range. While inexpensive, NaCl crystals are soft and hygroscopic – when exposed to the ambient air, they gradually cover with "frost". This limits application of NaCl to dry environments, vacuum sealed assembly areas or for short-term uses such as prototyping.
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Several analyses were done to determine cell characteristics. Methanohalophilus mahii is classified as a moderate halophile, or an organism that can grow in high salinity environments, since it can grow anywhere from a 0.5 to 3.5 M NaCl range, with an optimal growth concentration at 2.0 M NaCl, but with a 1.2 M NaCl concentration yielding the highest culture density. It can also grow in varying pH levels ranging from 6.5 to 8.2, with an optimum pH of 7.5. Methanohalophilus mahii is a mesophile, or an organism that thrives at moderate temperatures, and grows best at a temperature of 37 °C.
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Jha et al. achieved 65-80% porosity through the use of NaCl as a space-holder and a cold compaction process at various pressures with two-stage sintering. In this case, NaCl was removed through dissolution after the second stage of sintering. Resulting Young's moduli (8–15 GPa) were considerably lower than the Young's modulus of 29 GPa achieved for 50% porosity foams.
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Fludrocortisone is also a confirmation test for diagnosing Conn's syndrome (aldosterone producing-adrenal adenoma), the fludrocortisone suppression test. Loading the patient with fludrocortisone would suppress serum aldosterone level in a normal patient, whereas the level would remain elevated in a Conn's patient. The fludrocortisone suppression test is an alternative to the NaCl challenge (which would use normal saline or NaCl tablets).
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This exits the furnace and passes through cooling drums before being milled, screened and sent to product storage facilities. The process involves intermediate formation of sodium bisulfate, an exothermic reaction that occur at room temperature: :NaCl + H2SO4 → HCl + NaHSO4 The second step of the process is endothermic, requiring energy input: :NaCl + NaHSO4 → HCl + Na2SO4 Temperatures in the range 600-700 °C are required.
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The encryption process used by Threema is based on the open-source library NaCl library. Threema uses asymmetric ECC- based encryption, with 256-bit strength. Threema offers a "Validation Logging" feature that makes it possible to confirm that messages are end-to-end encrypted using the NaCl Networking and Cryptography library. In August 2015, Threema was subjected to an external security audit.
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There must be enough natural drainage to the underground, or else an artificial subsurface drainage system must be present, to permit leaching of the excess sodium by percolation of rain and/or irrigation water through the soil profile. Calcium chloride is also used to reclaim alkali soils. CaCl2 converts Na2CO3 into NaCl precipitating CaCO3. NaCl is drained off by leaching water.
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A large sodium chloride concentration is indicative of an elevated GFR, while low sodium chloride concentration indicates a depressed GFR. Sodium chloride is sensed by the macula densa mainly by an apical Na-K-2Cl cotransporter (NKCC2). The relationship between the TGF and NKCC2 can be seen through the administration of loop diuretics like furosemide. Furosemide blocks NaCl reabsorption mediated by the NKCC2 at the macula densa, which leads to increased renin release. Excluding loop diuretic use, the usual situation that causes a reduction in reabsorption of NaCl via the NKCC2 at the macula densa is a low tubular lumen concentration of NaCl. Reduced NaCl uptake via the NKCC2 at the macula densa leads to increased renin release, which leads to restoration of plasma volume, and to dilation of the afferent arterioles, which leads to increased renal plasma flow and increased GFR.
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Liu, B. et al Improved thermodynamic model for aqueous NaCl solutions from 350 to 400 °C. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2006 vol 45 pp2929-2929.
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Pink cubic halite (NaCl; halide class) crystals on a nahcolite matrix (NaHCO3; a carbonate, and mineral form of sodium bicarbonate, used as baking soda). The halide minerals are compounds in which a halogen (fluorine, chlorine, iodine, or bromine) is the main anion. These minerals tend to be soft, weak, brittle, and water-soluble. Common examples of halides include halite (NaCl, table salt), sylvite (KCl), fluorite (CaF2).
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Sodium chloride is the most commonly chosen space-holder for titanium foams because it is highly soluble in water and inert with respect to titanium. This inertness prevents contamination and degradation of the mechanical properties of the resulting foam. Moreover, NaCl is non-toxic; any residuals are bioinert. Bansiddhi & Dunand pioneered the use of NaCl as a permanent space-holder for the fabrication of NiTi foams.
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It is recommended that the reagent be used within three hours of reconstitution. The sensitivity of the reagent may become altered after the recommended time period. _Microtox Osmotic Adjustment Solution (MOAS)_ is a nontoxic solution that is made up of 22% Sodium Chloride (NaCl) and Ultra Pure Water. This solution is added to a sample to adjust the osmotic pressure to approximately 2% NaCl.
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A combination of etomidate and diazepam would be an even safer anesthetic consideration, but etomidate is not commonly carried by general veterinary practitioners due to its cost. Fluid therapy is equally essential for correcting derangements. Commonly, a fluid low in potassium, such as 0.9% NaCl, is selected. If 0.9% NaCl is not available, any other crystalloid fluid is realistic even if it contains some level of potassium.
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Small amounts of hydrogen chloride for laboratory use can be generated in an HCl generator by dehydrating hydrochloric acid with either sulfuric acid or anhydrous calcium chloride. Alternatively, HCl can be generated by the reaction of sulfuric acid with sodium chloride: : NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 \+ HCl This reaction occurs at room temperature. Provided there is NaCl remaining in the generator and it is heated above 200 °C, the reaction proceeds further: : NaCl + NaHSO4 → HCl + Na2SO4 For such generators to function, the reagents should be dry. Hydrogen chloride can also be prepared by the hydrolysis of certain reactive chloride compounds such as phosphorus chlorides, thionyl chloride (SOCl2), and acyl chlorides.
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Strontium chloride is the precursor to other compounds of strontium, such as yellow strontium chromate, strontium carbonate, and strontium sulfate. Exposure of strontium chloride to the sodium salt of the desired anion (or alternately carbon dioxide gas to form the carbonate) leads to precipitation of the salt: :SrCl2 \+ Na2CrO4 → SrCrO4 \+ 2 NaCl :SrCl2 \+ Na2CO3 → SrCO3 \+ 2 NaCl :SrCl2 \+ H2O + CO2 → SrCO3 \+ 2 HCl :SrCl2 \+ Na2SO4 → SrSO4 \+ 2 NaCl Strontium chloride is often used as a red colouring agent in pyrotechnics. It imparts a much more intense red colour to the flames than most other alternatives. It is employed in small quantities in glass-making and metallurgy.
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Example of one experimental sample assembly for a Griggs machine The sample assembly is constructed of multiple cylindrical sleeves which are placed in the opening in the pressure vessel or “bomb”. The outermost sleeve is typically composed from NaCl which is used to transfer the vertical load applied from the steel piston into a confining pressure on the sample at the center of the assembly. NaCl is used since it is relatively weak and it assists in the transfer of stress. Directly inboard of the outer NaCl sleeve is a ceramic support sleeve with a graphite sleeve inside of it, which is used for resistive heating of the sample.
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The chemical reaction is: NaCl + H2O + ENERGY → NaOCl + H2 Ie energy is added to sodium chloride (table salt) in water, producing sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen gas.
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Nowadays materials like zinc selenide (ZnSe), which are stronger mechanically and are less sensitive to moisture, are used instead of NaCl for the infrared spectral range.
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Rhizopus oryzae is characterized to be a fast growing fungus where growth under optimal temperatures is fast at 1.6mm per hour (nearly 0.5 μm per second - enough to be able to directly visualize hyphal elongation in real-time under the microscope). R. oryzae can grow in temperature of 7 °C to 44 °C and the optimum growth temperature is 37 °C. There is very poor growth from 10 °C to 15 °C and no growth is observed at 45 °C. In a NaCl solution, there is good growth at a 1% NaCl concentration and there is very poor growth of the mycelia in media containing 3% NaCl. There is also no growth seen in a 5% NaCl solution. R. oryzae favors acidic media where good growth is observed at a pH of 6.8 and in the range of 7.7-8.1 there is very poor growth.
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The optimum pH is 7.0, and can grow in pH 6.0-9.0. Also, the species can grow in the presence of up to 8.0% NaCl salt concentrations.
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This method involves the maintenance of a high degree of potassium ions in the cell to balance the sodium ions outside. For this reason H. volcanii has a complex ion regulation system and is chemoautotrophic. H. volcanii will optimally grow at 42 °C in 1.5-2.5 M NaCl and complex nutrient medium. It will still grow at 37 °C, but still requires the concentrated NaCl and complex medium.
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Bacterial cells that belong to the Marinilabiliaceae family are typically thin, flexible rods. Mostly species are motile by gliding motily. They are saccharolytic and need NaCl for growing.
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Halomonas is a genus of halophilic (salt-tolerating) proteobacteria. It grows over the range of 5 to 25% NaCl. The type species of this genus is Halomonas elongata.
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Triphenylmethylsodium can be prepared from trityl chloride dissolved in an aprotic solvent and sodium: :(C6H5)3CCl + 2 Na → (C6H5)3CNa + NaCl Reaction with silver hexafluorophosphate gives triphenylmethyl hexafluorophosphate.
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NH4OH + H(+) gives NH4+ and H2O). The impurities are nothing but salts of different natures These get converted to respective acids (e.g. NaCl + H(+) gives HCl and CL-).
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The electrochemical behaviors of the metal ions (Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn) in the molten salts (NaCl-KCl-(CaCl2))with respect to this process were also extensively investigated.X. Ge, S. J. Xiao, G. M. Haarberg, S. Seetharaman. The salt extraction process-A novel route for metal extraction Part III: Electrochemical behaviors of the metal ions(Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn) in molten (CaCl2-)NaCl-KCl salt system. Trans. IMM, C, 119(2010), 163-170.
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Many sulfides, e.g., do form non-stoichiometric compounds. Many ionic compounds are referred to as salts as they can also be formed by the neutralization reaction of an Arrhenius base like NaOH with an Arrhenius acid like HCl : NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O The salt NaCl is then said to consist of the acid rest Cl− and the base rest Na+. Representation of ionic bonding between lithium and fluorine to form lithium fluoride.
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P. macerans can be grown in the lab on a nutrient agar with a slightly acidic pH around 5. Optimal growth temperature is 30 °C. No growth in 5% NaCl.
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Although most Rhodobacter species are freshwater and have little salt tolerance, some strains of R. capsulatus appear to tolerate up to 0.3 M NaCl depending on their source of nitrogen.
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Alternatively dehydrochlorination of 2,3,4-trichloro-1-butene: :CH2=C(Cl)CH(Cl)CH2Cl + NaOH → CH2=C(Cl)C(Cl)=CH2 \+ NaCl + H2O 2,3-Dichlorobutadiene is a precursor to 2,3-diarylbutadienes.
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Vibrio natriegens (V. natriegens) is a Gram-negative marine bacterium. It was first isolated from salt marsh mud. It is a salt-loving organism (halophile) requiring about 2% NaCl for growth.
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Sodium hypochlorite can be easily produced for research purposes by reacting ozone with salt. :NaCl + O3 → NaClO + O2 This reaction happens at room temperature and can be helpful for oxidizing alcohols.
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Jeotgalicoccus halotolerans is a gram-positive bacterium. It is moderate halophilic, it growth in the presence of 0–20% NaCl. The cells are coccoid, with a diameter of 0,6–1,1 µm.
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Sulfolobus metallicus can grow between 50 °C and 75 °C (meaning it is a hyperthermophilic archaea) in acidic environments between pH 1.0 and 4.5. It can grow in 0-3% NaCl.
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When grown on complex agar medium, colonies appeared orange-red, smooth, circular, elevated, and 1–2 mm in diameter. Colonies can grow with NaCl concentrations of 1.0-4.8 M, with optimum growth between 2.2 and 3.4 M. However, saturated NaCl inhibits growth in liquid medium. The optimum pH for growth is 6.5-7.0 and the optimum temperature for growth is 42-45 °C. Anaerobic growth occurs on nitrate with the production of gas; nitrate is reduced to nitrite.
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Cultures grown in YSB medium, ranging from 0 to 10% weight per volume concentrations of NaCl, observed after 3, 7, and 14 days revealed that R. toxicus is only able to withstand a maximum of 1% NaCl concentration. The generation time of R. toxicus is approximately 18 hours in 523M broth at 25℃ based on optical density measurements via a spectrophotometer. Colony morphology on 523M agar is convex, smooth, mucoid with yellow, rose-orange, or pink pigmentation.
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In 2014, a client for the Google Chrome and Chromium web browsers was released, allowing users to run Folding@home in their web browser. The client used Google's Native Client (NaCl) feature on Chromium-based web browsers to run the Folding@home code at near-native speed in a sandbox on the user's machine. Due to the phasing out of NaCL and changes at Folding@home, the web client was permanently shut down in June 2019.
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Germanium selenide is a chemical compound with the formula GeSe. It exists as black crystalline powder having orthorhombic (distorted NaCl-type) crystal symmetry; at temperatures ~650 °C, it transforms into the cubic NaCl structure. To grow GeSe crystals, GeSe powder is vaporized at the hot end of a sealed ampule and allowed to condense at the cold end. Usual crystals are small and show signs of irregular growth, caused mainly by convective motion in the gaseous medium.
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Monatomic caesium halide wires grown inside double-wall carbon nanotubes. Bulk caesium iodide crystals have the cubic CsCl crystal structure, but the structure type of nanometer-thin CsI films depends on the substrate material – it is CsCl for mica and NaCl for LiF, NaBr and NaCl substrates. Caesium iodide atomic chains can be grown inside double-wall carbon nanotubes. In such chains I atoms appear brighter than Cs atoms in electron micrographs despite having a smaller mass.
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As for anhydrite, its solubility in saline solutions and in brines is also strongly dependent on NaCl (common table salt) concentration. Gypsum crystals are found to contain anion water and hydrogen bonding.
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Optimal growth is also dependent on the presence of a NaCl concentration of 40 g/l, further demonstrating the high level of adaptation T. celer has evolved for its thermal marine environment.
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All species of Staphylococcus aureus were once thought to be coagulase- positive, but this has since been disproven.PreTest, Surgery, 12th ed., p. 88 Growth can also occur in a 6.5% NaCl solution.
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No growth occurred on the 5% NaCl agar. This organism was found to be positive in a nitrate reduction test and negative in the aryl sulfatase test that were performed on this strain.
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In a study, plants of A. macrostachyum were germinated at six sodium chloride (NaCl) concentrations, and grew best at 200 to 400 mM NaCl. It was found that the plants were salt-tolerant and grew well at a range of salt concentrations. About 60% of their dry mass was ash, and the plants were capable of accumulating a substantial quantity of sodium and chlorine ions. The seeds of many halophytes germinate after rains which reduce the salinity levels of the soil surface layer.
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The rock-salt crystal structure. Each atom has six nearest neighbors, with octahedral geometry. The space group of the rock-salt (NaCl) structure is called Fmm (in Hermann–Mauguin notation), or "225" (in the International Tables for Crystallography). The Strukturbericht designation is "B1".The NaCl (B1) Structure In the rock-salt or sodium chloride (halite) structure, each of the two atom types forms a separate face-centered cubic lattice, with the two lattices interpenetrating so as to form a 3D checkerboard pattern.
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Since the organism is a strict aerobe, it used oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor. The organism can grow on peptone and tryptone as the sole carbon and nitrogen sources. D. donghaensis cannot grow in the absence of NaCl or when it is greater than 7% (w/v); growth is optimal at 2% (w/v) NaCl. The organism is susceptible to the antibiotics tetracycline and carbenicillin, although the organism's ability to form biofilms makes it difficult for antibiotics to penetrate the viscous layers.
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The orange/pink colour of salt lakes across the world is caused by the green alga Dunaliella salina and the archaea Halobacterium cutirubrum. Dunaliella salina is the most salt tolerant alga known and can grow in salinity as high as 35% NaCl (in comparison to seawater, which contains approximately 3% NaCl). At high salinity, temperature and light, this alga accumulates the red carotenoid pigment, beta-carotene. This is the same pigment that gives carrots, which contain 0.3% of beta-carotene, their colour.
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Usually the process is conducted on a brine (an aqueous solution of NaCl), in which case NaOH, hydrogen, and chlorine result. When using calcium chloride or potassium chloride, the products contain calcium or potassium instead of sodium. Related processes are known that use molten NaCl to give chlorine and sodium metal or condensed hydrogen chloride to give hydrogen and chlorine. The process has a high energy consumption, for example around 2500 kWh of electricity per tonne of sodium hydroxide produced.
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Many alkoxides are prepared by salt-forming reactions from a metal chloride and sodium alkoxide: :n NaOR \+ MCln -> M(OR)n \+ n NaCl Such reactions are favored by the lattice energy of the NaCl, and purification of the product alkoxide is simplified by the fact that NaCl is insoluble in common organic solvents. Copper(I) t-butoxide adopts a square structure, a consequence of the preference of Cu(I) for linear coordination geometry. For some electrophilic metal halides, conversion to the alkoxide requires no base. Titanium tetrachloride reacts with alcohols to give the corresponding tetraalkoxides, concomitant with the evolution of hydrogen chloride: :TiCl4 \+ 4 (CH3)2CHOH -> Ti(OCH(CH3)2)4 \+ 4 HCl The reaction can be accelerated by the addition of a base, such as a tertiary amine.
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Copper(II) hydroxide precipitates upon treating copper(II) chloride solutions with base: :CuCl2 \+ 2 NaOH → Cu(OH)2 \+ 2 NaCl dihydrate crystal Partial hydrolysis gives dicopper chloride trihydroxide, Cu2(OH)3Cl, a popular fungicide.
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The process, sometimes called alkaline fusion, initially affords the phenoxide salt: :C6H5SO3Na + 2 NaOH → C6H5ONa + Na2SO3 :C6H5ONa + HCl → C6H5OH + NaCl The process has been largely displaced by the Hock process, which generates less waste.
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The oxidation reaction can be performed with or without the copper metal. The precipitated product is separated and the mother liquor containing CuCl2 and NaCl, is recycled back to the process (eq. 6 ~ 7).
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Vanadium carbonyl can be prepared by reductive carbonylation of vanadium salts: :4 Na + VCl3 \+ 6 CO → Na[V(CO)6] + 3 NaCl The salt can be oxidized to the 17e binary carbonyl V(CO)6.
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The Mirovo mine is a large salt mine located in eastern Bulgaria in Veliko Tarnovo Province. Mirovo represents one of the largest salt reserves in Bulgaria having estimated reserves of 4,357 million tonnes of NaCl.
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The Seregovo mine is a large salt mine located in north-western Russia in Komi Republic. Seregovo represents one of the largest salt reserves in Russia having estimated reserves of 5 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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Brine is used as a secondary fluid in large refrigeration installations for the transport of thermal energy from place to place. Most commonly used brines are based on inexpensive calcium chloride and sodium chloride. It is used because the addition of salt to water lowers the freezing temperature of the solution and the heat transport efficiency can be greatly enhanced for the comparatively low cost of the material. The lowest freezing point obtainable for NaCl brine is at the concentration of 23.3% NaCl by weight.
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In the first step in the process, carbon dioxide (CO2) passes through a concentrated aqueous solution of sodium chloride (table salt, NaCl) and ammonia (NH3). : NaCl + CO2 + NH3 + H2O -> NaHCO3 + NH4Cl \---(I) In industrial practice, the reaction is carried out by passing concentrated brine (salt water) through two towers. In the first, ammonia bubbles up through the brine and is absorbed by it. In the second, carbon dioxide bubbles up through the ammoniated brine, and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) precipitates out of the solution.
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Addition of sodium tetraphenylborate to a solution of a tertiary amine and an acid chloride in acetonitrile gives the acylonium salt by precipitating NaCl from the reaction mixture. This method has a broad scope: :RC(O)Cl + R'3N + NaB(C6H5)4 → [RC(O)NR'3][B(C6H5)4] + NaCl Sodium tetraphenylborate is also employed as a phenyl donor in palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions involving vinyl and aryl triflates to give arylalkenes and biaryl compounds in good yields and under mild conditions, respectively.
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In the early 1970s, batch leaching using sodium chloride solution (NaCl) was carried out in the extraction of REEs. Firstly, REE-ores were extracted and sieved by open-pit mining. Then, they are leached in barrels with ~1M NaCl solution and precipitated with oxalic acid (C2H2O4). However, mining scale was highly limited by batch leaching (or bath leaching in late 1970s, using concrete pools instead of barrel) while high concentration of lixiviant could only produce low yield product with poor product quality (<70% of REE in concentration).
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Sodium cyclopentadienide (NaCp) is the preferred reagent for these types of reactions. It is most easily obtained by the reaction of molten sodium and dicyclopentadiene. Traditionally, the starting point is the cracking of dicyclopentadienyl, the dimer of cyclopentadiene. Cyclopentadiene is deprotonated by strong bases or alkali metals. :MCl2 \+ 2 NaC5H5 → (C5H5)2M + 2 NaCl (M = V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co; solvent = THF, DME, NH3) :CrCl3 \+ 3 NaC5H5 → [(C5H5)2Cr] + "C10H10" + 3 NaCl NaCp acts as a reducing agent and a ligand in this reaction.
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Regardless, freeze-drying has been used for decades in microbiological research as a way to store and stabilize cultures. Six substances, being NaCl, sorbitol, mannitol, mannose, sodium glutamate, and betaine were tested to determine if they had any effect on the survivability of the cells after freeze-drying. Three of the six substances added had a positive effect on the growth and freeze-drying of Lactobacillus, being NaCl, sorbitol, and sodium glutamate. The results suggest that these substances have protective effects on Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp.
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Ringer's solution typically contains NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 and NaHCO3, sometimes with other minerals such as MgCl2, dissolved in distilled water. The precise proportions of these vary from species to species, particularly between marine osmoconformers and osmoregulators.
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In the laboratory, ClO2 can be prepared by oxidation of sodium chlorite with chlorine: : 2 NaClO2 \+ Cl2 → 2 ClO2 \+ 2 NaCl Traditionally, chlorine dioxide for disinfection applications has been made from sodium chlorite or the sodium chlorite–hypochlorite method: :2 NaClO2 \+ 2 HCl + NaOCl → 2 ClO2 \+ 3 NaCl + H2O or the sodium chlorite–hydrochloric acid method: :5 NaClO2 \+ 4 HCl → 5 NaCl + 4 ClO2 \+ 2 H2O or the chlorite–sulfuric acid method: :4 \+ 2 H2SO4 → 2 ClO2 \+ HClO3 \+ 2 \+ H2O + HCl All three methods can produce chlorine dioxide with high chlorite conversion yield. Unlike the other processes, the chlorite–sulfuric acid method produces completely chlorine-free chlorine dioxide, although it suffers from the requirement of 25% more chlorite to produce an equivalent amount of chlorine dioxide. Alternatively, hydrogen peroxide may be efficiently used in small-scale applications.
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The Gowurdak mine is a large salt mine located in eastern Turkmenistan in Lebap Province, close to Magdanly. Gowurdak represents one of the largest salt reserves in Turkmenistan having estimated reserves of 1,849 million tonnes of NaCl.
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The Foleşti mine is a large salt mine located in southern Romania in Vâlcea County, close to Tomșani. Foleşti represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 22 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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The Sărmăşel mine is a large salt mine located in central Romania in Mureș County, close to Sărmașu. Sărmăşel represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 100 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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The Ogra mine is a large salt mine located in central Romania in Mureș County, close to Ogra. Ogra represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 100 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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The Sărata mine is a large salt mine located in eastern Romania in Bacău County, close to Sărata. Sărata represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 2.2 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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The Cacica mine is a large salt mine located in northern Romania in Suceava County, close to Cacica. Cacica represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 238 million tonnes of NaCl.
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The Bălțătești mine is a large salt mine located in northern Romania in Neamţ County, close to Bălțătești. Bălțătești represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 200 million tonnes of NaCl.
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The Jabeniţa mine is a large salt mine located in central Romania in Mureş County, close to Solovăstru. Jabeniţa represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 77 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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The Praid mine is a large salt mine located in central Romania in Harghita County, close to Praid. Praid represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 50 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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Jeotgalicoccus huakuii is a gram-positive bacterium. The cells are coccoid. It is moderately halophilic, (salt-tolerant) it grows in the presence of 0–23% NaCl, optimal values are 3 -8%. It belongs to the family Staphylococcaceae.
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Its luster is vitreous (like glass). Bararite is white to colorless. These properties are similar to halite (NaCl)—which gave the halide group its name. Whereas cryptohalite belongs to the isotropic optical class, bararite is uniaxial negative.
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A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2% (in arguments to the contrary) is that the gut cannot absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete sodium, but seawater's sodium concentration is above the kidney's maximum concentrating ability. Eventually the blood's sodium concentration rises to toxic levels, removing water from cells and interfering with nerve conduction, ultimately producing fatal seizure and cardiac arrhythmia.
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Osmolarity is distinct from molarity because it measures osmoles of solute particles rather than moles of solute. The distinction arises because some compounds can dissociate in solution, whereas others cannot. Ionic compounds, such as salts, can dissociate in solution into their constituent ions, so there is not a one- to-one relationship between the molarity and the osmolarity of a solution. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) dissociates into Na+ and Cl− ions. Thus, for every 1 mole of NaCl in solution, there are 2 osmoles of solute particles (i.e.
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As the temperature is decreased to approximately 28 °C, the doubling time gets longer and can become as high as 72 minutes. On an asparagine (Asn) minimal medium, however, P. stutzeri has a typical doubling time of about 34 minutes. Despite the differences in doubling time between the two media, P. stutzeri reaches its stationary phase around 10–11 hours after being inoculated, or introduced, into both media. P. stutzeri grows best in media containing 2% NaCl although it can tolerate a salinity, or salt content, ranging from 1–5% NaCl.
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The temperature range for the growth of this bacteria is between 20 °C and 45 °C, with optimal growth at 37 °C and it requires specifically sodium chloride (NaCl) for its growth. (Other salts do not promote growth of A. aquaeolei.) Growth occurred at NaCl concentrations between 6% and 20% in a Campylobacter medium. Although A. aquaeolei is most closely related to purple sulfur bacteria, it does not share those organisms' phototrophic traits. A. aquaeolei has been shown to degrade phenol and phenol based compounds, indicating possible industrial uses.
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A comprehensive research on other species of the class discovered that secondary metabolites are consistently produced by Wallemiomycetes and their production is – contrary to common presumptions – increased as a response to increasing NaCl concentration. In particular an increase in NaCl concentration from 5% to 15% in the growth media increased the production of the toxic metabolites wallimidione, walleminol and walleminone. Cell wall and morphological changes of Wallemia species are thought to play a major role in adaptation to low water activity. The whole genome sequences of W. sebi and W. ichthyophaga are available.
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1; ASM International: Materials Park, 1997. which can be described as a NaCl-like packing of chromium cubes and cuboctahedra.Bowman, A. L.; Arnold G. P.; Storms, E. K.; Nereson, N. G. The crystal structure of Cr23C6. Acta Crystallogr.
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The Oktyabrsky mine is a large salt mine located in south-eastern Belarus in Gomel Region, close to Aktsyabarski. Oktyabrsky represents one of the largest salt reserves in Belarus having estimated reserves of 636 million tonnes of NaCl.
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Where some salts (e.g., NaCl) are very soluble in water, others (e.g., FeS) are not. The simplest inorganic reaction is double displacement when in mixing of two salts the ions are swapped without a change in oxidation state.
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This often leads to much higher coordination numbers. In NaCl, each ion has 6 bonds and all bond angles are 90°. In CsCl the coordination number is 8. By comparison carbon typically has a maximum of four bonds.
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Sylvite, or sylvine, is potassium chloride (KCl) in natural mineral form. It forms crystals in the isometric system very similar to normal rock salt, halite (NaCl). The two are, in fact, isomorphous.Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr. 1993.
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The Nehrəm mine is a large salt mine located in south-western Azerbaijan in Babek District, close to Nehrəm. Nehrəm is one of the largest salt reserves in Azerbaijan and has estimated reserves of 2.5 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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The Sările-Bisoca mine is a large salt mine located in eastern Romania in Buzău County, close to Bisoca. Sările-Bisoca represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 13 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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Natural resources of Austria. Metals are in blue, PM — polymetal ores (Cu, Zn, Pb, etc.). Fossil fuels are in red (C — coal, L — lignite, P — petroleum, G — natural gas). Non-metallic minerals are in green (NaCl — salt, GR — graphite).
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Heterogeneous reactions of sodium hypochlorite and metals such as zinc proceed slowly to give the metal oxide or hydroxide: :NaOCl + Zn → ZnO + NaCl Homogeneous reactions with metal coordination complexes proceed somewhat faster. This has been exploited in the Jacobsen epoxidation.
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NaBr crystallizes in the same cubic motif as NaCl, NaF and NaI. The anhydrous salt crystallizes above 50.7 °C. Dihydrate salts (NaBr·2H2O) crystallize out of water solution below 50.7 °C. NaBr is produced by treating sodium hydroxide with hydrogen bromide.
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Halites can be used to generate the respective halogen dioxides via a one-electron oxidation: :5 NaClO2 \+ 4 HCl → 5 NaCl + 4 \+ 2 H2O : + HBrO3 \+ H+ → 2 \+ H2O This reaction in particular is used in bleach to generate chlorine dioxide.
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One biblical reference to this practice is in Judges 9:45: "he killed the people in it, pulled the wall down and sowed the site with salt." Polyhalite a mineral fertiliser, is not an NaCl-polymer but hydrated K2Ca2Mg-sulfate.
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13% NaCl are still tolerated. Sporosarcina aquimarina is one of the bacteria that can make use of urea with the enzyme urease. Others bacteria of the same genus which possess the enzyme urease are for example S. ureaea und S. pasteurii.
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The Ocna Mureș mine is a large salt mine located in central Romania in Alba County, close to Ocna Mureș. Ocna Mureș represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 200 million tonnes of NaCl.
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Electrostatic interactions are strongly dependent on the ionic strength of the solution. These interactions are relatively weak at the physiological ionic strength (0.14M NaCl): ~3 to 4 kcal/mol for small cationic proteins, such as cytochrome c, charybdotoxin or hisactophilin.
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The Paltin-Nistorești mine is a large salt mine located in eastern Romania in Vrancea County, close to Paltin and Nistorești. Paltin-Nistorești represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 22 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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The Târgu Ocna mine is a large salt mine located in eastern Romania in Bacău County, close to Târgu Ocna. Târgu Ocna represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 229 million tonnes of NaCl.
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The Gura Slănic mine is a large salt mine located in eastern Romania in Bacău County, close to Târgu Ocna. Gura Slănic represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 1 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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The Ocna Sibiului mine is a large salt mine located in central Romania, in Sibiu County, close to Ocna Sibiului. The mine represents one of the largest salt reserves in Romania, having estimated reserves of 61 billion tonnes of NaCl.
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A. bussei uses organic compounds as an energy source and synthesize substances. Growth occurs at 1–45 °C and pH 7.0–8.0. Tolerates a maximum of 7.5 % NaCl. Growth on Columbia blood agar but not on violet red bile dextrose agar.
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Hof named it Pseudomonas beijerinckii and identified it as the organism responsible for the purple color of that food. The pigment was the calcium salt of tetrahydroxy-p- benzoquinone Ca2C6O6, derived from the beans' myo-inositol. A J Kluyver, T Hof, A G J Boezaardt (1939), On the Pigment of Pseudomonas Beijerinckii Hof (1945) Vitamins and Hormones: Advances in Research and Applications, vol. 3 Leland Alfred Underkofler, Richard James Hickey (1954), Industrial fermentations The bacterium thrives in media with salt (NaCl) concentrations ranging from 0.35% to 25%; the optimum growth occurs at 8 to 10% NaCl, pH 7.5, and 35 °C.
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Oxgr1-/- gene knockout mice) develop (82% penetrance) spontaneous Otitis media with many characteristics of the human disease; while the underlying cause of this development, the Oxgr1-/- mouse is proposed to be a good model to study and relate to human ear pathology. GPR99 also appears to be involved in the adaptive regulation of bicarbonate (HCO(3)(-)) secretion and salt (NaCl) reabsorption in the mouse kidneys undergoing acid-base stress: the kidneys of GPR99 gene knockout mice did not respond to alpha-Ketoglutaric acid by upregulating bicarbonate/NaCl exchange and exhibited a reduced ability to maintain acid-base balance.
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The resulting foams consisted of 32-36% porosity with more complete densification than they observed when producing NiTi foams using a sodium fluoride (NaF) space-holder. However, processing parameters resulted in molten NaCl and a metal/salt blend in the cavities of the foam. Certain risks are associated with using a molten space-holder including reaction with the metal, dissolving of the space-holder in the metal and prevention of densification through the creation of a thin layer of liquid between the metal and particles. Near complete densification was achieved when NaCl was used as a permanent space-holder in pure titanium foam.
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The general concept of NaCl (running native code in web browser) has been implemented before in ActiveX, which, while still in use, has full access to the system (disk, memory, user- interface, registry, etc.). Native Client avoids this issue by using sandboxing. An alternative of sorts to NaCl is asm.js, which also allows applications written in C or C++ to be compiled to run in the browser (at more than half the native speed), and also supports ahead-of-time compilation, but is a subset of JavaScript and hence backwards-compatible with browsers that do not support it directly.
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Wallemia ichthyophaga is one of the three species of fungi in the genus Wallemia, which in turn is the only genus of the class Wallemiomycetes. The phylogenetic origin of the lineage was placed to various parts of Basidiomycota, but according to the analysis of larger datasets it is a (495-million-years-old) sister group of Agaricomycotina. The genome of the fungus contains no mating type locus and the species appears to be asexual. W. ichthyophaga requires at least 1.5 M NaCl for in-vitro growth (or some other osmolyte for an equivalent water activity), and it thrives even in saturated NaCl solution.
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Frank and Hess studies the Sporendonema epizoum (synonym of W. sebi) that grow on dried salted fish and suggested it to be halophilic in 1941. Wallemia sebi is now recognized as xerophilic fungi because of independence of solute used to lower the water activity. Pitt and Hocking report that W.sebi grows more rapidly in NaCl that other solutes at neutral pH, but have no requirement for NaCl as a solute in 1977. This species is abundant in house dust and suspected to be a causative agent for atopic diseases in the study conducted by Sakamono et al.
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Water passes because of a small osmotic pressure to the buffer liquid in this example at 300 mg/L (NaCl / H2O). Further up the loop there is a continued flow of water out of the tube and into the buffer, gradually raising the concentration of NaCl in the tube until it reaches 1199 mg/L at the tip. The buffer liquid between the two tubes is at a gradually rising concentration, always a bit over the incoming fluid, in this example reaching 1200 mg/L. This is regulated by the pumping action on the returning tube as will be explained immediately.
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The initial overall reaction produces hydroxide and also hydrogen and chlorine gases: :2 NaCl + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2 \+ Cl2 Without a membrane, the OH− ions produced at the cathode are free to diffuse throughout the electrolyte. As the electrolyte becomes more basic due to the production of OH−, less Cl2 emerges from the solution as it begins to disproportionate to form chloride and hypochlorite ions at the anode: :Cl2 \+ 2 NaOH → NaCl + NaClO + H2O The more opportunity the Cl2 has to interact with NaOH in the solution, the less Cl2 emerges at the surface of the solution and the faster the production of hypochlorite progresses. This depends on factors such as solution temperature, the amount of time the Cl2 molecule is in contact with the solution, and concentration of NaOH. Likewise, as hypochlorite increases in concentration, chlorates are produced from them: : 3 NaClO → NaClO3 \+ 2 NaCl This reaction is accelerated at temperatures above about 60 °C.
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Divinylsulfide was first prepared in 1920 by the reaction of sulfur mustard with sodium ethoxide: :(ClCH2CH2)2S + 2 NaOEt → (CH2=CH)2S + 2 EtOH + 2 NaCl A variety of monovinyl sulfides are known, often arising from the reactions of thiols and acetylenes.
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Bleach can react violently with hydrogen peroxide and produce oxygen gas: :H2O2 (aq) + NaOCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (aq) + O2 (g) Explosive reactions or byproducts can also occur in industrial and laboratory settings when sodium hypochlorite is mixed with diverse organic compounds.
