On top of the building the viewer can make out a mudbrick structure.
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Locals say 400 to 500 people live locally, scattered across hills in mudbrick homes.
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The workshop is in the remains of a building made of mudbrick and limestone.
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It was here, in a simple mudbrick house, that Salahuddin was born almost 22019 years ago.
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Air strikes have levelled medieval mudbrick towers in Sanaa's old quarter, a medieval mosque and an Ottoman fort.
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Houses in poor Iranian villages are often made of concrete blocks or mudbrick that can quickly crumble and collapse.
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Raising seven children in a mudbrick home with no running water, as Ms Nyero does, is hard to imagine.
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But, in Greene's photograph, the only sign of the modern village are mudbrick walls — the people themselves are absent.
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The pottery was found at two Neolithic villages, once home to perhaps 60 people each, consisting of small mudbrick houses.
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Holding on in the face of washout, protectors of the mudbrick metropolis of Chan Chan, Peru are in a scramble against erosion.
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Houses in impoverished Iranian villages are often made of concrete blocks or mudbrick that can quickly crumble and collapse in a strong quake.
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Plumes of smoke rose above the crash site, with some mudbrick buildings razed to the ground and others pierced by parts of the plane.
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Babylon, about 85 kilometers (55 miles) south of Baghdad, was once the center of a sprawling empire, renowned for its towers and mudbrick temples.
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The Saudi woman, identified only as Model Khulood, appeared on a Snapchat clip strolling through an empty mudbrick village, wearing a short skirt and a top exposing her midriff.
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Earlier, the Greeks were thought to have lifted heavy stone blocks using ramps made from earth or mudbrick, similar to what the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians had done centuries before.
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The Saudi woman, identified as Model Khulood, appeared on a Snapchat clip strolling through an empty mudbrick village alleyway, wearing a short skirt and a top that exposed her midriff.
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In the video, the unidentified woman walks alone through a street flanked by mudbrick walls, in what users identified as Ushaiqir, a heritage village and day-trip destination outside the capital Riyadh.
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However a clear link between fighters in places like Gargari, a mudbrick village down the road from Deh Bala's district capital, and the militants behind a series of sophisticated suicide attacks in Kabul or Jalalabad is elusive.
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"This kind of masonry represents a crucial step in the development of Greek monumental stone architecture, marking a departure both from mudbrick construction, which had been the norm for most Greek buildings, and from previous experiments with stone construction," wrote Pierattini in the paper.
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Soon after that video cut off, 400 miles away in Gorali, the ringing of a phone broke the night's silence in the humble mudbrick house where Salahuddin's parents lived, and my uncle Afzal received the call he had been dreading for most of his son's life.
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These too were constructed entirely from mudbrick. They are connected by a vaulted passage. The middle compartment of the north row is arrived to by a deep. It contains a vaulted mudbrick burial chamber with dimensions of by .
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A mudbrick boat pit has also been found outside Amenemhat I’s pyramid western perimeter wall.
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Bu Shaqq tower is a mudbrick watch tower in Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates (UAE).
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This evidence comes the temple construction as well as the surrounding areas. The temple was built of limestone with a mudbrick exterior wall. The main entrance consisted of a mudbrick pylon with a gate entrance. Leading up to the gate was a causeway leading from the cultivation.
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The Great Mosque of Djenné is a well-known Mosque located in Djenné, Mali, and the largest mudbrick structure in the world. The Great Mosque of Djenné, in central Mali, is the world's largest mudbrick structure. It, like much Sahelian architecture, is built with a mudbrick called Banco, a recipe of mud and grain husks, fermented, and either formed into bricks or applied on surfaces as a plaster like paste in broad strokes. This plaster must be reapplied annually.
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The Banka Banka mudbrick homestead is a single story, rectangular building with a pitched roof consisting of a timber roof frame and corrugated metal roof sheeting, mudbrick walls, concrete floors, surrounded by a veranda supported by concrete posts. The building consists of three rooms. The homestead, which was partly reconstructed in 2001, is of architectural interest for its extensive use of mudbrick. It represents an unusual construction material and technique for pastoral homesteads of this era.
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However, as much of the structures were mudbrick as opposed to the longer- lasting stone, they were not preserved.
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Excavations have unveiled red-painted plaster floors and mudbrick walls. 10 clay animal figurines were excavated at the site.
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A variety of materials have been used, including wood, mudbrick, or fabric. Indigenous peoples around the world produce similar structures today.
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Alistair Samuel Knox (8 April 1912 – 30 July 1986) was an Australian designer, builder and landscape architect who used recycled materials and mudbrick in his constructions and is considered to be a pioneer of modern mudbrick building, having designed more than 1,000 houses throughout the Nillumbik region of Victoria as well as in other parts of Australia.
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The town was well known for its mudbrick architecture and three basalt columns of an ancient Roman temple, hence the name Harran al-'Awamid ("Harran of the Columns.") The columns themselves shoot out of the roof of a mudbrick building, which, along with many of the town's houses, have occupied the ruins of the temple.Butler, 1903, p. 398.
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A ramp of whitewashed mud led down into this area. On either side of this ramp were offering tables of mudbrick and in the centre a large altar of mudbrick. The whole court was paved with mud plaster. This area seems to be the oldest part of the complex, as it overlays clean gravel and its surface underlays the later pylon gateway.
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A house occupied by nomadic kochi people in Nangarhar Province In the villages, families typically occupy mudbrick houses, or compounds with mudbrick or stone walled houses. Villages typically have a headman (malik), a master for water disribution (mirab) and a religious teacher (mullah). Men would typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest. About 15% of the population are nomadic, locally called kochis.
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The mudbrick stamp or brick seal of Mesopotamia are impression or stamp seals made upon bricks or mudbrick. The inscribed seal is in mirror reverse on the 'mold', mostly with cuneiform inscriptions, and the foundation mudbricks are often part of the memorializing of temples, or other structures, as part of a "foundation deposit", a common honoring or invocation to a specific god or protector.
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Post-war shortages of building materials led Knox to consider using mudbrick, and in 1947 he built a mudbrick house in Montmorency. He later actively campaigned for banks to lend capital for earth-built housing projects, and as a result he helped popularise and legitimise mudbrick buildings in mainstream society. Largely self-taught, Knox believed that houses should be built using available resources and by working in harmony with the environment. He pioneered an 'Australian' architectural look characterised by a lower, flatter roof line, often with a clerestory to introduce light to the centre of the house and large windows to the living areas to bring the 'outside in'.
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The original construction was made of large mudbrick brick of dark silt, the rebuild was made of small mudbricks of sandy silt, cased with limestone chips.
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Such buildings must be designed to accommodate the poor thermal insulating properties of mudbrick, however, and usually have deep eaves or a veranda on four sides for weather protection.
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The first two steps of the basin were constructed from mudbrick, with the top step measuring by . The third, and bottom, step was built from limestone and measured by .
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This mound contained artefacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which he identified with an artisans' settlement. Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu's Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his death. A worker's cemetery used at least between Khufu's reign and the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Hawass in 1990.
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In the upper city features in Stratum VII, include a mudbrick city wall, megaron-type buildings, hearts, a limestone bathtub, and an industrial kiln area. In Strata VI–V, a major feature was the mudbrick glacis, a cultic room with an incised scapula similar to those found in the 12th and 11th century BCE shrines at Enkomi and Kition on Cyprus. In the lower city, along the ridge of the southern slope of the tell, behind the Iron I mudbrick city wall of Stratum VI, were a number of architectural units and finds, which included a bull-shaped zoomorphic vessel, an incised ivory tube, and a bronze pin and needle. Stratum V monumental building was constructed on a similar scale as the one in the elite zone.
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Underneath the wall of Yokneam which was constructed sometime before between the 20th and 18th century BCE, a layer of burnet mudbrick material (different than the material used in the later period) mixed with pothserds, bones and ash. It appears that these are the remains of structures made out of mudbrick. The presence of ash and the skeleton of a young male may indicate that this settlement was violently destroyed by fire. Around these remains were two openings to a burial cave.
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In the palace archaeologists also found some paintings of the great royal wife, Tiye. Rare traces of original wall paintings are still visible on site, despite the badly ruined state of the mudbrick walls.
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Lines of inscription above the decorations identify the owner of the burial: Pepyankh Setju. Above the burial chamber, in the space with the vaulted mudbrick ceiling, an offering table bearing the name Isesi was found.
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Massive Amazigh pisé mudbrick buildings date from 110 BCE. A common feature of Amazigh architecture is the agadir, or fortified granary. Cities such as Ceuta, Chellah, and Volubilis were influenced by Phoenician and Roman architecture.
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The pyramid complex comprises the main pyramid enclosed by two walls. The outer one, made of mudbrick, contained in the north-east corner a small subsidiary pyramid, the only one known dating to the 13th dynasty. The inner enclosure wall was made of limestone and patterned with niches and panels. This replaced an earlier mudbrick wavy-wall, which led Rainer Stadelmann to suggest that the wavy-wall was constructed as a provisional and abbreviated substitute to the more time consuming but preferred niched-wall.
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Model of the ruins of Faras Cathedral, probably built over the mudbrick church founded by Longinus. On his deathbed, Patriarch Theodosius I of Alexandria commissioned Longinus to continue the evangelisation of the Nubian kingdom of Nobadia that had begun under Julian the Evangelist and Theodore of Philae in 543, but had been interrupted in 551. Longinus arrived in Nobadia in 569 and remained for six years. He built the first church in Nubia, probably the mudbrick building which was discovered beneath the ruins of Faras Cathedral.
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Istanbul : Institut Français d'Études Anatoliennes-Georges Dumézil, pp. 439-471, 2000 Aslantepe (VII) became important in this region in the Late Chalcolithic. A monumental area with a huge mudbrick building stood on top of a mound.
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Mudbrick-made tower houses in Shibam, Wadi Hadhramaut, Yemen High-rise apartment buildings were built in the Yemeni city of Shibam in the 16th century. The houses of Shibam are all made out of mud bricks, but about 500 of them are tower houses, which rise 5 to 11 stories high, with each floor having one or two apartments.Old Walled City of Shibam, UNESCO World Heritage Centre Shibam has been called "Manhattan of the desert". Some of them were over high, thus being the tallest mudbrick apartment buildings in the world to this day.
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This space, which was open to the sky, connected the tomb to the solar cycle, and was the location for certain rituals at the time of the funeral, such as the opening of the mouth ceremony. The courtyard of TT 69 was sunk into the ground and a mudbrick enclosure wall was built around it. It is accessed today by a modern ramp, but in antiquity it appears to have had mudbrick stairs. Mond also records a decorated doorway and lintel, though today there is a modern doorway made of concrete and metal.
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Ancient mudbrick is still present, though it has been bolstered with modern mudbrick and concrete. Front Room/Broad Hall The rock-cut chapel of TT69 is laid out in a T-shape consisting of a front room, a back room, and a central shrine niche. The front and back rooms are oriented perpendicularly to one another creating an inverted T. The front room of TT69 is often also called the broad hall or the transverse hall. This differentiates it from the back room, called the long hall due to its orientation.
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The archaeological site spans an area of 2000 hectares, and comprises several areas or neighborhoods. Buildings are made of stone and mudbrick, and painted in red and white. Many of the structures had residential, administrative or religious purposes.
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Strong winds lifted several people away, and one person was blown and dropped 1.5 kilometers away @28 mph. It also uprooted trees and damaged the houses completely, mostly mudbrick-huts built by the villagers on the banks of river.
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This chamber has been blocked with a wall. The south- east compartment contains a vaulted mudbrick burial chamber by large. It was included as an apparent afterthought. Remains of multiple individuals were found in the chamber, but their origin is unclear.
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Traditional mudbrick making in Gezawa village. Gezawa is a Local Government Area in Kano State, Nigeria. Its headquarters are in the town of Gezawa. It has an area of 340 km² and a population of 282,069 at the 2006 census.
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The Wilson river rose leaving Nockatunga surrounded by water and parts being swept away. Many outbuildings constructed of mudbrick were washed away. The main buildings had the mortar dislodged from between the stones with flooding reaching a depth of , making the buildings unstable.
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The cart was composed of a woven basket and the wheels had a solid three-piece design. Sumerian cities were surrounded by defensive walls. The Sumerians engaged in siege warfare between their cities, but the mudbrick walls were able to deter some foes.
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Volunteer translators work to translate the Bible. In 1967 donated land and money was raised to develop a national centre. Mudbrick architect Alistair Knox designed the centre at no charge. Volunteers made mudbricks and planted thousands of native plants on the property of 11 hectares.
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South-eastern wall of the Shunet El Zebib. Shunet El Zebib (lit. "raisin barn" or "storage of the raisins"), alternatively named Shuneh and Middle Fort, is a large mudbrick structure located at Abydos in Upper Egypt. The edifice dates to the Second Dynasty (c.