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Halobacterial Gas Vesicles. (A) Halobacterium salinarum colonies on a solid medium. Pink, opaque colonies from gas vesicle-containing cells; a red, transparent colony from gas vesicle-deficient cells. (B) Cryo-transmission electron micrograph of cells in 3 M NaCl plus 81 mM MgSO4.
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In such instances with several concentration tastants tested, the middle concentration might evoke the highest firing rate (like 0.1 M sucrose), or the highest and lowest concentrations might elicit the highest rates (NaCl ), or the neuron might respond to only one concentration.
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Usually, one electrolyte is an aqueous electrolyte composed of hydrophilic ions such as NaCl dissolved in water and the other electrolyte is a lipophilic salt such as tetrabutylammonium tetraphenylborate dissolved in an organic solvent immiscible with water such as nitrobenzene, or 1,2-dichloroethane.
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Reduction of tricalcium phosphate with carbon in the presence of chlorine gas: :Ca3(PO4)2 \+ 6 C + 6 Cl2 → 3 CaCl2 \+ 6 CO + 2 POCl3 The reaction of phosphorus pentoxide with sodium chloride is also reported: :2 P2O5 \+ 3 NaCl → 3 NaPO3 \+ POCl3.
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1) :Cu2(OH)3Cl + NaOH → 2Cu(OH)2 \+ NaCl (eq.2) Most of the published scientific literature on the properties of the compound has focused on specimens found as natural minerals or corrosion products on copper alloys, or prepared under laboratory conditions.
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Chloride inclusions (MgCl2, NaCl, CaCl2, …) are a special type of inclusion as they are liquid in liquid metal. When aluminium solidifies, they form spherical voids similar to hydrogen gas porosity but the void contains a chloride crystal formed when aluminium became colder.
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Tubulin acetylation by ATAT1 has been shown to be elevated by the cell exposure to UV irradiation, as well as its exposure to chemicals, such H2O2 or NaCl. Tubulin acetylation is one of the signaling pathways for Na+ and K+-ATPase activity.
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15-Crown-5 can be synthesized using a modified Williamson ether synthesis: :(CH2OCH2CH2Cl)2 \+ O(CH2CH2OH)2 \+ 2 NaOH → (CH2CH2O)5 \+ 2 NaCl + 2 H2O It also forms from the cyclic oligomerization of ethylene oxide in the presence of gaseous boron trifluoride.
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Chlorobenzene can be hydrolyzed to phenol using base (Dow process) or steam (Raschig–Hooker process): :C6H5Cl + NaOH → C6H5OH + NaCl :C6H5Cl + H2O → C6H5OH + HCl These methods suffer from the cost of the chlorobenzene and the need to dispose of the chloride by product.
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Jeotgalicoccus halophilus is a species of bacteria. It is one of the Phylum Firmicutes, it is Gram-positive. The species is halotolerant, it grows at NaCl content of 0.1 to 16% and optimal values are between 2 and 3%. The cells are coccoid.
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Thorium(IV) chloride is an intermediate in many different experiments. The first type of experiment is the purification of Thorium. 1\. Reduction of ThCl4 with alkali metals. 2\. Electrolysis of anhydrous thorium(IV) chloride in fused mixture of NaCl and KCl. 3\.
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Lithium iodide, or LiI, is a compound of lithium and iodine. When exposed to air, it becomes yellow in color, due to the oxidation of iodide to iodine. It crystallizes in the NaCl motif.Wells, A.F. (1984) Structural Inorganic Chemistry, Oxford: Clarendon Press. .
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It is prepared via methanolysis of 2-chloronitrobenzene: :NaOCH3 \+ ClC6H4NO2 → CH3OC6H4NO2 \+ NaCl The resulting o-nitroanisole is reduced to o-anisidine. o-Anisidine is used in the manufacture of dyes. It is nitrated to give 4-nitroanisidine. It is also a precursor to o-dianisidine.
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A super-oxidized solution (SOS), also known as anolyte solution and oxidative potential water, is an electrochemically processed solution made from water and sodium chloride (NaCl). They may be used during wound care. They are available under a few brand names including Microcyn and Microdacyn.
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A.Dodd, D.Murfin. The Instiutue of Materials. 1994'If You Believe What You Read About Salt Glazing Read On ...' I.Lewis. Interceram 45, No.4, 1996'Development Of A Low-Emission Salt-Glazing Procedure Using NaOH Instead Of NaCl' R.Knodt, A.Normann, S.Blasner, J.Denissen, J. de Jong Keram.
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Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 409–11 In a chemical laboratory, it is prepared by treating an aqueous solution of ammonium chloride with sodium nitrite. :NH4Cl + NaNO2 → N2 \+ NaCl + 2 H2O Small amounts of the impurities NO and HNO3 are also formed in this reaction.
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However, it can tolerate salt concentrations from 2-4.5M NaCl. At a pH of 9, H. turkmenica has been shown to grow best. It will tolerate a pH within the range of 8.5 to 11. Haloterrigena turkmenica is classified as an aerobic chemo-organotroph.
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The resulting sodium sulfate from these processes is known as salt cake. :Mannheim: 2 NaCl + H2SO4 → 2 HCl + Na2SO4 :Hargreaves: 4 NaCl + 2 SO2 \+ O2 \+ 2 H2O → 4 HCl + 2 Na2SO4 The second major production of sodium sulfate are the processes where surplus sodium hydroxide is neutralised by sulfuric acid, as applied on a large scale in the production of rayon. This method is also a regularly applied and convenient laboratory preparation. : 2 NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l) ΔH = -112.5 kJ (highly exothermic) In the laboratory it can also be synthesized from the reaction between sodium bicarbonate and magnesium sulfate.
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Growth of N. guarroi was observed at temperatures ranging from 15–37 °C with optimal growth noted at 30–35 °C. On bromocresol purple-milk solids-glucose (BCP-MS-G) agar no hydrolysis was observed for all species with the exception of N. guarroi UTHSC R-4317 (the species affecting humans).On BCP-MS-G agar alkalisation was observed for all strains whereas acidification was not. All strains produced hemolysis on blood agar and showed lipolytic activity, the four strains associated with reptile dermatomycosis showed no growth on sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) with 3% NaCl and on SDA with 5% NaCl growth was scarce.
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Persephonella marina is a thermophilic organism that grows optimally in a temperature range of 55 to 80 degrees Celsius. The organism does show the ability to survive at hyperthermophilic conditions as it was first isolated in water temperatures of 133 degrees Celsius. P. Marina does not have the ability to form spores, highlighting the presence of a process that keeps DNA and essential proteins stable at extremely high temperatures commonly found near hydrothermal vents. Once cultured the organism was found to be able to grow in halophilic conditions between 2 and 4 1/2 percent NaCl but grows optimally at 2 1/2 percent NaCl.
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When sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) are combined, the sodium atoms each lose an electron, forming cations (Na+), and the chlorine atoms each gain an electron to form anions (Cl−). These ions are then attracted to each other in a 1:1 ratio to form sodium chloride (NaCl). : Na + Cl → Na+ \+ Cl− → NaCl However, to maintain charge neutrality, strict ratios between anions and cations are observed so that ionic compounds, in general, obey the rules of stoichiometry despite not being molecular compounds. For compounds that are transitional to the alloys and possess mixed ionic and metallic bonding, this may not be the case anymore.
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The optimum growth temperature for B. endophyticum is 30 °C, but can grow in the 4-37 °C range. The pH optimum is 8.0, and can grow in the 5.0-11.0 range. The cells are halotolerant, and can grow in NaCl salt concentrations up to 15%.
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Blastopirellula narina grows on M-14 medium at 30° celsius. It requires NaCl for growth and is unable to grow on freshwater medium. B. marina can tolerate high salinity, ranging from 0.4%-6.0%. It’s also able to grow without the assistance of vitamins in the media.
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Other less efficient methods involve fluornating POCl3 using fluoride salts like SbF3 or NaF. But a mixture of fluorides results from these reactions. An even cheaper source is NaCl, CaF2 and P4O10 mixture heated to 500°. Industrial scale manufacture is possible with a HF reaction with POCl3.
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Sodium chlorate can be mixed with sucrose sugar to make a highly explosive fuel, similar to that of gunpowder, that burns in airtight spaces. This is the reaction: 8 NaClO3 \+ C12H22O11 → 8 NaCl + 12 CO2 \+ 11 H2O However this sodium chlorate is mostly replaced by potassium chlorate.
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Motility is determined by using a motility medium. The ingredients include motility test medium, nutrient broth powder, NaCl and distilled water. An inoculating needle (not a loop) is used to insert the bacterial sample. The needle is inserted through the medium for a length of one inch.
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Toluene can be metallated by synthesizing phenylsodium in toluene instead of benzene: :C6H5Cl + 2Na + (C6H6)(CH3) -> C6H6 \+ NaCl + (C6H6)(CH2)Na The benzylsodium can then be used in a nucleophilic addition. The effectiveness of the metallation can be determined by carbonating and isolating the benzoic acid product.
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NaCl concentrations of up to 8%, but not 10% are tolerated. A. fetalis is oxidase- and catalase-positive but does not produce indole and β-galactosidase. It cannot ferment carbohydrates. By these results, A. fetalis is very closely related to both Shewanella putrefaciens and Shewanella algae.
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Sodium hypochlorite can be purchased or generated in situ by reacting chlorine with sodium hydroxide. : 2 NaOH + Cl2 ⇌ NaOCl + NaCl + H2O The main objection to the use of chlorine for bleaching pulp is the large amounts of soluble organochlorine compounds produced and released into the environment.
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12-Crown-4 can be synthesized using a modified Williamson ether synthesis, using LiClO4 as a templating cation: : (CH2OCH2CH2Cl)2 \+ (CH2OH)2 \+ 2 NaOH → (CH2CH2O)4 \+ 2 NaCl + 2 H2O It also forms from the cyclic oligomerization of ethylene oxide in the presence of gaseous boron trifluoride.
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Growth, compatible solute and salt accumulation of five mycorrhizal fungal species grown over a range of NaCl concentrations. Mycorrhiza, 16(2), 99-109. and the production of heat shock proteins.Kerner, R., Delgado-Eckert, E., Del Castillo, E., Müller-Starck, G., Peter, M., Kuster, B., ... & Pritsch, K. (2012).
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Well studied examples include the yeast Debaryomyces hansenii and black yeasts Aureobasidium pullulans and Hortaea werneckii. The latter can grow in media without salt, as well as in almost saturated NaCl solutions. To emphasize this unusually wide adaptability, some authors describe H. werneckii as "extremely halotolerant".
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The optimum growth temperature for B. zhongshanense is 25-40 °C, but can grow in the 25-37 °C range. The pH optimum is 5.0-8.0, and can grow in the 5.0-11.0 range. The cells are halotolerant, and can grow in NaCl salt concentrations up to 10%.
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It is also psychrophilic. M. scandinavica has an optimal temperature of 15 °C, but can grow within 5-30 °C. Growth rates improved without the presence of NaCl. This species also has an optimal pH range of 6.8-7.6, but can grow within a range of pH 5-9.
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Records soon afterward. For a long time, this was the only McGarrigle sisters album that had never been released on CD, although "NaCl (Sodium Chloride)" and "Pronto Monto (Prends ton manteau)" were available on other albums. In 2016 the album was finally released on CD by Omnivore Recordings.
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Lead telluride is a compound of lead and tellurium (PbTe). It crystallizes in the NaCl crystal structure with Pb atoms occupying the cation and Te forming the anionic lattice. It is a narrow gap semiconductor with a band gap of 0.32 eV. It occurs naturally as the mineral altaite.
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The sodium chloride (NaCl) polymorph is most common. A cubic close-packed arrangement of chloride anions with rubidium cations filling the octahedral holes describes this polymorph. Both ions are six-coordinate in this arrangement. This polymorph's lattice energy is only 3.2 kJ/mol less than the following structure's.
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The product is paramagnetic, as expected for a salt of the anion. It hydrolyses readily to give a mixture of sodium hydroxide, oxygen and hydrogen peroxide.Sasol Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology , G.C. Gerrans, P. Hartmann-Petersen , p.243 "sodium oxides" , google books link It crystallizes in the NaCl motif.
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Typically, the conversion is done assuming that the solid is sodium chloride, i.e., 1 μS/cm is then equivalent to about 0.64 mg of NaCl per kg of water. Molar conductivity has the SI unit S m2 mol−1. Older publications use the unit Ω−1 cm2 mol−1.
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Sylvinite from Perm Krai, Russia Close-up view of sylvinite from Perm, Russia Sylvinite is a sedimentary rock made of a mechanical mixture of the minerals sylvite (KCl, or potassium chloride) and halite (NaCl, or sodium chloride).Weiss N.L., SME Mineral Processing Handbook 1985, Page 22-2 Sylvinite is the most important source for the production of potash in North America, Russia and the UK.Weiss N.L., SME Mineral Processing Handbook 1985, Page 22-2 Most Canadian operations mine sylvinite with proportions of about 31% KCl and 66% NaCl with the balance being insoluble clays, anhydrite and in some locations carnallite. Other deposits of sylvinite are in Belarus, Brazil, France, Germany, Kazakhstan, Slovakia and Spain.
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Structure of solid deuterium chloride, with D···Cl hydrogen bonds The simplest chlorine compound is hydrogen chloride, HCl, a major chemical in industry as well as in the laboratory, both as a gas and dissolved in water as hydrochloric acid. It is often produced by burning hydrogen gas in chlorine gas, or as a byproduct of chlorinating hydrocarbons. Another approach is to treat sodium chloride with concentrated sulfuric acid to produce hydrochloric acid, also known as the "salt-cake" process: :NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 \+ HCl :NaCl + NaHSO4 Na2SO4 \+ HCl In the laboratory, hydrogen chloride gas may be made by drying the acid with concentrated sulfuric acid. Deuterium chloride, DCl, may be produced by reacting benzoyl chloride with heavy water (D2O).
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The earliest method of synthesis was to treat mercury(II) oxide with chlorine gas. However this method is expensive, as well as highly dangerous due to the risk of mercury poisoning. :2 Cl2 \+ HgO → HgCl2 \+ Cl2O A safer and more convenient method of production is the reaction of chlorine gas with hydrated sodium carbonate, at 20-30 °C. :2 Cl2 \+ 2 Na2CO3 \+ H2O → Cl2O + 2 NaHCO3 \+ 2 NaCl :2 Cl2 \+ 2 NaHCO3 → Cl2O + 2 CO2 \+ 2 NaCl + H2O This reaction can be performed in the absence of water but requires heating to 150-250 °C; as dichlorine monoxide is unstable at these temperatures it must therefore be continuously removed to prevent thermal decomposition.
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Electrolyte solutions are normally formed when salt is placed into a solvent such as water and the individual components dissociate due to the thermodynamic interactions between solvent and solute molecules, in a process called "solvation". For example, when table salt (sodium chloride), NaCl, is placed in water, the salt (a solid) dissolves into its component ions, according to the dissociation reaction :NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) \+ Cl−(aq) It is also possible for substances to react with water, producing ions. For example, carbon dioxide gas dissolves in water to produce a solution that contains hydronium, carbonate, and hydrogen carbonate ions. Molten salts can also be electrolytes as, for example, when sodium chloride is molten, the liquid conducts electricity.
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Tunas have elevated levels of ion and water transfer due to their elevated gill and intestinal Na+/K+ ATPase activity, in which this activity is estimated to be about four to five times higher when compared to other freshwater vertebrates, such as rainbow trout. The gills, due to their large surface area, play a significant role toward osmoregulation in the tuna to maintaining water and ionic balance by excreting NaCl. The intestine also contributes toward compromising for the osmotic loss of water to the surroundings by absorbing NaCl to withdraw the needed water from the lumen contents. The kidney also plays a crucial role toward tuna osmoregulation by excreting divalent ionic salts such as magnesium and sulfate ions.
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Thiazide diuretics inhibit this receptor, causing the body to release NaCl and water into the lumen, thereby increasing the amount of urine produced each day. An example of a molecule that is chemically a thiazide but not used as a diuretic is methylchloroisothiazolinone, often found as an antimicrobial in cosmetics.
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Sodium monothiophosphate is prepared by the base hydrolysis of thiophosphoryl chloride using aqueous sodium hydroxide: :PSCl3 \+ 6 NaOH + 9 H2O → Na3PO3S.(H2O)12 \+ 3 NaCl This reaction affords the dodecahydrate, which is easily dehydrated. Partial dehydration over 6.5 M H2SO4 gives the nonahydrate. Under flowing N2, the anhydrous salt is formed.
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Each year in August Pilbara Iron, Dampier Salt, Woodside Petroleum Limited, and other smaller companies sponsor one of the largest festivals in the North West, over two days. The name FeNaClNG Festival is derived from Fe (iron), NaCl (salt) and NG (natural gas). Red Earth Arts Festival. Cossack Art Awards.
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Lysis buffer usually contains one or more salts. The function of salts in lysis buffer is to establish an ionic strength in the buffer solution. Some of the most commonly used salts are NaCl, KCl, and (NH4)2SO4. They are usually used with a concentration between 50 and 150 mM.
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Diars is prepared by the reaction of ortho-dichlorobenzene and sodium dimethylarsenide:Feltham, R. D.; Silverthorn, W. "o-Phenylenebis(dimethylarsine)" Inorganic Syntheses 1967, Vol. X, pp. 159–164. :CHCl + 2 NaAs(CH) → CH(As(CH)) + 2 NaCl It is a colorless liquid. Oxygen converts diars to the dioxide, CH(As(CH)O).
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The lake is filled with saturated salt solution. Mineralization is 200-500 g/l. The water contains Dunaliella salina algae that give a reddish shade to the lake. At the bottom of the lake - deposits of salts (mainly NaCl, KCl) and under them a layer of mineral hydrogen sulfide mud.
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The room temperature form of InCl is yellow, with a cubic distorted NaCl structure.J.M. Van den Berg Acta Crystallogr 20 (1966) 905 The red high temperature (>390 °C) has the \beta-TlI structure.C. P. J. M. van der Vorst, G. C. Verschoor, W. J. A. Maaskant, Acta Crystallogr. 1978, B34, 3333.
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The species tolerates up to 10% of NaCl and grows between 10 °C and 30 °C. Colonies on malt extract agar on average grow to 25 mm in 7 days (at 25 °C), appearing smooth and shiny due to the leathery structure. The reverse is apricot. Aerial mycelium is absent.
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Each ion is 4-coordinate and has local tetrahedral geometry. Zinc blende is its own antitype—you can switch the anion and cation positions in the cell and it doesn't matter (as in NaCl). In fact, replacement of both the zinc and sulfur with carbon gives the diamond structure.Toreki, Rob.
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Hyperpolarized samples of 13C pyruvic acid are typically dissolved in some form of aqueous solution containing various detergents and buffering reagents. For example, in a study detecting tumor response to etoposide treatment, the sample was dissolved in 40 mM HEPES, 94 mM NaOH, 30 mM NaCl, and 50 mg/L EDTA.
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Novy-MacNeal-Nicolle medium (NNN) is a culture medium used to grow Leishmania – needed when the amastigotes are not found in sufficient quantities by scraping the growth substrate. It consists of 0.6% sodium chloride (NaCl) added to a simple blood agar slope. NNN can also be used to grow Trypanosoma cruzi.
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The media contained sodium chloride and was optimized at a pH of 7.5. H. larsenii grows optimally at 15% NaCl, 37 ° Celsius and pH 7-8. It is unable to grow at temperatures above 50 ° Celsius. Further characterization of the species was conducted and it was proposed by Castillo et al.
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Reaction with base produces ammonia. It reacts with sulfates of alkaline-earth metals precipitating their carbonates: :CaSO4 \+ 2 NH4HCO3 → CaCO3 \+ (NH4)2SO4 \+ CO2 \+ H2O. It also reacts with alkali metal halides, giving alkali metal bicarbonate and ammonium halide: :NH4HCO3 \+ NaCl → NH4Cl + NaHCO3; :NH4HCO3 \+ KI → NH4I + KHCO3; :NH4HCO3 \+ NaBr → NH4Br + NaHCO3.
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There are two ways to synthesize uranium(III) chloride. The following processes describe how to produce uranium(III) chloride. (1) In a mixture of NaCl-KCl at 670–710 °C, add uranium tetrachloride with uranium metal. :3UCl4 \+ U → 4UCl3Serrano, K.; Taxil, P.; Dugne, O.; Bouvet, S.; Puech, E. J. Nucl. Mater.
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The species tolerates up to 10% of NaCl and grows between 4 °C and 25 °C. Colonies on malt extract agar on average grow to 20 mm in 7 days (at 25 °C), appearing smooth and matt pinkish due to abundant sporulation. The reverse is pale orange. Aerial mycelium is absent.
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Again sodium hypochlorite serves as the oxidant. The net reaction is shown: :(H2N)2CO + NaOCl + 2 NaOH -> N2H4 + H2O + NaCl + Na2CO3 The process generates significant byproducts and is mainly practised in Asia. The Bayer Ketazine Process is the predecessor to the peroxide process. It employs sodium hypochlorite as oxidant instead of hydrogen peroxide.
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The optimum growth temperature for B. saurashtrense is 30 °C, but can grow in the 10-45 °C range. The pH optimum is 8.0, and can grow in the 6.0-11.0 range. The cells are halotolerant, and can survive in NaCl salt concentrations up to 15%, and can grow in concentrations of 8%.
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The optimum growth temperature for B. squillarum is 30 °C, but can grow in the 25-37 °C range. The pH optimum is 7.0, and can grow in the 6.0-9.0 range. The cells are halotolerant, and can grow in NaCl salt concentrations up to 10%, and optimally grows in concentrations of 5%.
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CaH2 is a saline hydride, meaning that its structure is salt-like. The alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals heavier than beryllium all form saline hydrides. A well-known example is sodium hydride, which crystallizes in the NaCl motif. These species are insoluble in all solvents with which they do not react.
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The pH of a sodium chloride solution remains ≈7 due to the extremely weak basicity of the Cl− ion, which is the conjugate base of the strong acid HCl. In other words, NaCl has no effect on system pH in diluted solutions where the effects of ionic strength and activity coefficients are negligible.
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N. occultus has been isolated from the soda lake Lake Magadi. This halophilic archaeon is partial to environments with 8–30% NaCl with optimum growth at 22%. It also grows in a pH range of 8.5–11 (optimum at 9.5) and a temperature range of 20–50 °C (optimum at 40 °C).
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Meet Wizfujiin - New Team Coast ADC youtube.com December 12, coach Elementz leaves.UPDATE / ANNOUNCEMENT VIDEO - New team, no more Coast youtube.com In the offseason, Team Coast was invited to some amateur scene events, winning ggLA Challenger Arena 5 and then earning a spot onto the new competitive league, North American Challenger League (NACL).
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The ammonium salt of difluorophosphate is formed from treating phosphorus pentoxide with ammonium fluoride. This was how the ion was first made by its discoverer, Willy Lange, in 1929. Alkali chlorides can react with dry difluorophosphoric acid to form alkali metal salts. :NaCl + HPO2F2 → NaPO2F2 \+ HCl (gas) Fluoridation of dichlorophosphates can produce difluorophosphates.
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The dealkalization of water refers to the removal of alkalinity ions from water. Chloride cycle anion ion exchange dealkalizers remove alkalinity from water. Chloride cycle dealkalizers operate similar to sodium cycle cation water softeners. Like water softeners, dealkalizers contain ion exchange resins that are regenerated with a concentrated salt (brine) solution - NaCl.
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M. asiaticum is the type species of genus Marihabitans, and is currently the only species in the genus. The growth temperature range for Marihabitans asiaticum is 18-34 °C. The optimum pH is 9.0, and the species can tolerate NaCl salt concentrations of up to 7%. Cells form yellow-pigmented colonies on agar.
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Optimal NaCl concentrations of the agar culture for the growth of S. hominis seem to be around 7.5%, and a salt concentration of 15% yielded poor growth to no growth at all. The optimal growth temperature range was around 28 to 40 °C, but good growth is still observed at 45 °C, while no growth is observed at 15 °C. S. hominis can be differentiated from staphylococci by its colony morphology and pigmentation patterns, predominant tetrad cell arrangement, poor growth in thioglycolate, low tolerance of NaCl, and carbohydrate reaction pattern. Each species is also significantly different in cell wall composition, lactic acid configuration, temperature extremes of growth, coagulase activity, hemolysis acetylmethylcarbinol production, nitrate reduction, and phosphatase, DNase, and bacteriolytic activities.
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Sodium chloride , commonly known as salt (although sea salt also contains other chemical salts), is an ionic compound with the chemical formula NaCl, representing a 1:1 ratio of sodium and chloride ions. With molar masses of 22.99 and 35.45 g/mol respectively, 100 g of NaCl contains 39.34 g Na and 60.66 g Cl. Sodium chloride is the salt most responsible for the salinity of seawater and of the extracellular fluid of many multicellular organisms. In its edible form of table salt, it is commonly used as a condiment and food preservative. Large quantities of sodium chloride are used in many industrial processes, and it is a major source of sodium and chlorine compounds used as feedstocks for further chemical syntheses.
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The alkylaluminium sesquihalides convert to dialkylaluminium halide or trialkylaluminium materials upon treatment with active metals, such as sodium or magnesium. For example, diethylaluminium chloride or triethylaluminium can be produced from ethylaluminium sesquichloride by sodium reduction: :2 (C2H5)3Al2Cl3 \+ 3 Na → 3 (C2H5)2AlCl + Al + 3 NaCl :3 (C2H5)2AlCl + 3 Na → 2 (C2H5)3Al + Al + 3 NaCl A magnesium-aluminium alloy can provide the reduction function simultaneously with reaction between aluminium and the alkyl halide: :4 C2H5Cl + Al2Mg → 2 (C2H5)2AlCl + Mg2Cl The sesquichloride reduction process is currently the most economical route available for production of trimethylaluminium. Trialkylaluminium products made by this process generally contain trace levels of residual chloride but do not contain aluminium hydrides other low-level components found in the aluminium-hydrogen-olefin processes.
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Sodium and chloride are equimolar throughout the lake, signifying a source from the halite (NaCl). Minnesota began using salt to de- ice roads in 1950. Past stormwater inputs from nearby Interstate 394 were likely a direct source of salt. Road salt has been linked to enhanced chemical stratification in Twin Cities lakes, including Brownie Lake.
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A variety of organic derivatives of diphosphane are known. These species are prepared by reductive coupling, e.g. tetraphenyldiphosphine from chlorodiphenylphosphine: :2 ClPPh2 \+ 2 Na → Ph2P−PPh2 \+ 2 NaCl The methyl compound P2Me4 is prepared by the reduction of Me2P(S)−P(S)Me2, which is produced by methylation of thiophosphoryl chloride with methylmagnesium bromide.
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The salinity of the lake is about 300 g/l. Since the 8th century its salt was mined and traded along the Silk Road. Nowadays the lake's salt of distinct purity (99.8% NaCl) covers 80% of Russia's salt production. Depending on demand, 1.5 million to 5 million tons of salt are mined per year.
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The carbon source it uses to survive comes from the carbon dioxide in the water. Balnearium lithotrophicum can live in a pH between 5.0 and 7.0 but prefers 5.4. In addition, for growth the NaCl amount in the water should be between 0.8 and 5.6 percent. Ammonium is the main nitrogen source of Balnearium lithotrophicum.
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GADD45G is induced more strongly (7-fold) than GADD45B (3-fold) and GADD45A (2-fold). Hypertonicity of various forms (NaCl, KCl, sorbitol, or mannitol) always induces GADD45 transcripts, whereas non-hypertonic hyperosmolality (urea) has no effect. Actinomycin D does not prevent hypertonic GADD45 induction, indicating that mRNA stabilization is the mechanism that mediates this induction.
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The production of chloride (Cl2) and caustic soda NaOH from NaCl is carried out industrially by the chlor-alkali-process using a proton conducting polyelectrolyte membrane. It is used on large scale and has replaced diaphragm electrolysis. Nafion has been developed as a bilayer membrane to withstand the harsh conditions during the chemical conversion.
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Hydrohalite is a mineral that occurs in saturated halite brines at cold temperatures (below 0.1 °C). It was first described in 1847 in Dürrnberg, Austria. It exists in cold weather. Phase diagram of water–NaCl mixture Hydrohalite has a high nucleation energy, and solutions will normally need to be supercooled for crystals to form.
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An example is table salt, which is sodium chloride with the chemical formula NaCl. In water, it dissociates into Na+ and Cl− ions. Salts such as calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, potassium chloride have varied uses ranging from medical treatments to cement formation. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is a salt that is marketed in pellet form for removing dampness from rooms.
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Their antimicrobial spectrum of inhibition, bactericidal mode of action, relative tolerance to processing conditions (pH, NaCl, heat treatments) and the lack of toxicity towards eukaryotic cells enforces their role as biopreservatives in food. The evaluation of any new antimicrobial actives is done in meat by USDA which relies on the GRAS assessment by FDA among other suitability data.
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One side of the channel is a cathode, the other is an anode. A low voltage DC current is applied, electrolysis happens producing sodium hypochlorite and hydrogen gas (H2). The solution travels to a tank that separates the hydrogen gas based on its low density. Electrochlorination System incorrect link Only water and ordinary salt, (sodium chloride (NaCl)) are used.
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The first solvation shell of a sodium ion dissolved in water. An aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is water. It is mostly shown in chemical equations by appending (aq) to the relevant chemical formula. For example, a solution of table salt, or sodium chloride (NaCl), in water would be represented as Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq).
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Preotact drug cartridge Preotact is delivered in a two chamber, glass ampoule. One chamber contains the active substance in the form of a white powder (with excipients: mannitol, citric acid monohydrate, NaCl, NaOH, HCl). And the other contains the solvent; water for injection. The powder is mixed with the solvent when the ampoule is inserted into the injection device.
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T. naphthophila tolerance ranges for pH and sodium chloride (NaCl) concentrations were found using inoculated YE-mediums incubated at 80°C to view the species growth. Takahata et.al. exposed the bacteria to various buffers in order to get a better understanding of pH effects. Various gas phases were used to expose the species growth in 10 mL mediums.
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The first preparation of Na3P was first reported in the mid-19th century. French researcher, Alexandre Baudrimont prepared sodium phosphide by treating molten sodium with phosphorus pentachloride. : 8 Na(l) \+ PCl5 → 5 NaCl + Na3P Many different routes to Na3P have been described. Due to its flammability and toxicity, Na3P (and related salts) is often prepared and used in situ.
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NaCl) to regulate the pH and osmolarity of the lysate. Sometimes detergents (such as Triton X-100 or SDS) are added to break up membrane structures. For lysis buffers targeted at protein extraction, protease inhibitors are often included, and in difficult cases may be almost required. Lysis buffers can be used on both animal and plant tissue cells.
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Usually, Halobacteriales grow in aerobic and high salinity environments. Halobacteriales have been found in salt lakes, marine salterns, seawater, solar salts and salted food products. Mostly, members of the order Halobacteriales can be located in environments where concentrarion of salt (NaCl) exceeds 25%. However, they can also survive in environments with low concentrations of salt, between 1 and 3.5%.
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Stellwagen, E., and Stellwagen, N.C. (2002) The free solution mobility of DNA in Tris-acetate- EDTA buffers of different concentrations, with and without added NaCl. Electrophoresis, 23(12): 1935-1941. However, high concentrations of sodium chloride (and many other salts) in a DNA sample retard its mobility. This may lead to incorrect interpretations of the resulting DNA banding pattern.
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A. fetalis grows at temperatures between 25° and 42 °C, with optimum growth at 37 °C. It cannot grow below 20 °C. It is facultatively anaerobic and can utilize electron acceptors such as trimethylamine oxide (TMAO), nitrate, nitrite, and thiosulphate, but not sulphite or ferric iron. It is not only halotolerant, but requires NaCl for growth.
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The crude oil produced had an API gravity of 38-39 and a sulfur content of 0.17% mass. The formation water had a high salt content with dissolved NaCl of 190.000 ppm. And there was a high asphaltene content in the crude oil. The Yme reservoirs also had challenges such as low reservoir pressure and low dissolved gas content.
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Growth has been observed in salt concentrations from 0.1–2% NaCl with optimum growth at ≤1%. GC-content reported in characterization of D. lykanthroporellens is 53.8% as determined by HPLC; however, as determined by genomic analysis, the GC-content is 55.04%. D. lyankanthroporepellens does not form spores. Resistance to the antibiotics ampicillin and vancomycin has been observed.
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In this way ferro-sulfide was formed, that would evaporate with all the fumes. The mixture of stibnite and nails was heated red hot in an open-air furnace, until all is molten and finished. The resulting metal can contain up to 9% of iron. Further purification can be done by mixing the hot melt with kitchen- salt, NaCl.
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Recently Sumitomo patented a catalyst for the Deacon process using ruthenium(IV) oxide (RuO2).J. Catal. 255, 29 (2008) Another earlier process to produce chlorine was to heat brine with acid and manganese dioxide. :2 NaCl + 2H2SO4 \+ MnO2 → Na2SO4 \+ MnSO4 \+ 2 H2O + Cl2 Using this process, chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele was the first to isolate chlorine in a laboratory.
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It contains water, protein, carbohydrate waste material, and NaCl. The sweat only attains its characteristic odor upon being degraded by bacteria, which releases volatile odor molecules. More bacteria (especially corynebacteria) leads to stronger odor. The presence of axillary hair also makes the odor even more pungent, as secretions, debris, keratin, and bacteria accumulate on the hairs.
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There is also a low- temperature form, which contains V4 clusters. The low-temperature phase results from a dynamic instability, when the energy of vibrational modes in the high-temperature NaCl-structure phase, are reduced below zero. It is a strong-coupled superconductor. Nanocrystalline vanadium nitride has been claimed to have potential for use in supercapacitors.
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Illustrative is the conversion of sodium perrhenate to the tetrabutylammonium salt:J. R. Dilworth, W. Hussain, A. J. Hutson, C. J. Jones, F. S. Mcquillan "Tetrahalo Oxorhenate Anions" Inorganic Syntheses 1997, volume 31, pages 257–262. :NaReO4 \+ N(C4H9)4Cl → N(C4H9)4[ReO4] + NaCl The tetrabutylammonium salt precipitates from the aqueous solution. It is soluble in dichloromethane.
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Additives can prove highly useful and versatile in changing the morphology of pores. These work by affecting the growth kinetics and microstructure of the ice in addition to the topology of the ice- water interface. Some additives work by altering the phase diagram of the solvent. For example, water and NaCl have a eutectic phase diagram.
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The research seems to show the bacteria survive better in 18 °C water compared to 2 °C water. The addition of 0.5% NaCl also aided bacterial survival, while the sucrose and pH levels had minor effects, as well.Bredy, JP. The effects of six environmental variables on P. multocida populations in water. “Journal of Wildlife Diseases”, vol.
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DON is a water-soluble yellowish powder, which can be dissolved also in aqueous solutions of methanol, acetone or ethanol, but dissolution in absolute alcohols is difficult. Solutions of at least 50 μM DON in 0.9% NaCl are lightly yellowish. The crystalline form appears as yellowish greenish needles. The specific rotation is [α]26D +21° (c = 5.4% in H2O).
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Glauber uses two predicates: Reacts and Has-Quality, represented in Lisp lists as follows: :(Reacts Inputs {reactant1 reactant2 ...} Outputs {product1 product2 ...}) :(Has-Quality Object {substance} quality {value}) For their experiment the authors used the following facts: :(Reacts Inputs {HCl NaOH} Outputs {NaCl}) :(Reacts Inputs {HCl KOH} Outputs {KCl}) :(Reacts Inputs {HNO3 NaOH} Outputs {NaNO3}) :(Reacts Inputs {HNO3 KOH} Outputs {KNO3 }) :(Has-Quality Object {HCl} Tastes {Sour}) :(Has-Quality Object {HNO3} Tastes {Sour }) :(Has-Quality Object {NaOH} Tastes {Bitter}) :(Has-Quality Object {KOH} Tastes {Bitter}) :(Has-Quality Object {NaCl} Tastes {Salty}) :(Has-Quality Object {NaNO3} Tastes {Salty}) :(Has-Quality Object {KCl} Tastes {Salty}) :(Has-Quality Object {KNO3} Tastes {Salty}) Discovering the following law and equivalence classes: :Salts: {KNO3, KCl, NaNO3, NaCl} :Acids: {HCl, HNO3} :Alkalis: {NaOH, KOH} :∀ alkali ∀ acid ∃ salt (Reacts Inputs {acid, alkali} Outputs {salt}) :∀ salt (Has-Quality Object {salt} Tastes {Salty}) :∀ acid (Has-Quality Object {acid} Tastes {Sour}) :∀ alkali (Has-Quality Object {alkali} Tastes {Bitter}) The modern notation with strings like: NaOH, HCl, etc., is used just as short substance names. Here they do not mean the chemical structure of the substances, which was not known at the time of the discovery; the program works with any name used in the 17th century like aqua regia, muriatic acid, etc.
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Marinobacter form discrete well-rounded colonies on plates, indicating that they reproduce via binary fission. Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus can grow with or without the presence of oxygen. Their cells are tolerant of high salinities. They are capable of growing up to 3.5 Molar NaCl, but grow best at around 0.6 Molar, which is the molar of the Mediterranean seawater where they are isolated.
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It was dominated by NaCl, Na-Cl-CO3 and Na-Cl-SO4, as determined from studies on diatoms; close to the inlet of the Desaguadero River the waters were less salty. When the lake dried up, it left clay and sand deposits in the Altiplano. Also, the volume of about maximum of water induced the ground beneath the lake to sink by about .
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Acinetobacter apis is a gram-negative, obligate aerobic and non-motile bacterium from the genus Acinetobacter which has been isolated from the intestinal tract of the bee Apis mellifera. A. apis showed optimum growth at 25 degrees Celsius, pH 6-7, and in the presence of 1% (w/v) NaCl in trypticase soy broth medium. This bacterium was first characterized in 2014.
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This study was later expanded to demonstrate that several salts (for example KCl, MgCl2) diffuse through the graphene oxide membrane if it is immersed in water solution. Graphene oxide membranes are actively being studied for their applications to water desalination. Retention rates over 90% were reported in a 1960 study for NaCl solutions using stabilized graphene oxide membranes in reverse osmosis setup.
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Salty (saline) soils are soils that have a high salt content. The predominant salt is normally sodium chloride (NaCl, "table salt"). Saline soils are therefore also sodic soils but there may be sodic soils that are not saline, but alkaline. According to a study by UN University, about , representing 20% of the world's irrigated lands are affected, up from in the early 1990s.
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Historically, the goal of hydrothermal growth was to grow large crystals. Due to the recent developments in nanotechnology, small nanocrystals are now desired and made by hydrothermal growth with crystal size controlled by mineralizers. Different mineralizers result in crystals of different sizes and shapes. Typical mineralizers are hydroxides (NaOH, KOH, LiOH), carbonates (Na2CO3) and halides (NaF, KF, LiF, NaCl, KCl, LiCl).
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Treatment of chlorobis(dppe)iron hydride with sodium tetrafluorborate under an atmosphere of hydrogen is one example: :HFeCl(dppe)2 \+ NaBF4 \+ H2 → [HFe(H2)(dppe)2]BF4 \+ NaCl Many metal hydrides can be protonated to give dihydrogen complexes: :H2Fe(dppe)2 \+ H+ → [HFe(H2)(dppe)2]+ In such cases the acid usually is derived from a weakly coordinating anion, e.g., Brookhart's acid.
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A formula unit in chemistry is the empirical formula of any ionic or covalent network solid compound used as an independent entity for stoichiometric calculations. It is the lowest whole number ratio of ions represented in an ionic compound.Molecular Formula on science.jrank.org Examples include ionic NaCl and K2O and covalent networks such as SiO2 and C (as diamond or graphite).
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40% denser than Na (0.968 g/cm3). NaH, like LiH, KH, RbH, and CsH, adopts the NaCl crystal structure. In this motif, each Na+ ion is surrounded by six H− centers in an octahedral geometry. The ionic radii of H− (146 pm in NaH) and F− (133 pm) are comparable, as judged by the Na−H and Na−F distances.
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Complexes containing CS are known but uncommon. The rarity of such complexes is partly attributable to the fact that the obvious source material, carbon monosulfide, is unstable. Thus, the synthesis of thiocarbonyl complexes requires indirect routes, such as the reaction of disodium tetracarbonylferrate with thiophosgene: :Na2Fe(CO)4 \+ CSCl2 → Fe(CO)4CS + 2 NaCl Complexes of CSe and CTe are very rare.
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Sodium bromide is widely used for the preparation of other bromides in organic synthesis and other areas. It is a source of the bromide nucleophile to convert alkyl chlorides to more reactive alkyl bromides by the Finkelstein reaction: :NaBr + RCl → RBr + NaCl (R = alkyl) Once a large need in photography, but now shrinking, the photosensitive salt silver bromide is prepared using NaBr.
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The reactivity of picryl chloride is strongly influenced by the presence of three electron-withdrawing nitro groups. Consequently picryl chloride is an electrophile as illustrated by its reactivity toward sulfite to give the sulfonate: :ClC6H2(NO2)3 \+ Na2SO3 → NaO3SC6H2(NO2)3 \+ NaCl Picryl chloride is also a strong electron acceptor. It forms a 1:1 charge-transfer complex with hexamethylbenzene.
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Electron-rich arenes undergo direct mercuration upon treatment with Hg(O2CCH3)2. The one acetate group that remains on mercury can be displaced by chloride: :C6H5OH + Hg(O2CCH3)2 -> C6H4(OH)–2-HgO2CCH3 \+ CH3CO2H :C6H4(OH)–2–HgO2CCH3 \+ NaCl -> C6H4(OH)–2-HgCl + NaO2CCH3 The first such reaction, including a mercuration of benzene itself was reported by Otto Dimroth between 1898 and 1902.
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Vesiculated hairs: a mechanism for salt tolerance in Atriplex halimus L. Plant Physiology 45: 62-65. A. holocarpa have unicellular salt bladders on both surfaces of their leaves that concentrate salt above the saturation point of NaCl and release to the exterior via the vesiculated hairs.Rajput, P. and Sen, D. N. (1991). Annals of Arid Zone, vol 30. iss. 4.
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Vanadium(II) oxide, VO, is one of the many oxides of vanadium. VO is a long- lived, electronically neutral reagent chemical. It adopts a distorted NaCl structure and contains weak V−V metal to metal bonds. As shown by band theory, VO is a conductor of electricity due to its partially filled conduction band and delocalisation of electrons in the t2g orbitals.
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F-centers are often paramagnetic and can be studied by electron paramagnetic resonance techniques. The greater the number of F-centers, the more intense the color of the compound. One way of producing F-centers in a crystal artificially is to heat it in an atmosphere of the metal of which it is constituted, e.g., heating NaCl in a metallic Na atmosphere.
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Following this convention, the lattice energy of NaCl would be +786 kJ/mol. The lattice energy for ionic crystals such as sodium chloride, metals such as iron, or covalently linked materials such as diamond is considerably greater in magnitude than for solids such as sugar or iodine, whose neutral molecules interact only by weaker dipole-dipole or van der Waals forces.
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Modern databases such as Inorganic Crystal Structure Database index thousands of structure types directly by the prototype compound (i.e. "the NaCl structure" instead of "the B1 structure"). These are essentially equivalent to the old Stukturbericht designations. The designations were established by the journal Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials, which published its first round of supplemental reviews under the name Strukturbericht from 1913-1928.
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Chlorodiphenylphosphine is used in the synthesis of sodium diphenylphosphide via its reaction with sodium metal in refluxing dioxane. :Ph2PCl + 2 Na → Ph2PNa + NaCl Diphenylphosphine can be synthesized in the reaction of Ph2PCl and LiAlH4, the latter usually used in excess. :4 Ph2PCl + LiAlH4 → 4 Ph2PH + LiCl + AlCl3 Both Ph2PNa and Ph2PH are also used in the synthesis of organophosphine ligands.
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NOTULAEBOTANICAE HORTI AGROBOTANICI CLUJ-NAPOCA 1(42): 154-159. Water-buffered pH did not affect germination of Leymus chinensis; however, at 50 and 100mM of tris, germination severely decreased. Germination increased in basic environments. Different salt concentrations negatively affected germination: Na2CO3 > NaHCO3 > NaCl > Na2SO4, with Na2CO3 having the most detrimental effect on seed germination and Na2SO4 having the least effect.
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Crystalline NaHS undergoes two phase transitions. At temperatures above 360 K, NaHS adopts the NaCl structure, which implies that the HS− behaves as a spherical anion owing to its rapid rotation, leading to equal occupancy of eight equivalent positions. Below 360 K, a rhombohedral structure forms, and the HS− sweeps out a discoidal shape. Below 114 K, the structure becomes monoclinic.
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At high temperature and pressure, RbCl adopts the caesium chloride (CsCl) structure (NaCl and KCl undergo the same structural change at high pressures). Here, the chloride ions form a simple cubic arrangement with chloride anions occupying the vertices of a cube surrounding a central Rb+. This is RbCl's densest packing motif. Because a cube has eight vertices, both ions' coordination numbers equal eight.
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Triphenylphosphine can be prepared in the laboratory by treatment of phosphorus trichloride with phenylmagnesium bromide or phenyllithium. The industrial synthesis involves the reaction between phosphorus trichloride, chlorobenzene, and sodium.: :PCl3 \+ 3 PhCl + 6 Na → PPh3 \+ 6 NaCl Triphenylphosphine crystallizes in triclinic and monoclinic modification In both cases, the molecule adopts a pyramidal structure with propeller-like arrangement of the three phenyl groups.
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The ultimate source of the mineralizing fluid(s) in MVT deposits is unknown. The ore fluids of MVT deposits are typically low temperature (100 °C-150 °C) and have the composition of basinal brines (10-30 wt.% NaCl equivalent) with pH's of 4.5-5 (buffered by host carbonates). This hydrothermal fluid may or may not carry the required sulfur to form sulfide minerals.
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The plot of the system forms boundaries of leonite with potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, and picromerite. As magnesium is enriched, a quadruple point with kainite exists. In salt (NaCl) saturated brine, leonite can be deposited from magnesium and potassium sulfate mixtures as low as 25 °C. The 25 °C isotherm of the system has leonite surrounded by sylvine, picromerite, astrakanite, epsomite, and kainite.
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The highest tolerance to salt has been observed at low pH values, e.g. the maximum NaCl allowing growth was 12.5% (w/v) at pH 3.0 whereas this was only 5.0% (w/v) at pH 5.0. Moreover, the presence of either salt or sugar has a positive effect on the ability of Z. bailii to initiate growth at extreme pH levels, e.g.
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Aqueous two-phase systems can also be generated by generating the heavy phase with a concentrated salt solution. The polymer phase used is generally still PEG. Generally, a kosmotropic salt, such as Na3PO4 is used, however PEG–NaCl systems have been documented when the salt concentration is high enough. Since polymer–salt systems demix readily they are easier to use.
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The BA-4386 was widely used by the US military from 1968 until c.1984 when it was replaced by a lithium thionyl chloride battery. A magnesium–air fuel cell has theoretical operating voltages of 3.1 V and energy densities of 6.8 kWh/kg. General Electric produced a magnesium air fuel cell operating in neutral NaCl solution as early as the 1960s.
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Gold(III) salts, especially Na[AuCl4] (prepared from AuCl3 \+ NaCl), provide an alternative to mercury(II) salts as catalysts for reactions involving alkynes. An illustrative reaction is the hydration of terminal alkynes to produce acetyl compounds. :300px Some alkynes undergo amination in the presence of gold(III) catalysts. Gold catalyses the alkylation of certain aromatic rings and a conversion of furans to phenols.
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O. aureus is the type species of genus Ornithinibacter, and is currently the only species in the genus. The optimum growth temperature for O. aureus is 34 °C and can grow in the 4-45 °C range. The optimum pH is 7.2, and can grow in pH 5.0-10.2. and the species can tolerate NaCl salt concentrations of up to 5%.
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Potash is a mixture of potassium minerals used to make potassium (chemical symbol: K) fertilizers. Potash is soluble in water, so the main effort in producing this nutrient from the ore involves some purification steps; e.g., to remove sodium chloride (NaCl) (common salt). Sometimes potash is referred to as K2O, as a matter of convenience to those describing the potassium content.
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The kidney maintains the electrolyte concentrations, osmolality, and acid-base balance of blood plasma within the narrow limits that are compatible with effective cellular function; and the kidney participates in blood pressure regulation and in the maintenance of steady whole-organism water volume Fluid flow through the nephron must be kept within a narrow range for normal renal function in order to not compromise the ability of the nephron to maintain salt and water balance. Tubuloglomerular feedback (TGF) regulates tubular flow by detecting and correcting changes in GFR. Active transepithelial transport is used by the thick ascending limb of loop of Henle (TAL) cells to pump NaCl to the surrounding interstitium from luminal fluid. The Tubular fluid is diluted because the cell's walls are water-impermeable and do not lose water as NaCl is actively reabsorbed.
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Some minerals exhibit electrical properties – for example, quartz is piezoelectric – but electrical properties are rarely used as diagnostic criteria for minerals because of incomplete data and natural variation. Minerals can also be tested for taste or smell. Halite, NaCl, is table salt; its potassium-bearing counterpart, sylvite, has a pronounced bitter taste. Sulfides have a characteristic smell, especially as samples are fractured, reacting, or powdered.
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The crystal structure of sodium chloride, NaCl, a typical ionic compound. The purple spheres represent sodium cations, Na+, and the green spheres represent chloride anions, Cl−. In chemistry, an ionic compound is a chemical compound composed of ions held together by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonding. The compound is neutral overall, but consists of positively charged ions called cations and negatively charged ions called anions.
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This method could be used to increase the geographic areas for which the SODIS method could be used as regions with highly turbid water could be treated for low costs.B. Dawney, C. Cheng, R. Winkler, J. M. Pearce. Evaluating the geographic viability of the solar water disinfection (SODIS) method by decreasing turbidity with NaCl: A case study of South Sudan. Applied Clay Science 99:194–200 (2014).
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The dioxide is a powerful oxidizer: it can oxidize hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. It does not reacts with alkaline solution, but reacts with solid alkalies to give hydroxyplumbates, or with basic oxides to give plumbates. Reaction of lead with sulfur or hydrogen sulfide yields lead sulfide. The solid has the NaCl-like structure (simple cubic), which it keeps up to the melting point, 1114 °C (2037 °F).
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The overall process is: : 2 NaCl + CaCO3 → Na2CO3 \+ CaCl2 The actual implementation of this global, overall reaction is intricate."Process Best Practices Reference Document (BREF) for Soda Ash," report produced by the European Soda Ash Producer's Association, March 2004. Archived at WebCite from this original URL on 2008-03-01. A simplified description can be given using the four different, interacting chemical reactions illustrated in the figure.
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Cyclopentadienyl complexes are known for all lanthanides. All, barring tris(cyclopentadienyl)promethium(III) (Pm(Cp)3) can be produced by the following reaction scheme: ::3 Na[Cp] + MCl3 → M[Cp]3 \+ 3 NaCl Pm(Cp)3 can be produced by the following reaction: ::2 PmCl3 \+ 3 Be[Cp]2 → 3 BeCl2 \+ 2 Pm[Cp]3 These compounds are of limited use and academic interest.
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M. abscessus shows growth at 28 and 37°C after 7 days, but not at 43°C. It may grow on MacConkey agar at 28°C and even 37°C. It shows tolerance to saline media (5% NaCl) and 500 mg/l hydroxylamine (Ogawa egg medium) and 0.2% picrate (Sauton agar medium). Strains of the species have been shown to degrade the antibiotic p-aminosalicylate.
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Users are assigned a public and private key, and they connect to each other directly in a fully distributed, peer-to-peer network. Users have the ability to message friends, join chat rooms with friends or strangers, voice/video chat, and send each other files. All traffic over Tox is end-to-end encrypted using the NaCl library, which provides authenticated encryption and perfect forward secrecy.
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From cold solutions, salt crystallises as the dihydrate NaCl·2H2O. Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water; the freezing point is −21.12 °C (−6.02 °F) for 23.31 wt% of salt, and the boiling point of saturated salt solution is around 108.7 °C (227.7 °F).Elvers, B. et al. (ed.) (1991) Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 5th ed. Vol.
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A combination of methyltrichlorosilane and sodium iodide can be used to cleave carbon-oxygen bonds such as methyl ethers. :R'OR + MeSiCl3 \+ NaI + H2O → R'OH + RI + MeSiCl2(OH) + NaCl Esters and lactones can also be cleaved with methyltrichlorosilane and sodium iodide to give the corresponding carboxylic acids. Acetals convert to carbonyl compounds. Thus, methyltrichlorosilane can be used to remove acetal protecting groups from carbonyl compounds under mild conditions.
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They can use hydrogen as their electron donor and nitrate or sulphur as the electron acceptor. D. atlanticum can grow at temperatures between 50 °C and 80 °C, while optimal temperatures range between 70° and 75 °C. These bacteria can grow at pH ranges between 5 and 7.5, however preferred growth is at a pH of 6-6.2. D. atlanticum prefers low NaCl concentrations for optimal growth.
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Hydrochlorothiazide belongs to thiazide class of diuretics. It reduces blood volume by acting on the kidneys to reduce sodium (Na+) reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule. The major site of action in the nephron appears on an electroneutral NaCl co-transporter by competing for the chloride site on the transporter. By impairing Na+ transport in the distal convoluted tubule, hydrochlorothiazide induces a natriuresis and concomitant water loss.
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Under the microscope, bacteria from the viridans group are gram-positive cocci in chains. They do not express catalase and so are catalase-negative. They are leucine aminopeptidase positive, pyrrolidonylarylamidase negative, and do not grow in 6.5% NaCl, and almost all species are negative for growth on bile esculin agar. They differ from pneumococci in that they are optochin resistant and are not bile soluble.
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By ingesting seawater they uptake water and electrolytes, including Na, Cl−, Mg2+ and SO42−. As seawater passes through the esophagus it is quickly desalinated as Na and Cl− ions move down their concentration gradients into the body. In the intestine, water is being absorbed in association with NaCl cotransport. Inside the gill ionocyte, the Na/K ATPases on the basolateral membrane maintain a low sodium concentration.
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Likewise the cathode reduces sodium ions (Na), which accept electrons from the cathode and deposits on the cathode as sodium metal. NaCl dissolved in water can also be electrolyzed. The anode oxidizes chloride ions (Cl), and Cl2 gas is produced. However, at the cathode, instead of sodium ions being reduced to sodium metal, water molecules are reduced to hydroxide ions (OH) and hydrogen gas (H2).
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Inhibitors may be present in the original sample, such as blood, fabrics, tissues and soil but may also be added as a result of the sample processing and DNA extraction techniques used. Excess salts including KCl and NaCl, ionic detergents such as sodium deocycholate, sarkosyl and SDS, ethanol, isopropanol and phenol among others, all contribute via various inhibitory mechanisms, to the reduction of PCR efficiency.
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Chitinimonas is a genus of Gram-negative, chitinolytic, rod-shaped bacteria which have flagella from the family of Burkholderiaceae which belongs to the class Betaproteobacteria.eol All species of Chitinimonas have been found in regions of Asia. Species of this genus are found to be both aerobic and anaerobic. Chitinimonas is optimally grown and cultured at 25 °C to 37 °C, with very little concentrations of NaCl.
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Caesium bromide or cesium bromide is an ionic compound of caesium and bromine with the chemical formula CsBr. It is a white or transparent solid with a melting point a 636 °C that readily dissolves in water. Its bulk crystals have the cubic CsCl structure, but the structure changes to the rocksalt type in nanometer-thin film grown on mica, LiF, KBr or NaCl substrates.
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The CsI structure can be stabilized down to room temperature by doping with other halides such as RbI, CsI, KI, AgI, TlBr and TlCl. Thus, presence of impurities might be responsible for coexistence of the cubic and orthorombic phases at ambient conditions. Under high pressure, 160 kbar, becomes a metallic conductor. Nanometer-thin films grown on LiF, NaCl or KBr substrates exhibit the cubic rocksalt structure.
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Pronunciation follows convention outside the medical field, in which acronyms are generally pronounced as if they were a word (JAMA, SIDS), initialisms are generally pronounced as individual letters (DNA, SSRI), and abbreviations generally use the expansion (soln. = "solution", sup. = "superior"). Abbreviations of weights and measures are pronounced using the expansion of the unit (mg = "milligram") and chemical symbols using the chemical expansion (NaCl = "sodium chloride").
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This can lead to relatively dramatic pH shifts when there are shifts in solution temperature. Sodium chloride concentration may vary from 100 to 200 mM, tris concentration from 5 to 100 mM and pH from 7.2 to 8.0. A common formulation of TBS is 150 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6. TBS can also be prepared by using commercially made TBS buffer tablets or pouches.
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A staining method where at a fixed pH of about 5.5, different critical salt concentration (classically MgCl2, but NaCl, KCl, LiBr are potential alternatives) can be used where the smaller (faster diffusing) salt cation competes with alcian blue to bind to the anionic sites. Target material specific critical electrolyte concentration (CEC) is supposed to selectively identify sulphated, carboxylated and phosphated structures for example as the targets.
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Foxtail barley (Hordeum jubatum) propagates by seed. It is known for its ability to tolerate saline soils but is capable of productive growth on soil types ranging from loamy to clayey soils with pH's of 6.4 to 9.5. The upper limit of soil NaCl for productive growth and development is 1.0%. Foxtail barley is also adapted to a wide range of moisture regimes from dry to wet.
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Polystyrene sulfonate, a cation exchange resin, is typically supplied with Na+ as the counterion. A counterion (pronounced as two words, i.e. "counter" "ion", and sometimes written as two words) is the ion that accompanies an ionic species in order to maintain electric neutrality. In table salt (NaCl), the sodium ion (positively charged) is the counterion for the chlorine ion (negatively charged) and vice versa.
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The piglets born to treated gilts were inoculated, while the piglets born to unvaccinated mothers developed atrophic rhinitis.Nielsen JP Vaccination against progressive atrophic rhinitis with a recombinant “Pasteurella multocida” toxin derivative. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, vol.55, no.2 (128-138) Other research is being done on the effects of protein, pH, temperature, sodium chloride (NaCl), and sucrose on P. multocida development and survival in water.
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This powder mixture is then pressed in a mechanical press to form a translucent pellet through which the beam of the spectrometer can pass. A third technique is the "cast film" technique, which is used mainly for polymeric materials. The sample is first dissolved in a suitable, non-hygroscopic solvent. A drop of this solution is deposited on surface of KBr or NaCl cell.
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Google Native Client (NaCl) is a sandboxing technology for running either a subset of Intel x86, ARM, or MIPS native code, or a portable executable, in a sandbox. It allows safely running native code from a web browser, independent of the user operating system, allowing web apps to run at near-native speeds, which aligns with Google's plans for Chrome OS. It may also be used for securing browser plugins, and parts of other applications or full applications such as ZeroVM. To demonstrate the readiness of the technology, on 9 December 2011, Google announced the availability of several new Chrome-only versions of games known for their rich and processor-intensive graphics, including Bastion (no longer supported on the Chrome Web Store). NaCl runs hardware-accelerated 3D graphics (via OpenGL ES 2.0), sandboxed local file storage, dynamic loading, full screen mode, and mouse capture.
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As the electrolyte becomes more basic due to the production of OH−, less Cl2 emerges from the solution as it begins to react with the hydroxide producing hypochlorite at the anode: :Cl2 \+ 2 NaOH → NaCl + NaClO + H2O The more opportunity the Cl2 has to interact with NaOH in the solution, the less Cl2 emerges at the surface of the solution and the faster the production of hypochlorite progresses. This depends on factors such as solution temperature, the amount of time the Cl2 molecule is in contact with the solution, and concentration of NaOH. Likewise, as hypochlorite increases in concentration, chlorates are produced from them: : 3 NaClO → NaClO3 \+ 2 NaCl Other reactions occur, such as the self-ionization of water and the decomposition of hypochlorite at the cathode, the rate of the latter depends on factors such as diffusion and the surface area of the cathode in contact with the electrolyte.
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This type of defect is typically observed in highly ionic compounds, highly coordinated compounds, and where there is only a small difference in sizes of cations and anions of which the compound lattice is composed. Typical salts where Schottky disorder is observed are NaCl, KCl, KBr, CsCl and AgBr. For engineering applications, Schottky defects are important in oxides with Fluorite structure, such as CeO2, cubic ZrO2, UO2, ThO2 and PuO2.
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Although organosodium chemistry has been described to be of "little industrial importance", it once was central to the production of tetraethyllead.Rolf Ackermann, Ludwig Lange "Sodium Compounds, Organic" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005 Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. A similar Wurtz coupling-like reaction is the basis of the industrial route to triphenylphosphine: :3 PhCl + PCl3 \+ 6 Na → PPh3 \+ 6 NaCl The polymerization of butadiene and styrene is catalyzed by sodium metal.
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Botryococcus braunii has been shown to grow best at a temperature of 23 °C, a light intensity of 60 W/m2, with a light period of 12 hours per day, and a salinity of 0.15 molar NaCl. However, this was the results of testing with one strain, and others certainly vary to some degree. In the laboratory, B. braunii is commonly grown in cultures of Chu 13 medium .
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A. caldus displays tolerance to a broad range of conditions, including acidic pH levels and temperature, with the best growth occurring at a pH of 2.0 to 2.5 and a temperature of 45 °C. Optimal growth results in a short generation time of 2–3 hours, depending on the environmental factors present. A. caldus is not considered to be halophilic because it displayed no signs of growth in environments containing NaCl.
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Disperse Orange 1 (4-anilino-4'-nitroazobenzene) is an azo dye. Commercial samples contain approximately 25% dye by weight, with the remaining mass consisting of NaCl and other salts. This dye is useful in conducting experiments with flash photolysis due to the isomerization effect between the trans-4A4N and cis-4A4N states that occurs during photo relaxation.Wildes, P. D.; Pacifici, J. G.; Irick, G.; Whitten, D. G. J. Am. Chem. Soc.
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The size of lithium and potassium ions most closely resemble those of sodium, and thus the saltiness is most similar. In contrast, rubidium and caesium ions are far larger, so their salty taste differs accordingly. The saltiness of substances is rated relative to sodium chloride (NaCl), which has an index of 1. Potassium, as potassium chloride (KCl), is the principal ingredient in salt substitutes and has a saltiness index of 0.6.
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In Chrome, they are translated to architecture-specific executables so that they can be run. NaCl uses software fault detection and isolation for sandboxing on x86-64 and ARM. The x86-32 implementation of Native Client is notable for its novel sandboxing method, which makes use of the x86 architecture's rarely used segmentation facility. Native Client sets up x86 segments to restrict the memory range that the sandboxed code can access.
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When grown on the relatively low-nutrient medium, R2A, colonies were pink pigmented, circular, smooth, significantly hard, relatively small (1–2 mm) in size after one week of incubation at 30 °C. A.rosea has an optimum temperature at 30–35 °C with a range of 20–40 °C. The optimum pH for growth was 6.5 with a range of 5.5–8.5. It is able to tolerate NaCl concentrations up to 0.5%.
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Tox uses the cryptographic primitives present in the NaCl crypto library, via libsodium. Specifically, Tox employs Curve25519 for its key exchanges, xsalsa20 for symmetric encryption, and Poly1305 for MACs. Because the tox protocol can be used by many different applications, and because the tox network broadcasts the used client, it is also possible for clients to use additional encryption when sending to clients which support the same features.
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Salinicoccus kunmingensis strain YIM Y15 was first isolated from a salt mine in Yunnan China. It is approximately 0.8–1.2 mm in diameter, with circular shapes in appearance and yellow pigmented in color. It is strictly aerobic, with predominant respiratory quinone MK-6 and minimal amounts of MK-7(1.2%). Only moderately halophilic with a growth rate of 0.5%-25% (w/v) NaCl but only occurring with temperature within 4-45C°.
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It is prepared by treating rhodium carbonyl chloride with acetylacetone in the presence of base: :[(CO)2RhCl]2 \+ 2 NaO2C5H7 → 2 Rh(O2C5H7)(CO)2 \+ 2 NaCl The complex adopts square planar molecular geometry. The molecules stack with Rh---Rh distances of about 326 pm. As such it is representative of a linear chain compound. Portion of the lattice of showing the "stacking" of the individual planar units through interactions.
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Chloride, after sodium, is the second most abundant electrolyte in the blood, and most abundant in the extracellular fluid. Most of the chloride in the body is from salt (NaCl) in the diet. Chloride is part of gastric acid (HCl), which plays a role in absorption of electrolytes, activating enzymes, and killing bacteria. The levels of chloride in the blood can help determine if there are underlying metabolic disorders.
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Georgius Agricola: De re metallica New York : Dover pp456 explains the process thus: under heating salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) decomposes in the presence of silica and alumina (from the brick dust or clay) to produce hydrochloric acid and also some chlorine. This reacts with the silver to produce silver chloride (AgCl). The urine is acidic and aids decomposition. Silver chloride is volatile and would be removed from the metal.
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During October and November 2006, the salinity in the north end of the lake varied between brackish and saline (15–30,000 mg/l). In the south end of the lake the water was classified as a brine (105,000–125,000 mg/l). The water type is a 4–2 Na-(Mg)-Cl-(SO4). Geological sources of sodium chloride (NaCl), such as halite and feldspars, are present in the drainage area.
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Vinasse can be used as a basal medium for Haematococcus pluvialis culture. The vinasse culture medium consist of vinasse diluted to 3% and supplemented with 0.7% NaCl, and the pH was adjusted to 7.0. A 0.4 g/L quantity of inoculum can be used for the initial culture (cells in vegetative growth). The culture must be performed with 0.5 vvm air at 25°C, and until 15 days of culture.
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Hydrogen requires a double capture to attain instability as tritium (hydrogen-3), while natural oxygen (oxygen-16) requires three captures to become unstable oxygen-19. Thus water is relatively difficult to activate, as compared to sodium chloride (NaCl), in which both the sodium and chlorine ions become unstable with a single capture each. These facts were realized first-hand at the Operation Crossroads atomic test series in 1946.
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The incoming flow starting at a low concentration has a semipermeable membrane with water passing to the buffer liquid via osmosis at a small gradient. There is a gradual buildup of concentration inside the loop until the loop tip where it reaches its maximum. Theoretically a similar system could exist or be constructed for heat exchange. In the example shown in the image, water enters at 299 mg/L (NaCl / H2O).
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The crystal structure of Sc2S3 is closely related to that of sodium chloride, in that it is based on a cubic close packed array of anions. Whereas NaCl has all the octahedral interstices in the anion lattice occupied by cations, Sc2S3 has one third of them vacant. The vacancies are ordered, but in a very complicated pattern, leading to a large, orthorhombic unit cell belonging to the space group Fddd.
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1,1-Bis(diphenylphosphino)methane was first prepared by the reaction of sodium diphenylphosphide (Ph2PNa) with dichloromethane: :Ph3P + 2 Na → Ph2PNa + NaPh :2NaPPh2 \+ CH2Cl2 → Ph2PCH2PPh2 \+ 2 NaCl The methylene group (CH2) in dppm (and especially its complexes) is mildly acidic. The ligand can be oxidized to give the corresponding oxides and sulfides CH2[P(E)Ph2]2 (E = O, S). The methylene group is even more acidic in these derivatives.
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Although potassium is more electropositive than sodium, KCl can be reduced to the metal by reaction with metallic sodium at 850 °C because the more volatile potassium can be removed by distillation (see Le Chatelier's principle): :KCl(l) \+ Na(l) ⇌ NaCl(l) \+ K(g) This method is the main method for producing metallic potassium. Electrolysis (used for sodium) fails because of the high solubility of potassium in molten KCl.
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Lysinibacillus fusiformis is a naturally occurring bacterium and various strains have been isolated from multiple environments including farming soil and factory wastewater. This organism is considered to be altogether mesophilic; growing best at a temperature range of 17-37 degrees Celsius. L. fusiformis is also considered to be mildly alkaliphilic and moderately halophilic; growing best at a pH range of 6-9.5 and an NaCl concentration of 2-7%.
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Bacillus megaterium — from simple soil bacterium to industrial protein production host. Appl Microbial Biotechnol 76:957–967 (2007) It produces enzymes for modifying corticosteroids, as well as several amino acid dehydrogenases. B. megaterium is known to produce poly- γ-glutamic acid. The accumulation of the polymer is greatly increased in a saline (2–10% NaCl) environment, in which the polymer comprises largely of L-glutamate (L-isomer content up to 95%).
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The room temperature form of TlI is yellow and has an orthorhombic structure which can be considered to be a distorted NaCl structure. The distorted structure is believed to be caused by favourable thallium-thallium interactions, the closest Tl-Tl distance is 383 pm. At 175 °C the yellow form transforms to a red CsCl form. This phase transition is accompanied by about two orders of magnitude jump in electrical conductivity.
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Wimley- White whole-residue hydrophobicity scales The hydrophobicity scales developed by physical property methods are based on the measurement of different physical properties. Examples include, partial molar heat capacity, transition temperature and surface tension. Physical methods are easy to use and flexible in terms of solute. The most popular hydrophobicity scale was developed by measuring surface tension values for the naturally occurring 20 amino acids in NaCl solution.
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When feedback regulation of afferent arteriolar tone is prevented by interrupting the feedback loop, and when the sensing mechanism is fully activated by saturating NaCl concentrations, TGF reduces GFR on average by approximately 45% and PGC by approximately 20%. Afferent arteriolar resistance increases by 50% or less, consistent with a radius reduction of approximately 10%, if Poiseuille's law holds. Thus, TGF-induced vasoconstriction is usually limited in magnitude.
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Halanaerobium hydrogeninformans is obligatory anaerobic, Gram negative, non motile, non-sporulating, elongated rod bacterium, that can tolerate the extreme conditions of both high salinity and alkalinity of its environment, with optimal growth at pH 11, 7% NaCl. It belongs to phylum Firmicutes, it can ferment a variety of 5- and 6-carbon sugars derived from hemicelluloses and cellulose including cellobiose, and forms the end products hydrogen, acetate, and formate.
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A variety of complexes are known with one or two dicarbollide ligands. An example of a 1:1 complex is [Mn(CO)3(η5-7,8-C2B9H11)]−. Most heavily studied are complexes with two dicarbollide ligands, especially sandwich complexes. Thus, these are prepared by salt metathesis reactions, as illustrated by the synthesis of the ferrocene analogue: :2 Na2C2B8H11 \+ FeCl2 → Na2[Fe(C2B8H11)2] + 2 NaCl These bisdicarbollide dianions are often readily oxidized.
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Xenophilus aerolatus, strain designation 5516S-2T is a Gram-negative, motile, bacillus aerobe. Its colonies are circular and yellow in pigment, with entire (smooth) margins. It was as first isolated on May 16, 2005 from air in an outdoor region of downtown Suwon, Korea by Soo-Jin Kim. Optimum growth conditions happen at 25 to 35 degrees Celsius, a NaCl concentration of 0-2 percent, and at pH 5.0 to 9.0.
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A. pacificus is a non-motile, Gram-negative bacillus. It is oxidase- and catalase-positive. It forms light grey colonies that are between 1 and 2 millimeters in diameter when grown on 216L marine agar medium containing seawater, sodium acetate, tryptone, yeast extract, ammonium nitrate, and sodium citrate. A. pacificus is mesophilic and moderately halophilic, growing best in an environment between 10-42 degrees Celsius that contains 0.5-12% NaCl.
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Other processes are also used to purify water, including reverse osmosis, carbon filtration, microporous filtration, ultrafiltration, ultraviolet oxidation, or electrodialysis. These are used in place of, or in addition to, the processes listed above. Processes rendering water potable but not necessarily closer to being pure H2O / hydroxide + hydronium ions include the use of dilute sodium hypochlorite, ozone, mixed-oxidants (electro-catalyzed H2O + NaCl), and iodine; See discussion regarding potable water treatments under "Health effects" below.