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The area now known as Kom El Sultan is a big mudbrick structure, the purpose of which is not clear and thought to have been at the original settlement area, dated to the Early Dynastic Period. The structure includes the early temple of Osiris.
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Groundplan of the tomb complex The mastaba is surrounded by two mudbrick walls. The innermost one is about ten metres away from the mastaba on all sides. It is 2.05 metres thick. The second wall encircles the whole funerary area at a distance of almost 48 metres.
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The mudbrick structure was revived by Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy after rediscovering the technique in the Nubian village of Abu al-Riche. The technology is advocated by environmentalist as environmentally friendly and sustainable, since it makes use of pure earth without the need of timber.Swan, Simone. Elegant Solutions.
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Workers then tramped on the mud while straw was added to solidify the mold. The mudbricks were chemically suitable as fertilizer, leading to the destruction of many ancient Egyptian ruins, such as at Edfu. A well-preserved site is Amarna. Mudbrick use increased at the time of Roman influence.
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Shibam Hadramawt () is a town in Yemen. With about 7,000 inhabitants, it is the seat of the District of Shibam in the Governorate of Hadhramaut. Known for its mudbrick-made high-rise buildings, it is referred to as the "Chicago of the Desert" (), or "Manhattan of the Desert" ().
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Meidum, Maydum or Maidum () is an archaeological site in Upper Egypt. It contains a large pyramid and several mudbrick mastabas. The pyramid was Egypt's first straight-sided one, but it partially collapsed in ancient times. The area is located around 62 miles (100 km) south of modern Cairo.
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Most sebakh consists of ancient, deteriorated mudbrick, a primary building material in ancient Egypt. This material is composed of ancient mud mixed with the nitrous compost of the hay and stubble that the bricks were originally formulated with to give added strength before being baked in the sun.
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Following the destruction of the Iron I Stratum IV city during the first quarter of the 10th century, the lower city was abandoned. Only the upper city was occupied in Strata III–II fortified with a mudbrick city wall and a 7 m wide mudbrick tower faced with Phoenician –type ashlar masonry in header-and-stretcher construction. Stratum III was continued in the monumental architecture of Stratum IIA–B, with the addition of a series of rooms, probably shops or market stalls, that opened onto the re-paved street, to which a stone-lined central drainage system was added in Stratum IIB. Both the lower city and the upper city were reoccupied.
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Several mud-brick houses, sometimes built on stone platforms were excavated from this site. A large multiroomed house with a mudbrick platform was also excavated. One building had three wells, with diameters of 60 cm to 90 cm. In fact, all the wells found on this site had similarly small diameters.
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Lower walls were typically constructed of stone and rubble, and the upper walls of mudbrick. Ceiling timbers held up the roofs. Construction materials for villas and palaces varied, and included sandstone, gypsum and limestone. Building techniques also varied, with some palaces using ashlar masonry and others roughly-hewn, megalithic blocks.
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In the case of Ancient Egypt, foundation deposits took the form of ritual mudbrick lined pits or holes dug at specific points under temples or tombs, which were filled with ceremonial objects, usually amulets, scarabs, food, or ritual miniature tools, and were supposed to prevent the building from falling into ruin.
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Reconstructed entablature and pediment of the Temple of Aphaia I in the on-site museum. Ohly detected a (stone socle and mudbrick upper level) peribolos wall enclosing an area of c. 40 by 45 m dating to this phase. This peribolos was not aligned to the axis of the temple.
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Its massive mudbrick wall still stands up to 6 metres high and 8 meters thick. Three spur walls, towards the north, west and east, complete the fortification system. The eastern wall protects a stairway leading down to the river to ensure access to a water supply in the case of siege.
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Djoser's Pyramid draws ideas from several precedents. The most relevant precedent is found at Saqqara mastaba 3038 ( 2700 BC). The substructure lay in a deep rectangular pit, and had mudbrick walls rising to . Three sides were extended and built out to create eight shallow steps rising at an angle of 49°.
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At the north end of the building there is a two- column portico with a balcony. The cella, with the area of 300 sq. m, housed an altar under a cupola, supported by four columns; its mudbrick podium has survived. The walls of the temple had been plastered and adorned with murals.
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Inscriptions on vases found in the tomb mention King Djer, King Den and King Qa'a. The tomb is a mudbrick mastaba. However, a pyramid-like mound was found within the structure, covered with brick. This combination of mastaba and grave mound represents a combination of Northern (mastaba) and Southern (grave mound) tomb architecture.
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The Pyramid of Athribis was a small mudbrick pyramid, which was located at Athribis (Tell Atrib) in the southern Nile Delta, northeast of the modern city of Banha. It was located the furthest north of all the pyramids in ancient Egypt and the only known pyramid to have been built in the Delta.
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The tomb is situated at the base of the desert cliffs surrounded by a t-shaped mudbrick enclosing wall. Weigel deduced who the tomb belonged to from its orientation on axis with Senusret III's Mortuary Temple. Currelly discovered a 170 meter long subterranean tomb leading under the gebel (cliff).Wegner, Josef (2009).
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The full glare of the sun was avoided by situating the windows high up on the walls. The main room contained a mudbrick platform with steps which may have been used as a shrine or a birthing bed. Nearly all houses contained niches for statues and small altars.Paul Johnson, "The Civilization of Ancient Egypt", p.
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The tomb measures approximately by and has six compartments arranged in two rows. The tomb is also connected to another tomb further east. The first compartment at the north-west corner is accessed through a deep shaft leading into a vaulted burial chamber of dimensions by . The chamber and shaft are made of mudbrick.
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Finely layered ash and clay helped keep the floors smooth and level. As seen by the sheer volume and weight of all of the stones, wooden pillars, and mudbrick walls used in the construction of the four-room house, it can be said that construction was a team effort that took a lot of energy.
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The superstructure was probably made of brushwood. No traces of mudbrick have been found, which became common in the following Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA). The round houses have a diameter between three and six meters, and they contain a central round or subrectangular fireplace. In Ain Mallaha traces of postholes have been identified.
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Storms gained authority during the two and a half years he spent at Mpala. The local chiefs came to rely on him for a monthly salary and for protection. Storms had his people build a great square stockade on each side, using five thousand trees. The walls were made of mudbrick and were thick.
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The fourth phase at Vani runs from c. 250 BC to c. 47 BC. This was the period of relative decline in central Colchis: many settlements disappeared as did rich burials. The Vani site saw the erection of a strong circuit wall, with towers and a heavily defended gate, built of mudbrick on a stone socle.
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Kate Fielden reports "The earliest village settlement (c. 5000 BC) had grown into a substantial city of mudbrick and reed houses by c. 2900 BC, covering ". Mallowan writes that by the Ubaid period, it was as an "unusually large city" of an area of approx. 20–25 acres, with a population of "not less than 4000 souls".
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Yokneam was a fortified city from around 1900–1650 BCE. The fortifications were built on top of the burial cave, cealing one of its entrances. During this period, three different fortification systems were built. The first two of these were massive constructions of mudbrick on a stone base, with a glacis built into their outer face.
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The many monasteries and temples in the area were mostly badly damaged. They were often constructed with mudbrick or RRSM walls and had heavy roofs. Strong vertical motion during the earthquake led to excessive loads on the upper part of the supporting walls causing them to bulge outwards. There were many landslides, rockfalls and avalanches triggered by the earthquake.
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The tomb was begun for the High Priest of Amun Meryptah, during the reign of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten. Not much remains from this period. The tomb had a mudbrick porch which likely featured a small pyramid. The porch was built over even earlier structures in the court of tomb TT227, which dates to an even earlier period.
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S. Harutyun Church is constructed of mudbrick and has red brick detailing around its windows and doors. There are two entrances to the interior, one from the south, and one from the west. Also of interest, is the turquoise painted brick archways around the portals. The church's altar is designed to resemble the façade of a church.
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A mudbrick catenary arch A catenary curve (left) and a catenary arch, also a catenary curve (right). One points up, and one points down, but the curves are the same. A catenary arch is a type of architectural arch that follows an inverted catenary curve. The catenary curve has been employed in buildings since ancient times.
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Mud brick was used for these new additions, rather than limestone masonry. In the course of the expansion, a mudbrick wall was built around the complex, separating it from the pyramid complex of Neferirkare. The mortuary cult of Khentkaus II is still attested over three hundred years later at the end of the 6th dynasty.Mark Lehner: Geheimnis der Pyramiden.
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Plan of the underground chambers of the pyramid, showing the open granite portcullises. The pyramid originally stood at 105 royal cubits in height, which is about . The pyramid was constructed with a mudbrick core and a limestone outer casing with its backing stones. These and the limestone casing were both quarried by stone robbers, which left the core unprotected.
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Settlements became more permanent, with circular houses, much like those of the Natufians, with single rooms. However, these houses were for the first time made of mudbrick. The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (as in Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned.
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In the western part of the funerary complex, a mudbrick superstructure was uncovered. A shaft by the structure led to a vaulted chamber, through which a decorated limestone burial chamber could be accessed. The burial appears to date to the First Intermediate Period. The owner of the burial is Ankhnes, a priestess of Hathor of Ankhesenpepi III.
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In the 19th century, the Palestine Exploration Fund visited the place and found small mudbrick hovels near the springs. During the Ottoman period, the site was known as "Tel Tora" or "Tel Thorah". It served as a Turkmen settlement and seasonal settlement for shepherds from the surrounding regions. A well was found nearby that was used until the British rule.
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In 1952, Fahkry explored a necropolis containing seventeen mudbrick tombs located south of the causeway and adjoining the east side of the mortuary temple. He provided a brief account summarizing that the tombs had been robbed of their contents. In 2016, one of those tombs, mastaba MS1, was partially excavated and explored. The structure is dated to the Sixth Dynasty.
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Mountainous regions in eastern and southeastern Afghanistan were the main areas hit by floods. In the rural Surobi District 61 people were killed, and around 500 mudbrick homes were washed away across more than a dozen villages. In the provinces of Khost and Nangarhar, flooding destroyed 50 houses and thousands of acres of farm land. 24 deaths were reported in the area.
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Conversely, a cult pyramid never entered construction, as a consequence of the rush to complete the monument upon Neferirkare's death. Its replacement was a small settlement and lodgings constructed from mudbrick to the south of the complex where the priests would live. An enormous brick enclosure wall was built around the perimeter of the pyramid and mortuary temple to complete Neferirkare's funerary monument.
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It supported a population of 2,000. One of its most enduring structures was the Deffufa, a mudbrick temple, on top of which ceremonies were performed. Between 1500 and 1085 BC, Egypt conquered and dominated Nubia, which brought about the Napatan phase of Nubian history: the birth of the Kingdom of Kush. Kush was immensely influenced by Egypt and eventually conquered Egypt.
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It is two stories and lies on Bree Street. The foundation about two meters below the walls is exposed Table Mountain Sandstone, and the rest of the walls are stuccoed stone and mudbrick. The theatre opened in September 1801 with a production of William Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1. This is commonly regarded as the beginning of live entertainment in South Africa.
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The tell, now flooded by the al-Hassakah Dam project, was around in area. The western side of the tell formed a high mound, rising to a height of more than . The lower and flatter eastern side rose above plain level. The mudbrick houses, found at the earliest level of the tell, had small rooms with fireplaces, grinding stones, mortars and painted pots.
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The Red Basilica at Pergamon, built using Roman brick The Romans only developed fired clay bricks under the Empire, but had previously used mudbrick, dried only by the sun and therefore much weaker and only suitable for smaller buildings. Development began under Augustus, using techniques developed by the Greeks, who had been using fired bricks much longer, and the earliest dated building in Rome to make use of fired brick is the Theatre of Marcellus, completed in 13 BC.Blagg The process of drying bricks in a kiln made it so these bricks would not have cracks in them when they dried. The mudbrick took a very long time to dry and limited brick creation to certain seasons. The fire dried brick allowed the brick production to increase significantly, which created a mass production of bricks in Rome.
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It contained Royal audience chambers (liwan), open courtyards, bathhouses and stores. Towns in Cyprus during this period were fortified with mudbrick walls on stone foundations and rectangular bastions. The houses were constructed of mud-bricks as well, whereas public buildings were faced with ashlar. The Phoenician town of Carpasia, near Rizokarpasso (), had houses built of rubble masonry with square stone blocks forming the corners.
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The primary fortifications are found at the Bayraklı site, and consist of four phases of ring wall (the wall around the city), a mudbrick building, gates, and towers, dated to the mid 9th century to mid 4th century BCE. The walls are quite thick, with Wall 1 (ca. 950 BCE) being 4.75m thick at the base and Wall 2 (ca. 750 BCE) 9m thick.
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Dakhla, Egypt In architecture, a Nubian vault is a type of curved surface forming a vaulted structure. The mudbrick structure was revived by Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy after re-discovering the technique in the Nubian village of Abu al-Riche. The technology is advocated by environmentalists as environmentally friendly and sustainable since it makes use of pure earth without the need of timber.Swan, Simone.
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Tell es-Sawwan is an oval mound long by wide with a maximum height of . The main mound was surrounded by a three-metre defensive ditch and a strong mudbrick wall. The village consisted of large houses and other buildings thought to be granaries. The inhabitants of Tell es-Sawwan were farmers who used irrigation from the Tigris to support their crops, as rainfall was unreliable.
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Khasekhemwy (ca. 2690 BC; ', also rendered Kha-sekhemui) was the last Pharaoh of the Second Dynasty of Egypt. Little is known about him, other than that he led several significant military campaigns and built the mudbrick fort known as Shunet El Zebib. His Horus name ' can be interpreted "The Two Powerful Ones Appear",Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 2006 paperback, p.
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Ziggurats (Sumerian temples) each had an individual name and consisted of a forecourt, with a central pond for purification.Leick, Gwendolyn (2003), Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City' (Penguin) The temple itself had a central nave with aisles along either side. Flanking the aisles would be rooms for the priests. At one end would stand the podium and a mudbrick table for animal and vegetable sacrifices.
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The Great Ziggurat of Ur (Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq), built during the Third Dynasty of Ur (Neo-Sumerian Renaissance, c. 2100 BCE), dedicated to the moon god Nanna The Tigris- Euphrates plain lacked minerals and trees. Sumerian structures were made of plano-convex mudbrick, not fixed with mortar or cement. Mud-brick buildings eventually deteriorate, so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot.
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The exterior walls of houses were unadorned, blank and windowless. The main entrance was typically located on the end of the house furthest away from the main living area. Houses of people of higher status were generally free-standing, while houses of lower status could share an outer wall with a neighboring house.'''''' Houses in the Neo-Babylonian period were constructed mostly of sundried mudbrick.
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Banka Banka Station is a location in the Northern Territory of Australia, 100 kilometres north of Tennant Creek along the Stuart Highway. The historic cattle station was the first operational pastoral lease in this region, and a supply camp during World War II, providing meat, eggs, fruits and vegetables. It was occupied and run by the Ward family and is still the site of a mudbrick homestead.
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The ancient inhabitants of Tell Jemmeh have probably depended on spring water from the nearby Besor Stream. Most of the building material used in the site is sun-dried mudbrick. Tell Jemmeh was first settled as a hunter-farmer village during the Chalcolithic period, six thousand years ago. It was inhabited for 200 years and then abandoned until it was rebuilt in the Middle Bronze Age.
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The corners are flanked by turrets and two large central towers, to the east and west, shelter the stairs leading to the terrace. On the outer walls, plastered concrete spikes imitate the wooden beams holding the mudbrick structure of the original mosque. Inside, the murals depicting a camel and Senegalese Tirailleurs are unfinished. With its external wall measuring , the Missiri has a central uncovered courtyard.
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Recent excavations have revealed a monumental gate in the westernmost wall. Measuring 8 by 12 m, it was a massive construction. Its walls had a core of limestone set in a fine clay mortar, and were faced on each side with fine limestone ashlar masonry. Like the mudbrick wall on the citadel, this feature is exceptional in the Celtic world and resembles contemporary Mediterranean architecture.www.fuerstensitze.
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The Heuneburgmuseum is located in the renovated barn of the former monastery of Heiligkreuztal at Hundersingen. The exhibition explains the importance of the site and displays some of the original finds from the site and nearby burials. In recent years, an open-air museum has been erected on the Heuneburg plateau itself. It includes reconstructions of several houses and of part of the mudbrick wall.
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The Chapel at Montsalvat. The Eltham district had been settled since the 1850s; some of these early pioneers had used mud bricks to build their farmhouses, but the method had long been abandoned. Jorgensen saw value in the building technique. The local soils appeared suitable for both adobe (mudbrick) and pisé de terre (rammed earth) and it was cheap, so he set his students to work.
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The overall structure imitates mudbrick. The wall is interrupted by 14 doors, but only one entrance, in the south corner of the east façade, is functional for the living. This arrangement resembles Early Dynastic funerary enclosures at Abydos in which the entrance was on the east side. The remaining doors are known as false doors, and were meant for the king's use in the afterlife.
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The first school at Walla Walla was a congregational school and it was established in 1873. Instruction was conducted in the German language. This school operated from the original Zion Church building until 1883 when a mudbrick schoolhouse was opened. Two years later, in 1885, this school was leased to the NSW Department of Public Instruction and responsibility for educating the local children passed to the State.
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The store is considered socially and historically significant and is on the Victorian Heritage Database. Its post office is reputed to be the only one in Australia which is also a winery. Winemaker Ken King integrated the post office into his winery. The Kangaroo Ground Emergency Operations Centre was constructed in 1988 of mudbrick, a version of the "Eltham style" and features a central entry with a tile mural.
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The vaulted mudbrick burial chamber here is long, wide, and tall. It contained a decorated limestone burial chamber long, wide, and tall which was originally closed with limestone slabs. The ceiling of the limestone burial chamber was painted black and red to imitate red granite. Its side walls were decoratively painted with scenes of offerings and a palace façade motif, and have been well preserved, except for at its southern section.
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They seem to have dwelt in reed huts. The third culture that contributed to the building of Eridu were the Semitic-speaking nomadic herders of herds of sheep and goats living in tents in semi-desert areas. All three cultures seem implicated in the earliest levels of the city. The urban settlement was centered on a large temple complex built of mudbrick, within a small depression that allowed water to accumulate.
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The mudbrick buildings are frequently threatened by wind, rain, and heat erosion, and require constant upkeep in order to maintain their structures. The city was heavily affected by flooding from a tropical cyclone in 2008. The foundations of many of the buildings in the city were compromised by the flood waters, eventually leading to their collapse. It was also the target of an Al Qaeda attack in 2009.
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Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III, general view from the south The temple, some long, is of orthodox design, and closely resembles the nearby mortuary temple of Ramesses II (the Ramesseum). The temple precinct measures approximately . by and contains more than of decorated wall reliefs.Medinet Habu by M. Parsons Its walls are relatively well preserved and it is surrounded by a massive mudbrick enclosure, which may have been fortified.
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5"Adobe Moulding" Auroville Earth Institute This was assimilated into the Old Spanish language as adobe , probably via Mozarabic. English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century, still referring to mudbrick construction. In more modern English usage, the term "adobe" has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America, especially in New Mexico, regardless of the construction method.
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Troy VIIa was built around 1300 BC, soon after the destruction of its predecessor Troy VIh. The city carried on its previous cultural traditions and reused or restored many earlier buildings. However, the citadel walls were topped with new mudbrick breastworks and a dense residential neighborhood filled the citadel's previously open courtyards. Overseas trade declined, and residents of the citadel buried storage jars in their homes, seemingly worried about impending shortages.
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In contrast, the northern side facing the population centers remained largely unchanged. The first phase saw the walls built with mudbrick, a very common feature of Euphrates-area structures. Although the shape of the building after its initial phase cannot be determined, Paillet presumes that its size likely corresponded to that of the current building. The small salient bastion that juts out of the northern wall dates to the first phase.
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The city was built in this way in order to protect it from Bedouin attacks. Shibam still has the tallest mudbrick buildings in the world, with many of them over high. An early modern example of high-rise housing was in 17th-century Edinburgh, Scotland, where a defensive city wall defined the boundaries of the city. Due to the restricted land area available for development, the houses increased in height instead.
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Most known settlements associated with the Lodian culture were small and ephemeral. From the few sites remains of architecture have been found, it appears the inhabitants lived in circular, semi-subterranean rounded structures, 2-3 meters in diameter, made from mudbrick. Next to the structures were many pits dug by these inhabitants. They kept domestic animals, including sheep, goats, cattle and pigs, and also fished and hunted wild gazelle.
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The passage was not completed, as evidenced by bulges left at the bottom of the subway, and may have had limited utility to the town dwellers. The street, wide, continues south for to an intersection with an east-west running street. Here another double-leaved door originally stood. To the west, a staircase led to the granaries, and separated by a mudbrick wall to the north, a massive by water tank.
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Its inner core structure was of mediocre quality, predominantly consisted of limestone debris, mudbrick and significant quantities of pottery. This structure was then encased with massive, but poor quality, white limestone blocks that had not been smoothed. This indicates that construction was abandoned prior to completion after the owner's death. The superstructure is entered on the eastern façade through a wide entryway giving access to a by L-shaped chapel.
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Relief with Hathor and pharaoh Necho II, from Kom el-Hisn. Walters Art Museum The site was initially uncovered by Flinders Petrie during his excavation at Naukratis in 1881. It was then surveyed by Francis Llewellyn Griffith from 1885 to 1887. This survey captured the remains of a mudbrick temple, enclosure wall, and four statues of Ramesses II. Two of these statues had inscriptions dedicating them to Sekhmet-Hathor, "Mistress of Imu".
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Outside of the walled portion of the village approximately twenty-three chapels were built along the hillside. These chapels are generally composed of mudbrick and limestone for their construction and varied considerably in their layout. The essential features found in the more complex examples were an outer court, an inner court, and a shrine with niches. Comparison with the chapels at Deir el Medina clarify the purpose of the chapels in this village.
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Jalin was described in the late 19th century as an impoverished village of 20 hut-like houses built either of mudbrick or stone. Its population consisted of 100 black Africans hailing from the Sudan. They were settled in two villages, Jalin and al-Shaykh Saad to the north, by Sheikh Saad ibn Abd al-Qadir, himself from the Sudan. The Africans initially came as slaves of the sheikh, but were later freed.
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Faience ryhton with enamel inlay, 13th c. BC, Nicosia museum Early in the 12th century BC the town was rebuilt on a larger scale; its mudbrick city wall was replaced by a cyclopean wall.Excerpt of wall mounted text in exhibit room number two at Larnaca District Museum. Around 1000 BC, the religious part of the city was abandoned, although life seems to have continued in other areas as indicated by finds in tombs.
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Nubwenet is buried in a pyramid which is associated with the pyramid complex of Pepi I Saqqara. Nebwenet's pyramid complex lies at the far Eastern part of Pepi I's pyramid complex. Nebwenet had a small pyramid (the sides were ca 21 m long and the pyramid was ca 21 m high) and a small mortuary complex, which is now mostly destroyed. The pyramid was made from limestone, while the temple was constructed from mudbrick.
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Instead, these were replaced by a small settlement of mudbrick houses south of the monument from where cult priests could conduct their daily activities, rather than the usual pyramid town near the valley temple. The discovery of the Abusir papyri in the 1890s is owed to this. Normally, the papyrus archives would have been contained in the pyramid town where their destruction would have been assured. The pyramid became part of a greater family cemetery.
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Stone, wood, mudbrick, and other materials were commonly used to build these dwellings. Another element that was increasingly popular during the Hellenistic period was the addition of a courtyard to the home. Courtyards served as a light source for the home as Greek houses were closed off from the outside to maintain a level of privacy. There have been windows found at some home sites, but they are typically high off the ground and small.
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The town was encircled by sun-dried mudbrick walls and covered an area of 244 hectares (604 acres). The town walls and some of the street layout are clearly visible on satellite images provided by Google. The mosque and Seku Amadu’s palace were located side by side in the centre of the town. They were also constructed of sun- dried bricks, except for the enclosing walls of the palace, which were of stone.
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The tomb of Khentkaus III, likely a wife of Neferefre, was discovered near his unfinished pyramid in Abusir. She was buried in a mastaba long by wide and with masonry preserved up to a height of . The mastaba superstructure was primarily composed of locally quarried yellow and grey limestone, with a core of mudbrick, limestone debris, and pottery. This was encased in poor quality, unpolished white limestone indicating that construction was abandoned before completion.
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Traces of wall painting on plastered mudbrick wall at Malkata Fragments of plastered wall paintings have given archaeologists a glimpse of how the palace was decorated. Various paintings of the goddess Nekhbet made up the ceiling of the royal bedchamber. The walls were decorated with scenes of wildlife - flowers, reeds, and animals in the marshes, as well as decorative geometric designs, complete with rosettes. Ornate wooden columns painted to resemble lilies supported the ceilings.
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Rare exceptions are an arched mudbrick home doorway dated to circa 2000 BC from Tell Taya in Iraq and two Bronze Age arched Canaanite city gates, one at Ashkelon (dated to c. 1850 BC), and one at Tel Dan (dated to c. 1750 BC), both in modern-day Israel.Frances, Rosa: The three-arched middle Bronze Age gate at Tel Dan - A structural investigation of an extraordinary archaeological site, retrieved 9 April 2020.
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Assyrian reliefs portraying the siege of Lachish clearly show battering rams attacking the vulnerable parts of the city.Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible - Page 157 by David Noel Freedman The British Museum has a superb set of relief carvings which depicted the siege in some detail. It shows the Assyrian soldiers firing arrows, and slingstones, and approaching the walls of Lachish using mudbrick ramps. The attackers shelter behind wicker shields, and deploy battering rams.