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The solution of metal, salts and water produced by diagenesis is produced at temperatures between 150 - 350°C. Hydrothermal fluid compositions are estimated to have a salinity of up to 35% NaCl with metal concentrations of 5-15 ppm Zn, Cu, Pb and up to 100ppm Ba and Fe. High metal concentrations are able to be carried in solution because of the high salinity. Generally these formational brines also carry considerable sulfur.
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However, in an arid environment, dry aggregate stability may be the more applicable method because it mimics wind erosion which is the driving force of erosion in these environments. Gilmour et al. (1948) describes a method where aggregates are submersed in water, and the soil that is slaked off the aggregate is measured. Emerson (1964) used a method whereby aggregates were subjected to different internal swelling pressures from different concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl).
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The taste of soy sauce is predominated by saltiness, followed by moderate umami, sweet taste, and finally slight bitterness, which is hard to perceive due to the masking effect of other tastes. The overall flavor of soy sauce is a result of the balance and interaction among different taste components. The saltiness is largely attributed to the presence of NaCl (common salt) in brine. The sugars hydrolyzed from starch add sweetness into soy sauce.
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Using a nonporous ceramic mortar and pestle, a small quantity of the solid sample is ground up until the sample is exceedingly fine and has a glassy appearance. A drop of the mulling agent is added to the ground solid in the mortar. The mixture is further ground up until a uniform paste with the consistency of toothpaste is acquired. The resulting paste is transferred to a salt plate (NaCl) with a small flat spatula.
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The vent field hosts two main areas of black smoker venting, with a fluid at temperatures of over 400 °C and a low salinity of about 2.3 wt% NaCl. Under these conditions, the venting fluid is supercritical at the vent orifice, and is the only site shown to host sustained supercritical venting. The combined depth and vent fluid temperature make it a popular site for studying aqueous thermodynamics, high- pressure biology, and geochemistry.
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Thiazide organic molecules are bi-cyclic structures that contain adjacent sulfur and nitrogen atoms on one ring. Confusion sometimes occurs because thiazide-like diuretics such as indapamide are referred to as thiazides despite not having the thiazide chemical structure. When used this way, "thiazide" refers to a drug which acts at the thiazide receptor. The thiazide receptor is a sodium-chloride transporter that pulls NaCl from the lumen in the distal convoluted tubule.
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SGK1 is upregulated by osmotic and isotonic cell shrinkage. "It is tempting to speculate that SGK1-dependent regulation of cation channels contributes to the regulation of cell volume, which involves cation channels in a variety of cells". The entrance of NaCl and osmotically driven water into cells leads to an increase in the cell's regulatory cell volume. This occurs as the entrance of Na+ depolarizes the cell, thus allowing the parallel entrance of Cl−.
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Flavobacterium dispersum is a Gram-negative, strictly aerobic and motile bacterium from the genus of Flavobacterium which has been isolated from a freshwater spring in Taiwan. A novel bacterial strain MVW-23T was isolated from a freshwater spring in Taiwan. The strain was Gram-staining-negative, strictly aerobic, motile by gliding, rod-shaped and formed translucent yellow colonies. Optimal growth occurred at 20–30 °C, pH 7.0, and in the presence of 0.5–1 % NaCl.
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A. macrostachyum can germinate at salinity levels of at least 800 mM NaCl, and at even higher concentrations in the presence of added calcium ions. Research was undertaken into the remediation of oil-contaminated soil in the Persian Gulf. The marshland concerned was covered by an algal mat but was otherwise vegetation-free. The creation of drainage channels was followed by the return of crabs to the affected areas close to the channels.
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Resin is then regenerated by sequentially backwashing the resin bed to remove accumulated solids, flushing removed ions from the resin with a concentrated solution of replacement ions, and rinsing the flushing solution from the resin. After treatment, ion-exchange resin beads saturated with calcium and magnesium ions from the treated water, are regenerated by soaking in brine containing 6–12% NaCl. The sodium ions from brine replace the calcium and magnesium ions on the beads.
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In this case, a temperature below the melting point of NaCl was used; titanium is less creep resistant than NiTi, which allows for densification at lower temperatures. The resulting foams achieved porosity of 50–67% with minimal observable microporosity. Anisotropic pore shape in some areas alluded to NaCl's deformation during HIP, which is desirable for some applications. Additionally, an observed, rough inner surface of the pores holds advantages for biomedical implant applications.
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Another fungus, originally named Epidermophyton stockdaleae, is a dark-brown, soil- inhabiting species that is morphologically and molecularly distinct to E. floccosum for its longer conidia and 7% NaCl tolerance. E. stockdaleae is also clinically differentiated from E. floccosum by its ability in perforating hair. Due to the presence of microconidia, E. stockdaleae is now considered a synonym of Trichophyton ajelloi, hence E. floccosum is currently the only species in the genus Epidermophyton.
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Chemistry of the Solvay Process. Each circle represents a reaction. The Solvay Process as an example of a cyclic process in chemical industry (green = reactants, black = intermediates, red = products) The Solvay process results in soda ash (predominantly sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)) from brine (as a source of sodium chloride (NaCl)) and from limestone (as a source of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)). Online version archived at WebCite from this original URL on 2008-03-12.
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At high pressure, materials such as sodium chloride (NaCl) in the presence of an excess of either chlorine or sodium were transformed into compounds "forbidden" by classical chemistry, such as and . Quantum mechanical calculations predict the possibility of other compounds, such as , and . The materials are thermodynamically stable at high pressures. Such compounds may exist in natural environments that exist at high pressure, such as the deep ocean or inside planetary cores.
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This can be rationalised in terms of close packing of spheres of different sizes. For example, NaCl can be described as close-packed chloride ions (in a face-centered cubic lattice) with sodium ions in the octahedral holes. After the development of X-ray crystallography as a tool for determining crystal structures, many laboratories built models based on spheres. With the development of plastic or polystyrene balls it is now easy to create such models.
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Perchloric acid is produced industrially by two routes. The traditional method exploits the high aqueous solubility of sodium perchlorate (209 g/100 mL of water at room temperature). Treatment of such solutions with hydrochloric acid gives perchloric acid, precipitating solid sodium chloride: :NaClO4 \+ HCl → NaCl + HClO4 The concentrated acid can be purified by distillation. The alternative route, which is more direct and avoids salts, entails anodic oxidation of aqueous chlorine at a platinum electrode.
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An analyte, component (in clinical chemistry), or chemical species is a substance or chemical constituent that is of interest in an analytical procedure. The purest substances are referred to as analytes. Example : 24 karat gold, NaCl, water, etc. In reality, no substance has been found to be 100% pure in its quality, so we call a substance that is found to be most pure (for some metals, 99% after electrolysis) an analyte.
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Sodium phenoxide is a moderately strong base. Acidification gives phenol: :PhOH ⇌ PhO− \+ H+ (K = 10−10) Alkylation affords phenyl ethers: :NaOC6H5 \+ RBr → ROC6H5 \+ NaBr The conversion is an extension of the Williamson ether synthesis. With acylating agents, one obtains esters: :NaOC6H5 \+ RC(O)Cl → RCO2C6H5 \+ NaCl Sodium phenoxide is susceptible to certain types of electrophilic aromatic substitutions. For example, it reacts with carbon dioxide to form 2-hydroxybenzoate, the conjugate base of salicylic acid.
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A. boonei is an obligate thermoacidophile capable of growing at pH 3.3-5.8, with its optimum zone being 4.2-4.8. Cultures have been shown to grow between 55-77 °C with best growth occurring at 70 °C with a 2.5-3.5% (w/v) NaCl optimum.Reysenbach AL, Liu Y, Banta A, Beveridge T, Kirshtein J, Schouten S, Tivey M, Von Damm K, Voytek M 2006. A ubiquitous thermoacidophilic archaeon from deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Nature.
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Fp-based reagents have been developed for cyclopropanations. The key reagent is prepared from FpNa with a thioether and methyl iodide, and has a good shelf-life, in contrast to typical Simmons-Smith intermediates and diazoalkanes. :FpNa + ClCH2SCH3 → FpCH2SCH3 \+ NaCl :FpCH2SCH3 \+ CH3I + NaBF4 → FpCH2S(CH3)2]BF4 \+ NaI Use of [FpCH2S(CH3)2]BF4 does not require specialized conditions. : + (Ph)2C=CH2 → 1,1-diphenylcyclopropane + … Iron(III) chloride is added to destroy any byproduct.
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Chemistry Lecture Notes, UNSW :ClCHCHCl + NaOH → ClC=CH + NaCl + HO The gas phase reaction, without the base, would be more desirable but is less selective.Manfred Rossberg, Wilhelm Lendle, Gerhard Pfleiderer, Adolf Tögel, Eberhard-Ludwig Dreher, Ernst Langer, Heinz Rassaerts, Peter Kleinschmidt, Heinz Strack, Richard Cook, Uwe Beck, Karl-August Lipper, Theodore R. Torkelson, Eckhard Löser, Klaus K. Beutel, Trevor Mann "Chlorinated Hydrocarbons" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2006, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. .
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Strain VK of B. safensis is a salt-tolerant microorganism, and can grow beyond the 0–10% salt range of the general microbial species. This strain can grow in 14% NaCl, with a pH ranging from 4 to 8. Strain VK also contains genes that encode for 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase enzyme. This enzyme is able to generate 2-oxobutanoate and ammonia () by cleaving the precursor of plant hormone, ethylene 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate.
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Silver chloride crystals Pyramidal crystals of AgCl The solid adopts the fcc NaCl structure, in which each Ag+ ion is surrounded by an octahedron of six chloride ligands. AgF and AgBr crystallize similarly.Wells, A.F. (1984) Structural Inorganic Chemistry, Oxford: Clarendon Press. . However, the crystallography depends on the condition of crystallization, primarily free silver ion concentration, as is shown on the pictures left (greyish tint and metallic lustre are due to partly reduced silver).
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Lead selenide (PbSe), or lead(II) selenide, a selenide of lead, is a semiconductor material. It forms cubic crystals of the NaCl structure; it has a direct bandgap of 0.27 eV at room temperature. (Note that incorrectly identifies PbSe and other IV–VI semiconductors as indirect gap materials.) It is a grey crystalline solid material. It is used for manufacture of infrared detectors for thermal imaging, operating at wavelengths between 1.5–5.2 μm.
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The species tolerates up to 10% of NaCl and grows between 10 °C and 35 °C. Colonies on malt extract agar on average grow to 25 mm in 7 days (at 25 °C), appearing smooth and slimy due to abundant sporulation and EPS formation. In two weeks the colonies become green to black due to the production of melanin. Melanin is produced during the production of pullulan, a polysaccharide partly responsible of the biofilm formation.
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The carbylamine reaction (also known as the Hoffmann isocyanide synthesis) is the synthesis of an isocyanide by the reaction of a primary amine, chloroform, and base. The conversion involves the intermediacy of dichlorocarbene. Illustrative is the synthesis of tert-butyl isocyanide from tert-butylamine in the presence of catalytic amount of the phase transfer catalyst benzyltriethylammonium chloride. :Me3CNH2 \+ CHCl3 \+ 3 NaOH → Me3CNC + 3 NaCl + 3 H2O Similar reactions have been reported for aniline.
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The apparent molar volume of a salt is usually less than the molar volume of the solid salt. For instance, solid NaCl has a volume of 27 cm3 per mole, but the apparent molar volume at low concentrations is only 16.6 cc/mole. In fact, some aqueous electrolytes have negative apparent molar volumes: NaOH −6.7, LiOH −6.0, and Na2CO3 −6.7 cm3/mole.Herbert Harned and Benton Owen, The Physical Chemistry of Electrolytic Solutions, 1950, p. 253.
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To facilitate the filtration, the colloidal suspension must be first flocculated by adding a concentrated solution of salt to the system. Multivalent cations are more efficient flocculants than monovalent cations: AlCl3 > CaCl2 > NaCl. The electrical charges present at the surface of the particles are so "neutralised" and disappear. More correctly speaking, the electrical double layer existing at the surface of the particles is compressed by the added electrolyte and collapses at high ionic strength.
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Halophilic archaea are generally referred to as haloarchaea to distinguish them from halophilic bacteria. These microorganisms are members of the halophile community, in that they require high salt concentrations to grow, with most species requiring more than 2.0M NaCl for growth and survival. They are a distinct evolutionary branch of the Archaea distinguished by the possession of ether-linked lipids and the absence of murein in their cell walls. Haloarchaea can grow aerobically or anaerobically.
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The critical point for lower salinity fluids is at lower temperature and pressure conditions than that for seawater, but higher than that for pure water. For example, a vent fluid with a 2.24 wt. % NaCl salinity has the critical point at and 280.5 bars. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents can be a supercritical fluid, possessing physical properties between those of a gas and those of a liquid.
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Researchers of AlliedSignal initially demonstrated the possibility of electrically powered actuators fabricated by carbon nanotube sheets. They taped carbon nanotube sheets on two sides of a double sided scotch tape and applied potential on the nanotube sheets in a NaCl electrolyte solution. Nanotube sheets are used as electrolyte-filled electrodes of a supercapacitor. Nanotube sheets are electrically charged by the double layer formation at the nanotube-electrolyte interface without any need of ion intercalation.
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Polysilynes are organosilicon compounds with the formula [RSi]n. Although their name suggests a relationship to alkynes, polysilynes are a class of silicon-based random network polymers primarily composed of tetrahedral silicon centers, each connected to one carbon and three Si centers. These compounds are prepared by Wurtz coupling of alkyltrichlorosilanes (RSiCl3): :3 Na + RSiCl3 → [RSi]n \+ 3 NaCl The methyl and hexyl derivatives have been described. Poly(methylsilyne) (PMSy) is a dark yellow powder.
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In his account of his release, Clairvius Narcisse reported that the master's wife fed salt to the enslaved and set them free. Administering NaCl helps the body excrete bromide, and thus is a known treatment for bromism. Symptoms of bromism include stupor, slurred speech, abnormal gait, and other symptoms described in zombie folklore (such as "behavior [that] can become violent, especially at night", skin rashes, and enlarged pupils).Rand.org Monograph Reports, Chapter 10 Bromism.
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Hortaea werneckii is a species of yeast in the family Teratosphaeriaceae. It is a black yeast that is investigated for its remarkable halotolerance. While the addition of salt to the medium is not required for its cultivation, H. werneckii can grow in close to saturated NaCl solutions. To emphasize this unusually wide adaptability, and to distinguish H. werneckii from other halotolerant fungi, which have lower maximum salinity limits, some authors describe H. werneckii as "extremely halotolerant".
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On September 3, 2014 Babyeator became one of the founding members of Storm, along with Lourlo, Hairyabs, mandatorycloud, and xPecake. The team was initially formed to attempt to qualify for the 2015 spring LCS via the Expansion Tournament. However, because their top laner Lourlo would not be 17 years old in time, they decided to wait until he would be eligible to compete to attempt to qualify. In December, they competed in the NACL New Year's Kick-off Tournament.
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In the process, sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and sodium chloride (NaCl) are formed when chlorine is passed into cold dilute sodium hydroxide solution. The chlorine is prepared industrially by electrolysis with minimal separation between the anode and the cathode. The solution must be kept below 40 °C (by cooling coils) to prevent the undesired formation of sodium chlorate. Commercial solutions always contain significant amounts of sodium chloride (common salt) as the main by-product, as seen in the equation above.
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Sea salt aerosols are mainly constituted of sodium chloride (NaCl), but other chemical ions which are common in sea water, such as K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, SO42− and so on, can also be found. A recent study revealed that sea salt aerosols also contain a substantial amount of organic matter. Mostly, organic materials are internally mixed due to the drying of air bubbles at the organic-rich sea surface. The fraction of organic components increases with the decreasing particle size.
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SEM image of a grain of table salt The health effects of salt are the conditions associated with the consumption of either too much or too little salt. Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl) and is used in food for both preservation and flavor. Sodium ions are needed in small quantities by most living things, as are chloride ions. Salt is involved in regulating the water content (fluid balance) of the body.
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Histone-like proteins are present in many Eubacteria, Cyanobacteria, and Archaebacteria. These proteins participate in all DNA- dependent functions; in these processes, bacterial DNA binding proteins have an architectural role, maintaining structural integrity as transcription, recombination, replication, or any other DNA-dependent process proceeds. Eukaryotic histones were first discovered through experiments in 0.4M NaCl. In these high salt concentrations, the eukaryotic histone protein is eluted from a DNA solution in which single stranded DNA is bound covalently to cellulose.
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When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or anion. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral salts, such as the Na+ and Cl− ions forming sodium chloride, or NaCl. Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid-base reactions are hydroxide (OH−) and phosphate (PO43−). Plasma is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature.
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Salinity determined from simple online analysis is often determined from a conductivity measurement where the output signal is calibrated in terms of salinity concentration (for example ppm of NaCl). Various types of other analyses can be devised. Physical properties can include electrical conductivity (or effectively electrical resistivity), refractive index, and radioactivity measurement. Simple processes that use inline electrical conductivity determination are water purification processes which test how effectively salts have been removed from the output water.
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Halorhabdus utahensis (salt-loving rod) is a motile, Gram- negative, extremely halophilic archaeon that forms red, circular colonies. It grows at the temperatures between 17 and 55 °C, with optimal growth occurring at 50 °C. It can also grow over a pH range of 5.5–8.5 with the optimal pH value between 6.7 and 7.1. Further, with its extremely high salinity optimum of 27% NaCl, Halorhabdus has one of the highest reported salinity optima of any living organism.
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Endocrinologist Robert H. Eckel has commented that "It's important for the public to understand that no scientific evidence supports the claim that high-protein diets enable people to maintain their initial weight loss." High- protein diets may strain the kidney. An increased load on the kidney is a result of an increase in reabsorption of NaCl. This causes a decrease in the sensitivity of tubuloglomerular feedback, which, in turn, results to an increased glomerular filtration rate.
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UraniumIn materials science and materials engineering, uranium metallurgy is the study of the physical and chemical behavior of uranium and its alloys. Commercial-grade uranium can be produced through the reduction of uranium halides with alkali or alkaline earth metals. Uranium metal can also be made through electrolysis of KUF5 or UF4, dissolved in a molten CaCl2 and NaCl. Very pure uranium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of uranium halides on a hot filament.
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In the carbylamine reaction (also known as the Hofmann isocyanide synthesis) alkali base reacts with chloroform to produce dichlorocarbene. The carbene then converts primary amines to isocyanides. Illustrative is the synthesis of tert-butyl isocyanide from tert-butylamine in the presence of catalytic amount of the phase transfer catalyst benzyltriethylammoniumchloride. :Me3CNH2 \+ CHCl3 \+ 3 NaOH → Me3CNC + 3 NaCl + 3 H2O As it is only effective for primary amines this reaction can be used as a chemical test for their presence.
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Salts that are liquid at near- ambient temperature are important for electric battery applications, and have been considered as sealants due to their very low vapor pressure. Any salt that melts without decomposing or vaporizing usually yields an ionic liquid. Sodium chloride (NaCl), for example, melts at into a liquid that consists largely of sodium cations () and chloride anions (). Conversely, when an ionic liquid is cooled, it often forms an ionic solid--which may be either crystalline or glassy.
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The process involves reducing titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) with sodium (Na) in a batch reactor with an inert atmosphere at a temperature of 1,000°C. Dilute hydrochloric acid is then used to leach the salt from the product. :TiCl4 \+ 4 Na -> 4 NaCl + Ti Prior to the Hunter process, all efforts to produce Ti metal afforded highly impure material, often titanium nitride (which resembles a metal). The Hunter process was replaced by the more economical Kroll process in the 1940s.
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The production of sodium potassium alloys is accomplished by changing the reaction time and the amount of sodium used in the reaction. The Griesheimer process employing the reaction of potassium fluoride with calcium carbide was also used to produce potassium. :Na + KCl → NaCl + K (Thermal method) :2 KF + → 2 K + + 2 C (Griesheimer process) Reagent-grade potassium metal costs about $10.00/pound ($22/kg) in 2010 when purchased by the tonne. Lower purity metal is considerably cheaper.
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When grown on one-half strength R2A, colonies were ivory pigmented, circular, raised, contained a greasy surface, highly mucoid, and relatively small (1–2 mm) in size after two weeks of incubation at 30 °C. F. ginsengisoli has an optimum temperature at 30 °C with a range of 15-30 °C. The optimum pH for growth was 7.0 with a range of 6.0-8.5. Supplementary NaCl was not needed for growth but concentrations up to 1% could be tolerated.
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Malatesta, L. Isocyanide Complexes of MetalsProgress in Inorganic Chemistry, 1959, volume 1, 284-291. tert-Butyl isocyanide is prepared by a Hofmann carbylamine reaction. In this conversion, a dichloromethane solution of tert-butylamine is treated with chloroform and aqueous sodium hydroxide in the presence of catalytic amount of the phase transfer catalyst benzyltriethylammonium chloride. :Me3CNH2 \+ CHCl3 \+ 3 NaOH → Me3CNC + 3 NaCl + 3 H2O tert-Butyl isocyanide is isomeric with pivalonitrile, also known as tert-butyl cyanide.
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Adams' catalyst is prepared from chloroplatinic acid H2PtCl6 or ammonium chloroplatinate, (NH4)2PtCl6, by fusion with sodium nitrate. The first published preparation was reported by V. Voorhees and Roger Adams. The procedure involves first preparing a platinum nitrate which is then heated to expel nitrogen oxides. ::H2PtCl6 \+ 6 NaNO3 → Pt(NO3)4 \+ 6 NaCl (aq) \+ 2 HNO3 ::Pt(NO3)4 → PtO2 \+ 4 NO2 \+ O2 The resulting brown cake is washed with water to free it from nitrates.
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By the time development of Chromium 14 had been completed and Chrome 14 stable released this version also incorporated Mac OS X Lion scrollbar compatibility and "presentation mode". It also had support for the new Web Audio API and Google Native Client (NaCl) which permits native code supplied by third parties as platform-neutral binaries to be securely executed within the browser itself. Chromium 15.0 was released on 28 July 2011, with 15.0.837.0 as the initial version.
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Lactococcus garvieae is a facultatively anaerobic, non-motile, non-spore forming, Gram-positive ovoid coccus, occurring in pairs and short chains. It can produce α-hemolysis on blood agar (BA). It has the ability to grow at 4-45 °C in media containing 6.5% sodium chloride (NaCl) at pH 9.6. Its optimal growth temperature is 37 °C for a 24‑hour period, while at 4 °C it needs between 12 and 15 days for premium growth.
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After the water evaporated, the potassium salts crystallized into beds of potash ore. These are the locations where potash is being mined today. The deposits are a naturally occurring mixture of potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl), more commonly known as table salt. Over time, as the surface of the earth changed, these deposits were covered by thousands of feet of earth. Most potash mines today are deep shaft mines as much as 4,400 feet (1,400 m) underground.
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As the titration progresses, the protons are neutralized to form water by the addition of NaOH. For each amount of NaOH added equivalent amount of hydrogen ions is removed. Effectively, the mobile H+ cation is replaced by the less- mobile Na+ ion, and the conductivity of the titrated solution as well as the measured conductance of the cell fall. This continues until the equivalence point is reached, at which one obtains a solution of sodium chloride, NaCl.
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Europium(II) reacts in a way similar to that of alkaline earth metals and therefore it can be precipitated as a carbonate or co- precipitated with barium sulfate. Europium metal is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl3 and NaCl (or CaCl2) in a graphite cell, which serves as cathode, using graphite as anode. The other product is chlorine gas. A few large deposits produce or produced a significant amount of the world production.
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The reaction of a strong acid with a strong base is essentially a quantitative reaction. For example, :HCl(aq) \+ Na(OH)(aq) → H2O + NaCl(aq) In this reaction both the sodium and chloride ions are spectators as the neutralization reaction, :H+ \+ OH− → H2O does not involve them. With weak bases addition of acid is not quantitative because a solution of a weak base is a buffer solution. A solution of a weak acid is also a buffer solution.
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Disilane and silane thermally decompose around 640 °C, depositing amorphous silicon. This chemical vapor deposition process is relevant to the manufacture of photovoltaic devices. Specifically it is utilized in the production of silicon wafers.Disilane More generally, diorganosilanes are produced by reductive coupling of silyl chlorides, e.g. : 2 (CH3)3SiCl + 2 Na → (CH3)3Si-Si(CH3)3 \+ 2 NaCl Disilane gas can be used to control pressure of Si vapors during process of graphene growth by thermal decomposition of SiC.
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Gold nanoparticles can be purchased or synthesized via a variety of methods.Liu, B.; Liu, J. “Methods for preparing DNA-functionalized gold nanoparticles, a key reagent of bioanalytical chemistry,” Analytical Methods, 2017, 9, 2633-2643. doi: 10.1039/c7ay00368d. Several strategies exist for functionalizing gold nanoparticles with single- stranded DNA; one of the most commonly utilized strategies involves introducing thiol-terminated DNA to a solution of gold nanoparticles and gradually increasing the concentration of a salt, like NaCl.
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The salt (NaCl) concentration in this lake water differs from season to season. The salt concentration in the pans Kyars varies and, accordingly, the color of the brine ranges from green, orange, pink, purple, pink and red due to the bloom of haloalkaliphilic microorganisms. The first haloalkaliphilic archaeon isolated from this lake was Natrilaba SSL1 (earlier designated as Natronobacterium SSL1 ATCC 43988 by Upasani and Desai (1990). More recently, haloalkaliphilic microalgae namely Dunaliella, Euhalothece, Nitzchia, etc.
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Dip brazing is especially suited for brazing aluminium because air is excluded, thus preventing the formation of oxides. The parts to be joined are fixtured and the brazing compound applied to the mating surfaces, typically in slurry form. Then the assemblies are dipped into a bath of molten salt (typically NaCl, KCl and other compounds), which functions as both heat transfer medium and flux. Many dip brazed parts are used in heat transfer applications for the aerospace industry.
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Sodium dithionate is produced by the oxidation of sodium bisulfite by manganese dioxide: :2 NaHSO3 \+ MnO2 → Na2S2O6 \+ MnO + H2O Alternatively, it can be prepared by the oxidation of sodium sulfite by the silver(I) cation: : + 2 Ag + SO → + 2 Ag Another method is via oxidation of sodium thiosulfate with chlorine: :3 Cl2 \+ Na2S2O3·5H2O + 6 NaOH → Na2S2O6 \+ 6 NaCl + 8 H2O And another method to produce sodium dithionate is treating sodium thiosulfate with sodium hypochlorite solution.
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The aryl halides produced on the largest scale are chlorobenzene and the isomers of dichlorobenzene. One major but discontinued application was the use of chlorobenzene as a solvent for dispersing the herbicide Lasso. Overall, production of aryl chlorides (also naphthyl derivatives) has been declining since the 1980s, in part due to environmental concerns. Triphenylphosphine is produced from chlorobenzene: :3 C6H5Cl + PCl3 \+ 6 Na → P(C6H5)3 \+ 6 NaCl Aryl bromides are widely used as fire-retardants.
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In the leather industry, salt- based preservation is typically used because it is versatile, cost-effective, and readily available. However, the salt removed from the soaking process can cause pollution including elevated total dissolved solids (TDS). A study was conducted to measure the effectiveness of instead using a low-salt skin preservation method with sodium polyacrylate which has a reduced amount of NaCl. The main goal was to retain the properties of commercial leather while reducing pollution.
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These cells are similar to the mitochondria rich cells found in teleost fish. These cells within the salt gland employ several types of transport mechanisms that respond to osmoregulatory loads. Sodium- Potassium ATPase works with a Sodium-Chloride cotransporter (also known as the NKCC), and a basal potassium channel to secrete salt (NaCl) into secretory tubes. The ATPase uses energy from ATP to pump three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions into the cell.
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Propionispira rafinnosivorans was first isolated as Zymophilus raffinosivorans in January 1990 by Schleifer et al., spoiled beer and pitching yeast were examined to characterize enigmatic bacterial species and their ecological significance in beer spoilage. Once collected, microbes were inoculated into a modified medium which consisted of peptone, yeast extract, meat extract, glucose, NaCl, hydrated MgSO4, MnSO4, a solution of KH2PO4, cysteine hydrochloride, and resazurin. 47 separate strains of anaerobic gram-negative bacteria were observed and recorded.
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Gram-mole (Often called gram-molecular weight.) A mass of a substance in grams numerically equal to its molecular weight. Example: A gram-mole of salt (NaCl) is 58.44 grams. Gram - mole in a more simple way can be defined as the quantity of a substance (element or compound), expressed in gram, which is numerically equal to its molecular mass and which contains 6.022 × 10²³ number of molecules. Remember, 1 gram mole of any substance contains the same number of molecules (i.e.
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Collected salt mounds Naturally formed salt crystals Ancient method of boiling brine into pure salt in China Salt, also referred to as table salt or by its chemical formula NaCl, is an ionic compound made of sodium and chlorine ions. All life has evolved to depend on its chemical properties to survive. It has been used by humans for thousands of years, from food preservation to seasoning. Salt's ability to preserve food was a founding contributor to the development of civilization.
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The first systematic and widespread use of medial capitals for technical purposes was the notation for chemical formulae invented by the Swedish chemist Jacob Berzelius in 1813. To replace the multitude of naming and symbol conventions used by chemists until that time, he proposed to indicate each chemical element by a symbol of one or two letters, the first one being capitalized. The capitalization allowed formulae like "NaCl" to be written without spaces and still be parsed without ambiguity.Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1813).
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Contrary to the usual English style for parentheses, there is no space between the end of the element name and the opening parenthesis: for AgF, the correct style is "silver(I) fluoride" not "silver (I) fluoride". Where there is no ambiguity about the oxidation state of an element in a compound, it is not necessary to indicate it with Roman numerals: hence for NaCl, sodium chloride will suffice; sodium(I) chloride(−I) is unnecessarily long and such usage is very rare.
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Borax is also easily converted to boric acid and other borates, which have many applications. Its reaction with hydrochloric acid to form boric acid is: : NaBO·10HO + 2 HCl → 4 B(OH) + 2 NaCl + 5HO The "decahydrate" is sufficiently stable to find use as a primary standard for acid base titrimetry. p. 316. When borax is added to a flame, it produces a yellow green color. Borax is not used for this purpose in fireworks due to the overwhelming yellow color of sodium.
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Sweat glands are used to regulate temperature and remove waste by secreting water, sodium salts, and nitrogenous waste (such as urea) onto the skin surface. The main electrolytes of sweat are sodium and chloride, though the amount is small enough to make sweat hypotonic at the skin surface. Eccrine sweat is clear, odorless, and is composed of 98–99% water; it also contains NaCl, fatty acids, lactic acid, citric acid, ascorbic acid, urea, and uric acid. Its pH ranges from 4 to 6.8.
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Because of the industrial value of adiponitrile, many methods have been developed for its synthesis. Early industrial routes started from furfural and later by the chlorination of butadiene to give 1,4-dichloro-2-butene, which with sodium cyanide, converts to 3-hexenedinitrile, which in turn can be hydrogenated to adiponitrile: :ClCH2CH=CHCH2Cl + 2 NaCN → NCCH2CH=CHCH2CN + 2 NaCl :NCCH2CH=CHCH2CN + H2 → NC(CH2)4CN Adiponitrile has also been produced from adipic acid, by dehydration of the diamide, but this route is rarely employed.
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NaCl denotes sodium chloride, common table salt; as a pun, the name of pepper was also used. Pepper API is a cross-platform, open-source API for creating Native Client modules. Pepper Plugin API, or PPAPI is a cross- platform API for Native Client-secured web browser plugins, first based on Netscape's NPAPI, then rewritten from scratch. It is currently used in Chromium and Google Chrome to enable the PPAPI version of Adobe Flash and the built-in PDF viewer.
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SQDGs seem to be involved in the turnover of cyt f in a similar manner like D1 and raises the question of whether a similar mechanism underlies the role of SQDG in the assembly of both subunits.De Vitry et al. 2004 Extensive SQDG accumulation was observed in apple shoot bark and wood (Okanenko, 1977) and in pine thylakoid during the autumn hardening,Oquist, 1982 while heat and drought action upon wheat,Taran et al., 2000 at NaCl action in the halophyte Aster tripolium.
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In principle, the boiling-point elevation and the freezing-point depression could be used interchangeably for this purpose. However, the cryoscopic constant is larger than the ebullioscopic constant, and the freezing point is often easier to measure with precision, which means measurements using the freezing-point depression are more precise. Also, this phenomenon is applicable in preparing a freezing mixture for use in an ice-cream machine. For this purpose, NaCl or another salt is used to lower the melting point of ice.
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Number of NbSe2 layers as a function of Se powder temperature during CVD. Niobium diselenide crystals and thin films can be grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Nb oxide, selenium and NaCl powders are heated to different temperatures in the range 300–800 °C at ambient pressure in a furnace that allows maintaining a temperature gradient along its axis. Powders are placed in different locations in the furnace, and a mixture of argon and hydrogen is used as the carrier gas.
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American Chemical Society. March 29, 2006 Other experiments have demonstrated that the formation of perchlorate is associated with wide band gap semiconducting oxides. In 2014, it was shown that perchlorate and chlorate can be produced from chloride minerals under Martian conditions via UV using only NaCl and silicate. Further findings of perchlorate and chlorate in the Martian meteorite EETA79001 and by the Mars Curiosity rover in 2012-2013 support the notion that perchlorates are globally distributed throughout the Martian surface.
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Many routes to anthranilic acid have been described. Industrially it is produced from phthalic anhydride, beginning with amination: :C6H4(CO)2O + NH3 \+ NaOH → C6H4(C(O)NH2)CO2Na + H2O The resulting sodium salt of phthalamic acid is decarbonylated via a Hofmann rearrangement of the amide group, induced by hypochlorite:. :C6H4(C(O)NH2)CO2Na + HOCl → C6H4NH2CO2H + NaCl + CO2 A related method involves treating phthalimide with sodium hypobromite in aqueous sodium hydroxide, followed by neutralization.Vogel's Textbook of Practical Organic Chemistry, 4th Ed., (B.
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A three hundred milligram soybean powder specimen is mixed with a twenty milliliter compound including 0.5 M NaCl, 0.5% SDS, 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), and 2% 2-ME. The compound is then shaken at room temperature for 16 hours for abstraction. The abstract is centrifuged for 30 minutes at twenty thousand gram, then the supernatant is selected by a 0.8-μm microfilter paper. The protein substance from the initial abstract is inspected with a 2-D Quant Kit.
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Neutrality is defined as the condition where [H+] = [OH−] (or the activities are equal). Since self-ionization of water holds the product of these concentration [H+]×[OH−] = Kw, it can be seen that at neutrality [H+] = [OH−] = , or pH = pKw/2. pKw is approximately 14 but depends on ionic strength and temperature, and so the pH of neutrality does also. Pure water and a solution of NaCl in pure water are both neutral, since dissociation of water produces equal numbers of both ions.
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Like other alkali metal chalcogenides, this material is highly sensitive to water, easily undergoing hydrolysis to give mixtures of sodium biselenide (NaSeH) and hydroxide. This hydrolysis occurs because of the extreme basicity of the Se2− ion. :Na2Se + H2O → NaHSe + NaOH Similarly, sodium selenide is readily oxidized to polyselenides, a conversion signaled by off-white samples. Sodium selenide reacts with acids to produce toxic hydrogen selenide gas. :Na2Se + 2 HCl → H2Se + 2 NaCl The compound reacts with electrophiles to produce the selenium compounds.
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W.H. Freeman 1970), Pauling said in his Liversidge lecture in 1948 that he had been led to the principle by a consideration of ionic bonding. In the gas phase, molecular caesium fluoride has a polar covalent bond. The large difference in electronegativity gives a calculated covalent character of 9%. In the crystal (CsF has the NaCl structure with both ions being 6-coordinate) if each bond has 9% covalent character the total covalency of Cs and F would be 54%.
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At Low temperatures, where the concentration of hole carriers is less than 1.5x1020 cm−3 , Tin Telluride exists in rhombohedral phase also known as α-SnTe. At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, Tin Telluride exists in NaCl-like cubic crystal phase, known as β-SnTe. While at 18 kbar pressure, β-SnTe transforms to γ-SnTe, orthorhombic phase, space group Pnma. This phase change is characterized by 11 percent increase in density and 360 percent increase in resistance for γ-SnTe.