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In Central Europe, the Celts built large fortified settlements known as oppida, whose walls seem partially influenced by those built in the Mediterranean. The fortifications were continuously being expanded and improved. Around 600 BC, in Heuneburg, Germany, forts were constructed with a limestone foundation supported by a mudbrick wall approximately 4 metres tall, probably topped by a roofed walkway, thus reaching a total height of 6 metres. The wall was clad with lime plaster, regularly renewed.
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Defensive wall of the ancient city of Dholavira, Gujarat 2600 BCE A number of forts dating from the Later Stone Age to the British Raj may be found in India. "Fort" is the word used in India for all old fortifications. Numerous Indus Valley Civilization sites exhibit evidences of fortifications. While Dholavira has stone-built fortification walls, Harrapa is fortified using baked bricks; sites such as Kalibangan exhibit mudbrick fortifications with bastions and Lothal has a quadrangular fortified layout.
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In the early 1940s, mudbrick tombs were uncovered after a heavy rainfall. El-Amir, Farad, and Hamada excavated what turned out to be a large necropolis from 1943 to 1949. There was a count of over one thousand graves ranging from lower to upper class burials. The most common were simple sand- pit burials. Among these, blades were found in a portion of the tombs labeled the “warrior group”, but most burials contained no or little grave goods.
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Seventy-three houses of identical size are found inside this area, with one larger house with its own garden that presumably belonged to an official overseer. Each house was 5 meters wide and 10 meters long, and constructed of mudbrick with some stone used around the base of the walls. Thresholds were often made of cut stone but no stone walls were found. The interior was divided into four main rooms: the "entrance hall", "living room", "bedroom", and "kitchen".
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Adjacent to the east side of the pyramid is a small mudbrick chapel which served as temple for the cult of the dead king. The entrance of the chapel is located on its north side. Inside the temple, immediately against the pyramid wall is an offering hall where Jequier found a stone washbasin as well as stele or a false door of which only the foundations remain. An alabaster tray and obsidian mortar tools were also discovered there.
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Both the main mound and the lower extension were re- occupied during the Middle Bronze Age (early second millennium BCE). Layers 8–4 on the main mound can be assigned to this period. The excavations found a number of graves with bronze weapons on the main mound, as well as a mudbrick platform. In the lower town, a small part of a palace was excavated, and in three of its rooms a small archive of clay tablets was found.
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To speed up construction of the city most of the buildings were constructed out of mudbrick, and white washed. The most important buildings were faced with local stone.Grundon (2007), p. 89 It is the only ancient Egyptian city which preserves great details of its internal plan, in large part because the city was abandoned after the death of Akhenaten, when Akhenaten's son, King Tutankhamun, decided to leave the city and return to his birthplace in Thebes (modern Luxor).
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Many other languages are spoken in Togo, especially ewé, the dominant language of the south, and Kabyé, dominant language of the Kara region, further north. The Kotokoli and Kabyè languages are closely related. From the standpoint of urban landscape, the city can be divided into two parts: the center, with high density traditional housing, and the suburbs, with housing becoming progressively less dense as one moves away from the center. Modern materials have been increasingly replacing traditional materials (mudbrick).
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This building, initially constructed entirely of wood and mudbrick, had its wooden columns gradually replaced with stone ones over time. Like a museum of Doric columns and Doric capitals, it contains examples of all chronological phases, up to the Roman period. One of the columns in the opisthodomos remained wooden at least until the 2nd century AD, when Pausanias described it. This 6 × 16 column temple already called for a solution to the Doric corner conflict.
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Boardman, p. 12William Rostoker; Elizabeth Gebhard, p. 212 Only stone walls, which were replacing the earlier mudbrick and wood walls, were strong enough to support the weight of a tiled roof.Marilyn Y. Goldberg, pp 305–309 The earliest finds of roof tiles of the Archaic period in Greece are documented from a very restricted area around Corinth, where fired tiles began to replace thatched roofs at the temples of Apollo and Poseidon between 700 and 650 BC.Örjan Wikander, pp.
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Moreover, the citadel walls were surmounted by structures of mud brick. The stone part of the walls currently in evidence were "...five meters thick and at least eight meters high - and over that a mudbrick superstructure several meters high...," which totals to about for the citadel walls at about the time of the Trojan War. The present-day walls of Troy, then, portray little of the ancient city's appearance, any more than bare foundations characterize a building.
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One hundred buildings have been identified by archaeologists within the settlement. Their stone foundations or basement walls survive, but the earthen (probably mudbrick) superstructures have long since disappeared. It is thus impossible to determine whether buildings had one or two storeys except in the case of the thickest foundations walls, which almost certainly supported two storeys. The building types have no known equivalents among medieval Ḥaḍramī archiecture, but are similar to ancient Sabaean types from the same region.
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Ahmed Soliman, the son of the onetime keeper of the Temple of Seti, built a simple mudbrick house adjacent to his family home where Omm Sety moved and lived as part of the Soliman family.Cott, p. 103 She reported in her diary that on first moving into her new home, Seti I appeared and carried out a ritual that consecrated the habitation, bowing reverently towards small statues of Osiris and Isis she kept in a small shrine-niche.Cott, p.
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The Mizikin household settled in an apartment at 41 Edinovercheskaya Street, located in southern Kharkov's rough Moskalevska District. The district was modest compared to the rest of Kharkov: unpaved streets and alleys, 10 factories, 20 bars, numerous mudbrick houses and a few stone buildings scattered across the neighborhood. Despite residing in a working-class area, Harris strived to immerse herself into the aristocratic lifestyle that she'd witnessed across the Russian Empire, employing six servants and footmen.
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Temple of Ramesses III The temple, some long, is of orthodox design, and closely resembles the Ramesseum. It is quite well preserved and surrounded by a massive mudbrick enclosure, which may have been fortified. The original entrance is through a fortified gate-house, known as a migdol (and resembling an Asiatic fortress). Just inside the enclosure, to the south, are chapels of Amenirdis I, Shepenupet II and Nitiqret, all of whom had the title of Divine Adoratrice of Amun.
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Kutubiyya minaret: the use of rubble masonry is visible, as are the faint remains of plaster, with painted decoration, which once covered it. In addition to rammed earth, brick and (especially in desert regions) mudbrick were also common types of materials for the construction of houses, civic architecture, and mosques. Many medieval minarets, for example, are made in brick, in many cases covered with other materials for decoration. Stone masonry was also used in many notable monuments, especially in the Almohad period.
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The church soon became untended as the Church of Saint George was built in Užice, which was larger, more modern and closer to downtown. Still, certain protective works have been done on it in 1904, 1922, 1951, 1966, mid-1970s and 1990. During these repairs the original mudbrick bondruk construction was replaced with proper bricks while the roof's klis cover was replaced with shingle. It was largely neglected in the second half of the 20th century and the services were not held.
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The middle portion of the Dedoplis Mindori plain is occupied by a complex of religious buildings, with the total area of 4 ha (225 × 180 m). The complex consists of eight temples, two gateways, dwellings, and other accessory structures, built simultaneously according to a well-designed uniform rectangular plan. The buildings, oriented south-north, surround a central square courtyard, measuring 105 × 103 m. They had mudbrick walls, with cobblestone socles and, with the exception of the main temple, were roofed with terracotta tiles.
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The Ziggurat of Ur is the best example of this style. Another change in temple design in this period was a straight as opposed to bent-axis approach to the temple. Ur-Nammu's ziggurat at Ur was designed as a three-stage construction, but today only two of these survive. This entire mudbrick core structure was originally given a facing of baked brick envelope set in bitumen, 2.5 m on the first lowest stage, and 1.15 m on the second.
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Rather, the cult pyramid was replaced with a small settlement, called Ba Kakai, of mudbrick lodgings for priests, south of the monument. The omission of these "essential" elements has had one significant impact. Under normal circumstances, the priests tending to the deceased pharaoh's funerary cult would have lived in a 'pyramid town' built in the vicinity of the valley temple, situated on the Abusir Lake. The daily records of the administration would have had their residence in the town with the priests.
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This style is characterized by the use of mudbricks and adobe plaster, with large wooden-log support beams that jut out from the wall face for large buildings such as mosques or palaces. These beams also act as scaffolding for reworking, which is done at regular intervals, and involves the local community. The earliest examples of Sudano-Sahelian style probably come from Jenné-Jeno around 250 BC, where the first evidence of permanent mudbrick architecture in the region is found.
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The graves contain either single or double burials. On one occasion two graves were found under the floor of room AB, belonging to an adjacent court (HG) with a large domed mudbrick oven paved with blocks of basalt. In one of the graves were the skeletons of a young woman and an elderly man; in the other a young woman buried together with her baby. The young woman had apparently undergone trepanation and survived only a few days after the operation.
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Also found at Abusir were substantial remains of a Ramesside temple, perhaps built by Ramses II. The temple lies about 500 meters south east of the pyramids, close to the cultivation in the desert. The main building of the temple was built of limestone. There were three cellars, a small hall with four columns and a courtyard (with mudbrick walls) with ten limestone columns. The limestone building was placed within a larger complex made of mud bricks with a pylon and magazines.
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North-west of the valley temple was a rectangular by mudbrick building, called the "Washing-tent" by Hassan. The building was used in the purification process before Khentkaus' corpse was transported through the necropolis to the embalming house. The chamber was found filled with debris, containing copious fragments of stone vessels, potsherds, and flint instruments. A covered, sloped white limestone drain was carved into the floor of the chamber, leading north for where it terminated into a large stepped basin.
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Persian architecture likely inherited an architectural tradition of dome-building dating back to the earliest Mesopotamian domes. In Central Asia, mudbrick domes have been documented as far back as the late third millennium BC. Buildings with domes made of un-fired bricks have been found at fourth century BC sites at Balandy 2 and Koj Krylgan kala in Khorezm. Due to the scarcity of wood in many areas of the Iranian plateau, domes were an important part of vernacular architecture throughout Persian history.
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Decorated capital of a pillar from the royal palace of Shabwa; stratigraphic context: first half of the 3rd century BC. Unlike Mesopotamia, ancient South Arabia was dominated by stone buildings. Only in the coastal areas and the Hadhramaut capital of Shabwa were there also large numbers of mudbrick structures. For monumental buildings, large hewn blocks of stone were used, which were fitted together without mortar and unhewn stone which required mortar. Lime mortar, mud, and asphalt were used as binding materials.
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Besides using large photographs to record the reliefs, the artists penciled over lines and inscriptions for a completely accurate rendering. Broome and Calverley also used watercolor paintings to provide color to the reproductions, because only black and white photography was available at the time. The result of that effort is four volumes with coloured plates published by the University of Chicago between 1933 and 1958. The artists lived together in a mudbrick house near the temple with two local servants.
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At this stage it was destroyed by a fire which baked the clay tablets and mudbrick walls, which then survived for millennia. Two possible kings of Shuruppak are mentioned in epigraphic data from later sources found elsewhere. In the Sumerian King List a king Ubara-Tutu is listed as the ruler of Shuruppak and the last king "before the flood". In the Epic of Gilgamesh, a man named Utanapishtim (also Uta-na'ishtim), son of Ubara-Tutu, is noted to be king of Shuruppak.
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Retrieved 16 November 2012. The South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh also constructed, and lived in, air-dried mudbrick houses between 7000–3300 BC.Possehl, Gregory L. (1996) Other more recent findings, dated between 7,000 and 6,395 BC, come from Jericho, Catal Hüyük, the ancient Egyptian fortress of Buhen, and the ancient Indus Valley cities of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa,History of brickmaking, Encyclopædia Britannica. and Mehrgarh. Ceramic, or fired brick was used as early as 3000 BC in early Indus Valley cities like Kalibangan.
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Four foundation deposits were found beneath the remains of two mudbrick walls found surrounding the tomb. Each contained a limestone plaque with an inscription containing his name that matched the one found inside the tomb. By the time of the tomb's discovery, the coffin and offering left behind had turned to dust. These deposits were placed as part of a ritual during the temple's construction so finding them beneath his tomb suggests of re-use of parts of the temple to build Khesuwer's tomb.
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The Atiq Mosque (also called the Great Mosque, or al-Kabir mosque) () is a mosque in the oasis village of Awjila, in the Sahara desert of the Cyrenaica region of eastern Libya. The community dates back to classical times. Since being taken by the Arabs in the seventh century, Islam has always played a central role in the life of Awjila. The 12th-century mosque, the oldest in the region, has unusual conical domes made of mudbrick and limestone that provide light and ventilation.
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According to archaeologist Selma Al- Radi, qadad can only be used as a plaster on buildings constructed of stone and baked brick, but it will not adhere to mudbrick, cement blocks or concrete. In Yemen, where it was traditionally made with two basic ingredients, baked lime and volcanic scoria, other countries have traditionally made-use of fine riverbed sand or pebbles instead of scoria, and which were mixed together with lime for use as a common mortar, or to be used as an impervious wall plaster.