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The secretion of eccrine glands is a sterile, dilute electrolyte solution with primary components of bicarbonate, potassium, and sodium chloride (NaCl), and other minor components such as glucose, pyruvate, lactate, cytokines, immunoglobulins, antimicrobial peptides (e.g., dermcidin), and many others. Relative to the plasma and extracellular fluid, the concentration of Na+ ions is much lower in sweat (~40 mM in sweat versus ~150 mM in plasma and extracellular fluid). Initially, within the eccrine glands, sweat has a high concentration of Na+ ions.
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Fermentation takes place during the water treatment stage and involves a mixed yeast/bacteria ecosystem. Sometimes, the olives are lightly cracked with a hammer or a stone to trigger fermentation and speed up the fermentation process. Once debittered, the olives are brined to concentrations of 8–12% NaCl and acid corrected, and are then ready to eat. Salt-cured type (olives with minor fermentation): Applied only to ripe olives, they are usually produced in Morocco, Turkey, and other eastern Mediterranean countries.
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The PEG–NaCl system has been shown to be effective at partitioning small molecules, such as peptides and nucleic acids. These compounds are often flavorants or odorants. The system could then be used by the food industry to isolate or eliminate particular flavors. Caffeine extraction used to be done using liquid–liquid extraction, specifically direct and indirect liquid–liquid extraction (Swiss Water Method), but has since moved towards super-critical CO2 as it is cheaper and can be done on a commercial scale.
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Such deformation can generate large salt structures such as underground salt layers, salt diapirs or salt sheets at the surface. Strictly speaking, salt structures are formed by rock salt that is composed of pure halite (NaCl) crystal. However, most halite in nature appears in impure form, therefore rock salt usually refers to all rocks that composed mainly of halite, sometimes also as a mixture with other evaporites such as gypsum and anhydrite. Earth's salt deformation generally involves such mixed materials.
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Structure of tetramesityl disilene. Disilenes bearing sterically bulky substituents are isolable and have been well characterized although they remain mainly of academic interest. The first stabilised disilene was tetramesityldisilene, (C6Me3H2)4Si2. The Si=Si distance in this molecule is 2.15 Å, about 10% shorter than a typical Si–Si single bond. The Si2C4 core is roughly planar. Such species are typically prepared by reduction of organosilicon halides: 2 R2SiCl2 \+ 4 Na → R2Si=SiR2 \+ 4 NaCl An alternative synthesis involves photolysis of trisilacyclopropanes.
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Chloride can be protonated by strong acids, such as sulfuric acid: :NaCl + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 \+ HCl Ionic chloride salts reaction with other salts to exchange anions. The presence of chloride is often detected by its formation of an insoluble silver chloride upon treatment with silver ion: : Cl− \+ Ag+ → AgCl The concentration of chloride in an assay can be determined using a chloridometer, which detects silver ions once all chloride in the assay has precipitated via this reaction. Chlorided silver electrodes are commonly used in electrophysiology.Molleman, Areles (2003).
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Along with carnotite and roscoelite, vanadinite is one of the main industrial ores of the element vanadium, which can be extracted by roasting and smelting. Vanadinite is also occasionally used as a source of lead. A common process for extracting the vanadium begins with the heating of vanadinite with salt (NaCl) or sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) at about 850 °C to produce sodium vanadate (NaVO3). This is dissolved in water and then treated with ammonium chloride to give an orange-coloured precipitate of ammonium metavanadate.
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The first polysilane, poly(dimethylsilylene), [(CH3)2Si]x, was reported in 1949 by Charles A. Burkhard (1916 - 1991) of General Electric. It was prepared by heating sodium metal with dimethyldichlorosilane: :(CH3)2SiCl2 \+ 2 Na → [(CH3)2Si]n \+ 2 NaCl The modified Wurtz coupling of dichlorosilanes remains a viable and general route to high molecular weight, linear polysilane derivatives. This reaction is conducted at elevated temperature in an inert solvent using a dispersion of the alkali metal. The polymerization stops with the addition of an alcohol.
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Brine is a high-concentration solution of salt (NaCl) in water (H2O). In different contexts, brine may refer to salt solutions ranging from about 3.5% (a typical concentration of seawater, on the lower end of solutions used for brining foods) up to about 26% (a typical saturated solution, depending on temperature). Lower levels of concentration are called by different names: fresh water, brackish water, and saline water. Brine naturally occurs on the Earth's surface (salt lakes), crust, and within brine pools on ocean bottom.
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Other IT professionals are more critical of this sandboxing technology as it has substantial or substantive interoperability issues. Mozilla's vice president of products, Jay Sullivan, said that Mozilla has no plans to run native code inside the browser, as "These native apps are just little black boxes in a webpage. [...] We really believe in HTML, and this is where we want to focus." Mozilla's Christopher Blizzard criticized NaCl, claiming that native code cannot evolve in the same way that the source code-driven web can.
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Team 8 opened the season with an impressive 12-4 record, including a win against former LPL team LMQ. Despite a relatively disappointing end to the season, Team 8 finished first in the Elder Lizard Conference and tied for second overall with a record of 14-8, holding the conference tiebreaker against Cloud9 Tempest. During the NACL playoffs, Team 8 first played Team LoLPro and prevailed with a 2-0 set, and then fell to LMQ 1-3 to finish second and receive $5000 USD.
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Lowering the freezing point allows the street ice to melt at lower temperatures, preventing the accumulation of dangerous, slippery ice. Commonly used sodium chloride can depress the freezing point of water to about . If the road surface temperature is lower, NaCl becomes ineffective and other salts are used, such as calcium chloride, magnesium chloride or a mixture of many. These salts are somewhat aggressive to metals, especially iron, so in airports safer media such as sodium formate, potassium formate, sodium acetate, potassium acetate are used instead.
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Transhalogenation (also: halide metathesis) is a substitution reaction in which a halogen atom of a halogen compound is exchanged for another halogen atom, for example the reaction of an alkyl chloride to an alkyl fluoride by means of sodium fluoride: R-Cl + NaF → R-F + NaCl If the halogen compound is an organic compound, this is called Finkelstein reaction. However, it is also possible, for example, to produce phosphorus fluoride compounds by transhalogenating chlorine, bromine or iodine bound to phosphorus with a metal fluoride.
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The conventional method of preparation of sodium tetrachloroaurate involves the addition of tetrachloroauric acid solution to sodium chloride or sodium carbonate to form a mixture. The mixture is stirred at 100 °C, and then subjected to evaporation, cooling, crystallization, and drying to obtain the orange crystals of sodium tetrachloroaurate. H[AuCl4] + NaCl -> Na[AuCl4] + HCl 2H[AuCl4] + Na2CO3 -> 2Na[AuCl4] + H2O + CO2 However, more efficient preparation methods have been discovered recently. These are the addition of gold with sodium oxy-halogen salts and hydrochloric acid.
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Perspicuibacter marinus is smooth, lenticular, light yellow, semi-translucent, circular colonies with a fluttered edge found on surface seawater at Muroto city, Kochi prefecture, Japan. “Cells contain carotenoid(s), and the dominant carotenoid that anatomically similar to beta carotene. Cells are 0.3–0.860.8–3.0 mm, grow at 15–31 uC (optimally at 22–30 uC), at pH 7.5–8.5 (optimally at pH 8.5) and with 2.0–3.5% (w/v) NaCl (optimally with 3.0 %)” according to Teramoto M in the article Perspicuibacter marinus gen. nov.
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The carbon-carbon double bonds undergo ring closure, releasing ethene gas, resulting in N-boc-3-pyrroline. The hydroxymethyl groups on THPC undergo replacement reactions when THPC is treated with α,β-unsaturated nitrile, acid, amide, and epoxides. For example, base induces condensation between THPC and acrylamide with displacement of the hydroxymethyl groups. (Z = CONH2) :[P(CH2OH)4]Cl + NaOH + 3CH2=CHZ → P(CH2CH2Z)3 \+ 4CH2O + H2O + NaCl Similar reactions occur when THPC is treated with acrylic acid; only one hydroxymethyl group is displaced, however.
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Saline solution prepared for medical use by dissolving NaCl in water Hypertonic Saline with σ=1 has been of interest since early 1980s. Hypertonic Saline which contains sodium chloride works in regulating ICP, intravascular volume and cardiac output without causing significant diuresis, but there are theoretical side effects ranging from neurological complications to subdural hematoma. Hypertonic saline solution has been choice of neuro critical care for the past few years. Hypertonic Saline solution used varies and could be 3%, 7.5%, 10%, or 24.3% saline solution.
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After amplification, the emulsion from preceding step is broken using isopropanol and detergent buffer (10 mM Tris pH 7.5, 1 mM EDTA pH 8.0, 100 mM NaCl, 1% (v/v) Triton X‐100, 1% (w/v) SDS), following with a series of vortexing, centrifuging, and magnetic separation. The resulted solution is a suspension of empty, clonal and non- clonal beads, which arise from emulsion droplets that initially have zero, one or multiple DNA template molecules, respectively. The amplified bead could be enriched in the following step.
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It was suggested that the modification leads to faster changes in conformation due to the restrictions introduced by the carboxyl group. They attached the carboxyl-terminated PNIPAAm chains to (aminopropyl)silica and used it as packing material for HPLC analysis of steroids. The separation took place under isocratic conditions using pure water as the mobile phase, and controlled the temperature using a water bath. They were able to shift the LCST from 32 °C to 20 °C by making the solution 1M in NaCl concentration.
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F-center in an NaCl crystal An F-center, Farbe center or color center (from the original German Farbzentrum, where Farbe means color and zentrum means center) is a type of crystallographic defect in which an anionic vacancy in a crystal lattice is occupied by one or more unpaired electrons. Electrons in such a vacancy tend to absorb light in the visible spectrum such that a material that is usually transparent becomes colored. This is used to identify many compounds, especially zinc oxide (yellow).
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Stomatococcus mucilaginous is a Gram-positive, coagulase- negative, encapsulated, non-spore-forming and non-motile coccus, present in clusters, tetrads or pairs. S. mucilaginous can easily be confused for the bacteria from the genera Micrococcus and Staphylococcus. One way that it can be distinguished from those two is by its strong adherence to the solid medium substrate that its colonies form. Another way is by its weak or absent catalase reaction, failure to grow on 5% NaCl media or its glucose and sucrose fermentation.
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During the first week of the NACL, on October 8, 2013, DontMashMe announced that he had stepped down from his starter AD position.DontMashMe Twitter Post On November 26, WizFujiiN joined as the new starting AD. In December, Coast revealed that they would compete with challenger team The Walking Zed for a spot in the Season 4 Spring Split North American LCS at the Spring Promotion tournament. There, Coast would prevail 3-2 and receive a spot in their third LCS split, the Season 4 Spring Split.
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The alkali metals form complete series of compounds with all usually encountered anions, which well illustrate group trends. These compounds can be described as involving the alkali metals losing electrons to acceptor species and forming monopositive ions. This description is most accurate for alkali halides and becomes less and less accurate as cationic and anionic charge increase, and as the anion becomes larger and more polarisable. For instance, ionic bonding gives way to metallic bonding along the series NaCl, Na2O, Na2S, Na3P, Na3As, Na3Sb, Na3Bi, Na.
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The neutralization is described by the equation: :: HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2CO3 The carbonic acid rapidly equilibrates with carbon dioxide and water through catalysis by carbonic anhydrase enzymes bound to the gut epithelial lining, leading to a net release of carbon dioxide gas within the lumen associated with neutralisation. In the absorptive upper intestine, such as the duodenum, both the dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid will tend to equilibrate with the blood, leading to most of the gas produced on neutralisation being exhaled through the lungs.
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Bacteria obscuring the borders of vaginal epithelial cells, giving them a stippled appearance Vaginal wet mount with NaCl preparation, showing a clue cell at bottom left, and two normal epithelial cells. Clue cells are epithelial cells of the vagina that get their distinctive stippled appearance by being covered with bacteria. The etymology behind the term "clue" cell derives from the original research article from Gardner and Dukes describing the characteristic cells. The name was chosen for its brevity in describing the sine qua non of bacterial vaginosis.
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The candle must be wrapped in thermal insulation to maintain the reaction temperature and to protect surrounding equipment. The key reaction is: :2 NaClO3 → 2 NaCl + 3 O2 Potassium and lithium chlorate, and sodium, potassium and lithium perchlorates can also be used in oxygen candles. An explosion caused by one of these candles killed two Royal Navy sailors on , a nuclear-powered submarine, under the Arctic on 21 March 2007. The candle had become contaminated with hydraulic oil, which caused the mixture to explode rather than burn.
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At higher temperatures, solid KOH crystallizes in the NaCl crystal structure. The OH group is either rapidly or randomly disordered so that the group is effectively a spherical anion of radius 1.53 Å (between and in size). At room temperature, the groups are ordered and the environment about the centers is distorted, with distances ranging from 2.69 to 3.15 Å, depending on the orientation of the OH group. KOH forms a series of crystalline hydrates, namely the monohydrate KOH, the dihydrate KOH and the tetrahydrate KOH.
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Acetobacterium carbinolicum is a homoacetogenic, strictly anaerobic bacterium that oxidises primary aliphatic alcohols. These Gram-positive, non-spore- forming and rod-shaped bacteria grow at optimal temperatures of about 30°C, but some subspecies are also psychrotolerant, being able to grow at a minimum temperature of 2°C, as the microorganisms belonging to the subspecies A. carbinolicum kysingense, which have been isolated from fine sand and mud sedimented in a brackish fjord in Jutland, Denmark, where concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) in water are up to 4.3%.
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Salinibacter ruber is an extremely halophilic red bacterium that was found in saltern crystallizer ponds in Alicante and Mallorca, Spain in 2002 by Antón et al. This environment has very high salt concentrations, and Salinibacter ruber itself cannot grow at below 15% salt concentration, with an ideal concentration between 20–30%. This bacterium is notable for its halophilic lifestyle, a trait exhibited primarily by members of Archaea. In general, bacteria do not play a large role in microbial communities of hypersaline brines at or approaching NaCl saturation.
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This shows that pikachurin can form oligomeric structures; and suggests the possibility of clustering effects can be important in modulating pikachurin-dystroglycan interactions. Another thing to be considered is that the presence of NaCl (0.5M) strongly inhibits interaction between DG and other ligand proteins but has a modest inhibitory effect with pikachurin-DG ligand. This shows that there are differences between the binding of pikachurin-DG binding and DG binding with other proteins. Pikachurin seems to have more domains to bind with DG than other proteins.
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Ionic polarization is polarization caused by relative displacements between positive and negative ions in ionic crystals (for example, NaCl). If a crystal or molecule consists of atoms of more than one kind, the distribution of charges around an atom in the crystal or molecule leans to positive or negative. As a result, when lattice vibrations or molecular vibrations induce relative displacements of the atoms, the centers of positive and negative charges are also displaced. The locations of these centers are affected by the symmetry of the displacements.
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One chemical method involves the decomposition of triethylsilyl hydrotrioxide generated in situ from triethylsilane and ozone. :(C2H5)3SiH + O3 → (C2H5)3SiOOOH → (C2H5)3SiOH + O2(1Δg) Another method uses the aqueous reaction of hydrogen peroxide with sodium hypochlorite: : H2O2 \+ NaOCl → O2(1Δg) + NaCl + H2O A third method liberates singlet oxygen via phosphite ozonides, which are, in turn, generated in situ. Phosphite ozonides will decompose to give singlet oxygen: :(RO)3P + O3 → (RO)3PO3 :(RO)3PO3 → (RO)3PO + O2(1Δg) An advantage of this method is that it is amenable to non- aqueous conditions.
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Industrially, simple aluminium alkyls of the type Al2R6 (R = Me, Et) are prepared in a two-step process beginning with the alkylation of aluminium powder: :2 Al + 3 CH3CH2Cl → (CH3CH2)3Al2Cl3 The reaction resembles the synthesis Grignard reagents. The product, (CH3CH2)3Al2Cl3, is called ethylaluminium sesquichloride. The term sesquichloride refers to the fact that, on average, the Cl:Al ratio is 1.5. These sesquichlorides can be converted to the triorganoaluminium derivatives by reduction: :2 (CH3CH2)3Al2Cl3 \+ 6 Na → (CH3CH2)6Al2 \+ 2 Al + 6 NaCl This method is used for production of trimethylaluminium and triethylaluminium.
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The compound was first prepared by the reaction of 3-(triethoxysilyl)propyl chloride with sodium tetrasulfide:Thurn, Friedrich; Meyer-Simon, Eugen; Michel, Rudolf "Verfahren zur Herstellung von Organosiliziumverbindungen (Continuous manufacture of bis[3-(triethoxysilyl)propyl] tetrasulfide)" Ger. Offen. (1973), DE 2212239 A1 19731004. :Na2S4 \+ 2 ClC3H6Si(OEt)3 → S4[C3H6Si(OEt)3]2 \+ 2 NaCl Bis(triethoxysilylpropyl)tetrasulfide is a bifunctional molecule in that it contains two kinds of reactive functional groups. The tetrasulfide group is a polysulfide, which means that it consists of a chain of sulfur atoms.
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Meteoric precipitation also impacts precipitates, as halite and gypsum can be shown to dissolve after rainstorms. Rainfall also washes in organic matter from local flora and fauna into the lakes, increasing the total dissolved solid content. Geochemically, the average pH range of the lakes are from >1 to 5 and the average salinity is >25%, nearly 8 times that of seawater. Most of the Western Australian waters are sodium chloride (NaCl) brines with varying, but regionally excessive, amounts of calcium, potassium, aluminium, iron, bromine and silicon (Ca, K, Al, Fe, Br, and Si).
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A high positive E_{h} indicates an environment that favors oxidation reaction such as free oxygen. A low negative E_{h} indicates a strong reducing environment, such as free metals. Sometimes when electrolysis is carried out in an aqueous solution, water, rather than the solute, is oxidized or reduced. For example, if an aqueous solution of NaCl is electrolyzed, water may be reduced at the cathode to produce H2(g) and OH− ions, instead of Na+ being reduced to Na(s), as occurs in the absence of water.
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Addressing principle #2 is the Peroxide Process for producing hydrazine without cogenerating salt. Hydrazine is traditionally produced by the Olin Raschig process from sodium hypochlorite (the active ingredient in many bleaches) and ammonia. The net reaction produces one equivalent of sodium chloride for every equivalent of the targeted product hydrazine:Jean-Pierre Schirmann, Paul Bourdauducq "Hydrazine" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2002. . :NaOCl + 2 NH3 → H2N-NH2 \+ NaCl + H2O In the greener Peroxide process hydrogen peroxide is employed as the oxidant and the side product is water.
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In nature, chloride is found primarily in seawater, which contains 1.94% chloride. Smaller quantities, though at higher concentrations, occur in certain inland seas and in subterranean brine wells, such as the Great Salt Lake, Utah and the Dead Sea, Israel. Most chloride salts are soluble in water, thus, chloride-containing minerals are usually only found in abundance in dry climates or deep underground. Some chloride- containing minerals include halite (sodium chloride NaCl), sylvite (potassium chloride KCl), bischofite (MgCl2∙6H2O), carnallite (KCl∙MgCl2∙6H2O), and kainite (KCl∙MgSO4 ∙3H2O).
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Philippe Nicolas "ObjectiveFS a convenient gateway SW (original article in French)", File Storage Technologies Blog, 4 August 2014 It implements client-side encryption and uses the NaCl crypto library, with algorithms like Salsa20 and Poly1305. This approach doesn't have data- dependent branches or data-dependency array indices and protects against cache timing attacks. Data is encrypted before leaving the client, and stays encrypted at rest and in motion. One main difference between ObjectiveFS and GlusterFS/CephFS is that it offloads the storage cluster management to cloud providers (Amazon/Google).
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Potassium hypochlorite was first produced in 1789 by Claude Louis Berthollet in his laboratory on the Quai de Javel in Paris, France, by passing chlorine gas through a solution of potash lye. The resulting liquid, known as "Eau de Javel" ("Javel water"), was a weak solution of potassium hypochlorite. Antoine Labarraque replaced potash lye by the cheaper soda lye, thus obtaining sodium hypochlorite (Eau de Labarraque). :Cl2 (g) + 2 NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + NaClO (aq) + H2O (aq) Hence, chlorine is simultaneously reduced and oxidized; this process is known as disproportionation.
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Apart from group 1 and 2 complexes, a general method for preparing metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amides entails reactions of anhydrous metal chlorideMany metal chlorides may be dried by refluxing in thionyl chloride. See with an alkali metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amides via a salt metathesis reaction: : MCl \+ Na(hmds) → M(hmds) \+ NaCl Alkali metal chloride formed as a by-product typically precipitates as a solid, allowing for its removal by filtration. The remaining metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amide is then often purified by distillation or sublimation. Space-filling model of Fe[N(SiMe3)2]2.
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Halococcus is a genus of extreme halophilic archaea, meaning that they require high salt levels, sometimes as high as 32% NaCl, for optimal growth. Halophiles are found mainly in inland bodies of water with high salinity, where their pigments (from a protein called rhodopsinprotein) tint the sediment bright colors. Rhodopsinprotein and other proteins serve to protect Halococcus from the extreme salinities of their environments. Because they can function under such high-salt conditions, Halococcus and similar halophilic organisms have been used in the food industry and even in skin-care products.
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Phase diagram of water–NaCl mixture The second major application of salt is for de-icing and anti-icing of roads, both in grit bins and spread by winter service vehicles. In anticipation of snowfall, roads are optimally "anti-iced" with brine (concentrated solution of salt in water), which prevents bonding between the snow-ice and the road surface. This procedure obviates the heavy use of salt after the snowfall. For de-icing, mixtures of brine and salt are used, sometimes with additional agents such as calcium chloride and/or magnesium chloride.
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Impurities in the water ice crust of Europa are presumed both to emerge from the interior as cryovolcanic events that resurface the body, and to accumulate from space as interplanetary dust. Tholins bring important astrobiological implications, as they may play a role in prebiotic chemistry and abiogenesis. The presence of sodium chloride in the internal ocean has been suggested by a 450 nm absorption feature, characteristic of irradiated NaCl crystals, that has been spotted in HST observations of the chaos regions, presumed to be areas of recent subsurface upwelling.
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Chemosensory GC neurons are broadly tuned, meaning that a larger percentage of them respond to a larger number of tastants (4 and 5) as compared to the lower percentage responding to a fewer number of tastants (1 and 2). In addition, the number of neurons responding to a certain tastant stimulus varies. In the rat gustatory complex study, it was shown that more neurons responded to MSG, NaCl, sucrose, and citric acid (all activating approximately the same percentage of neurons) as compared to the compounds quinine (QHCl) and water.
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The space-holder technique is the most commonly employed method for producing titanium foams. The space-holder technique allows for the fabrication of higher porosity foams (35–80% ) than other techniques, while also giving the engineer more control over pore fraction, shape and connectivity. Mechanical properties can be adjusted through the size, shape and quantity of space-holders employed. The space-holder technique was first demonstrated by Zhao and Sun for the fabrication of aluminum foams in a powder metallurgical method, which consisted of the incorporation of NaCl as a space-holder.
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The acid is usually formed by acidification of an azide salt like sodium azide. Normally solutions of sodium azide in water contain trace quantities of hydrazoic acid in equilibrium with the azide salt, but introduction of a stronger acid can convert the primary species in solution to hydrazoic acid. The pure acid may be subsequently obtained by fractional distillation as an extremely explosive colorless liquid with an unpleasant smell. :NaN3 \+ HCl → HN3 \+ NaCl Its aqueous solution can also be prepared by treatment of barium azide solution with dilute sulfuric acid, filtering the insoluble barium sulfate.
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Unfortunately, the morning of their group semifinals match against vVv Red, top laner RicheRich left the team without warning. Team 8 was therefore forced to forfeit the game and exit early from the tournament. After a month of searching for replacement players, Team 8 found ex-League Championship Series AD carry frommaplestreet and challenger player CaliforniaTrlolz. With the addition of frommaplestreet, Slooshi moved to mid lane and chu8 became the team's substitute. With their new roster, Team 8 competed in the second season of the North American Challenger League (NACL).
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NaCl solutions The Dühring's rule is a scientific rule developed by Eugen Dühring which states that a linear relationship exists between the temperatures at which two solutions exert the same vapour pressure. The rule is often used to compare a pure liquid and a solution at a given concentration. Dühring's plot is a graphical representation of such a relationship, typically with the pure liquid's boiling point along the x-axis and the mixture's boiling point along the y-axis; each line of the graph represents a constant concentration.
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As a halogen, chlorine is a highly efficient disinfectant, and is added to public water supplies to kill disease- causing pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoans, that commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on the walls of water mains and in storage tanks. The microscopic agents of many diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery killed countless people annually before disinfection methods were employed routinely. By far most Chlorine is manufactured from table salt (NaCl) by electrolysis in the chlor-alkali process. The resulting gas at atmospheric pressures is liquified at high pressure.
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Pollen Exo-PGs play a role in enabling pollen tube elongation since pectin rearrangement is necessary for the growth of pollen tubes. This PG activity has been found in grasses like maize as well as in trees, particularly in the Eastern cottonwood. Exo-PGs involved in pollen tube growth need Ca2+ for maximal enzymatic activity and can be inhibited by high concentrations of NaCl, citrate, and EDTA. Abscission zones It is largely unclear whether PGs play a role in facilitating abscission in certain plants, and if they do, whether they are exo- or endo-acting.
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Molecular complexes are known such as TiCl2(chel)2, where chel is DMPE (CH3)2PCH2CH2P(CH3)2 and TMEDA ((CH3)2NCH2CH2N(CH3)2). Such species are prepared by reduction of related Ti(III) and Ti(IV) complexes. Unusual electronic effects have been observed in these species: TiCl2[(CH3)2PCH2CH2P(CH3)2]2 is paramagnetic with a triplet ground state, but Ti(CH3)2[(CH3)2PCH2CH2P(CH3)2]2 is diamagnetic. A solid-state derivative of TiCl2 is Na2TiCl4, which has been prepared by the reaction of Ti metal with TiCl3 in a NaCl flux.
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Retrieved 2006-10-14. The Solvay process could be modified to give the overall reaction: : 2 NaCl + CaCO3 \+ + → 2NaHCO3 \+ CaCl2 Variations in the Solvay process have been proposed to convert carbon dioxide emissions into sodium carbonates, but carbon sequestration by calcium or magnesium carbonates appears more promising. However, the amount of carbon dioxide exhausted by mankind as compared to the amount which can be used for carbon sequestration with calcium or magnesium is very low. Moreover, variation on the Solvay process will most probably add an additional energy step, which will increase carbon dioxide emissions. .
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M. abscessus and M. chelonae can be distinguished from M. fortuitum or M. peregrinum by their failure to reduce nitrate and to take up iron. Tolerance to 5% NaCl in Löwenstein-Jensen medium, tolerance to 0.2% picrate in Sauton agar], and non-use of citrate as a sole carbon source are characteristics that distinguish M. abscessus from M. chelonae. M. abscessus and M. chelonae sequevar I share an identical sequence in the 54-510 region of 16S rRNA, though both species can be differentiated by their hsp65, ITS or rpoB gene sequences.
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An example of this process includes the use of the Hofmann rearrangement, to yield methylamine from acetamide and bromine gas. In the laboratory, methylamine hydrochloride is readily prepared by various other methods. One method entails treating formaldehyde with ammonium chloride. :NH4Cl + H2CO → [CH2=NH2]Cl + H2O :[CH2=NH2]Cl + H2CO + H2O → [CH3NH3]Cl + HCO2H The colorless hydrochloride salt can be converted to an amine by the addition of a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH): :[CH3NH3]Cl + NaOH → CH3NH2 \+ NaCl + H2O Another method entails reducing nitromethane with zinc and hydrochloric acid.
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Rode and his coworkers discovered the salt induced peptide formation reaction as a simple route to synthesis peptides from amino acid monomers under prebiotic conditions. Instead of enzymes transition metals act as catalyst to induce peptide formation in highly concentrated aqueous NaCl solution, with copper (II) showing the highest catalytic activity. Typically, evaporation cycle experiments have been carried out to mimic day/night cycles on shore and in lagoons, thereby generating supersaturated solutions. Since such solutions have a tendency to dilute themselves, the thermodynamic and kinetic unfavourable peptide formation reaction is promoted.
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The company produces standard and granular potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl in the form of halite), and carnalite. It supplies products (through its own trader Uralkali Trading) to over 60 countries, with the major markets including Brazil, India, China, Southeast Asia, Russia, USA, and Europe. In 2018 Uralkali produced 11.5 million tonnes of potash (KCl)Uralkali official website. About the company Uralkali develops Verkhnekamskoye field of potassium and magnesium salts, world's second largest in terms of potash ore reserves. The company’s total ore reserves total approximately 8.2 billion tonnes.
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CTAB serves as an important surfactant in the DNA extraction buffer system to remove membrane lipids and promote cell lysis. Separation is also successful when the tissue contains high amounts of polysaccharides. CTAB binds to the polysaccharides when the salt concentration is high, thus removing polysaccharides from solution. A typical recipe can be to combine 100 mL of 1 M Tris HCl (pH 8.0), 280 mL 5 M NaCl, 40 mL of 0.5 M EDTA, and 20 g of CTAB then add double distilled water (ddH2O) to bring total volume to 1 L.
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This approximation breaks down as the solute concentration is increased (for example, in water–NaCl mixtures). High solute concentrations are often not physiologically relevant, but are occasionally encountered in pharmacology, where the mass per volume notation is still sometimes encountered. An extreme example is saturated solution of potassium iodide (SSKI) which attains 100 "%" m/v potassium iodide mass concentration (1 gram KI per 1 mL solution) only because the solubility of the dense salt KI is extremely high in water, and the resulting solution is very dense (1.72 times as dense as water).
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Injury to sensory nerves induces neurochemical, physiological, and anatomical modifications to afferent and central neurons, such as afferent terminal sprouting and inhibitory interneuron loss. Following nerve damage, NaCl channel accumulation causes hyperexcitability, and downregulation of the TTX-resistant Nav1.8 (sensory neuron specific, SNS1) channel and upregulation of TTX-sensitive Nav1.3 (brain type III) and TRPV1 channels. These changes contribute to increased NMDA glutamate receptor-dependent excitability of spinal dorsal horn neurons and are restricted to the ipsilateral (injured) side. A combination of these factors could contribute to the neuropathic pain state of postherpetic neuralgia.
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Since both and Na are liquid at the operating temperature, a sodium-conducting β-alumina ceramic is used to separate the liquid sodium from the molten . The primary elements used in the manufacture of these batteries have much higher worldwide reserves and annual production than lithium. It was invented in 1985 by the Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project (ZEBRA) group at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in Pretoria, South Africa. It can be assembled in the discharged state, using NaCl, Al, nickel and iron powder.
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Reaction scheme of the Leblanc process (green = reactants, black = intermediates, red = products) In the first step, sodium chloride is treated with sulfuric acid in the Mannheim process. This reaction produces sodium sulfate (called the salt cake) and hydrogen chloride: : 2 NaCl + H2SO4 -> Na2SO4 \+ 2 HCl This chemical reaction had been discovered in 1772 by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Leblanc's contribution was the second step, in which a mixture of the salt cake and crushed limestone (calcium carbonate) was reduced by heating with coal. This conversion entails two parts.
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Trichophyton concentricum produce dense, slow-growing folded colonies which are mostly white to cream colored on Sabouraud's dextrose agar and their hyphae are normally branched, irregular and septate with antler tips resembling T.schoenleinii. The production of conidia is unusual, however when present, microconidia and macroconidia are smooth walled with a diameter of approximately 4 microns and 50 µm respectively. Due to its resemblance to macroconidia, hyphae are sometimes be falsely identified as macroconidia. These fungi are also considered to be osmotolerant because of their ability to grown small colonies on 5% NaCl media and are.
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Chloro(cyclopentadienyl)bis(triphenylphosphine)ruthenium(II) undergoes a variety of reactions often by involving substitution of the chloride. With phenylacetylene it gives the phenyl vinylidene complex: : (C5H5)(PPh3)2RuCl + HC2Ph + NH4[PF6] → [Ru(C:CHPh)(PPh3)2(C5H5)][PF6] + NH4Cl Displacement of one PPh3 by carbon monoxide affords a chiral compound. :(C5H5)(PPh3)2RuCl + CO → (C5H5)(PPh3)(CO)RuCl + PPh3 The compound can also be converted into the hydride: :(C5H5)(PPh3)2RuCl + NaOMe → (C5H5)(PPh3)2RuH + NaCl + CH2O A related complex is tris(acetonitrile)cyclopentadienylruthenium hexafluorophosphate, which has three labile MeCN ligands.
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This bacterium has been isolated from oil-contaminated soil and marine water/sediment samples. While most Pseudomonas strains that have been isolated from marine environments are eventually transferred to another genus after classification, P. stutzeri is one of the few strains that has not. This strain meets the requirements of being able to tolerate NaCl and it is found in water columns in the Pacific Ocean and sediments in the Mediterranean. These marine strains have many ecological roles including naphthalene degradation, sulfur oxidation, and most importantly denitrification and diazotrophy (nitrogen fixation).
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He believed that a good physicist is first of all a good mathematician; therefore, only afterwards he focused on physics in which he obtained a master's degree two years later. Soon, he was offered a place in the Department of crystallography and mineralogy at the University of Geneva. There, in 1879, he became a lecturer and a full professor in 1881. In 1879, he published his first discussion on thermodiffusion on the basis of experiments with solutions of NaCl and KNO3 in pipes with heated or cooled ends.
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In order to eliminate or minimize the concentration polarization phenomenon present in electrodialysis systems, electrodeionization originated in the late 1950s. In 1955, researcher Walters et al, at the Argonne National Laboratory, developed one of the first Descriptions of electrodeionization using this method to remove traces of radioactive elements in the water. After 10 years, Sammons and Watts (Harwell Atomic Energy Authority) explored a way to use an EDI module to deionize a saline solution (NaCl). Nervertheless, several factors were not considered for cell design, therefore, an EDI device could not be adequately developed.
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The paper was about the detection of polyatomic anions in matrices of NaCl using infrared spectroscopy. Between 1985 and 1990, he studied chemical sciences at the Central University of Las Villas in Santa Clara, Cuba, where he obtained his degree in only 4 of the 5 years established for the program. In the first years after graduation, Estrada investigated the synthesis and spectroscopic characterization of new organic molecules with biological activity. This research introduced him to the world of computational chemistry due to the requirement of using efficient methods to design biologically active molecules.
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CMA is thought of as an environmentally friendly alternative deicer to NaCl and CaCl2. CMA also acts as a powerful SO2, NOx, and toxic particulate emission control agent in coal combustion processes to reduce acid rain, and as an effective catalyst for the facilitation of coal combustion. Magnesium acetate has been found to cause a conformational change in Escherichia coli enzyme Primase. In this experiment Mg(OAc)2, MnCl2, CaCl2, NaOAc, LiCl, MgSO4 and MgCl2 were all compared to see what effect they had on the Escherichia coli enzyme Primase.
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Rubidium bromide is the bromide of rubidium. It has a NaCl crystal structure, with a lattice constant of 685 picometres. There are several methods for synthesising rubidium bromide. One involves reacting rubidium hydroxide with hydrobromic acid: :RbOH + HBr → RbBr + H2O Another method is to neutralize rubidium carbonate with hydrobromic acid: :Rb2CO3 \+ 2HBr → 2RbBr + H2O + CO2 Rubidium metal would react directly with bromine to form RbBr, but this is not a sensible production method, since rubidium metal is substantially more expensive than the carbonate or hydroxide; moreover, the reaction would be explosive.
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It has been noted, however, that not all populations on the islands carry out the behavior, but that it is rather mostly done by those who consume more perennial and exotic foliage. Since some populations use mangroves as a source of food, it is natural for the monkey to consume more sodium chloride (NaCl). Because of this, those populations have been observed to drink water directly from tree-holes, or licking water off of leaves. This innovative behavior shows the adaptation of the monkey to novel ecological and environmental circumstances.
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Graduates from this school attended Simcoe Composite School along with children from nearby Doan's Hollow Public School. Funding for this school was provided primarily by the Lions Club and by the local association for the mentally disabled. Graduates from the Simcoe Lions School were denied most of their civil rights until the year 1988 when the mentally challenged people received the right to vote in municipal, provincial, and federal elections. Many great teachers and principals have inspired students to become members of the Norfolk Association for Community Living (NACL).
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Castner–Kellner cell: Sodium chloride is electrolyzed between the "A" anode and "M" mercury cathode in the side cells, with chlorine bubbling up into the space above the NaCl and the sodium dissolving in the mercury. The sodium–mercury amalgam flows to the center cell, where it reacts with water to produce sodium hydroxide and regenerate the mercury. Mercury cell electrolysis, also known as the Castner–Kellner process, was the first method used at the end of the nineteenth century to produce chlorine on an industrial scale.Pauling, Linus, General Chemistry, 1970 ed.
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Two leads, running from the terminals of a battery, are placed in a cup of water with a quantity of electrolyte to establish conductivity in the solution. Using NaCl (table salt) in an electrolyte solution results in chlorine gas rather than oxygen due to a competing half-reaction. With the correct electrodes and correct electrolyte, such as baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), hydrogen and oxygen gases will stream from the oppositely charged electrodes. Oxygen will collect at the positively charged electrode (anode) and hydrogen will collect at the negatively charged electrode (cathode).
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Spanish or Sevillian type (olives with fermentation): Most commonly applied to green olive preparation, around 60% of all the world's table olives are produced with this method. Olives are soaked in lye (dilute NaOH, 2–4%) for 8–10 hours to hydrolyse the oleuropein. They are usually considered "treated" when the lye has penetrated two-thirds of the way into the fruit. They are then washed once or several times in water to remove the caustic solution and transferred to fermenting vessels full of brine at typical concentrations of 8–12% NaCl.
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Lenthionine is an organic polysulfide found in shiitake mushrooms In commerce, the term "polysulfide" usually refers to a class of polymers with alternating chains of several sulfur atoms and hydrocarbons. They have the formula R2Sx. In this formula x indicates the number of sulfur atoms (or "rank"). Polysulfide polymers can be synthesized by condensation polymerization reactions between organic dihalides and alkali metal salts of polysulfide anions: :n Na2S5 \+ n ClCH2CH2Cl → [CH2CH2S5]n \+ 2n NaCl Dihalides used in this condensation polymerization are dichloroalkanes (such as 1,2-dichloroethane, bis-(2-chloroethyl)formal (ClCH2CH2OCH2OCH2CH2Cl), and 1,3-dichloropropane).
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For the most common types of glass production sulfate raw materials are used, in particular, NaSO, decomposing into SO and O. Glass types that melt at comparatively high temperature, such as borosilicate glasses, use chlorides, such as NaCl, having a sufficiently high vapour pressure at refining temperatures. Alkali-free glasses with high melting temperature, such as LC display glasses, use tin oxide, SnO. In the following cooling process gases from bubbles are reabsorbed in the melt. Redox agents such as SbO may release or absorb oxygen depending on temperature and composition.
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The original 1858 synthesis by Liebig reacted benzoyl chloride with barium peroxide, a reaction that probably follows this equation: :2 C6H5C(O)Cl + BaO2 → (C6H5CO)2O2 \+ BaCl2 Benzoyl peroxide is usually prepared by treating hydrogen peroxide with benzoyl chloride. :2 C6H5COCl + H2O2 \+ 2 NaOH → (C6H5CO)2O2 \+ 2 NaCl + 2 H2O The oxygen–oxygen bond in peroxides is weak. Thus, benzoyl peroxide readily undergoes homolysis (symmetrical fission), forming free radicals: :(C6H5CO)2O2 → 2 The symbol • indicates that the products are radicals; i.e., they contain at least one unpaired electron.
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The overall methodology is similar to the use of AgPF6, except that Tl+ is much less oxidizing. The crystalline structure is of cubic caesium chloride type at room temperature, but it lowers to the orthorhombic thallium iodide type upon cooling, the transition temperature being likely affected by the impurities. Nanometer-thin TlCl films grown on KBr substrates exhibit a rocksalt structure, while the films deposited on mica or NaCl are of the regular CsCl type. A very rare mineral lafossaite, Tl(Cl,Br), is a natural form of thallium(I) chloride.Lafossaite. Mindat.
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They prefer well-drained, sandy loams and are intolerant of waterlogging, but the deep root systems can adapt to a wide variety of soil conditions and are fairly salt-tolerant (up to 3% in soil). After being irrigated with saline water in the summer, carob trees could possibly recover during winter rainfalls. In some experiments, young carob trees were capable of basic physiological functions under high salt conditions (40 mmol NaCl/l). Not all legume species can develop a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia to make use of atmospheric nitrogen.
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Allyl alcohol can be obtained by many methods. It was first prepared in 1856 by Auguste Cahours and August Hofmann by hydrolysis of allyl iodide. Today allyl alcohol is produced commercially by the Olin and Shell corporations through the hydrolysis of allyl chloride: :CH2=CHCH2Cl + NaOH → CH2=CHCH2OH + NaCl Allyl alcohol can also be made by the rearrangement of propylene oxide, a reaction that is catalyzed by potassium alum at high temperature. The advantage of this method relative to the allyl chloride route is that it does not generate salt.
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Expanded view of the outer (σ3) and inner (σ1) pistons.A Griggs apparatus has the ability to create and maintain confining pressure on a sample while separately being able to strain the sample. Confining pressure is generated by advancing a hydraulic ram either by using a hand-operated lever pump or a servo-controlled syringe pump. The advancing ram then compresses the outer tungsten carbide piston (σ3) that in turn depresses the Pb plug at the top of the sample assembly and then in turn stresses the NaCl pressure medium.
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In the oil industry, calcium chloride is used to increase the density of solids-free brines. It is also used to provide inhibition of swelling clays in the water phase of invert emulsion drilling fluids. CaCl2 acts as flux material, decreasing the melting point, in the Davy process for the industrial production of sodium metal through the electrolysis of molten NaCl. Similarly, CaCl2 is used as a flux and electrolyte in the FFC Cambridge process for titanium production, where it ensures the proper exchange of calcium and oxygen ions between the electrodes.
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Structure of the polymeric [Ca(H2O)6]2+ center in crystalline calcium chloride hexahydrate, illustrating the high coordination number typical for calcium complexes. In much of the world, calcium chloride is derived from limestone as a by-product of the Solvay process, which follows the net reaction below: : 2 NaCl + CaCO3 → Na2CO3 \+ CaCl2 North American consumption in 2002 was 1,529,000 tonnes (3.37 billion pounds).Calcium Chloride SIDS Initial Assessment Profile, UNEP Publications, SIAM 15, Boston, 22–25 October 2002, page 11. In the US, most of calcium chloride is obtained by purification from brine.
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Fe(TPP)Cl is prepared by the reaction of tetraphenylporphyrin (H2TPP) and ferrous chloride in the presence of air: :H2TPP + FeCl2 \+ 1/4 O2 → Fe(TPP)Cl + HCl + 1/2 H2O The chloride can be replaced with other halides and pseudohalides. Base gives the "mu-oxo dimer": :2 Fe(TPP)Cl + 2 NaOH → [Fe(TPP)]2O + 2 NaCl + H2O Most relevant to catalysis, the complex is easily reduced to give ferrous derivatives (L = pyridine, imidazole): :Fe(TPP)Cl + e- + 2 L → Fe(TPP)L2 \+ Cl− The complex is widely studied as a catalyst.
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Several hypochlorites can be formed by a disproportionation reaction between chlorine and metal hydroxides. The reaction is performed at close to room temperature, as further oxidation will occur at higher temperatures leading to the formation of chlorates. This process is widely used for the industrial production of sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2). :Cl2 \+ 2 NaOH → NaCl + NaClO + H2O :2 Cl2 \+ 2 Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 \+ Ca(ClO)2 \+ 2 H2O Large amounts of sodium hypochlorite are also produced electrochemically via an un-separated chloralkali process.
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When NaCl is added into a freeze-casting suspension, the solid ice phase and liquid regions are separated by a zone where both solids and liquids can coexist. This briny region is removed during sublimation, but its existence has a strong effect on the microstructure of the porous ceramic. Other additives work by either altering the interfacial surface energies between the solid/liquid and particle/liquid, changing the viscosity of the suspension, or the degree of undercooling in the system. Studies have been done with glycerol, sucrose, ethanol, Coca-Cola, acetic acid and more.
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As the 99Mo continuously decays to 99mTc, the 99mTc can be removed periodically (usually daily) by flushing a saline solution (0.15 M NaCl in water) through the alumina column: the more highly charged 99MoO42− is retained on the column, where it continues to undergo radioactive decay, while the medically useful radioisotope 99mTcO4− is eluted in the saline. The eluate from the column must be sterile and pyrogen free, so that the Tc drug can be used directly, usually within 12 hours of elution. In a few cases, sublimation or solvent extraction may be used.
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Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself. In most open waters concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5%; drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration, which signals the kidney to excrete sodium. However, seawater's sodium concentration is above the kidney's maximum concentrating ability.
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Zirconocene dichloride may be prepared from zirconium(IV) chloride-THF complex and sodium cyclopentadienide: :ZrCl4(THF)2 \+ 2 NaCp -> Cp2ZrCl2 \+ 2 NaCl + 2 THF The closely related compound Cp2ZrBr2 was first described by Birmingham and Wilkinson. The compound is a bent metallocene: the Cp rings are not parallel, the average Cp(centroid)-M-Cp angle being 128°. The Cl-Zr-Cl angle of 97.1° is wider than in niobocene dichloride (85.6°) and molybdocene dichloride (82°). This trend helped to establish the orientation of the HOMO in this class of complex.
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Streptomyces antibioticus was discovered by Selman Waksman and H. Boyd Woodruff, who named the bacterium Actinomyces antibioticus. In their 1941 publication, Waksman and Woodruff describe their use of the "bacterial-agar plate method", in which they mixed a suspension of E. coli with washed agar containing 1.5% NaCl and 0.5% K3PO4. To this blend, they added "fresh field or garden soil" that was diluted with sterile tap water, and plated their final mixture. They concluded that "bacterial antagonists", that is, antibiotic producing organisms, would produce clear patches in the agar.
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Phosgene oxime can be prepared by reduction of chloropicrin using a combination of tin metal and hydrochloric acid as the source of the active hydrogen reducing acent: : Cl3CNO2 \+ 4 [H] → Cl2C=N−OH + HCl + H2O The observation of a transient violet color in the reaction suggests intermediate formation of trichloronitrosomethane (Cl3CNO). Early preparations, using stannous chloride as the reductant, also started with chloropicrin. The compound is electrophilic and thus sensitive to nucleophiles, including base hydrolysis: :Cl2CNOH + 2 NaOH → CO2 \+ NH2OH + 2 NaCl + H2O Similar processes provide an easy way to destroy this dangerous compound. Hydrazine converts it to HCN and N2.
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An image of the crystal structure of cubic ZrW2O8, showing the corner-sharing octahedral (ZrO6, in green) and tetrahedral (WO4, in red) structural units. An incomplete unit cell is shown so that the positioning of the W2O8 unit along the body diagonal of the unit cell may be seen. The arrangement of the groups in the structure of cubic ZrW2O8 is analogous to the simple NaCl structure, with ZrO6 octahedra at the Na sites, and W2O8 groups at the Cl sites. The unit cell consists of 44 atoms aligned in a primitive cubic Bravais lattice, with unit cell length 9.15462 Angstroms.
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They used a nanostructured vanadium oxide, which is able to load two to three times more lithium ions onto the cathode than the layered lithium cobalt oxide. In 2013 researchers announced a synthesis of hierarchical vanadium oxide nanoflowers (V10O24·nH2O) synthesized by an oxidation reaction of vanadium foil in a NaCl aqueous solution. Electrochemical tests demonstrate deliver high reversible specific capacities with 100% coulombic efficiency, especially at high C rates (e.g., 140 mAh g−1 at 10 C). In 2014, researchers announced the use of vanadate-borate glasses (V2O5 – LiBO2 glass with reduced graphite oxide) as a cathode material.
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The saline breast implant—filled with saline solution (biological-concentration salt water 0.90% w/v of NaCl, ca. 300 mOsm/L.)—was first manufactured by the Laboratoires Arion company, in France, and was introduced for use as a prosthetic medical device in 1964. The contemporary models of saline breast implant are manufactured with thicker, room-temperature vulcanized (RTV) shells made of a silicone elastomer. The study In vitro Deflation of Pre-filled Saline Breast Implants (2006) reported that the rates of deflation (filler leakage) of the pre-filled saline breast implant made it a second-choice prosthesis for corrective breast surgery.
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The evofosfamide drug product formulation used until 2011 was a lyophilized powder. The current drug product formulation is a sterile liquid containing ethanol, dimethylacetamide and polysorbate 80. For intravenous infusion, the evofosfamide drug product is diluted in 5% dextrose in WFI.FDA Advisory Committee Briefing Materials Available for Public Release, TH-302: Pediatric oncology subcommittee of the oncologic drugs advisory committee (ODAC) meeting, December 4, 2012 Diluted evofosfamide formulation (100 mg/ml evofosfamide, 70% ethanol, 25% dimethylacetamide and 5% polysorbate 80; diluted to 4% v/v in 5% dextrose or 0.9% NaCl) can cause leaching of DEHP from infusion bags containing PVC plastic.
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An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between them. For example, sodium (Na), a metal, loses one electron to become an Na+ cation while chlorine (Cl), a non-metal, gains this electron to become Cl−. The ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound sodium chloride (NaCl), or common table salt, is formed.
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It is the starting point for the chloralkali process, the industrial process to produce chlorine and sodium hydroxide, according to the chemical equation :2 NaCl + 2 H2O → Cl2 \+ H2 \+ 2 NaOH This electrolysis is conducted in either a mercury cell, a diaphragm cell, or a membrane cell. Each of those uses a different method to separate the chlorine from the sodium hydroxide. Other technologies are under development due to the high energy consumption of the electrolysis, whereby small improvements in the efficiency can have large economic paybacks. Some applications of chlorine include PVC, disinfectants, and solvents.
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The fungus can also tolerate a wide pH range, and is particularly resistant to alkaline conditions. The soil depth at which the fungus can be found is variable (down to 50 cm), but it appears to be particularly abundant in deeper soils. Like other members of its genus, A. versicolor displays moderate xerophillic characteristics, meaning that it can grow in conditions with low water activity (down to aW of 0.75–0.81 in the optimal temperature range). A. versicolor is also considered to be osmophilic as it is able to survive in solutions that are up to 30% NaCl or 40% sucrose.
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Studies using the Gustatory cortex of the rat model have shown that GC neurons exhibit complex responses to changes in concentration of tastant. For one tastant, the same neuron might increase its firing rate whereas for another tastant, it may only be responsive to an intermediate concentration. Studies have shown that few chemosensory GC neurons. In these studies it was evident that few chemosensory GC neurons monotonically increased or decreased their firing rates in response to changes in concentration of tastants (such as MSG, NaCl, and sucrose), the vast majority of them responded to concentration changes in a complex manner.
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Chemical oxygen generators, such as those in commercial aircraft, provide emergency oxygen to passengers to protect them from drops in cabin pressure. Oxygen is generated by high-temperature decomposition of sodium chlorate: :2 NaClO3 → 2 NaCl + 3 O2 Heat required to initiate this reaction is generated by oxidation of a small amount of iron powder mixed with the sodium chlorate, and the reaction consumes less oxygen than is produced. Barium peroxide (BaO2) is used to absorb the chlorine that is a minor product in the decomposition. An ignitor charge is activated by pulling on the emergency mask.
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In the context of a chemical reaction the term neutralization is used for a reaction between an acid and a base or alkali. Historically, this reaction was represented as :acid + base (alkali) → salt + water For example: :HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O The statement is still valid as long as it is understood that in an aqueous solution the substances involved are subject to dissociation, which changes the substances ionization state. The arrow sign, →, is used because the reaction is complete, that is, neutralization is a quantitative reaction. A more general definition is based on Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory.
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The smaller particles have a large potential to be used as a cleanser. The clays and soils particle size influences the refractive index (light) which allows for them to be used a s skin protectors. There are 17 minerals identified in Isinuku clay namely quartz (SiO2), mica, calcite (CaCO3), interstratified ilite ( K0,6(H3O)0.4Al1.3Mg0.3Fe2+0.1Si3.5)O10(OH)2.(H2O)), aragonite (CaCO3), gypsum CaSO4.2(H2O), rozenite Fe2+SO4.4(H2O), K-feldspar (KAlSi3O8), plagioclase (Na,Ca)(Si,Al)4O8), kaolinite (Al2SiO5(OH)4), chlorite (ClO2), halite (NACl), pyrite (FeS2), pyrophyllite (Al2Ai4O10(OH)2), spinel (MgAl2O4) and smectite (NaO3(Al,Mg)2SiO10(OH)2xH2O).
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SEM image of a grain of table salt Salt is mostly sodium chloride, the ionic compound with the formula NaCl, representing equal proportions of sodium and chlorine. Sea salt and freshly mined salt (much of which is sea salt from prehistoric seas) also contain small amounts of trace elements (which in these small amounts are generally good for plant and animal health ). Mined salt is often refined in the production of table salt; it is dissolved in water, purified via precipitation of other minerals out of solution, and re-evaporated. During this same refining process it is often also iodized.
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Cu2(OH)3Cl can be prepared by hydrolysis of a CuCl2 solution at pH 4 ~7. A variety of bases such as sodium carbonate, ammonium, calcium, or sodium hydroxide may be used (eq. 3). :2CuCl2 \+ 3 NaOH → Cu2(OH)3Cl + 3 NaCl (eq.3) Cu2(OH)3Cl can also be prepared by the reaction of a hot CuCl2 solution with freshly precipitated CuO (eq. 4). :CuCl2 \+ 3 CuO + 3 H2O → 2 Cu2(OH)3Cl (eq.4) If sufficient chloride ions are present in solution, hydrolysis of CuSO4 with alkali also produces Cu2(OH)3Cl (eq. 5).
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The most significant acute problem in childhood is a vulnerability to episodes of metabolic acidosis precipitated by minor illnesses. If a vomiting illness persists longer than 2–4 hours, the child should be seen and assessed for dehydration, acidosis, and hypoglycemia. If these are developing, intravenous fluids should be provided at a rate above maintenance. For mild acidosis, an effective fluid is 10% dextrose in ½ normal saline with 20 mEq/l KCl, but if acidosis is severe, 75–100 mEq/l and 20 mEq/l of K acetate can be substituted for the NaCl and KCl.
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A study at the University of Rochester mixed 99.8% pure α-iron powder with sodium chloride, and pressed a 0.5-mm diameter pellet between the flat faces of two diamond anvils. The deformation of the NaCl lattice, as measured by x-ray diffraction (XRD), served as a pressure indicator. At a pressure of 13 GPa and room temperature, the body-centered cubic (BCC) ferrite powder transformed to the HCP phase in Figure 1. When the pressure was lowered, ε-Fe transformed back to ferrite (α-Fe) rapidly. A specific volume change of −0.20 cm3/mole ± 0.03 was measured.
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Chlorine is produced from sodium chloride (common salt, NaCl) using electrolysis to separate the metallic sodium from the chlorine gas. Usually the salt is dissolved in water to produce a brine. By-products of any such chloralkali process are hydrogen (H2) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is commonly called caustic soda or lye. By far the largest use of mercury in the late 20th century was in the mercury cell process (also called the Castner- Kellner process) where metallic sodium is formed as an amalgam at a cathode made from mercury; this sodium is then reacted with water to produce sodium hydroxide.
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The southern bluefin tuna have a large gill surface area which is important for oxygen consumption and handling high osmoregulatory costs, associated with the high resting metabolic rate. They can adapt to increasing water salinity, where the ionocyte increase in size, gill filaments become thicker, the surface area of the basolateral memebrane increases, and the intracellular tubular system proliferates. Teleost fish do not have the loop of Henle in the kidneys and are, therefore, not able to produce hyperosmotic urine. Instead, they secrete small amounts of urine frequently in order to prevent water loss and excrete NaCl thorough the gills.
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Many forms of medication (from antibiotics to chemotherapy) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by the digestive tract. After severe acute blood loss, liquid preparations, generically known as plasma expanders, can be given intravenously, either solutions of salts (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 etc.) at physiological concentrations, or colloidal solutions, such as dextrans, human serum albumin, or fresh frozen plasma. In these emergency situations, a plasma expander is a more effective life-saving procedure than a blood transfusion, because the metabolism of transfused red blood cells does not restart immediately after a transfusion.
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1,1,1-Tris(diphenylphosphinomethyl)ethane is also called triphos. It is a tripodal ligand ("three-legged") of idealized C3v symmetry. It was originally prepared by the reaction of sodium diphenylphosphide and CH3C(CH2Cl)3: :3 Ph2PNa + CH3C(CH2Cl)3 → CH3C[CH2PPh2]3 \+ 3 NaCl It forms complexes with many transition metals, usually as a tripodal ligand. Such complexes are used to analyze mechanistic aspects of homogeneous catalysts. For example, rhodium forms complexes with CH3C[CH2PPh2]3 like [(triphos)RhCl(C2H4)], [(triphos)RhH(C2H4)], and [(triphos)Rh(C2H5)(C2H4)], provide model intermediates in the catalytic cycle for hydrogenation of alkenes.
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The chemical reactions in the cell may involve the electrolyte, the electrodes, or an external substance (as in fuel cells that may use hydrogen gas as a reactant). In a full electrochemical cell, species from one half-cell lose electrons (oxidation) to their electrode while species from the other half-cell gain electrons (reduction) from their electrode. A salt bridge (e.g., filter paper soaked in KNO3, NaCl, or some other electrolyte) is often employed to provide ionic contact between two half-cells with different electrolytes, yet prevent the solutions from mixing and causing unwanted side reactions.
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In addition to the web interface, Keybase offers a client application for Windows, Mac, Android, iOS, and most desktop Linux distributions, written in Go with an Electron front end. The app offers additional features to the website, such as the end-to-end encrypted chat, teams feature, and the ability to add files to and access private files in their personal and team Keybase Filesystem storage. Each device running the client app is authorized by a signature made either by another device or the user's PGP key. Each device is also given a per-device NaCl (pronounced "salt") key to perform cryptographic operations.
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Shimizu, K., Nakamura, H. & Ashiuchi, M. Salt-Inducible Bionylon Polymer from Bacillus Megaterium. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:2378–2379 (2007) At least one strain of B. megaterium can be considered a halophile, as growth on up to 15% NaCl has been observed.Khan, J. A. Biodegradation of Azo Dye by Moderately Halotolerant Bacillus megaterium and Study of Enzyme Azoreductase Involved in Degradation. Advanced Biotech 10:21–27 (2011) Gram-stained Bacillus megaterium Phylogenetically, based on 16S rRNA, B. megaterium is strongly linked with B. flexus, the latter distinguished from B. megaterium a century ago, but only recently confirmed as a different species.
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The addition of NaCl reduces repulsive forces between like-charged DNA strands (negative) so that they pack densely on nanoparticle surfaces. A typical procedure for preparing polyvalent DNA gold nanoparticles is outlined briefly below:Hurst, S. J.; Lytton-Jean, A. K. R.; Mirkin, C. A. "Maximizing DNA Loading on a Range of Gold Nanoparticle Sizes," Analytical Chemistry, 2006, 78, 8313–8318. doi:10.1021/ac0613582. # Reduce dithiol moieties by adding 0.1 M dithiothreitol (DTT) in 0.18 M phosphate buffer (PB) (pH=8) to lyophilized thiolated DNA and letting the solution sit for at least 1 hour. # Purify the DNA using a NAP-5 column.
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SF4 is produced by the reaction of SCl2 and NaF in acetonitrile: :3 SCl2 \+ 4 NaF → SF4 \+ S2Cl2 \+ 4 NaCl SF4 is also produced in the absence of solvent at elevated temperatures. Alternatively, SF4 at high yield is produced using sulfur (S), NaF and chlorine (Cl2) in the absence of reaction medium, also at less-desirable elevated reaction temperatures (e.g. 225–450 °C). A low temperature (e.g. 20–86 °C) method of producing SF4 at high yield, without the requirement for reaction medium, has been demonstrated utilizing bromine (Br2) instead of chlorine (Cl2), S and KF:Winter, R.W.; Cook P.W. (2010).
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Sodium hydroxide reacts with protic acids to produce water and the corresponding salts. For example, when sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride is formed: :NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaCl(aq) +H2O(l) In general, such neutralization reactions are represented by one simple net ionic equation: :OH- (aq) + H+(aq) -> H2O (l) This type of reaction with a strong acid releases heat, and hence is exothermic. Such acid-base reactions can also be used for titrations. However, sodium hydroxide is not used as a primary standard because it is hygroscopic and absorbs carbon dioxide from air.
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A cell membrane consists of many transport proteins that allow for ion transport, as ions can not simply pass through the gradient due to their charge. High Affinity K+ transporter HAK5, is important for the regulation of K+ ions within the cell. When there is a lack of K+, the HAK5 transporter is activated to uptake K+. This occurs when there is high salinity within the soil, which often happens within the crop industry. If the soil has a high salinity content, this means Na+ from NaCl competes with K+ for uptake because they are similar ions and use the same transporters.
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1.5 J/cm² per Mol for NaCl, 2.5 J/cm² per Mol for (NH4)2SO4), and because the entropy of the analyte-solvent interface is controlled by surface tension, the addition of salts tend to increase the retention time. This technique is used for mild separation and recovery of proteins and protection of their biological activity in protein analysis (hydrophobic interaction chromatography, HIC). Another important factor is the mobile phase pH since it can change the hydrophobic character of the analyte. For this reason most methods use a buffering agent, such as sodium phosphate, to control the pH.
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A vent site in the Cayman Trough named Beebe, which is the world's deepest known hydrothermal site at ~ below sea level, has shown sustained supercritical venting at and 2.3 wt% NaCl. Although supercritical conditions have been observed at several sites, it is not yet known what significance, if any, supercritical venting has in terms of hydrothermal circulation, mineral deposit formation, geochemical fluxes or biological activity. The initial stages of a vent chimney begin with the deposition of the mineral anhydrite. Sulfides of copper, iron, and zinc then precipitate in the chimney gaps, making it less porous over the course of time.
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They displayed a microaerophilic growth behaviour and used oxygen and nitrate as electron acceptors, but not nitrite, chlorate, sulfate, or ferric iron. The substrates metabolized included a broad range of organic acids, but no carbohydrates at all. The three species can be distinguished from each other by their substrate use, ability to hydrolyse urea and casein, cellular protein patterns, and growth on nutrient-rich media, as well as their temperature, pH, and NaCl tolerances. Phylogenetic analysis, based on 16S rRNA gene sequence comparison, revealed that the isolates are affiliated to the beta 1-subclass of Proteobacteria.
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High ceiling diuretics may cause a substantial diuresis – up to 20%Drug Monitor – Diuretics of the filtered load of NaCl (salt) and water. This is large in comparison to normal renal sodium reabsorption which leaves only about 0.4% of filtered sodium in the urine. Loop diuretics have this ability, and are therefore often synonymous with high ceiling diuretics. Loop diuretics, such as furosemide, inhibit the body's ability to reabsorb sodium at the ascending loop in the nephron, which leads to an excretion of water in the urine, whereas water normally follows sodium back into the extracellular fluid.
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One example is Chromohalobacter beijerinckii, found in salted beans preserved in brine and in salted herring. Tetragenococcus halophilus is found in salted anchovies and soy sauce. Artemia is a ubiquitous genus of small halophilic crustaceans living in salt lakes (such as Great Salt Lake) and solar salterns that can exist in water approaching the precipitation point of NaCl (340 g/L) and can withstand strong osmotic shocks due to its mitigating strategies for fluctuating salinity levels, such as its unique larval salt gland and osmoregulatory capacity. North Ronaldsay sheep are a breed of sheep originating from Orkney, Scotland.
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They are prepared by the oxidation of the salts of the corresponding dithiocarbamates (e.g. sodium diethyldithiocarbamate). Typical oxidants are chlorine and hydrogen peroxide: :2 R2NCSSNa + Cl2 → (R2NCSS)2 \+ 2 NaCl Thiuram disulfides react with Grignard reagents to give esters of dithiocarbamic acid, as in the preparation of methyl dimethyldithiocarbamate: :[Me2NC(S)S]2 \+ MeMgX → Me2NC(S)SMe + Me2NCS2MgX The compounds feature planar dithiocarbamate subunits and are linked by an S−S bond of 2.00 Å. The C(S)−N bond is short (1.33 Å), indicative of multiple bonding. The dihedral angle between the two dithiocarbamate subunits approaches 90°.
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The instructions advise that the heater should rest against a "rock or something" Ration heaters generate heat in an electron-transfer process called an oxidation-reduction reaction. Water oxidizes magnesium metal, according to the following chemical reaction: : Mg + 2H2O -> Mg(OH)2 \+ H2 [+ heat (q)] This reaction is analogous to iron being rusted by oxygen, and proceeds at about the same slow rate, which is too slow to generate usable heat. To accelerate the reaction, metallic iron particles and table salt (NaCl) are mixed with the magnesium particles. Iron and magnesium metals, when suspended in an electrolyte, form a galvanic cell that can generate electricity.
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The Federal Trade Commission definition for sulfur fiber is "A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a long chain synthetic polysulfide in which at least 85% of the sulfide (—S—) linkages are attached directly to two (2) aromatic rings." The PPS (polyphenylene sulfide) polymer is formed by reaction of sodium sulfide with p-dichlorobenzene: : + → []n \+ 2 NaCl Hill and Edmonds, developers of PPS The process for commercially producing PPS (Ryton) was initially developed by Dr. H. Wayne Hill Jr. and James T. Edmonds at Phillips Petroleum Company.H Wayne Hill Jr., James T. Edmonds, to the Phillips Petroleum Company Research Center (Bartlesville, Oklahoma, US). Patent 3,354,129, 1963.
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In this case, magnitude matching is used, in which a patient is asked to rate the intensities of taste stimuli and stimuli of another sensory system, such as the loudness of a tone, on a similar scale. For example, the Connecticut Chemosensory Clinical Research Center asks patients to rate the intensities of NaCl, sucrose, citric acid and quinine-HCl stimuli, and the loudness of 1000 Hz tones. Other tests include identification or discrimination of common taste substances. Topical anesthesia of the tongue has been reported to be of use in the diagnosis of dysgeusia as well, since it has been shown to relieve the symptoms of dysgeusia temporarily.
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Sodium is a vital element that is scarce in environments greater than 100 kilometres from the ocean. The distribution of clay licks across South America further supports this hypothesis – as the largest and most species-rich clay licks are found on the western side of the Amazon Basin far from oceanic influences. Salt-enriched (NaCl) oceanic aerosols are the main source of environmental sodium near coasts and this decreases drastically farther inland. Clay-eating behaviour by macaws is not seen outside the western Amazon region, even though macaws in these areas consume some toxic foods such as the seeds of Hura crepitans, or sandbox tree, which have toxic sap.
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Caesium chloride (CsCl) crystallizes in the simple cubic crystal system. Also called the "caesium chloride structure", this structural motif is composed of a primitive cubic lattice with a two-atom basis, each with an eightfold coordination; the chloride atoms lie upon the lattice points at the edges of the cube, while the caesium atoms lie in the holes in the centre of the cubes. This structure is shared with CsBr and CsI, and many other compounds that do not contain Cs. In contrast, most other alkaline halides have the sodium chloride (NaCl) structure. The CsCl structure is preferred because Cs+ has an ionic radius of 174 pm and 181 pm.
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Secondary and tertiary thiols are less easily prepared. Secondary thiols can be prepared from the ketone via the corresponding dithioketals.. A related two-step process involves alkylation of thiosulfate to give the thiosulfonate ("Bunte salt"), followed by hydrolysis. The method is illustrated by one synthesis of thioglycolic acid: :ClCH2CO2H + Na2S2O3 → Na[O3S2CH2CO2H] + NaCl :Na[O3S2CH2CO2H] + H2O → HSCH2CO2H + NaHSO4 Organolithium compounds and Grignard reagents react with sulfur to give the thiolates, which are readily hydrolyzed:. :RLi + S → RSLi :RSLi + HCl → RSH + LiCl Phenols can be converted to the thiophenols via rearrangement of their O-aryl dialkylthiocarbamates.. Thiols are prepared by reductive dealkylation of sulfides, especially benzyl derivatives and thioacetals.
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Further information: Autoregulation RAAS schematic The system can be activated when there is a loss of blood volume or a drop in blood pressure (such as in hemorrhage or dehydration). This loss of pressure is interpreted by baroreceptors in the carotid sinus. It can also be activated by a decrease in the filtrate sodium chloride (NaCl) concentration or a decreased filtrate flow rate that will stimulate the macula densa to signal the juxtaglomerular cells to release renin. # If the perfusion of the juxtaglomerular apparatus in the kidney's macula densa decreases, then the juxtaglomerular cells (granular cells, modified pericytes in the glomerular capillary) release the enzyme renin.
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TCEP technical information, from Interchim In organic synthesis, hydride agents are typically employed for scission of disulfides, such as sodium borohydride. More aggressive, alkali metals will effect this reaction: : RS−SR + 2 Na → 2 NaSR These reactions are often followed by protonation of the resulting metal thiolate: : NaSR + HCl → HSR + NaCl Thiol–disulfide exchange is a chemical reaction in which a thiolate group −S− attacks a sulfur atom of a disulfide bond −S−S−. The original disulfide bond is broken, and its other sulfur atom is released as a new thiolate, carrying away the negative charge. Meanwhile, a new disulfide bond forms between the attacking thiolate and the original sulfur atom.
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Natronomonas, like the other members of Halobacteriaceae, has a distinct physiological characteristics because it not only requires high NaCl concentrations but also high pH and low Mg2+ concentrations for growth. It usually utilizes amino acids as the carbon source, but the series of studies discovered that the archaeon has a high degree of nutritional self-sufficiency. Also, in contrast to other alkaliphiles, which use sodium Na+ instead of protons H+ as coupling ion between respiratory chain and ATP synthase, Natronomonas uses protons as coupling ion. The archaeon grows under highly alkaline conditions of pH around 11, which causes reduced levels of ammonia in addition to low availability of metal ions.
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The lanthanides form very stable polonides of formula LnPo with the halite (NaCl) structure: as the +2 oxidation state is disfavoured for most lanthanides, these are probably best described as intermetallic compounds rather than charge-separated ionic species.. . These compounds are stable to at least 1600 °C (the melting point of thulium polonide, TmPo, is 2200 °C), in contrast the ionic polonides (including the lanthanide sesquipolonides Ln2Po3) which decompose at around 600 °C. The thermal stability and non-volatility of these compounds (polonium metal boils at 962 °C) is important for their use in polonium-based heat sources. Mercury and lead also form 1:1 polonides.
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Halophilic Dunaliella species such as D. salina are notable for living all around the world in hypersaline environments such as salterns, salt lakes, and crystallizer ponds. Some of these are at lower salt concentration (~0.05M,) and some are at, or very close to, the saturation levels of NaCl (~5.5M). Its ability to flourish in such a wide range of salt concentrations allows it outcompete most other organisms in its habitat, since their tolerances are often not as high. Though the genus and its species have been studied for over a hundred years, very is little is known about their exact ecological dynamic with specific environmental conditions and with other organisms.
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After Swan developed the initial balloon tip, Ganz used Fronek's idea and added a small thermistor (temperature probe) about 3 cm behind the tip. Either cold 10 ml of saline (0.9% NaCl) under 10° Celsius or room temperature (not as accurate) is injected into an opening in the right atrium. As this cooler fluid passes the tip thermistor, a very brief drop in the blood temperature is recorded. A recent variation in design is the incorporation of a heating coil on the catheter (30 cm from the tip, residing in the atrium area) which eliminates the cold fluid bolus, a major factor in human technique variation.
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In December 2014, scientists and engineers led by Mikucki returned to Taylor Glacier and used a probe called IceMole, designed by a German collaboration, to melt into the glacier and directly sample the salty water (brine) that feeds Blood Falls. Samples were analysed, and revealed a cold (-7 °C), iron-rich (3.4 mM) subglacial brine (8% NaCl). From these samples, scientists isolated and characterized a type of bacteria capable of growing in salty water (halophilic), that thrives in the cold (psychrophile), and is heterotrophic, which they assigned to the genus Marinobacter. DNA bioinformatic analysis indicated the presence of at least four gene clusters involved in secondary metabolism.