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The walling techniques included drystone walling, the murus gallicus (a typical Celtic technique of wood and stone) and perhaps also mudbrick. The small hilltop pond would not have sufficed to ensure water supply for the population of so large a settlement. For this reason, an annex was added to the north, with two walls running downslope, enclosing an additional triangular area of 300 x 300 m, including a spring. The point of that annex contained a huge water reservoir, measuring 150 by 60 m.
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South-east of the mortuary temple, a rectangular north-south oriented mudbrick building, built in two phases, was uncovered. The building served as a ritual abattoir in service to the mortuary cult. Temple archive papyri and vessel inscriptions identify it as "the Sanctuary of the Knife", and preserve an event in which 130 bulls were slaughtered at the abattoir during a ten-day festival. The abattoir had a single, wide entrance in its north side through which cattle, goats, gazelles, and other animals were herded inside.
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Especially between the Muslim conquest and the 19th century, the external facade of Coptic urban churches is usually plain and discreet, as is the roof- line. Equally the monasteries were often enclosed with high blank walls to defend them from desert raiders during the Middle Ages. However, internally the churches can be ornately decorated, although monumental sculpture of holy figures is avoided as in Orthodoxy. Many Coptic monasteries and churches scattered throughout Egypt are built of mudbrick on the basilica plan inherited from Graeco-Roman architectural styles.
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Ostrakon: hunting a lion with spear and dog Lower-class occupations Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of mudbrick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread. Ceramics served as household wares for the storage, preparation, transport, and consumption of food, drink, and raw materials.
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Ruins of the southern pyramid Mazghuna (also known as Al Mazghunah or Al- Muzghumah), 5 km to the south of Dahshur, is the site of several mudbrick pyramids dating from the 12th Dynasty. The area was explored by Ernest Mackay in 1910, and was excavated by Flinders Petrie in 1911. Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu have been suggested as the owners of two unfinished pyramids at Mazghuna, but there is no conclusive evidence of this. The southern pyramid is about 3 miles from Sneferu's Bent pyramid.
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Plan of the substructures of the tomb S9 in Abydos as uncovered by the 1901—1902 excavations. Tomb S9 comprises the remains of a mudbrick inner enclosure wall, over in size, as well as a section of an outer whitewashed wavy wall in front of the northern side. There, lay a small rectangular chapel of which only one course of bricks survives, and beyond the entrance to the substructures. The overall layout of the tomb complex is very similar to that of the Southern Mazghuna pyramid.
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The city of Kerma Nubian architecture is one of the most ancient in the world. The earliest style of Nubian architecture includes the speos, structures carved out of solid rock under the A-Group culture (3700-3250 BCE). Egyptians borrowed and made extensive use of the process at Speos Artemidos and Abu Simbel. A-Group culture led eventually to the C-Group culture, which began building using light, supple materials—animal skins and wattle and daub—with larger structures of mudbrick later becoming the norm.
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The walls had a bottom course of stone with a mudbrick superstructure, another feature typical of early Greek architecture. Other parts of the temple were made from limestone, unbaked bricks, and terracotta tiles. Holes in the protrusions at the ends of the walls—antae—indicate that a wooden cladding protected them from the elements. The temple had a Laconian-style roof; its pediments were decorated with disk acroteria of diameter, each made in one single piece (one is on display at the Archaeological Museum of Olympia).
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Section of the building: the preserved walls (light grey, max height ) and an hypothetical reconstruction (light brown) The remains of the structure today looks similar to the first step of a step pyramid however, as pointed out above, it remains impossible to ascert that the structure was a pyramid. Furthermore, it is unclear whether the structure was completed or not. The ground plan of the main structure is rectangular and measures x . The mudbrick walls of the pyramid are slanted inwards and are up to thick.
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Kuo Yuan Ye () is a chain of pastry stores in Taiwan. Kuo Yuan Ye pastry is prepared with skills passed down through generations. In 1708, ancestors of the Kuo family left their native home in Fujian, China, crossed the Taiwan Strait, and arrived in what is now known as Taipei. In 1867, Kuo Liang-chen built a squat mudbrick shop in Shilin, Taipei, where he started a pastry business. In memory of his hometown ancestral hall, he gave his store the same name, “Yuan Ye”.
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Richards attended Brighton Beach Primary School in Melbourne, Australia, and then the Firbank Girls' Grammar School from Year 7, but transferred to Morongo Girls' College (now Kardinia International College) for the last term of Year 10 until graduation. She then enrolled at Monash University in 1972, taking an Arts degree, with a double major in Sociology and English. Richards deferred her English Honours year in 1976, and concentrated her efforts into building a mudbrick house in the Macclesfield area, located in the Dandenong Hills region, above Melbourne.
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309 As a side-effect, it has been assumed that the new stone and tile construction also ushered in the end of 'Chinese roof' (Knickdach) construction in Greek architecture, as they made the need for an extended roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls obsolete.Marilyn Y. Goldberg, p. 305 Production of Dutch roof tiles started in the 14th century when city rulers (Holland) required the use of fireproof materials. At the time, most houses were made of wood and had thatch roofing, which would often cause fires to spread quickly.
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The workmen's village at Deir el-Medina, located in a valley on the west bank of the Nile across from Thebes, was first constructed under Thutmose I of the Nineteenth Dynasty to house the workers who worked on the tombs in the nearby Valley of the Kings during the New Kingdom.Uphill The village is surrounded by a thin mudbrick wall and built around a central street. Houses were connected at the sides, sharing walls for building and space efficiency. It is possible that entire blocks of houses were covered by a single roof.
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It was centered on the temple of the Senusret's pyramid, which visually dominated the village, and it consisted of two unequal quarters enclosed by mudbrick walls on at least three sides. The smaller western quarter contained the relatively humble dwellings of the workers that were laid out on a rectangular grid pattern. Flinders Petrie, who first excavated the site, noted how the layout of the neighborhood would allow a single nightwatchman to easily guard the area. The houses all followed the same basic pattern and dimensions, and they were evenly spaced along the parallel streets.
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233–238, 1954 A mudbrick or mud-brick is an air-dried brick, made of a mixture of loam, mud, sand and water mixed with a binding material such as rice husks or straw. Mudbricks are known from 9000 BCE, though since 4000 BC, bricks have also been fired, to increase their strength and durability. In warm regions with very little timber available to fuel a kiln, bricks were generally sun-dried. In some cases, brickmakers extended the life of mud bricks by putting fired bricks on top or covering them with stucco.
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McDowell p. 18, p. 21 At its peak, the community contained around sixty-eight houses spread over a total area of 5,600 m2 with a narrow road running the length of the village.McDowell p. 9 The main road through the village may have been covered to shelter the villagers from the intense glare and heat of the sun. The size of the habitations varied, with an average floor space of 70 m2, but the same construction methods were used throughout the village. Walls were made of mudbrick, built on top of stone foundations.
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Evidence of this destruction was discovered on the High and Low Mound. This destruction dates to around 800 BC and it marks the beginning of the Iron II period. While the destruction was extensive, the settlement's occupants seem to have rebuilt the citadel and the buildings of the Lower Town rapidly, cutting down the mudbrick walls of the burned structures to their stone footings and erecting new brick walls. The buildings of the Iron II settlement were based on their Iron I precursors, but were also larger and more elaborate in their layout and ornamentation.
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The Neolithic era commenced with the beginning of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution". It ended when metal tools became widespread (in the Copper Age or Bronze Age; or, in some geographical regions, in the Iron Age). The term Neolithic is commonly used in the Old World, as its application to cultures in the Americas and Oceania that did not fully develop metal-working technology raises problems. The monumental building at Luni sul Mignone in Blera, Italy, 3500 BCE Settlements became more permanent with some having circular houses with single rooms made of mudbrick.
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The Masmak Fort (), also called the Masmak Fortress or Masmak Palace, is a clay and mudbrick fort in the old city of Riyadh, situated in the modern-day Deira district. Built in 1865 by 'Abdurrahman ibn Sulaiman under the Emirate of Jabal Shammar, The fortress played an integral role in the Unification of Saudi Arabia, with the Battle of Riyadh, one of the most important conflicts of the Saudi unification, taking place in the fort. Since 1995, the fortress has been converted into a museum showcasing one of the most important landmarks of Saudi heritage.
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Many BMAC strongholds continued to be occupied and Tazabagyab-Andronovo coarse incised pottery occurs within them (along with the previous BMAC pottery) as well as in pastoral camps outside the mudbrick walls. In the highlands above the Bactrian oases in Tajikistan, kurgan cemeteries of the Vaksh and Bishkent type appeared with pottery that mixed elements of the late BMAC and Tazabagyab-Andronovo traditions.David Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel and Language (2007), pp.452–56. In southern Bactrian sites like Sappali Tepe too, increasing links with the Andronovo culture are seen.
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Its massive mudbrick walls, dating to the Late Period (747–332 BC) and thought to have been built by Nectanebo II as a defensive measure, are still largely preserved. They enclose an area of about . Temple of Amenhotep III at El Kab Near the centre of the Nekheb are the remains of sandstone temples dedicated to the ancient Egyptian deities Nekhbet and Thoth that date primarily to the Eighteenth to Thirtieth Dynasties (1550–343 BCE), but the original foundation of the temple of Nekhbet almost certainly dates back to the late fourth millennium BC.
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In the New Kingdom, the mortuary temple was subject to dismantlement from stone quarrying for new projects. The white limestone built first phase of the temple was particularly affected by these attacks. In the hypostyle hall, a mudbrick ramp had been built by stone thieves who left behind vessels and chromatic glass, all dating to the New Kingdom period. Around the same time, a necropolis formed around the Abusir monuments containing the crude wooden coffins of common people, who had seemingly concluded that the shadow of the pyramids was the best final resting place.
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In 2010, an unknown mudbrick mastaba was discovered in Quesna, an archaeological site located in the Monufia Governorate (in the Nile Delta). The mastaba was once 14m in length and 6m in width. Its substructure contains a 3m wide corridor chapel, divided into three architectural sections: the first (northern) section is filled with rubble, the second (central) section contains a double room as the burial chamber and the third (southern) section has a burial shaft in its center. In 2014, a tiny mud seal fragment with the king's name was discovered inside.
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Pet waste station at government building Animal dung occasionally is used as a cement to make adobe mudbrick huts, or even in throwing sports such as cow pat throwing or camel dung throwing contests. Kopi luwak (pronounced ), or civet coffee, is coffee made from coffee berries that have been eaten by and passed through the digestive tract of the Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus). Giant pandas provide fertilizer for the world's most expensive green tea. In Malaysia, tea is made from the droppings of stick insects fed on guava leaves.
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The thickness of the walls was so great that the mudbrick city gate had a stone-lined, wide tunnel-like barrel vault, coated with white plaster, to support the superstructure: it is the oldest such vault ever found. Later Roman and Islamic fortifications, faced with stone, followed the same footprint, a vast semicircle protecting Ashkelon on the land side. On the sea it was defended by a high natural bluff. A roadway more than in width ascended the rampart from the harbor and entered a gate at the top.
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43–49, 1969 Some additional excavation occurred by Manhal Jabur from the early 1970s to 1987. For the most part, these digs focused on Tell Nebi Yunus. The British archaeologist and Assyriologist Professor David Stronach of the University of California, Berkeley conducted a series of surveys and digs at the site from 1987 to 1990, focusing his attentions on the several gates and the existent mudbrick walls, as well as the system that supplied water to the city in times of siege. The excavation reports are in progress.
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11 m-thick Neolithic cultural sequence recovered in Goytepe consists of 14 architectural levels characterized by mudbrick houses in circular shape linked by curvilinear walls. Building techniques and distribution sequence of architectural remainders found from different levels were mainly similar to each other. Plano-convex-shaped mud bricks with straw temper measuring 40-60 x 20 x 8-10 cm made from yellow or brown clay were used as a building material. These constructions including the ones made of 15 rows of mud bricks with a height of 1.5 m.
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His pyramid was made in the same fashion as 5th and 6th dynasty pyramids by having a rough core clad with a fine mantle of smooth limestone. > The core of the pyramid was made up of small rough blocks of limestone with > a loose fill of sand, debris and mudbrick. Perhaps the most remarkable > feature is that it included fragments of relief-decorated blocks from Old > Kingdom monuments – many from pyramid causeways and temples, including > Khufu's. Granite blocks from Khafre's complex went into the lining and > blocking of Amenemhat I's descending passage.
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The second phase of construction added three salient bastions, each of which were over twice the size of the northern bastion. The new bastions were placed along the part of al-Rahba's citadel that faced the desert to the west. The builders in the second phase also reinforced al- Rahba's walls with roughly cut conglomerate blocks fixed together by high- quality mortar. In the third phase, higher quality mudbrick was used, the western curtain wall was elevated and the southwestern curtain wall was replaced and decorated with bands of Arabic inscriptions.
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The final settlement layer dates to the Greaco-Roman period and consists of the foundations of habitations. The stratigraphy below this begins in the Karum period and consists of five layers, numbered from top to bottom, I to V. Layer I is mostly destroyed, which is attributed to its proximity to the surface. Some kilns and building remains have been found. The houses of layer II appear to have been built of wood and mudbrick on the ruins of Layer III in a hurry, according to Nimet Özgüc.
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The court, measuring by , was paved with mudbrick save for a limestone pathway leading south-west from the doorway, under the wall, and into the vestibule of Menkaure's temple. There was originally a doorway into the temple, but this was bricked up during the construction of Khentkaus' temple. North-west of the courtyard was an elongated storage room, and to the east a long corridor with two, later three, entrances. The corridor was converted into a set of three dwellings, as was the southern half of the temple beyond the court.
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Similar tablets, together with splendidly painted monochrome and polychrome pottery, were also shown by local Arabs in 1925 to the Assyriologist Stephen Herbert Langdon, then director of the excavations at Tell al-Uhaymir. The Arabs told Langdon the finds came from Jemdet Nasr, a site some northeast of Tell al-Uhaymir. Langdon was sufficiently impressed, visited the site and started excavations in 1926. He uncovered a large mudbrick building containing more of the distinctive pottery and a collection of 150 to 180 clay tablets bearing the proto-cuneiform script.
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In 1990, tombs belonging to the pyramid workers were discovered alongside the pyramids, with an additional burial site found nearby in 2009. Although not mummified, they had been buried in mudbrick tombs with beer and bread to support them in the afterlife. The tombs' proximity to the pyramids and the manner of burial supports the theory that they were paid laborers who took great pride in their work and were not slaves, as was previously thought. Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid.
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During the seventh century BC the settlement was reduced and habitation did not occur on the lower plateaus anymore, but elsewhere in the vicinity. In the second half of the seventh century BC the sanctuary was apparently taken over by the Sybarites, who celebrated large festivals there regularly. At this time a new generation of mudbrick temples was erected on top of the old wooden temples, which were demolished. In the sixth century BC an intensive building program was started at the site leading to the construction of large colonial houses on all the plateaus and the rearrangement of the sanctuary.
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Instead its main temple seems to have comprised a rectangular enclosure wall with a high mast set on a mound in its center, possibly as a perch for the sun god's falcon. To the east of this mound was a mudbrick altar with statue shrines on both sides. According to the royal annals, from his sixth year on the throne, Userkaf commanded that two oxen and two geese were to be sacrificed daily in the Nekhenre. These animals seem to have been butchered in or around the high temple, the causeway being wide enough to lead live oxen up it.
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The ancient architecture of the region of the Tigris–Euphrates river system dates back to the 10th millennium BC and lead to the development of urban planning, the courtyard house, and ziggurats. The basic and dominant building material was the mudbrick, which is still in use in the region for the construction of residential structures. Kiln-burnt bricks were coated with a vitreous enamel for purposes of decoration and bitumen functioned as cement. Palaces or temples were constructed on terraces as rooms usually grouped round quadrangles, with large doorways and the roofs rested on richly ornamented columns.
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Man and woman, Old-Babylonian fired clay plaque from Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq In Babylonia, an abundance of clay, and lack of stone, led to greater use of mudbrick; Babylonian, Sumerian and Assyrian temples were massive structures of crude brick which were supported by buttresses, the rain being carried off by drains. One such drain at Ur was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enameled tiles. The walls were brilliantly coloured, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles.
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The Territory of Kansas was opened to settlement by the Kansas–Nebraska Act on May 30, 1854. Reverend Samuel Y. Lum of Middletown, New York was sent by the American Home Missionary Society to establish what was to become the first church in the new city of Lawrence and the entire Kansas Territory. Prior to his arrival, sermon readings were conducted by laymen. The first service of Plymouth Congregational Church was held by Lum on October 1, 1854 in a mudbrick boarding house, also called the "hay tent," with settlers who had come from New England.
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A limestone Statuette of Neferefre is significant among these statues, as it presents a motif previously only known from a single statue of Khafre. The usual elements of an entrance hall, columned courtyard, and five niche statue temple were forgone, though the entrance hall and columned courtyard were added in during the third phase of construction. South-east of the mortuary temple, a large rectangular mudbrick building was uncovered. This was revealed to be "the Sanctuary of the Knife", an abattoir which was used for the ritual slaughter of animals as offerings for the mortuary cult.
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In the second phase of construction, during the reign of Neferefre's younger brother, Nyuserre, the temple was significantly extended along its entire length. Constructed predominantly from mudbrick, – a cheaper and less durable alternative to limestone – it had a unique design. The architect was clearly influenced by the predicament of building a royal temple in front of a non-standard, non-pyramid royal tomb to break with custom and improvise. He retained the north-south orientation, but moved the entrance to the centre of the eastern façade, underneath a portico adorned with two white limestone lotus stalk columns.
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Jemdet Nasr () is a tell or settlement mound in Babil Governorate (Iraq) that is best known as the eponymous type site for the Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BC), and was one of the oldest Sumerian cities. The site was first excavated in 1926 by Stephen Langdon, who found proto-cuneiform clay tablets in a large mudbrick building thought to be the ancient administrative centre of the site.Stephen Langdon, New Texts from Jemdet Nasr, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, pp. 837-844, 1931 A second season took place in 1928, but this season was very poorly recorded.
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As a result, much information on the exact find spots of artefacts, including the tablets, was lost. A large mudbrick building was excavated in which a large collection of proto-cuneiform clay tablets was found. The finds from this season were divided between the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad, the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford and the Field Museum in Chicago; the latter two co- sponsors of the excavations in Kish and Jemdet Nasr. A second season was organized in 1928, lasting between 13–22 March and directed by L.Ch. Watelin, the then-field director at Kish.
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The Jemdet Nasr period settlement (3100–2900 BC) extended over an area of of Mound B. Some was occupied by the single, large mudbrick building that was excavated by Langdon, and where the clay tablets were found. In and around this building, kilns for firing pottery and baking bread were found, and other crafts like weaving. Many of these crafts, and also agricultural production, feature prominently in the proto-cuneiform tablets – indicating that much of the economy was centrally controlled and administered. In the texts from Jemdet Nasr, the term "SANGA AB" appears, which may denote a high official.
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Today, much of the preexisting artifacts are being lost every year because local farmers like to use the sebakh, fertilizer from the ancient mudbrick blocks that were used for most of the buildings. It is also known as the birthplace of Amenhotep, son of Hapu, who gained considerable recognition and prestige in his time as a public official, architect, and scribe for pharaoh Amenhotep III. The former Amenhotep leveraged his influence to convince the pharaoh to patron the town and its local god. A local temple was rebuilt by Amenhotep III during the 18th Dynasty, although it no longer stands today.
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From 2003 to 2006, a Xinjiang-wide "crackdown on extremism" reduced the incidence of terrorist attacks, but alienated many Uyghurs and aided extremist recruitment. In the run-up to the 2008 Beijing Olympics in August, two Uyghur men killed 16 people in Kashgar with a combination truck collision and stabbing. Because Kashgar lies in a seismic zone, the city is undergoing a $1.1 billion urban renewal plan to replace mudbrick structures with new foundations that meet modern standards of earthquake safety and sanitation. Some Uyghurs oppose the renovations, citing the cultural value of the old buildings.
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The power and control seemed to be in the hand of kings or reguli. Iberian funerary customs are dominated by cremation necropolis, that are partly due to the persistent influences of the Urnfield culture, but they also include burial customs imported from the Greek cultural area (mudbrick rectangular mound). Urbanism was important in the Iberian cultural area, especially in the south, where Roman accounts mention hundreds of oppida (fortified towns). In these towns (some quite large, some mere fortified villages) the houses were typically arranged in contiguous blocks, in what seems to be another Urnfield cultural influx.
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An L-shaped settlement of mudbrick houses was built in a linear fashion east and south of the tomb, and enclosed by a perimeter wall. The south perimeter wall runs east for from the courtyard doorjamb, turns south for , before bending back to the east after which the wall is lost under a cemetery. The north wall starts from the other courtyard doorjamb, runs east for , turns south for , continues east for a further , before a final turn south where it too is lost under the cemetery. The two walls form the boundary of the pyramid town of Khentkaus' complex.
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The archaeological work at Ein el-Jarba has been renewed in 2013 on behalf of the Institute of Archaeology of Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, directed by Katharina Streit, in cooperation with the Jezreel Valley Regional Project. This excavation uncovered a two-period settlement with remains dating to the Early Bronze Age IB (4th millennium calBC) and the Early Chalcolithic (6th millennium calBC). The Early Bronze Age remains consist of several substrata of oval houses, as well as living floors, pits and a stone lined silo. The Early Chalcolithic phase consists of several floors and decayed mudbrick material, as well as a plastered surface with circular installation.
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The excavations at the main mound revealed 16 occupation layers, ranging in date from the Hassuna period (early sixth millennium BCE) to the 14th century CE. Layers 16–9 dated to the Hassuna period. This occupation was characterized by rows of stones that are interpreted by the excavators as foundations for mudbrick walls, a pebble floor and a clay basin in the final occupation layer. Pottery, which has only been found in abundance in layers 13–9, shows stylistic links with that of Hassuna and Tell es-Sawwan. Obsidian was the preferred material for stone tools, with flint making up only 15 percent of the total assemblage.
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The evidence for winemaking consisted of six jars that were embedded in the floor of what archeologists suspect was a kitchen area in a mudbrick building that was inhabited some time between 5400–5000 BC. Inside was yellowish deposits that chemical analysis showed contained residue of tartaric acid and calcium tartrate. Additionally, analysis found deposit of resin, identified as from the terebinth tree (Pistacia terebinthus) that grew wild in the area. It is possible that the resin was used as a preservative, in a manner similar to the Greek wine Retsina still being produced today, suggesting that winemaking in Hajji Firuz Tepe was deliberately taking place over 7,000 years ago.
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The discovery of considerable remains of stone vessels mostly broken or otherwise incomplete in the pyramid temples of Sahure, Neferirkare, and Neferefre bears testament to this development. Old Kingdom mortuary complexes consisted of five essential components: (1) a valley temple; (2) a causeway; (3) a mortuary temple; (4) a cult pyramid; and (5) the main pyramid. Neferirkare's mortuary complex only had two of these basic elements: a mortuary temple which had been hastily constructed from cheap mudbrick and wood; and the largest main pyramid at the site. The valley temple and causeway that were originally intended for Neferirkare's monument were co-opted by Nyuserre for his own mortuary complex.
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Many of the characteristic traits of the Shulaverian material culture (circular mudbrick architecture, pottery decorated by plastic design, anthropomorphic female figurines, obsidian industry with an emphasis on production of long prismatic blades) are believed to have their origin in the Near Eastern Neolithic (Hassuna, Halaf). The technology and typology of bone-based instruments are similar to those of the Middle East Neolithic material culture. A quern with 2 small hollows found in Shomutepe is similar to the one with more hollows detected in Khramisi Didi-Gora. The similarities between the macrolithic tools and the use of ochre also bring Shulaveri-Shomu culture closer to the culture of Halaf.
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The mudbrick Temple V was demolished and a gravel foundation was used to eliminate the height difference of the site of Temple V with the rest of the acropolis. A new Temple V made of stone replaced the older temple. New stone temples also replaced Temple III and I, which were built on a stone foundation of riverbed cobbles. The site must have been abandoned when the Bruttians conquered the region at some time in the fourth century BC. Centuries later a Byzantine chapel was constructed on top of the foundations of Temple V, but there is no evidence of a settlement existing in this period.
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Lyari was neglected during this era, as the British administrators and Hindu mercantile community showed little interest in developing the Muslim-majority working-class locale, and instead chose to develop the port and eastern part of Karachi. As a result, Lyari developed in a haphazard manor, and was characterized by a cluster of poor settlements with home made of reed and mudbrick. One quarter of Karachi's entire population lived in the Trans-Lyari Quarter at the turn of the 20th century. Migration of Iranian Baloch increased after the Iranian government began subjugating Iranian Balochistan in 1928. In 1941, the population of Lyari was 81,768.
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The core of the pyramid was constructed from mudbrick around a stump of four steps of yellow limestone. The builders utilized a rock outcropping to anchor the pyramid and reduce construction time and cost. The completed pyramid was originally encased in white limestone, though an inscription found by Petrie indicates that the casing was removed in the Nineteenth Dynasty for reuse in a different structure built by Ramesses II. Only remnants of the black granite pyramidion, which topped the pyramid, have been found. The pyramid was protected from flooding by a trench surrounding the perimeter of the pyramid and filled with sand to absorb rainwater.