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In southern bluefin tuna and other marine teleosts, specialized ion-transporting cells called ionocytes (previously known as mitochondrion-rich cells and chloride cells) is the primary sites of NaCl excretion Ionocytes are usually found on the gill arch and filament, though in some cases can be also found on the gill lamellae when exposed to various environmental stressors. Ionocytes are interspersed between pavement cells which occupy the largest proportion of the gill epithelium. Ionocytes are highly metabolically active, as indicated by the large number of mitochondria (which produce energy in the form of ATP). They are also rich in Na+/K+ ATPases, in comparison to other cells.
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The Salar contains a large amount of sodium, potassium, lithium and magnesium (all in the chloride forms of NaCl, KCl, LiCl and MgCl2, respectively), as well as borax. With an estimated 9,000,000 t, Bolivia holds about 7% of the world's known lithium resources; most of those are in the Salar de Uyuni. alt= Lithium is concentrated in the brine under the salt crust at a relatively high concentration of about 0.3%. It is also present in the top layers of the porous halite body lying under the brine; however, the liquid brine is easier to extract, by boring into the crust and pumping out the brine.
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The Pearson symbol does not uniquely identify the space group of a crystal structure, for example both the NaCl structure, (space group Fmm) and diamond (space group Fdm) have the same Pearson symbol cF8. Confusion also arises in the rhombohedral lattice which is alternatively described in a centred hexagonal (a=b, c, α=β=90º, γ=120º) or primitive rhombohedral (a=b=c, α=β=γ) setting. The more commonly used hexagonal setting has 3 translation equivalent points per unit cell. The Pearson symbol refers to the hexagonal setting in its letter code (hR) but the following figure gives the number of translation equivalent points in the primitive rhombohedral setting.
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Using IUPAC nomenclature, this equation would be read as "hydrochloric acid plus sodium yields sodium chloride and hydrogen gas." This equation indicates that sodium and HCl react to form NaCl and H2. It also indicates that two sodium molecules are required for every two hydrochloric acid molecules and the reaction will form two sodium chloride molecules and one diatomic molecule of hydrogen gas molecule for every two hydrochloric acid and two sodium molecules that react. The stoichiometric coefficients (the numbers in front of the chemical formulas) result from the law of conservation of mass and the law of conservation of charge (see "Balancing Chemical Equation" section below for more information).
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The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season, depth and temperature. In the early 1980s, the concentration of ionic species (in g/kg) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl− (181.4), Br− (4.2), SO42− (0.4), HCO3− (0.2), Ca2+ (14.1), Na+ (32.5), K+ (6.2) and Mg2+ (35.2). The total salinity was 276 g/kg.I. Steinhorn, In Situ Salt Precipitation at the Dead Sea, Limnol. Oceanogr. 28(3),1983, 580-583 These results show that the composition of the salt, as anhydrous chlorides on a weight percentage basis, was calcium chloride (CaCl2) 14.4%, potassium chloride (KCl) 4.4%, magnesium chloride (MgCl2) 50.8% and sodium chloride (NaCl) 30.4%.
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Phenylsulfinic acid can be prepared in several ways, most easily through reduction of sulfonyl chlorides with zinc dust or iron. However other starting materials can be used. Due to the air sensitivity of this compound it is often formed as a salt. :2 C6H5SO2Cl + 2 Zn → (C6H5SO2)2Zn + ZnCl2 :(C6H5SO2)2Zn + Na2CO3 \+ NaOH → 2 C6H5SO2Na + ZnCO3 A convenient method is the reduction of the sulfonyl chloride or sulfonyl fluoride with sodium sulfite, producing the acid instead of a salt: :C6H5SO2Cl + Na2SO3 \+ H2O → C6H5SO2H + NaCl + NaHSO4 Many other methods have been reported for production of sulfinic acids such as the use tin(II) chloride, or the Grignard reagent with sulfur dioxide.
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Once fermented, the olives are placed in fresh brine and acid corrected, to be ready for market. Sicilian or Greek type (olives with fermentation): Applied to green, semiripe and ripe olives, they are almost identical to the Spanish type fermentation process, but the lye treatment process is skipped and the olives are placed directly in fermentation vessels full of brine (8–12% NaCl). The brine is changed on a regular basis to help remove the phenolic compounds. As the caustic treatment is avoided, lactic acid bacteria are only present in similar numbers to yeast and appear to be outdone by the abundant yeasts found on untreated olives.
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Crystal structure of sodium chloride (table salt) The difficulty of predicting stable crystal structures based on the knowledge of only the chemical composition has long been a stumbling block on the way to fully computational materials design. Now, with more powerful algorithms and high-performance computing, structures of medium complexity can be predicted using such approaches as evolutionary algorithms, random sampling, or metadynamics. The crystal structures of simple ionic solids (e.g., NaCl or table salt) have long been rationalized in terms of Pauling's rules, first set out in 1929 by Linus Pauling, referred to by many since as the "father of the chemical bond".
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When chloride salts such as NaCl are added to aqueous HCl, they have only a minor effect on pH, indicating that Cl− is a very weak conjugate base and that HCl is fully dissociated in aqueous solution. Dilute solutions of HCl have a pH close to that predicted by assuming full dissociation into hydrated H+ and Cl−. Of the six common strong mineral acids in chemistry, hydrochloric acid is the monoprotic acid least likely to undergo an interfering oxidation-reduction reaction. It is one of the least hazardous strong acids to handle; despite its acidity, it consists of the non-reactive and non-toxic chloride ion.
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Permanganates can be produced by oxidation of manganese compounds such as manganese chloride or manganese sulfate by strong oxidizing agents, for instance, sodium hypochlorite or lead dioxide: :2 MnCl2 \+ 5 NaClO + 6 NaOH → 2 NaMnO4 \+ 9 NaCl + 3 H2O :2 MnSO4 \+ 5 PbO2 \+ 3 H2SO4 → 2 HMnO4 \+ 5 PbSO4 \+ 2 H2O It may also be produced by the disproportionation of manganates, with manganese dioxide as a side-product: :3 Na2MnO4 \+ 2 H2O → 2 NaMnO4 \+ MnO2 \+ 4 NaOH They are produced commercially by electrolysis or air oxidation of alkaline solutions of manganate salts (). A series of potassium permanganate solutions with varying concentration, increasing to the right.
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The inner most sleeve which houses the sample along with the upper and lower alumina pistons, is commonly also composed of NaCl. In addition to this arrangement, the inner sleeve can also be composed of a ternary eutectic salt mixture which is called a molten salt cell. The advantage to the molten salt cell is the salt mixture melts at moderate temperatures which allows for a true hydrostatic pressure to be applied the sample. When using a molten salt cell it also becomes necessary to add an additional nickel capsule to contain the salt mixture in order to prevent damage to other parts of the sample assembly.
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Sodium chloride (NaCl) or common table salt is known to corrode silver-copper alloy, typically seen in silver salt shakers where corrosion appears around the holes in the top. Several products have been developed for the purpose of polishing silver that serve to remove sulfur from the metal without damaging or warping it. Because harsh polishing and buffing can permanently damage and devalue a piece of antique silver, valuable items are typically hand-polished to preserve the unique patinas of older pieces. Techniques such as wheel polishing, which are typically performed by professional jewelers or silver repair companies, are reserved for extreme tarnish or corrosion.
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Throughout the Quaternary's wetter spans, streams running from nearby mountains filled Death Valley, creating Lake Manly, which during its greatest extents was approximately 80 mi (130 km) long and up to 600 ft (180 m) deep. Numerous evaporation cycles and a lack of outflow caused an increasing hypersalinity, typical for endorheic bodies of water. Over time, this hypersalinization, combined with sporadic rainfall and occasional aquifer intrusion, has resulted in periods of "briny soup", or salty pools, on the lowest parts of Death Valley's floor. Salts (95% table salt – NaCl) began to crystallize, coating the surface with the thick crust, ranging from , now observable at the basin floor.
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An FO membrane separation is used to draw water from the leachate feed into a saline (NaCl) brine. The diluted brine is then passed through a RO process to produce fresh water and a reusable brine concentrate. The advantage of this method is not a savings in energy, but rather in the fact that the FO process is more resistant to fouling from the leachate feed than a RO process alone would be.R. J. York, R. S. Thiel and E. G. Beaudry, Full-scale experience of direct osmosis concentration applied to leachate management, Sardinia ’99 Seventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, S. Margherita di Pula, Cagliari, Sardinia, Italy, 1999.
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The rapid growth of organometallic chemistry in the 20th century can be traced to the discovery of ferrocene, a very stable compound which foreshadowed the synthesis of many related sandwich compounds. Ferrocene is formed by reaction of sodium cyclopentadienide with iron(II) chloride: :2 NaC5H5 \+ FeCl2 → Fe(C5H5)2 \+ 2 NaCl Ferrocene displays diverse reactivity localized on the cyclopentadienyl ligands, including Friedel–Crafts reactions and lithation. Some electrophilic functionalization reactions, however, proceed via initial attack at the Fe center to give the bent [Cp2Fe–Z]+ species (which are formally Fe(IV)). For instance, HF:PF5 and Hg(OTFA)2, give isolable or spectroscopically observable complexes [Cp2Fe–H]+PF6– and Cp2Fe+–Hg–(OTFA)2, respectively.
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Sodium sulfate is a typical electrostatically bonded ionic sulfate. The existence of free sulfate ions in solution is indicated by the easy formation of insoluble sulfates when these solutions are treated with Ba2+ or Pb2+ salts: : Na2SO4 \+ BaCl2 → 2 NaCl + BaSO4 Sodium sulfate is unreactive toward most oxidizing or reducing agents. At high temperatures, it can be converted to sodium sulfide by carbothermal reduction (high temperature heating with charcoal, etc.): : Na2SO4 \+ 2 C → Na2S + 2 CO2 This reaction was employed in the Leblanc process, a defunct industrial route to sodium carbonate. Sodium sulfate reacts with sulfuric acid to give the acid salt sodium bisulfate: : Na2SO4 \+ H2SO4 ⇌ 2 NaHSO4 Sodium sulfate displays a moderate tendency to form double salts.
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Furosemide, like other loop diuretics, acts by inhibiting the luminal Na-K-Cl cotransporter in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle, by binding to the chloride transport channel, thus causing sodium, chloride, and potassium loss in urine. The action on the distal tubules is independent of any inhibitory effect on carbonic anhydrase or aldosterone; it also abolishes the corticomedullary osmotic gradient and blocks negative, as well as positive, free water clearance. Because of the large NaCl absorptive capacity of the loop of Henle, diuresis is not limited by development of acidosis, as it is with the carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Additionally, furosemide is a noncompetitive subtype-specific blocker of GABA-A receptors.
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Aqueous polyselenides undergo salt metathesis with large organic counterions to form crystalline salts that are soluble in organic solvents. :2 Na + n Se → Na2Sen : Na2Sen \+ 2 R4NCl → (R4N)2Sen \+ 2 NaCl The structures of polyselenides have been examined by X-ray crystallography. One characteristic feature of the structure is that two terminal Se–Se bonds are shorter than those bonds involving internal selenium atoms. High resolution solid state 77Se NMR spectroscopy of for [NMe4]2Se5 and [NMe4]2Se6 suggest similar confirmations of the anions [Se5]2− and Se2− in the solid state and in solution. The spectra of [NMe4]2Se5 show five distinct selenium sites and the [NMe4]2Se6 spectra show symmetry with only 3 crystallographically different selenium sites.
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Arenes undergo "mercuration" upon treatment with Hg(OAc)2. The one acetate group that remains on mercury can be displaced by chloride: :C6H5OH + Hg(OAc)2 → C6H4(OH)-2-HgOAc + HOAc :C6H4(OH)-2-HgOAc + NaCl → C6H4(OH)-2-HgCl + NaOAc The Hg2+ center binds to alkenes, inducing the addition of hydroxide and alkoxide. For example, treatment of methylacrylate with mercuric acetate in methanol gives an α-mercuri ester: :Hg(OAc)2 \+ CH2=CHCO2CH3 \+ CH3OH → CH3OCH2CH(HgOAc)CO2CH3 \+ HOAc Mercury(II) has a high affinity for sulfur ligands. Hg(OAc)2 can be used as a reagent to remove the acetamidomethyl protecting group, which is used to "protect" thiol groups in organic synthesis.
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Salt deposits beside the Dead Sea Halite (rock salt) from the Wieliczka salt mine, Małopolskie, Poland Loading sea salt at an evaporation pond in Walvis Bay; halophile organisms give it a red colour Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl), a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of salts; salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite. Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about of solids per liter of sea water, a salinity of 3.5%. Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes.
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Hafnia grows in media containing 2% to 5% NaCl, a pH range of 4.9 to 8.25, and thermal gradients of 4 °C to 44 °C; the optimum temperature for growth has been reported as 35 °C. There is general agreement that almost 100% of Hafnia strains grow on MacConkey, Hektoen enteric, eosin methylene blue, and xylose-lysine-deoxycholate agars, all of which are differential to moderately selective media. On more inhibitory selective media, 25% to 60% of strains fail to grow on Salmonella-Shigella (SS) agar, while 75% to 100% of isolates are inhibited on brilliant green medium. Classic strains of H. alvei are lactose and sucrose negative and as such appear as nonfermenting colonies on enteric isolation media.
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The partially negative dipole ends of the water are attracted to positively charged components of the solute, and vice versa for the positive dipole ends. In general, ionic and polar substances such as acids, alcohols, and salts are relatively soluble in water, and non-polar substances such as fats and oils are not. Non-polar molecules stay together in water because it is energetically more favorable for the water molecules to hydrogen bond to each other than to engage in van der Waals interactions with non-polar molecules. An example of an ionic solute is table salt; the sodium chloride, NaCl, separates into cations and anions, each being surrounded by water molecules.
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The main polycarbonate material is produced by the reaction of bisphenol A (BPA) and phosgene . The overall reaction can be written as follows: 450px The first step of the synthesis involves treatment of bisphenol A with sodium hydroxide, which deprotonates the hydroxyl groups of the bisphenol A.Volker Serini "Polycarbonates" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2000. :(HOC6H4)2CMe2 \+ 2 NaOH → Na2(OC6H4)2CMe2 \+ 2 H2O The diphenoxide (Na2(OC6H4)2CMe2) reacts with phosgene to give a chloroformate, which subsequently is attacked by another phenoxide. The net reaction from the diphenoxide is: :Na2(OC6H4)2CMe2 \+ COCl2 → 1/n [OC(OC6H4)2CMe2]n \+ 2 NaCl In this way, approximately one billion kilograms of polycarbonate is produced annually.
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The tip of the loop has the highest concentration of salt (NaCl) in the incoming tube—in the example 1199 mg/L, and in the buffer 1200 mg/L. The returning tube has active transport pumps, pumping salt out to the buffer liquid at a low difference of concentrations of up to 200 mg/L more than in the tube. Thus when opposite the 1000 mg/L in the buffer liquid, the concentration in the tube is 800 and only 200 mg/L are needed to be pumped out. But the same is true anywhere along the line, so that at exit of the loop also only 200 mg/L need to be pumped.
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Bethel Woods Center for the Arts, which also includes a museum of the sixties and Woodstock, holds many concerts and other events throughout the year. Other notable cultural destinations include the CAS Arts Center, a multi-arts exhibit space and education center run by the Catskill Art Society in Livingston Manor, New York, the NaCl Theatre, a professional regional theater company focusing on experimental work in Highland Lake, and the Delaware Valley Arts Alliance (DVAA) which serves as the Arts Council for Sullivan County and is located in Narrowsburg. DVAA offers two art galleries, performing arts and cultural programming, grant opportunities for artists and nonprofits, the Big Eddy Film Festival, and Riverfest.
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For example, their roots and stems contain large air spaces (aerenchyma) that regulate the efficient transportation of gases (for example, CO2 and O2) used in respiration and photosynthesis. Salt water plants (halophytes) have additional specialized adaptations, such as the development of special organs for shedding salt and osmoregulating their internal salt (NaCl) concentrations, to live in estuarine, brackish, or oceanic environments. Anaerobic soil microorganisms in aquatic environments use nitrate, manganese ions, ferric ions, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and some organic compounds; other microorganisms are facultative anaerobes and use oxygen during respiration when the soil becomes drier. The activity of soil microorganisms and the chemistry of the water reduces the oxidation-reduction potentials of the water.
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The largest accumulations of naturally occurring sodium nitrate are found in Chile and Peru, where nitrate salts are bound within mineral deposits called caliche ore.Stephen R. Bown, A Most Damnable Invention: Dynamite, Nitrates, and the Making of the Modern World, Macmillan, 2005, , p. 157. Nitrates accumulate on land through marine-fog precipitation and sea-spray oxidation/desiccation followed by gravitational settling of airborne NaNO3, KNO3, NaCl, Na2SO4, and I, in the hot-dry desert atmosphere. El Niño/La Niña extreme aridity/torrential rain cycles favor nitrates accumulation through both aridity and water solution/remobilization/transportation onto slopes and into basins; capillary solution movement forms layers of nitrates; pure nitrate forms rare veins.
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The coordination number of each atom in this structure is 6: each cation is coordinated to 6 anions at the vertices of an octahedron, and similarly, each anion is coordinated to 6 cations at the vertices of an octahedron. The interatomic distance (distance between cation and anion, or half the unit cell length a) in some rock-salt- structure crystals are: 2.3 Å (2.3 × 10−10 m) for NaF, 2.8 Å for NaCl, and 3.2 Å for SnTe. Other compounds showing rock salt like structure are LiF,J. Aigueperse, P. Mollard, D. Devilliers, M. Chemla, R. Faron, R. Romano, J. P. Cuer, "Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic" (section 4) in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2005. .
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The classic Finkelstein reaction entails the conversion of an alkyl chloride or an alkyl bromide to an alkyl iodide by treatment with a solution of sodium iodide in acetone. Sodium iodide is soluble in acetone while sodium chloride and sodium bromide are not. The reaction is driven toward products by mass action due to the precipitation of the poorly soluble NaCl or NaBr. An example involves the conversion of the ethyl ester of 5-bromovaleric acid to the iodide: :EtO2C(CH2)4Br + NaI → EtO2C(CH2)4I + NaBr Potassium fluoride is used for the conversion of chlorocarbons into fluorocarbons.. Such reactions usually employ polar solvents such as dimethyl formamide, ethylene glycol, and dimethyl sulfoxide.
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A chemical equation consists of the chemical formulas of the reactants (the starting substances) and the chemical formula of the products (substances formed in the chemical reaction). The two are separated by an arrow symbol (\rightarrow, usually read as "yields") and each individual substance's chemical formula is separated from others by a plus sign. As an example, the equation for the reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium can be denoted: :2 + 2 → 2 + This equation would be read as "two HCl plus two Na yields two NaCl and H two." But, for equations involving complex chemicals, rather than reading the letter and its subscript, the chemical formulas are read using IUPAC nomenclature.
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Oxidation to the N-oxide can then be undertaken. The disulfide dipyrithione, Pyrithione is found as a natural product in the Allium stipitatum plant, an Asian species of onion, also known as the Persian shallot. Its presence was detected using positive ion mass spectrometry using a Direct Analysis in Real Time ion source and the disulfide (2,2'-disulfanediylbis(pyridine)-1,1'-dioxide) has been reported from the same species. Dipyrithione can be prepared in a laboratory by oxidation of pyrithione with chlorine in the presence of sodium hydroxide: ::2 \+ \+ 2 NaOH -> \+ 2 NaCl \+ 2 Dipyrithione is used as a fungicide and bactericide, and has been reported to possess novel cytotoxic activity by inducing apoptosis.
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Sodium bicarbonate mixed with water can be used as an antacid to treat acid indigestion and heartburn. Its reaction with stomach acid produces salt, water, and carbon dioxide: :NaHCO3 \+ HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2(g) A mixture of sodium bicarbonate and polyethylene glycol such as PegLyte, dissolved in water and taken orally, is an effective gastrointestinal lavage preparation and laxative prior to gastrointestinal surgery, gastroscopy, etc. Intravenous sodium bicarbonate in an aqueous solution is sometimes used for cases of acidosis, or when insufficient sodium or bicarbonate ions are in the blood. In cases of respiratory acidosis, the infused bicarbonate ion drives the carbonic acid/bicarbonate buffer of plasma to the left, and thus raises the pH.
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Tin(II) selenide adopts a layered orthorhombic crystal structure at room temperature, which can be derived from a three- dimensional distortion of the NaCl structure. There are two-atom-thick SnSe slabs (along the b–c plane) with strong Sn–Se bonding within the plane of the slabs, which are then linked with weaker Sn–Se bonding along the a direction. The structure contains highly distorted SnSe7 coordination polyhedra, which have three short and four very long Sn–Se bonds, and a lone pair of the Sn2+ sterically accommodated between the four long Sn–Se bonds. The two-atom-thick SnSe slabs are corrugated, creating a zig-zag accordion-like projection along the b axis.
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Triphosphorus pentanitride can be produced by reactions between various phosphorus(V) and nitrogen anions (such as ammonia and sodium azide): :3 PCl5 \+ 5 NH3 → P3N5 \+ 15 HCl :3 PCl5 \+ 15 NaN3 → P3N5 \+ 15 NaCl + 5 N2 The reaction of the elements is claimed to produce a related material.Similar methods are used to prepared boron nitride (BN) and silicon nitride (Si3N4); however the products are generally impure and amorphous. Crystalline samples have been produced by the reaction of ammonium chloride and hexachlorocyclotriphosphazene or phosphorus pentachloride. :(NPCl2)3 \+ 2 NH4Cl → P3N5 \+ 8 HCl :3 PCl5 \+ 5 NH4Cl → P3N5 \+ 20 HCl P3N5 has also been prepared at room temperature, by a reaction between phosphorus trichloride and sodium amide.
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Thus, the TAL is an important segment of the TGF system, and its transport properties allow it to act as a key operator of the TGF system. A reduction of GFR occurs as a result of TGF when NaCl concentration at the sensor site is increased within the physiological range of approximately 10 to 60 mM. The TGF mechanism is a negative feedback loop in which the chloride ion concentration is sensed downstream in the nephron by the macula densa (MD), cells in the tubular wall near the end of TAL and the glomerulus. The muscle tension in the afferent arteriole is modified based on the difference between the sensed concentration and a target concentration.
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NUN buffer is a solution that makes it possible to purify proteins located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Although other procedures are available they result in loss of albumin D-box binding protein (DBP) which is unwanted if nuclear signal pathways are to be investigated. Therefore, a new extraction procedure was developed in 1993 to increase recovery of nonhistone proteins using a (NUN) solution containing 0.3 M NaCl, 1 M urea, and 1% nonionic detergent Nonidet P-40, which destabilize salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions, respectively; resulting in a disruption of interaction between proteins and DNA. By incubating nuclei in NUN buffer and centrifuging the solution, the supernatant will therefore contain nuclear proteins.
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Chlorine releasing compounds can react with other common household chemicals like vinegar or ammonia to produce toxic gases. Mixing an acid cleaner with a hypochlorite bleach can cause toxic chlorine gas to be released. The hypochlorite anion and chlorine are in equilibrium in water; the position of the equilibrium is pH dependent and low pH (acidic) favors chlorine, : Cl2 \+ H2O 2H+ \+ Cl− \+ ClO− A hypochlorite bleach can react violently with hydrogen peroxide and produce oxygen gas: :H2O2(aq) + NaOCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + O2(g) A 2008 study indicated that sodium hypochlorite and organic chemicals (e.g., surfactants, fragrances) contained in several household cleaning products can react to generate chlorinated volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
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The terms for this are electroplating, electrowinning, and electrorefining. When an ion gains or loses electrons without becoming neutral, its electronic charge is altered in the process. For example, the electrolysis of brine produces hydrogen and chlorine gases which bubble from the electrolyte and are collected. The initial overall reaction is thus: :2 NaCl + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2 \+ Cl2 The reaction at the anode results in chlorine gas from chlorine ions: :2 Cl− → Cl2 \+ 2 e− The reaction at the cathode results in hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions: :2 H2O + 2 e− → H2 \+ 2 OH− Without a partition between the electrodes, the OH− ions produced at the cathode are free to diffuse throughout the electrolyte to the anode.
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The process of filtration of the blood in the Bowman's capsule is ultrafiltration (or glomerular filtration), and the normal rate of filtration is 125 ml/min, equivalent to 80 times the daily blood volume. Any proteins under roughly 30 kilodaltons can pass freely through the membrane, although there is some extra hindrance for negatively charged molecules due to the negative charge of the basement membrane and the podocytes. Any small molecules such as water, glucose, salt (NaCl), amino acids, and urea pass freely into Bowman's space, but cells, platelets and large proteins do not. As a result, the filtrate leaving the Bowman's capsule is very similar to blood plasma (filtrate or glomerular filtrate is composed of blood plasma minus plasma protein i.e.
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Acetylacetone is prepared industrially by the thermal rearrangement of isopropenyl acetate. :CH2(CH3)COC(O)Me → MeC(O)CH2C(O)Me Laboratory routes to acetylacetone begin also with acetone. Acetone and acetic anhydride upon the addition of boron trifluoride (BF3) catalyst: :(CH3CO)2O + CH3C(O)CH3 → CH3C(O)CH2C(O)CH3 A second synthesis involves the base-catalyzed condensation of acetone and ethyl acetate, followed by acidification: :NaOEt + EtO2CCH3 \+ CH3C(O)CH3 → NaCH3C(O)CHC(O)CH3 \+ 2 EtOH :NaCH3C(O)CHC(O)CH3 \+ HCl → CH3C(O)CH2C(O)CH3 \+ NaCl Because of the ease of these syntheses, many analogues of acetylacetonates are known. Some examples include C6H5C(O)CH2C(O)C6H5 (dbaH) and (CH3)3CC(O)CH2C(O)CC(CH3)3.
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Ammonia fumes from aqueous ammonium hydroxide (in test tube) reacting with hydrochloric acid (in beaker) to produce ammonium chloride (white smoke). Bases react with acids to neutralize each other at a fast rate both in water and in alcohol. When dissolved in water, the strong base sodium hydroxide ionizes into hydroxide and sodium ions: :NaOH → + and similarly, in water the acid hydrogen chloride forms hydronium and chloride ions: :HCl + → + When the two solutions are mixed, the and ions combine to form water molecules: : + → 2 If equal quantities of NaOH and HCl are dissolved, the base and the acid neutralize exactly, leaving only NaCl, effectively table salt, in solution. Weak bases, such as baking soda or egg white, should be used to neutralize any acid spills.
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Salt water chlorination is a process that uses dissolved salt (2,500–6,000 ppm or 2.5–6 g/L) as a store for the chlorination system primarily for swimming pools and hot tubs. The chlorine generator (also known as salt cell, salt generator, salt chlorinator, or SWG) uses electrolysis in the presence of dissolved salt (NaCl) to produce chlorine gas (Cl2) or its dissolved forms - hypochlorous acid (HClO)/sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) - which is the sanitizing agent already commonly used in pools. Hydrogen is produced as byproduct too. As such, a saltwater pool or hot tub or spa tub (Jacuzzi being a famous brand) is not actually chlorine-free; it simply utilizes added salt and a chlorine generator instead of direct addition of chlorine.
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However, it has also been reported that the nodulation by the species on chickpea was reduced by water deficiency. Dual-inoculation of Glomus mosseae and Mesorhizobium mediterraneum could help Lathyrus sativus resist sulphate salinity stress while growth of Mesorhizobium mediterraneum was also found to be intolerant of salt stress of 200 mM NaCl. Mesorhizobium mediterraneum helped chickpea resist osmotic stress by enhancing nodular peroxidase and ascorbate peroxidase activities. Besides chickpea, Mesorhizobium mediterraneum and/or its closely related taxa have also been found to form symbiotic relationships with many other crops and plants, including wild liquorice (Astragalus glycyphyllos), lentil (Lens culinaris Medik), the South African legume species of the genus Lessertia, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), Lotus tenuis, Caragana, and Astragalus cicer.
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Ulrich Lauter,† Simon W. Kantor, Klaus Schmidt-Rohr, and William J. MacKnight, Vinyl-Substituted Silphenylene Siloxane Copolymers: Novel High-Temperature Elastomers. Macromolecules. 1999, 32, pp 3426-3431. :n(CH3)2Si[N(CH3)2]2 \+ nHO(CH2)2SiRSi(CH2)2OH → [(CH3)2SiO(CH2)2SiRSi(CH2)2O]n \+ 2nHN(CH3)2 Sodium metal can be used to polymerize dimethyldichlorosilane, producing polysilane chains with a Si-Si backbone. Other types of dichlorosilane monomers, such as Ph2SiCl2, can be added to adjust the properties of the polymer. :n(CH3)2SiCl2 \+ 2nNa → [(CH3)2Si]n \+ 2nNaCl :n(CH3)2SiCl2 \+ Ph2SiCl2 \+ 2(n+m)Na → [(CH3)2Si]n(Ph2Si)m \+ 2(n+m)NaCl In organic synthesis it (together with its close relative diphenyldichlorosilane) is used as a protecting group for gem- diols.
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LiAlH4 was first prepared from the reaction between lithium hydride (LiH) and aluminium chloride: :4 LiH + AlCl3 → LiAlH4 \+ 3 LiCl In addition to this method, the industrial synthesis entails the initial preparation of sodium aluminium hydride from the elements under high pressure and temperature: :Na + Al + 2 H2 → NaAlH4 LiAlH4 is then prepared by a salt metathesis reaction according to: :NaAlH4 \+ LiCl → LiAlH4 \+ NaCl which proceeds in a high yield. LiCl is removed by filtration from an ethereal solution of LAH, with subsequent precipitation of LiAlH4 to yield a product containing around 1% w/w LiCl. An alternative preparation starts from LiH, and metallic Al instead of AlCl3. Catalyzed by a small quantity of TiCl3 (0.2%), the reaction proceeds well using dimethylether as solvent.
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Hydrochloric acid (in beaker) reacting with ammonia fumes to produce ammonium chloride (white smoke). Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and neutralized base; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water: :HCl(aq) \+ NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) \+ NaCl(aq) Neutralization is the basis of titration, where a pH indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction. Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt.
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John Wiley & Sons: New York, 2005. :PSCl3 \+ 4 H2O → H3PO4 \+ H2S + 3 HCl :PSCl3 \+ H2O → HOP(S)Cl2 \+ HCl PSCl3 is used to thiophosphorylate, or add P=S, organic compounds. This conversion is widely applicable for amines and alcohols, as well as amino alcohols, diols, and diamines. Industrially, PSCl3 is used to produce insecticides, like parathion.Fee, D. C.; Gard, D. R.; Yang, C. “Phosphorus Compounds” Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons: New York, 2005. :PSCl3 \+ 2 C2H5OH → (C2H5O)2PSCl + 2 HCl :(C2H5O)2PSCl + NaOC6H4NO2 → (C2H5O)2PSOC6H4NO2 \+ NaCl PSCl3 reacts with tertiary amides to generate thioamides. For example: :C6H5C(O)N(CH3)2 \+ PSCl3 → C6H5C(S)N(CH3)2 \+ POCl3 When treated with methylmagnesium iodide, it give tetramethyldiphosphine disulfide ([Me2P(S)].2.
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Gas chromatography is the principal method for analysis and detection of ethylene oxide. An inexpensive test for ethylene oxide exploits its precipitation of solid hydroxides of metals when it is passed through aqueous solutions of their salts: :2 (CH2CH2)O + MnCl2 \+ 2 H2O → 2 HO–CH2CH2–Cl + Mn(OH)2↓ Similarly, ethylene oxide is detected by the bright pink color of the indicator when passing air through aqueous solutions of some salts of sodium or potassium (chlorides, iodides, thiosulfates, etc.) with the addition of phenolphthalein: : (CH2CH2)O + NaCl + H2O → HO–CH2CH2–Cl + NaOH Other methods of ethylene oxide detection are color reactions with pyridine derivatives and hydrolysis of ethylene glycol with periodic acid. The produced iodic acid is detected with silver nitrate.
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This process was developed by Chinese chemist Hou Debang in the 1930s. The earlier steam reforming byproduct carbon dioxide was pumped through a saturated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia to produce sodium bicarbonate by these reactions: :CH4 \+ 2H2O → CO2 \+ 4H2 :3H2 \+ N2 → 2NH3 :NH3 \+ CO2 \+ H2O → NH4HCO3 :NH4HCO3 \+ NaCl → NH4Cl + NaHCO3 The sodium bicarbonate was collected as a precipitate due to its low solubility and then heated up to approximately or to yield pure sodium carbonate similar to last step of the Solvay process. More sodium chloride is added to the remaining solution of ammonium and sodium chlorides; also, more ammonia is pumped at 30-40 °C to this solution. The solution temperature is then lowered to below 10 °C.
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TiN has a Vickers hardness of 1800–2100, a modulus of elasticity of 251 GPa, a thermal expansion coefficient of 9.35 K−1, and a superconducting transition temperature of 5.6 K. TiN will oxidize at 800 °C in a normal atmosphere. It is chemically stable at 20 °C, according to laboratory tests, but can be slowly attacked by concentrated acid solutions with rising temperatures. Depending on the substrate material and surface finish, TiN will have a coefficient of friction ranging from 0.4 to 0.9 against another TiN surface (non-lubricated). The typical TiN formation has a crystal structure of NaCl-type with a roughly 1:1 stoichiometry; TiNx compounds with x ranging from 0.6 to 1.2 are, however, thermodynamically stable.
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These akinetes can persist in sediment for long periods of time, and are able to germinate once water temperatures rise to the appropriate level. The bacteria prefers temperatures ranging from 25–30 °C, light intensity of 80–121 μmol m-2 s-1, and a max salinity concentration of 4 g L-1 NaCl. The levels of the bacteria typically stay relatively low throughout the summer, however it can be associated with very high concentrations under certain conditions. These conditions include: low flow; low water level; low nitrogen to phosphorus ratio; high water temperature; stable thermal stratification; increased retention time; high pH; high sulfate concentration; anoxia in at least some strata; high turbidity; high incident irradiation; and low macrophyte biomass.
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Aeluropus lagopoides is adapted to the saline conditions in which it is often found by having a thick waxy cuticle, and by having glands that can secrete excess salt. The seeds are able to germinate at concentrations of up to 500 mM NaCl in warmer conditions, a concentration of salt roughly equivalent to sea water, but not at temperatures below ; the seeds remain viable at high salt concentrations and can germinate when the concentration reduces, after rainfall for example. Aeluropus lagopoides is useful for stabilising sand and produces good fodder, dying back in the dry season and sprouting well after winter rains. Despite a three-fold increase in soil salt content in some areas in summer, the concentration of salt in the tissues shows little variation.
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Structure of a xanthate ester Xanthate salts characteristically decompose in acid: :ROCS2K + HCl → ROH + CS2 \+ KCl This reaction is the reverse of the method for the preparation of the xanthate salts. The intermediate in the decomposition is the xanthic acid, ROC(S)SH, which can be isolated in certain cases. Xanthate anions also undergo alkylation to give xanthate esters, which are generally stable: :ROCS2K + R′X → ROC(S)SR′ + KX The C-O bond in these compounds are susceptible to cleavage by the Barton–McCombie deoxygenation, which provides a means for deoxygenation of alcohols. They can be oxidized to the so-called dixanthogens: :2 ROCS2Na + Cl2 → ROC(S)S2C(S)OR + 2 NaCl Xanthates bind to transition metal cations as bidentate ligands.
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At the same time Balram Naidu arrives in a helicopter and asks Fletcher to surrender.At the end of the moment Narahazi asks Fletcher how he wants to die. Caught between Narahazi and Balram Naidu, Fletcher answers Narahazi "You dont decide that my friend" and opens the vial and bites it, getting infected and puking blood. Govind and Balram Naidu who is aware of the consequence stare helplessly on the situation when Suddenly, a tsunami strikes , washing away Fletcher, and causing great destruction along the coast while stopping the impact of the vial which would have destructed the enire state if it was not washed away by sea water hat contains tons and tons of NaCl which is the only solution to stop the consequence of the virus.