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Because the ruins of the Roman temple, which likely dates to the reign of Emperor Philip the Arab (244-49 CE), have become entangled with Harran al-Awamid's mudbrick houses, the plan of the temple could not be ascertained. However, it has been determined that the structure was built on a high podium as indicated by the columns' elevation and location which also suggests that they marked the temple's northwestern corner. The columns have a height of roughly twelve feet and a width of six feet. They are constructed in the Ionic style from black basalt stone with ornately carved capitals, although one of the column's capitals had fallen off.
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African architecture in some areas has been influenced by external cultures for centuries, according to available evidence. Western architecture has influenced coastal areas since the late 15th century and is now an important source of inspiration for many larger buildings, particularly in major cities. African architecture uses a wide range of materials, including thatch, stick/wood, mud, mudbrick, rammed earth, and stone. These material preferences vary by region: North Africa for stone and rammed earth, the Horn of Africa for stone and mortar, West Africa for mud/adobe, Central Africa for thatch/wood and more perishable materials, Southeast and Southern Africa for stone and thatch/wood.
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Only this part of the temple has been unearthed; the remainder of the chamber has yet to be explored a little further north. During the excavations, archaeologists unearthed the first traces of an edifice built of mudbrick, which quickly proved to be a large ceremonial palace built alongside the temple proper. Some of the key elements of the stone temple were donated by Egypt to the museum at the University of Pennsylvania, which financed the expedition, while the other remained at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The temple remained in use throughout the rest of the New Kingdom, as evidenced by enrolment surges during the reigns of later pharaohs.
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The site at Tell el-Dab'a, covering an area of about 2 square kilometers, is in ruins today, but excavations have shown that, at one point, it was a well-developed center of trade with a busy harbour catering to over 300 ships during a trading season. Artifacts excavated at a temple erected in the Hyksos period have produced goods from all over the Aegean world. The temple even has Minoan-like wall paintings that are similar to those found on Crete at the Palace of Knossos. A large mudbrick tomb has also been excavated to the west of the temple, where grave goods, such as copper swords, have been found.
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This mudbrick structure was confirmed by excavations conducted by Robert Koldewey after 1913. Large stairs were discovered at the south side of the building, where a triple gate connected it with the Esagila. A larger gate to the east connected the Etemenanki with the sacred procession road (now reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin). Until the first translation of the Uruk tablet, details of Babylon's ziggurat were known only from Herodotus, who wrote in the mid-5th century BCE:Herodotus, Histories 1.181 This Tower of Jupiter Belus is believed to refer to the Akkadian god Bel, whose name has been Hellenised by Herodotus to Zeus Belus.
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In the field of archaeology this term refers to a wall base, frequently of stone, that supports the upper part of the wall, which is made of a different material – frequently mudbrick. This was a typical building practice in ancient Greece, resulting in the frequent preservation of the plans of ancient buildings only in their stone- built lower walls, as at the city of Olynthos.Maher, Matthew P, The Fortifications of Arkadian City States in the Classical and Hellenistic Periods, p. 36, 2017, Oxford University Press, , 9780191090202, google books In Pompeian interior painting styles, the socle is the lowest zone of wall painting in all four style periods.
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Great Mosque of Cordoba hünkâr mahfili in the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul The first maqsura is believed to have been created by Caliph Uthman (caliph between 644 and 656 CE) at the Mosque of Medina to protect himself from possible assassins after his predecessor, Umar, was assassinated inside the mosque. In this early Islamic period, the caliph also acted as imam and led prayers in the main mosque. Uthman's initial maqsura was a simple mudbrick wall pierced with holes so that he could not be approached but could still be seen by worshippers during prayers. It was later replaced by a more permanent stone structure.
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The pyramid town was carefully planned by architects for Khentkaus I's complex, rather than resulting from natural urban development, and was built entirely from mudbrick. Ten houses were lined eastwards against the causeway, and split into two groups. The first six homes each had two entrances – north leading to a street, and south leading to the causeway – a porter's lobby, a reception, a living room, two bedrooms, an open court, a kitchen, a water reservoir and a domestic office. Minor deviations existed between homes, such as a granary occupying the kitchen of one house and the reception area of another, but they otherwise conformed to this standard plan.
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MS 2200/81. Excavations conducted between 2013 and 2017 at Tell Khaiber, around 20 km from Ur, have revealed the foundations of a large mudbrick fortress with an unusual arrangement of perimeter close-set towers and is dated, by an archive of almost 200 administrative tablets, to Ayadaragalama.Odette Boivin, The First Dynasty of the Sealand in Mesopotamia, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2018, A neo-Babylonian official took a bronze band dedicatory inscription of A-ia-da-a-ra, MAN ŠÚ “king of the world,” to Tell en-Nasbeh, probably as an antique curio, where it was discarded to be found in the 20th century.
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Radiocarbon dating of irrigation sediments in the environs suggest that essential irrigation was abandoned in the first half of the 1st century CE, and the population dispersed. This time the site was never rebuilt. Ḥajar Yaḥirr was the center of an exceptionally large city for South Arabia, influenced by Hellenistic culture, with temples and a palace structure surrounded by mudbrick dwellings, with a probable site for a souq or market and a caravanserai serving camel caravans. One of its kings at this period was the only Yemeni ruler to be accorded divine honours; his surviving portrait statuette is dressed in Greek fashion, contrasting with those of his predecessors who are dressed in Arabian style, with kilt and shawl.
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These tower blocks were built in Shibam, Yemen, in the 16th century, and are the tallest mudbrick buildings in the world, some more than 30 meters (100 feet) high. Sliding ladder for firefighters in 1904 High-rise apartment buildings had already appeared in antiquity: the insulae in ancient Rome and several other cities in the Roman Empire, some of which might have reached up to ten or more stories, one reportedly having 200 stairs.Martial, Epigrams, 27 Because of the destruction caused by poorly built high-rise insulae collapsing, several Roman emperors, beginning with Augustus (r. 30 BC – 14 AD), set limits of 20–25 meters for multi-story buildings, but met with limited success,Strabo, 5.3.
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Nebka is thought by most Egyptologists to be the throne name of Sanakht, the third or fourth ruler of the Third Dynasty, who is sparsely attested by archaeological evidence and must have had only a short reign. Older hypotheses followed two New Kingdom sources which credit Nebka with founding the Third Dynasty, a view that is now believed to contradict the archaeological evidence. The tomb of Nebka has not been located with any certainty and three locations have been proposed: a mastaba in Beit Khallaf attributed to Sanakht by John Garstang, a mudbrick structure in Abu Rawash seen as the tomb of Nebka by Swelim and Dodson, and the Unfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet El Aryan.
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It is unclear who constructed this initial phase of the temple, though clay sealings found in its vicinity suggest that it may have been the ephemeral ruler Shepseskare who commissioned it. During the reign of Nyuserre, Neferefre's younger brother, the temple was expanded twice. In the second phase, built from mudbrick, the temple was significantly extended to the east, a transverse corridor leading to five storage rooms was added, as were ten two-story storage magazines in the northern side of the temple, and, most significantly, a hypostyle hall. It contained twenty-two or twenty-four wooden columns, all lost, and many stone and wooden statues of the ruler, of which fragments have been found.
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The glacis was topped by mudbrick and stone. There was an Middle Bronze I palace and this was expanded into the Middle Bronze II palaces. This restructuring programme resulted in some parts of the tel being flattened out and a large portion of the population having to find new homes in the city, as a result of part of the Middle Bronze IIA palace – along with certain parts of the rampart – being built in an area previously occupied by private houses. Kabri's ancillary sites (such as Achziv and Avdon) were also built up, and migration from the hinterland to Kabri – and its secondary sites – increased dramatically as a result of these projects.
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The layout of TT 69 is typical of 18th Dynasty Theban tombs with an outer courtyard, a T-shaped rock cut chapel, and a subterranean burial chamber. The tomb sits on an east-west axis, with the central shrine oriented to the west, and the entrance to the tomb oriented to the east. This east-west alignment placed the tomb within the solar cycle, associating the shrine with the setting sun, and thus death and the realm of the dead, and the entrance with the sunrise, and with rebirth and life. Courtyard Tombs at Thebes often had a superstructure that included a sunken courtyard often surrounded by a low mudbrick enclosure wall.
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Isometric image taken from a 3-D model The Middle Kingdom pyramids were built closer to the Nile and Amenemhet I's burial chamber is now underwater because the River Nile has shifted course. The complex has an inner wall of limestone and an outer wall of mudbrick; members of the Royal family were buried between these two walls. There are a number of mastaba tombs between the walls and 22 burial shafts on the western side of the pyramid. His son Senusret I followed in his footsteps, building his pyramid - a closer reflection of the 6th dynasty pyramids than that of Amenemhat I - at Lisht as well, but his grandson, Amenemhat II, broke with this tradition.
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The traditional view that the two main destructions of the citadel fortifications are the result of violent destruction, and that the Heuneburg was abandoned after the second destruction, which may have been part of a power struggle with Honenasperg, have lost some ground recently. It remains likely that the mudbrick fortification was indeed destroyed violently, but there is no exact evidence to indicate whether this may have been the result of external warfare or of internal difficulties. The renewed economic flourish after this event may argue against a wholesale destruction of the site.Ausgrabungen: Pyrene, im Land der Kelten - Wissenschaft - SPIEGEL ONLINE - Nachrichten The second destruction, in the 5th century, is even more problematic.
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Tetisheri was likely buried in Thebes and she may have been reinterred in the royal cache in TT320. No tomb at Thebes has yet been conclusively identified with Queen Tetisheri, though a mummy that may be hers was included among other members of the royal family reburied in the Royal Cache (DB320). Pharaoh Ahmose had a memorial structure or cenotaph at Abydos erected in her honour, in the midst of his own extensive mortuary complex at that site. This mudbrick structure was discovered in 1902 by the Egypt Exploration Fund, and was found to contain a monumental stela detailing the dedication by Ahmose I and his sister-wife Ahmose-Nefertari of a pyramid and enclosure (or shrine) to Tetisheri.
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In 2000, the average household income was 1,500 NIS, but in 2005 it was 500 NIS, a decrease of 65%. According to mayor Arif Daraghmeh, Khirbet al-Malih's residents are not permitted to build permanent structures by the Israel Civil Administration, since the village is located in Area C. Despite living there for generations, Daraghmeh states the village regularly receives demolition orders, compelling them to live in tents or mudbrick housing unconnected to the water grid, while the Israeli settlers of the nearby moshav, Shadmot Mehola, dwell in a fenced community, with two-story homes, street lamps and playgrounds.'Palestinians in West Bank's Area C suffer in limbo,' at Los Angeles Times, May 18, 2013.
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A major step forward in our understanding of Neolithic winemaking came from the analysis of a yellowish residue excavated by Mary M. Voigt at the site of Hajji Firuz Tepe in the northern Zagros Mountains of Iran. The jar that once contained wine, with a volume of about 9 liters (2.5 gallons) was found together with five similar jars embedded in the earthen floor along one wall of a "kitchen" of a Neolithic mudbrick building, dated to c. 5400-5000 BC. In such communities, winemaking was the best technology they had for storing highly perishable grapes, although whether the resulting beverage was intended for intoxication as well as nourishment is not known.
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2050 BC the city had declined; there is little evidence of occupation after that date. Eighteen superimposed mudbrick temples at the site underlie the unfinished Ziggurat of Amar-Sin (c. 2047–2039 BC). The finding of extensive deposits of fishbones associated with the earliest levels also shows a continuity of the Abzu cult associated later with Enki and Ea. Eridu was abandoned for long periods, before it was finally deserted and allowed to fall into ruin in the 6th century BC. The encroachment of neighbouring sand dunes, and the rise of a saline water table, set early limits to its agricultural base so in its later Neo-Babylonian development, Eridu was rebuilt as a purely temple site, in honour of its earliest history.
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During the 7th century BCE, the Neo-Assyrian Empire had expanded and under Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II and Sennacherib, Israel and Philistia were conquered. Esarhaddon, the son of Sennacherib, is mentioned in some text to have taken a city called Arsa near the River of Egypt, and its king Asuhili was taken back to the Assyrian capital Ninveh in the year 679 BCE. Esarhaddon probably built a military camp at Tell Jemmeh to defend the new frontier of his empire and to use as a base camp in his later campaigns against the Egyptians in 674, 671 and 669 BCE. A large structure, with mudbrick self- supporting arch roof, was discovered and dated specifically to a period between 679 and 630 BCE.
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The archaeology of the city is defined by low excavated or reconstructed walls and in some cases only bare outlines of the structures can be made out on the sand-covered plain, since most of the stonework was removed in ancient times and any remaining mudbrick is badly decayed. Only one generation after Akhenaten's death, there were few physical remains of his superb innovative structures, for a short moment in history one of the greatest cities of ancient Egypt. The brief Amarna Period was a period of startling artistic and cultural breakthroughs. Amenhotep IV came to the throne about 1350 B.C. and redirected the state religion to the worship of one god, the sun god Aten, and suppressed the worship of others.