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Gaikai's proprietary technology ran inside web browsers, in part, by using previously installed plug-ins such as Java or Adobe Flash, or alternately without using any plug- ins, as demonstrated at Google I/O 2012, where Gaikai showed a version of the service using the Google Native Client (NaCl). A demo video early on in the service, at GDC San Francisco 2010, showed Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare, World of Warcraft, EVE Online, Spore, Mario Kart 64 and Adobe Photoshop all running in Adobe Flash player. In May 2010, Gaikai demonstrated World of Warcraft running on the iPad using its game streaming technology. Gaikai's technology officially came out of a public Beta test and launched internationally on February 27, 2011, with Dead Space 2, The Sims 3, Spore, and Mass Effect 2.
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This irreversibility of the inverted-micelles are supported by mass density profiles which display an overlapping of leaflets from opposite membranes that interact forming a strong interlocking between the acyl chains or hydrophobic region with and without the presence of ethanol. Snapshots of the simulations are produced at 100 ns which compared the phospholipid membrane system in the presence of ethanol and in the absence of ethanol which continues to support ethanol's preference to bind near the hydrophilic region of the phospholipid. The researchers also added monovalent ions as salt ions (NaCl) to the phospholipid membrane system which formed non-lamellar phases (micelles) as well. This phenomenon is important because they predict that in the presence of ethanol the micelles can serve as transporters for hydrophilic structures across the membrane.
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Along with Kripke, Keith Donnellan, and others, Putnam contributed to what is known as the causal theory of reference. In particular, he maintained in The Meaning of "Meaning" that the objects referred to by natural kind terms—such as "tiger", "water", and "tree"—are the principal elements of the meaning of such terms. There is a linguistic division of labor, analogous to Adam Smith's economic division of labor, according to which such terms have their references fixed by the "experts" in the particular field of science to which the terms belong. So, for example, the reference of the term "lion" is fixed by the community of zoologists, the reference of the term "elm tree" is fixed by the community of botanists, and the reference of the term "table salt" is fixed as "NaCl" by chemists.
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Sodium bisulfate is produced as an intermediate in the Mannheim process, an industrial process involving the reaction of sodium chloride and sulfuric acid: :NaCl + H2SO4 → HCl + NaHSO4 This step is highly exothermic. The liquid sodium bisulfate is sprayed and cooled so that it forms a solid bead. The hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water to produce hydrochloric acid as a useful coproduct of the reaction. Although not of commercial interest, sodium bisulfate can be generated as a byproduct of the production of many other mineral acids via the reaction of their sodium salts with an excess of sulfuric acid: :NaX + H2SO4 → NaHSO4 \+ HX ( X− = CN−, NO3−, ClO4−) The acids HX produced have a lower boiling point than the reactants and are separated from the reaction mixture by distillation.
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Likewise, the loop of Henle requires a number of different cell types because each cell type has distinct transport properties and characteristics. These include the descending limb cells, thin ascending limb cells, thick ascending limb cells, cortical collecting duct cells and medullary collecting duct cells. One step towards validating the microfluidic device's simulation of the full filtration and reabsorption behavior of a physiological nephron would include demonstrating that the transport properties between blood and filtrate are identical with regards to where they occur and what is being let in by the membrane. For example, the large majority of passive transport of water occurs in the proximal tubule and the descending thin limb, or the active transport of NaCl largely occurs in the proximal tubule and the thick ascending limb.
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The existence of frigorific mixtures can be viewed as a consequence of the Gibbs phase rule, which describes the relationship at equilibrium between the number of components, the number of coexisting phases, and the number of degrees of freedom permitted by the conditions of heterogeneous equilibrium. Specifically, at constant atmospheric pressure, in a system containing linearly independent chemical components, if +1 phases are specified to be present in equilibrium, then the system is fully determined (there are no degrees of freedom). That is, the temperature and the compositions of all phases are determined. Thus, in for example the chemical system H2O-NaCl, which has two components, the simultaneous presence of the three phases liquid, ice, and hydrohalite can exist only at atmospheric pressure at the unique temperature of –21.2 °C .
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Mixtures relying on the use of acid base slushes are of limited practical value beyond producing melting point references as the enthalpy of dissolution for the melting point depressant is often significantly greater (e.g. ΔH -57.61 kJ/mol for KOH) than the enthalpy of fusion for water itself (ΔH 6.02 kJ/mol); for reference, ΔH for the dissolution of NaCl is 3.88 kJ/mol. Enthalpy of solution of analytes, CRC This results in little to no net cooling capacity at the desired temperatures and an end mixture temperature that is higher than it was to begin with. The values claimed in the table are produced by first precooling and then combining each subsequent mixture with it surrounded by a mixture of the previous temperature increment; the mixtures must be 'stacked' within one another.
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The separation of matter wave packets from complete atoms was first observed by Esterman and Stern in 1930, when a Na beam was diffracted off a surface of NaCl. The first modern atom interferometer reported was a Young's-type double slit experiment with metastable helium atoms and a microfabricated double slit by Carnal and Mlynek in 1991, and an interferometer using three microfabricated diffraction gratings and Na atoms in the group around Pritchard at MIT. Shortly afterwards, an optical version of Ramsey spectrometer typically used in atomic clocks was recognized also as an atom interferometer at the PTB in Braunschweig, Germany. The largest physical separation between the partial wave packets of atoms was achieved using laser cooling techniques and stimulated Raman transitions by S. Chu and coworkers in Stanford.
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In solution, under certain conditions, the hypochlorite anion may also disproportionate (autoxidize) to chloride and chlorate: :3 + → + 2 In particular, this reaction occurs in sodium hypochlorite solutions at high temperatures, forming sodium chlorate and sodium chloride: :3 (aq) → 2 (aq) + (aq) This reaction is exploited in the industrial production of sodium chlorate. An alternative decomposition of hypochlorite produces oxygen instead: :2 → 2 + In hot sodium hypochlorite solutions, this reaction competes with chlorate formation, yielding sodium chloride and oxygen gas: :2 (aq) → 2 (aq) + (g) These two decomposition reactions of solutions are maximized at pH around 6. The chlorate-producing reaction predominates at pH above 6, while the oxygen one becomes significant below that. For example, at 80 °C, with NaOCl and NaCl concentrations of 80 mM, and pH 6–6.5, the chlorate is produced with ∼95% efficiency.
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The law of reciprocal proportions (also called law of equivalent proportions or law of permanent ratios ) is one of the basic laws of stoichiometry. It relates the proportions in which elements combine across a number of different elements. It was first formulated by Jeremias Richter in 1791. A simple statement of the law is:- :If element A combines with element B and also with C, then, if B and C combine together, the proportion by weight in which they do so will be simply related to the weights of B and C which separately combine with a constant weight of A. :As an example, 1 gram of sodium (Na = A) is observed to combine with either 1.54 grams of chlorine (Cl = B) or 5.52 grams of iodine (I = C). (These ratios correspond to the modern formulas NaCl and NaI).
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EQCM is broadly used to study the deposition/dissolution process on electrode surface, such as the oscillation of electrode potential during Cu/CuO2 layered nanostructure electrodeposition, deposition growth process of cobalt and nickel hexacyanoferrate in calcium nitrate and barium nitrate electrolyte solution, and the Mg electrode electrochemical behaviour in various polar aprotic electrolyte solutions. EQCM can be used as a powerful tool for corrosion and corrosion protection study, which is usually combined with other characterization technologies. A previous work used EQCM and XPS studied Fe-17Cr-33Mo/ Fe-25Cr alloy electrodes mass changes during the potential sweep and potential step experiments in the passive potential region in an acidic and a basic electrolyte. Another previous work used EQCM and SEM to study the influence of purine (PU) on Cu electrode corrosion and spontaneous dissolution in NaCl electrolyte solution.
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The most typical route to thioester involves the reaction of an acid chloride with an alkali metal salt of a thiol: :RSNa + R′COCl → R′COSR + NaCl Another common route entails the displacement of halides by the alkali metal salt of a thiocarboxylic acid. For example, thioacetate esters are commonly prepared by alkylation of potassium thioacetate: :CH3COSK + RX → CH3COSR + KX The analogous alkylation of an acetate salt is rarely practiced. The alkylation can be conducted using Mannich bases and the thiocarboxylic acid: :CH3COSH + R′2NCH2OH → CH3COSCH2NR′2 \+ H2O Thioesters can be prepared by condensation of thiols and carboxylic acids in the presence of dehydrating agents: :RSH + R′CO2H → RSC(O)R′ + H2O A typical dehydration agent is DCC. Acid anhydrides and some lactones also give thioesters upon treatment with thiols in the presence of a base.
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In 1861, the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay developed a method to make sodium carbonate by first reacting sodium chloride, ammonia, water, and carbon dioxide to generate sodium bicarbonate and ammonium chloride: :NaCl + NH3 \+ CO2 \+ H2O → NaHCO3 \+ NH4Cl The resulting sodium bicarbonate was then converted to sodium carbonate by heating it, releasing water and carbon dioxide: :2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 \+ H2O + CO2 Meanwhile, the ammonia was regenerated from the ammonium chloride byproduct by treating it with the lime (calcium oxide) left over from carbon dioxide generation: :2NH4Cl + CaO → 2NH3 \+ CaCl2 \+ H2O The Solvay process recycles its ammonia. It consumes only brine and limestone, and calcium chloride is its only waste product. The process is substantially more economical than the Leblanc process, which generates two waste products, calcium sulfide and hydrogen chloride. The Solvay process quickly came to dominate sodium carbonate production worldwide.
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Another derivative that reveals oxyselenide properties is β-La2O2MSe2 (M= Fe, Mn). This molecule possesses an orthorhombic structure (Figure 3), opening up the possibilities for different packing arrangements of oxyselenides. They are ferromagnetic at low temperatures (~27 K) and show high resistivity at room temperature. The Mn analogue, diluted in NaCl solution, suggests an optical band gap of 1.6 eV at room temperature, making it an insulator. Meanwhile, the band gap for the Fe analogue is approximately 0.7 eV between 150 K and 300 K, making it a semiconductor. In contrast, cobalt oxyselenide La2Co2O3Se2 is antiferromagnetically ordered, suggesting that although the different transition metals are responsible for the changes in an oxyselenide's magnetic property, the molecule's overall lattice structure may also influence its conductivity. Figure 4: Comparison of figure-of-merit ZT compounds Bi1-xMxCuSeO. Higher ZTs indicate more efficient energy conversions.
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The formula indicates the presence of aluminium metal centres in the +3 oxidation state and acetate groups in a ratio of 1:3. Images used to represent this substance, such as those shown at left, represent two highly oversimplified approximations of the solid-state structure: the first is as a purely ionic salt with a single aluminium(III) cation (Al3+) surrounded by and associated electrostatically with three acetate anions (), but this should not be taken to convey information about the crystal structure. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) has a cation-to-anion stoichiometry of 1:1, but it has a cubic structure with each ion surrounded octahedrally by six ions of the opposite charge. The other image is a molecular form with the three acetate groups covalently bonded to the metal centre in a trigonal planar geometry and intermolecular interactions holding the molecules together with each other in the crystal structure.
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Typical Gram-positive cocci, in clusters, from a sputum sample, Gram stain Depending upon the type of infection present, an appropriate specimen is obtained accordingly and sent to the laboratory for definitive identification by using biochemical or enzyme-based tests. A Gram stain is first performed to guide the way, which should show typical Gram-positive bacteria, cocci, in clusters. Second, the isolate is cultured on mannitol salt agar, which is a selective medium with 7–9% NaCl that allows S. aureus to grow, producing yellow-colored colonies as a result of mannitol fermentation and subsequent drop in the medium's pH. Furthermore, for differentiation on the species level, catalase (positive for all Staphylococcus species), coagulase (fibrin clot formation, positive for S. aureus), DNAse (zone of clearance on DNase agar), lipase (a yellow color and rancid odor smell), and phosphatase (a pink color) tests are all done.
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6, Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 1997. PrCl3 forms a stable Lewis acid-base complex K2PrCl5 by reaction with potassium chloride; this compound shows interesting optical and magnetic properties.J. Cybinska, J. Sokolnicki, J. Legendziewicz, G. Meyer, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 341, 115–123 (2002). Aqueous solutions of praseodymium(III) chloride can be used to prepare insoluble praseodymium(III) compounds. For example, praseodymium(III) phosphate and praseodymium(III) fluoride can be prepared by reaction with potassium phosphate and sodium fluoride, respectively: :PrCl3 \+ K3PO4 → PrPO4 \+ 3 KCl :PrCl3 \+ 3 NaF → PrF3 \+ 3 NaCl :2PrCl3 \+ 3 Na2CO3\----> Pr2CO3 \+ 6NaCl When heated with alkali metal chlorides, it forms a series of ternary (compounds containing three different elements) materials with the formulae MPr2Cl7, M3PrCl6, M2PrCl5, and M3Pr2Cl9 where M = K, Rb, Cs.Gerd Meyer, "Ternary Chlorides and Bromides of the Rare-Earth Elements", Inorganic Syntheses, 1990, Volume 30, pp. 72–81.
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Thiourea is employed as a source of sulfide, such as for converting alkyl halides to thiols. The reaction capitalizes on the high nucleophilicity of the sulfur center and easy hydrolysis of the intermediate isothiouronium salt: :CS(NH2)2 \+ RX → : + 2 NaOH → RSNa + OC(NH2)2 \+ NaX :RSNa + HCl → RSH + NaCl In this example, ethane-1,2-dithiol is prepared from 1,2-dibromoethane: :C2H4Br2 \+ 2 SC(NH2)2 → [C2H4(SC(NH2)2)2]Br2 :[C2H4(SC(NH2)2)2]Br2 \+ 2 KOH → C2H4(SH)2 \+ 2 OC(NH2)2 \+ 2 KBr Like other thioamides, thiourea can serve as a source of sulfide upon reaction with metal ions. For example, mercury sulfide forms when mercuric salts in aqueous solution are treated with thiourea: :Hg2+ \+ SC(NH2)2 \+ H2O → HgS + OC(NH2)2 \+ 2 H+ These sulfiding reactions, which have been applied to the synthesis of many metal sulfides, require water and typically some heating.
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The high heat storage capacity in the phase change from solid to liquid, and the advantageous phase change temperature of 32 °C (90 °F) makes this material especially appropriate for storing low grade solar heat for later release in space heating applications. In some applications the material is incorporated into thermal tiles that are placed in an attic space while in other applications the salt is incorporated into cells surrounded by solar–heated water. The phase change allows a substantial reduction in the mass of the material required for effective heat storage (the heat of fusion of sodium sulfate decahydrate is 82 kJ/mol or 252 kJ/kg), with the further advantage of a consistency of temperature as long as sufficient material in the appropriate phase is available. For cooling applications, a mixture with common sodium chloride salt (NaCl) lowers the melting point to 18 °C (64 °F).
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Halite deposits (and teepee structure) along the western Dead Sea coastWith 34.2% salinity (in 2011), it is one of the world's saltiest bodies of water, though Lake Vanda in Antarctica (35%), Lake Assal in Djibouti (34.8%), Lagoon Garabogazköl in the Caspian Sea (up to 35%) and some hypersaline ponds and lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica (such as Don Juan Pond (44%)) have reported higher salinities. Until the winter of 1978–79, when a major mixing event took place, the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature, density, age, and salinity. The topmost or so of the Dead Sea had an average salinity of 342 parts per thousand (in 2002), and a temperature that swung between and . Underneath a zone of transition, the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent temperature and complete saturation of sodium chloride (NaCl).
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Persephonella marina was first isolated in 1999 using MSH medium, a medium containing 29 g NaCl, 2 g NaOH, 0.5 g KCl, 1.36 g MgCl2•6H2O, 7 g MgSO4•7H2O, 2 g Na2S2O3•5H2O, 0.4 g CaCl2•2H2O, 0.2 g NH4Cl, 0.3 g K2HPO4•3H2O and 10 ml of a trace-element stock solution, with a gas phase containing twenty parts carbon dioxide, one part oxygen, and twenty six parts hydrogen gas. Initial isolation was provided by a sample obtained from a depth of 2,507 meters on a sulfidic chimney. This particular sulfidic chimney was named "Q-Vent" and is located at a latitude of 9° North and a longitude of 104° West in a region called the East Pacific Rise. The environment in which P. marina was obtained was too harsh for humans due to the excessive temperature (133 °C with spikes up to 170 °C) and extreme pressure.
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In a colloidal dispersed system, ion dissolution arises, where the dispersed particles exist in equilibrium with their saturated counterpart, for example: :NaCl(s) Na+(aq) \+ Cl−(aq) The behavior of this system is characterised by the components activity coefficients and solubility product: :aNa+ · aCl− = Ksp In clay-aqueous systems the potential of the surface is determined by the activity of ions which react with the mineral surface. Frequently this is the hydrogen ion H+ in which case the important activity is determined by pH. The simultaneous adsorption of protons and hydroxyls as well as other potential determining cations and anions, leads to the concept of point of zero charge or PZC, where the total charge from the cations and anions at the surface is equal to zero. The charge must be zero, and this does not necessarily mean the number of cations versus anions in the solution are equal.
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Most dithiolene complexes are prepared by reaction of alkali metal salts of 1,2-alkenedithiolates with metal halides. A thiolate is the conjugate base of a thiol, so alkenedithiolate is, formally speaking, the conjugate base of an alkenedithiol. Common alkenedithiolates are 1,3-dithiole-2-thione-4,5-dithiolate and maleonitriledithiolate (mnt2−): : Ni2+ \+ 2 (NC)2C2S22− → Ni[S2C2(CN)2]22− Some alkenedithiolates are generated in situ, often by complex organic reactions: : cis-H2C2(SCH2Ph)2 \+ 4 Na → cis-H2C2(SNa)2 \+ 2 NaCH2Ph Once generated, these anions are deployed as ligands: : NiCl2 \+ 2 cis-H2C2(SNa)2 → Na2[Ni(S2C2H2)2] + 2 NaCl Often the initially formed, electron-rich complex undergoes spontaneous air-oxidation: :[Ni(S2C2H2)2]2− \+ 2 H+ \+ 1/2 O2 → Ni(S2C2H2)2 \+ H2O Structure of (C5H5)2Mo2(S2C2H2)2, featuring a bridging dithiolene ligand. It was prepared by the addition of acetylene to (C5H5)2Mo2S4.
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G.S. Suppiger Co. operated a canning company which had a subsidiary "devoted to making and leasing a patented tablet depositing machine and to making and selling salt tablets of a particular design and configuration." The salt tablets were unpatented, common salt (NaCl) but they had a particular shape to fit the patented salt tablet depositing machine that Suppiger made ("a particular configuration which is required for use in plaintiff's depositing machines for continuous, untroubled use"). Suppiger's leases to canners of tomatoes and other vegetables "included a license to use the patented machine, upon the condition and agreement by the lessee that plaintiff's and its predecessor's salt tablets be used exclusively in said patented, leased machines." Morton Salt Co. was in the same business and made and leased salt tablet depositing machines alleged to infringe the patent, as well as salt tablets for the machines.
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Dielectric constant is the most important factor in determining the occurrence of ion association. A table of some typical values can be found under Dielectric constant. Water has a relatively high dielectric constant value of 78.7 at 298K (25 °C), so in aqueous solutions at ambient temperatures 1:1 electrolytes such as NaCl do not form ion pairs to an appreciable extent except when the solution is very concentrated.Assuming that both Na+ and Cl− have 6 water molecules in the primary solvation shell at ambient temperatures, a 5 M solution (5 mol/L) will consist almost entirely of fully solvated ion pairs. 2:2 electrolytes (q1 = 2, q2 = 2) form ion pairs more readily. Indeed, the solvent-shared ion pair [Mg(H2O)6]2+SO42− was famously discovered to be present in seawater, in equilibrium with the contact ion pair [Mg(H2O)5(SO4)]Manfred Eigen, Nobel lecture.
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In order for cocaine (in plastic bag at bottom) to be converted to crack, several supplies are needed. Pictured here are baking soda, a commonly used base in making crack, a metal spoon, a tealight, and a cigarette lighter. The spoon is held over the heat source in order to "cook" the cocaine into crack. A close up of the "cooking" process that creates crack. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3, common baking soda) is a base used in preparation of crack, although other weak bases may substitute for it. The net reaction when using sodium bicarbonate is :Coc-H+Cl− \+ NaHCO3 → Coc + H2O + CO2 \+ NaCl With ammonium bicarbonate: :Coc-H+Cl− \+ NH4HCO3 → Coc + NH4Cl + CO2 \+ H2O With ammonium carbonate: :2(Coc-H+Cl−) + (NH4)2CO3 → 2 Coc + 2 NH4Cl + CO2 \+ H2O Crack cocaine is frequently purchased already in rock form, although it is not uncommon for some users to "wash up" or "cook" powder cocaine into crack themselves.
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APC reacts with sources of cyclopentadienyl anion to give the corresponding 18e− complex cyclopentadienyl allyl palladium: :[(η3-C3H5)PdCl]2 \+ 2 NaC5H5 → 2 [(η5-C5H5)Pd(η3-C3H5)] \+ 2 NaCl The dimer reacts with a variety of Lewis bases (:B) to form adducts (η3-C3H5)PdCl:B. Its reaction with pyridine and the corresponding enthalpy are: :1/2 [(η3-C3H5)PdCl]2 \+ :NC5H5 → (η3-C3H5)PdCl:NC5H5 ΔH = −30.1 kJ mol−1 This enthalpy corresponds to the enthalpy change for a reaction forming one mole of the product, (η3-C3H5)PdCl:NC5H5, from the acid dimer. The dissociation energy for the Pd dimer, which is an energy contribution prior to reaction with the donor, : [(η3-C3H5)PdCl]2 → 2 (η3-C3H5)PdCl has been determined by the ECW model to be 28 kJ mol−1. APC catalyzes many organic reactions, such as cross-coupling, nucleophilic addition to dienes, and decomposition of diazo compounds to reactive carbenes.
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795 Small batches of chlorine gas are prepared in the laboratory by combining hydrochloric acid and manganese dioxide, but the need rarely arises due to its ready availability. In industry, elemental chlorine is usually produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride dissolved in water. This method, the chloralkali process industrialized in 1892, now provides most industrial chlorine gas. Along with chlorine, the method yields hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide, which is the most valuable product. The process proceeds according to the following chemical equation: :2 NaCl + 2 H2O → Cl2 \+ H2 \+ 2 NaOH The electrolysis of chloride solutions all proceed according to the following equations: :Cathode: 2 H2O + 2 e− → H2 \+ 2 OH− :Anode: 2 Cl− → Cl2 \+ 2 e− In diaphragm cell electrolysis, an asbestos (or polymer-fiber) diaphragm separates a cathode and an anode, preventing the chlorine forming at the anode from re-mixing with the sodium hydroxide and the hydrogen formed at the cathode.
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Barium chlorate can be produced through a double replacement reaction between solutions of barium chloride and sodium chlorate: :BaCl2 \+ 2 NaClO3 → Ba(ClO3)2 \+ 2 NaCl On concentrating and chilling the resulting mixture, barium chlorate precipitates. This is perhaps the most common preparation, exploiting the lower solubility of barium chlorate compared to sodium chlorate. The above method does result in some sodium contamination, which is undesirable for pyrotechnic purposes, where the strong yellow of sodium can easily overpower the green of barium. Sodium-free barium chlorate can be produced directly through electrolysis: :BaCl2 \+ 6 H2O → Ba(ClO3)2 \+ 6 H2 It can also be produced by the reaction of barium carbonate with boiling ammonium chlorate solution: :2 NH4ClO3 \+ BaCO3 \+ Q → Ba(ClO3)2 \+ 2 NH3 \+ H2O + CO2 The reaction initially produces barium chlorate and ammonium carbonate; boiling the solution decomposes the ammonium carbonate and drives off the resulting ammonia and carbon dioxide, leaving only barium chlorate in solution.
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However, these methods are problematic because the potassium metal tends to dissolve in its molten chloride and vaporises significantly at the operating temperatures, potentially forming the explosive superoxide. As a result, pure potassium metal is now produced by reducing molten potassium chloride with sodium metal at 850 °C. :Na (g) + KCl (l) NaCl (l) + K (g) Although sodium is less reactive than potassium, this process works because at such high temperatures potassium is more volatile than sodium and can easily be distilled off, so that the equilibrium shifts towards the right to produce more potassium gas and proceeds almost to completion. This sample of alt=A shiny gray 5-centimeter piece of matter with a rough surface. For several years in the 1950s and 1960s, a by-product of the potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium. Alkarb contained 21% rubidium while the rest was potassium and a small fraction of caesium.
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Triethyl orthoformate is an organic compound with the formula HC(OC2H5)3. This colorless volatile liquid, the orthoester of formic acid, is commercially available. The industrial synthesis is from hydrogen cyanide and ethanol.Ashford's Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals, Third edition, 2011, page 9288 It may also be prepared from the reaction of sodium ethoxide and chloroform: : CHCl3 \+ 3 Na+ \+ 3 EtO− -> HC(OEt)3 \+ H2 \+ 3 NaCl Triethyl orthoformate is used in the Bodroux-Chichibabin aldehyde synthesis, for example: : RMgBr + HC(OC2H5)3 → RC(H)(OC2H5)2 \+ MgBr(OC2H5) : RC(H)(OC2H5)2 \+ H2O → RCHO + 2 C2H5OH In coordination chemistry, it is used to convert metal aquo complexes to the corresponding ethanol complexes:Willem L. Driessen, Jan Reedijk "Solid Solvates: The Use of Weak Ligands in Coordination Chemistry" Inorg. Synth., 1992, Vol. 29,111–118. :[Ni(H2O)6](BF4)2 \+ 6 HC(OC2H5)3 → [Ni(C2H5OH)6](BF4)2 \+ 6 HC(O)(OC2H5) + 6 HOC2H5 Triethyl orthoformate (TEOF) is an excellent reagent for converting compatible carboxylic acids to ethyl esters.
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There are some sources, like the Academic American Encyclopedia, that attribute the discovery of the law to both W.L Bragg and his father W.H. Bragg, but the official Nobel Prize site and the biographies written about him ("Light Is a Messenger: The Life and Science of William Lawrence Bragg", Graeme K. Hunter, 2004 and "Great Solid State Physicists of the 20th Century", Julio Antonio Gonzalo, Carmen Aragó López) make a clear statement that Lawrence Bragg alone derived the law. Although simple, Bragg's law confirmed the existence of real particles at the atomic scale, as well as providing a powerful new tool for studying crystals in the form of X-ray and neutron diffraction. Lawrence Bragg and his father, William Henry Bragg, were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1915 for their work in determining crystal structures beginning with NaCl, ZnS, and diamond. They are the only father-son team to jointly win.
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Strains that have been studied are sensitive to ampicillin, resistant to kanamycin and nalidixic acid, and grow well in YEMA medium containing 0.5% NaCl. Strains do not tolerate tetracycline and do not show any growth on LB medium. R. bangladeshense can utilize a variety of nutrients for growth, including D-maltose, D-trehalose, D-cellobiose, gentiobiose, sucrose, D-raffinose, α-D-glucose, D-turanose, α-D lactose, D-fructose, β-methyl-D- glucoside, salicin, N-acetyl-D-galactosamine, D-sorbitol, D-mannitol, D-arbitol, glycerol, D-glucose-6-phosphate, D-gluconic acid, quinic acid, D-saccharic acid, D-lactic acid methyl ester, lactic acid, α-keto-glutaric acid and tween 40. Strains which have been studied failed to utilize dextrin, D-aspertic acid, glycyl-L-proline, L-alanine, L-arginine, L-glutamic acid, L-histidine, L-serine, mucic acid, p-hydroxy-phenylacetic acid, methyl pyruvate, citric acid, D-malic acid, L-malic acid, propionic acid or formic acid.
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The ion-selective membrane (B) allows the counterion Na+ to freely flow across, but prevents anions such as hydroxide (OH−) and chloride from diffusing across. At the cathode (C), water is reduced to hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The net process is the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of NaCl into industrially useful products sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and chlorine gas. Saturated brine is passed into the first chamber of the cell where the chloride ions are oxidised at the anode, losing electrons to become chlorine gas (A in figure): :2Cl− → + 2e− At the cathode, positive hydrogen ions pulled from water molecules are reduced by the electrons provided by the electrolytic current, to hydrogen gas, releasing hydroxide ions into the solution (C in figure): :2 + 2e− → H2 \+ 2OH− The ion- permeable ion exchange membrane at the center of the cell allows the sodium ions (Na+) to pass to the second chamber where they react with the hydroxide ions to produce caustic soda (NaOH) (B in figure).
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SNO also detects neutrino electron scattering (ES) events, where the neutrino transfers energy to the electron, which then proceeds to generate Cherenkov radiation distinguishable from that produced by CC events. The first of these two reactions is produced only by electron-type neutrinos, while the second can be caused by all of the neutrino flavors. The use of deuterium is critical to the SNO function, because all three "flavours" (types) of neutrinos may be detected in a third type of reaction as well, neutrino-disintegration, in which a neutrino of any type (electron, muon, or tau) scatters from a deuterium nucleus (deuteron), transferring enough energy to break up the loosely bound deuteron into a free neutron and proton via a neutral current (NC) interaction. This event is detected when the free neutron is absorbed by 35Cl− present from NaCl deliberately dissolved in the heavy water, causing emission of characteristic capture gamma rays.
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Synthesis of bisphenol A diglycidyl ether The most common epoxy resins are based on reacting epichlorohydrin (ECH) with bisphenol A, resulting in a different chemical substance known as bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (commonly known as BADGE or DGEBA). Bisphenol A-based resins are the most widely commercialised resins but also other bisphenols are analogously reacted with epichlorohydrin, for example Bisphenol F. In this two-stage reaction, epichlorohydrin is first added to bisphenol A (bis(3-chloro-2-hydroxy-propoxy)bisphenol A is formed), then a bisepoxide is formed in a condensation reaction with a stoichiometric amount of sodium hydroxide. The chlorine atom is released as sodium chloride (NaCl), the hydrogen atom as of water. Higher molecular weight diglycidyl ethers (n ≥ 1) are formed by the reaction of the bisphenol A diglycidyl ether formed with further bisphenol A, this is called prepolymerization: Synthesis of bisphenol- A-diglycidyl ether with a high molar mass A product comprising a few repeat units (n = 1 to 2) is a viscous, clear liquid; this is called a liquid epoxy resin.
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Sulfurimonas hongkongensis is a newly discovered species within the genus of Sulfurimonas. It was found in Hong Kong, near the coastal sediment at the Kai Tak Approach Channel connecting Victoria Harbour . It produces energy under anoxic conditions. Its electron donor is thiosulfate, sulfide or hydrogen, and its electron acceptor is nitrate . Its morphology is rod-shaped, and it grows at 15-35 °C (optimum at 30 °C), pH 6.5-8.5 (optimum at 7.0-7.5), and 10-60 g L−1 NaCl (optimum at 30 g L−1) . Its genome consists of 34.9% GC content, 2,290 protein-coding genes, and 42 RNA genes (3 rRNA genes). Its major cellular fatty acids were C14:0 (4.8%), C16:0 (32.8%), 2-OH C16:0 (9.5%), C16:1 (14.6%), C18:0 (16.9%), and C18:1 (19.2%). The composition of these fatty acids are similar to those found in isolates of Sulfurimonas paralvinellae' and Sulfurimonas autotrophica', but there is a unique fatty acid, represented by 2-OH C16:0 that defined it is a different species from other members of the genus of Sulfurimonas.
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In water, chloramine is pH-neutral. It is an oxidizing agent (acidic solution: , in basic solution ): : NH2Cl + 2 H+ \+ 2 e− → + Cl− Reactions of chloramine include radical, nucleophilic, and electrophilic substitution of chlorine, electrophilic substitution of hydrogen, and oxidative additions. Chloramine can, like hypochlorous acid, donate positively charged chlorine in reactions with nucleophiles (Nu−): : Nu− \+ NH3Cl+ → NuCl + NH3 Examples of chlorination reactions include transformations to dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride in acidic medium, as described in the decomposition section. Chloramine may also aminate nucleophiles (electrophilic amination): : Nu− \+ NH2Cl → NuNH2 \+ Cl− The amination of ammonia with chloramine to form hydrazine is an example of this mechanism seen in the Olin Raschig process: : NH2Cl + NH3 \+ NaOH → N2H4 \+ NaCl + H2O Chloramine electrophilically aminates itself in neutral and alkaline media to start its decomposition: : 2 NH2Cl → N2H3Cl + HCl The chlorohydrazine (N2H3Cl) formed during self-decomposition is unstable and decomposes itself, which leads to the net decomposition reaction: : 3 NH2Cl → N2 \+ NH4Cl + 2 HCl Monochloramine oxidizes sulfhydryls and disulfides in the same manner as hypochlorous acid, but only possesses 0.4% of the biocidal effect of HClO.
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In NMOS and CMOS technologies, over time and elevated temperatures, the positive voltages employed by the gate structure can cause any existing positively charged sodium impurities directly under the positively charged gate to diffuse through the gate dielectric and migrate to the less-positively-charged channel surface, where the positive sodium charge has a higher effect on the channel creation thus lowering the threshold voltage of an N-channel transistor and potentially causing failures over time. Earlier PMOS technologies were not sensitive to this effect because the positively charged sodium was naturally attracted towards the negatively charged gate, and away from the channel, minimizing threshold voltage shifts. N-channel, metal gate processes (in the 1970s) imposed a very high standard of cleanliness (absence of sodium) difficult to achieve in that timeframe, resulting in high manufacturing costs. Polysilicon gates while sensitive to the same phenomenon, could be exposed to small amounts of HCl gas during subsequent high-temperature processing (commonly called "gettering") to react with any sodium, binding with it to form NaCl and carrying it away in the gas stream, leaving an essentially sodium-free gate structure greatly enhancing reliability.
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In fact, the initial target product sodium cyanide can also be obtained from calcium cyanamide by melting it with sodium chloride in the presence of carbon:H.H. Franck, W. Burg, Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie und angewandte physikalische Chemie, 40(10), 686-692 (Oktober 1934). : CaCN2 \+ 2 NaCl + C → 2 NaCN + CaCl2 Frank and Caro developed this reaction for a large-scale, continuous production process. The process was particularly challenging due to the equipment requirements required by the high temperatures during the initial igniter step. This process requires meticulous temperature control since the melting point of calcium cyanamide is only about 120°C lower than the boiling point of sodium chloride. In 1901, Ferdinand Eduard Polzeniusz patented a process that converts calcium carbide to calcium cyanamide in the presence of 10% calcium chloride at 700 °C. The advantage of lowering the reaction temperature by about 400 °C, however, must be weighed against the high amount of calcium chloride required and the discontinuous process control. Nevertheless, both processes (the Rothe-Frank-Caro process and the Polzeniusz-Krauss process) played a role in the first half of the 20th century.
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Iron(III) oxyhydroxide precipitates from solutions of iron(III) salts at pH between 6.5 and 8.Tim Grundl and Jim Delwiche (1993): "Kinetics of ferric oxyhydroxide precipitation". Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, volume 14, issue 1, pages 71-87. . Thus the oxyhydroxide can be obtained in the lab by reacting an iron(III) salt, such as ferric chloride or ferric nitrate, with sodium hydroxide:K. H. Gayer and Leo Woontner (1956): "The Solubility of Ferrous Hydroxide and Ferric Hydroxide in Acidic and Basic Media at 25°". Journal of Physical Chemistry, volume 60, issue 11, pages 1569–1571. : + 3 NaOH → + 3 NaCl : + 3 NaOH → + 3 In fact, when dissolved in water, pure will hydrolyze to some extent, yielding the oxyhydroxide and making the solution acidic: : + 2 ↔ + 3 Therefore, the compound can also be obtained by the decomposition of acidic solutions of iron(III) chloride held near the boiling point for days or weeks:Egon Matijević and Paul Scheiner (1978): "Ferric hydrous oxide sols: III. Preparation of uniform particles by hydrolysis of Fe(III)-chloride, -nitrate, and -perchlorate solutions". Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, volume 63, issue 3, pages 509-524.
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