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The last pharaoh of the 4th Dynasty, Shepseskaf, did not build a pyramid and beginning in the 5th Dynasty; for various reasons, the massive scale and precision of construction decreased significantly leaving these later pyramids smaller, less well-built, and often hastily constructed. By the end of the 6th Dynasty, pyramid building had largely ended and it was not until the Middle Kingdom that large pyramids were built again, though instead of stone, mudbrick was the main construction material. Long after the end of Egypt's own pyramid-building period, a burst of pyramid building occurred in what is present-day Sudan, after much of Egypt came under the rule of the Kingdom of Kush, which was then based at Napata.
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The Burzahom archaeological site is located in the Kashmir Valley of the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. Archaeological excavations have revealed four phases of cultural significance between 3000 BC and 1000 BC. Periods I and II represent the Neolithic era; Period III the Megalithic era (of massive stone menhirs and wheel turned red pottery); and Period IV relates to the early Historical Period (Post-megalithic period). The findings, recorded in stratified cultural deposits representing prehistoric human activity in Kashmir, are based on detailed investigations that cover all aspects of the physical evidence of the site, including the ancient flora and fauna. The Burzahom site revealed the transition from the subterranean and ground level housing features of the Neolithic people to the mudbrick structures of the Megalithic people.
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Al Bithnah is a village in Fujairah, United Arab Emirates (UAE), long occupying a strategic location in the Wadi Ham, which is the only natural link to the interior of the UAE and the Persian Gulf from the East Coast city, and Emirate of Fujairah. Located between Fujairah City and Masafi, the village is the site of a significant stone and mudbrick fort – Al Bithnah Fort – and a little-known megalithic tomb that links the village to a 3,000-year-old trade route along Wadi Ham through the Hajar Mountains from the East Coast emirate of Fujairah through Masafi (itself part of Ras Al Khaimah) and Manama down to the desert town of Dhaid and then to Sharjah and the Persian Gulf. It has traditionally been inhabited by members of the Sharqiyin (Al Sharqi) tribe.
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The area of Zawyet El Aryan is surrounded by a total of five cemeteries dating to the 1st Dynasty, 2nd Dynasty, late 3rd Dynasty, 18th Dynasty and Roman Period. Of these cemeteries, only the one dating to the late 3rd Dynasty contains large tombs, of which are four mudbrick mastabas. Reisner and Fisher observed that this is to be expected of the necropolis surrounding the pyramid of a pharaoh, the large tombs being those of the royal family and court officials. In particular, around north of the Layer Pyramid is a huge mastaba, today known as "Mastaba Z500", which yielded eight marble bowls inscribed with the serekh of king Khaba. Reisner and Fisher therefore conclude that "if the mastabas belong to people connected with the king who built the pyramid, it is probable that the king’s name was Khaba".
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Louvre lion and accompanying stone tablet bearing the earliest known text in Hurrian The entire site covers around , mostly made up of the outer city. The high mound covers about and rises to a height of , with 5 sub-mounds. The high mound is surrounded by a mudbrick city wall that was roughly wide and high. Important excavated structures include the royal palace of Tupkish, an associated necromantic underground structure (Abi), a monumental temple terrace with a plaza in front and a temple at the top, residential areas, burial areas, and the inner and outer city walls.Giorgio Buccellati and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati, Great Temple Terrace at Urkesh and the Lions of Tish-atal, in General studies and excavations at Nuzi 11/2: in honor of David I. Owen on the occasion of his 65th birthday October 28, 2005 edited by Gernot Wilhelm, pp.
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The Great Wall of Gorgan was built between about 420 AD and 530s AD by the Sasanian Empire on the northern edge of the plain between the Caspian Sea and the mountains. It stretched for nearly and protected the fertile plain from encroachment by White Huns from the north. The wall and forts along it were built of red mudbrick and fired brick, and to provide the water necessary for the manufacture of the bricks, a system of canals was dug across the plain; one canal paralleled the wall, which had to follow the natural gradient, while others were fed from supplier canals, which bridged the Gorgan River with the help of qanats. A mile to the south of the wall lies Qaleh Kharabeh, a fort that may have housed a garrison serving on the wall.
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In the middle of the 1st century BC, the ancient city at Vani was attacked and destroyed. The gate, sanctuary with its mosaic floor, the stepped altar, and the round temple on the central terrace of the hill exhibit signs of violence and conflagration: walls razed to the foundation, fired stones, baked tiles and mudbrick, and charred beams. It is unknown who was responsible for the destruction of the city: Pompey, who led the first Roman incursion into the Caucasian hinterland in 65 BC, Pharnaces II, who tried to conquer Colchis and Pontus in 49 BC, and Mithridates of Pergamon, who was made by Julius Caesar successor to Pharnaces in 47 BC, are all possible candidates. According to Lordkipanidze, two destruction layers can be observed within a few years of each other: one attributed to an invasion by Pharnaces and the other to that by Mithridates.
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The Coptic Church broke from the other Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Roman Catholic Church in 451 AD. After that date, the Copts, then a great majority of the Egyptian population, were shunned and often persecuted by their Byzantine rulers until the conquest of Egypt by Islam, after which the slowly declining Coptic population was in a rather precarious position. Coptic architecture therefore lacked the lavish patronage of rulers and the Court, which was directly responsible for most of the important buildings of Byzantine and medieval Catholic architecture. Most buildings are small, conservative in design, and remain closer to vernacular styles. They also have a tendency to massive construction, which is partly a surviving Egyptian taste from the Pharaonic period, partly reflects the need to semi-fortify buildings, partly is an inevitable result of mudbrick construction of large structures, and is also partly to keep them cool in the Egyptian climate.
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The rectangular Kumma fortress, the L-shaped Semna fortress (on the opposite bank) and the smaller square fortress of Semna South were each investigated by the American archaeologist George Reisner in 1924 and 1928. Semna and Kumma also included the remains of temples, houses and cemeteries dating to the New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC), which would have been roughly contemporary with such lower Nubian towns as Amara West and Sesebisudla, when the second cataract region had become part of an Egyptian 'empire', rather than simply a frontier zone. Semna & Kumma forts view from west The fort had several advanced features – the mudbrick walls were reinforced with logs, there were doubly fortified gates, there was a fortified corridor down to the Nile allowing ready access to water supplies. The logs increased the vulnerability to fire and traces of fires can be seen in the walls.
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The technique was thought to have been introduced by two former inmates of the Purga mission (near Ipswich). The bricks were composed of a mixture of sand, clay and lucerne hay and were used to form walls. Squared and adzed "bush timber" was used for framing and corrugated iron was used for roofing.L'Oste-Brown et al:1995:74-75 Buildings mentioned in Annual Reports from 1922 to 1924 constructed by this method included a "native courthouse", dairy, soup kitchen, isolation ward, sewing room, boiler house, old men's dining room, new lock-up, school, "an extra dormitory, 60ft x 20ft" (), a number of mudbrick cottages (for inmates) and other "unidentified buildings".QPP:1923:1:1072QPP:1924:1:982 While official visitors were often impressed by a sense of progress and the care provided to inmates at Taroom and other government-run Aboriginal settlements, most experienced life on the reserve in far harsher terms.
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A Man O' War vineyard on Waiheke Island, looking out over the Hauraki Gulf. Waiheke Island is an island east of Auckland in the Hauraki Gulf, and is a Geographical Indication within the larger Auckland GI. It has a dry and warm meso-climate, and is primarily planted in French red grape varieties: Syrah, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon, as well as the white grape varieties Chardonnay and Pinot Gris. The Bordeaux style red wines that are produced are considered to be significantly ripe and full bodied, and some of the best in New Zealand. The “Larose” from Stonyridge Estate has an international reputation and is often compared with some of the best Bordeaux wine in the world, and comparing favourably with the likes of Château Latour and Château Mouton-Rothschild. Other notable wine producers are Destiny Bay Vineyards (“Magna Praemia”), Obsidian Vineyard, Peacock Sky, Man O'War (“Dreadnought” Syrah), Cable Bay, Mudbrick and Te Motu.
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In particular, a large market and workshop area was installed adjacent to the Civic Complex church at the heart of the Byzantine town plan.Walmsley, A.G. (1992) Fihl (Pella) and the Cities of North Jordan during the Umayyad and Abbasid Periods. Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan vol. 4: 377–384.. Pella, which by the eighth century CE had officially returned to its original Semitic name of Fihl (variant of Pihil), was totally devastated by the massive 749 Galilee earthquake, as a Jordan Valley rift fault line runs directly under the site. The stone and mudbrick two-storeyed houses on the top of the tell (main mound) collapsed in on themselves, thereby trapping the inhabitants – human and animal – and preserving a rich collection of finds sourced from distant regions, such as Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula Walmsley, A.G. (2007) Households at Pella, Jordan: the domestic destruction deposits of the mid-eighth century.
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285–289 Spreading rapidly, roof tiles were within fifty years in evidence for a large number of sites around the Eastern Mediterranean, including Mainland Greece, Western Asia Minor, Southern and Central Italy. Being more expensive and labour-intensive to produce than thatch, their introduction has been explained by the fact that their fireproof quality would have given desired protection to the costly temples. As a side-effect, it has been assumed that the new stone and tile construction also ushered in the end of overhanging eaves in Greek architecture, as they made the need for an extended roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls obsolete. Vaults and arches were not generally used, but begin to appear in tombs (in a "beehive" or cantilevered form such as used in Mycenaea) and occasionally, as an external feature, exedrae of voussoired construction from the 5th century BC. The dome and vault never became significant structural features, as they were to become in ancient Roman architecture.
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Bithnah Fort Al Bithnah Fort is thought to date back to the late 18th century, having been built as a result of the Wahhabi incursions of the early 1800s following the Battle of Bithnah. The fort is constructed from stone, mudbrick, and palm-wood planking. Prior to the construction of the road to Masafi in the 1970s, traffic through to the interior from the coast passed through the bed of the wadi, overlooked by the fort which would have occupied a strategic location – in fact, Bithnah through the ages has been a strategic holding and was a key mainstay in the fortunes of the Sharqiyin through the 18th and early 19th centuries. In 1884, Sheikh Hamad bin Abdullah Al Sharqi took Al Bithnah Fort, control of which was to be essential for him when, in 1901, he once again refused the suzerainty of Sharjah and used the fort at Bithnah to refuse aid to the headman of Kalba, who was related to Sheikh Saqr bin Khalid of Sharjah.
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Basilica of Saint Sergius, Rasafa, Syria Veneration of the two saints dates to the fifth century. A shrine to Sergius was built in Resafa (renamed Sergiopolis around 425), but there is no certain evidence for his or Bacchus' cult much older than that. Their cult grew rapidly during the early fifth century, in accordance with the growth of the cult of martyrs, especially military martyrs, during the period. The Resafa shrine was constructed of mudbrick, evidently at the behest of bishop Alexander of Hierapolis. The Passion has been dated to the mid-5th century on the grounds that it describes the construction of such a shrine as if it were a relatively recent occurrence. The original shrine was replaced with a sturdier stone structure in 518; this new site was patronized by important political figures including Roman emperor Justinian I, emperor Khosrow II of the Sassanid Empire, and al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith, ruler of the Ghassanids. Traditionally, the feast day of Sergius and Bacchus has been celebrated on 7 October in the West."Sergius and Bacchus".
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Recent studies by German climatologists Rudolph Kuper and Stefan Kröpelin, of the University of Cologne suggest the change from a wet to a much drier climate may have come to an end around 3500–1500 BC, which is as much as 500 years later than currently thought. Egyptologist Mark Lehner believes this climate change may have been responsible for the severe weathering found on the Sphinx and other sites of the 4th Dynasty. After studying sediment samples in the Nile Valley, Judith Bunbury, a geologist at the University of Cambridge, concluded that climate change in the Giza region may have begun early in the Old Kingdom, with desert sands arriving in force late in the era.Haddingham, Evan "Uncovering Secrets of the Sphinx" Smithsonian magazine, February 2010 Schoch points out that mudbrick mastabas on the Saqqara plateau about 20 km away, indisputably dated to Dynasties I and II, have survived relatively undamaged, which he believes indicates that no heavy rainfall has occurred in the region since the Early Dynastic Period, and nor was any heavy rain anticipated by those Early Dynastic Period communities who built those structures.
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Usually, a third stage is reconstructed by the excavator of the ziggurat (Leonard Woolley), and crowned by a temple. At the Chogha Zanbil ziggurat, archaeologists have found massive reed ropes that ran across the core of the ziggurat structure and tied together the mudbrick mass. The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and Ur (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age palaces at Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa/Van, Haykaberd, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age.
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