140 Sentences With "metacognitive" | Random Sentence Generator

And third, metacognitive accuracy—how good you are at knowing how good you actually are.

Having too little or too much metacognitive sensitivity leads to problems—not being confident in right decisions, or being too confident in wrong ones.

To foster this awareness, we set up listening practice sessions where students have an opportunity to learn, use and evaluate different metacognitive listening strategies.

Surely evaluating the metacognitive awareness of students is too "politically correct" for one side before we even start talking about—gasp—spending money on education.

The research examined something called metacognitive sensitivity, which is the ability to reflect on whether your beliefs and decisions are right, or feel appropriately confident in a decision.

A review of hundreds of studies on writing to learn showed that it also helps with what's called metacognitive thinking, which is our awareness of our own thoughts.

The research found that people with radical beliefs, determined through questionnaires that tested for traits like intolerance to others' viewpoints, dogmatic and rigid beliefs, and authoritarianism, had less metacognitive sensitivity.

It's a continuously updated assessment of not just a student's understanding of a subject, but of their potential for understanding it and their "metacognitive awareness" of their own knowledge and understanding.

Clozes can be excellent tools to help students enhance their vocabulary and develop metacognitive skills, especially if they are challenged to explain the "clues" in the text that assisted them in choosing the correct answer.

It's involved in metacognitive processes like self-reflection, theory of mind, the ability to imagine mental states and others, time travel, the ability to think about the future or the past, and what is called the autobiographical memory.

Schools and colleges must endeavor to instill in youth humane sensibilities, empathy, communication and collaboration skills, higher-order cognitive skills for critical thinking, as well as the metacognitive abilities to become lifelong learners, civic agents and environmental warriors.

"The more in touch with my own feelings and experiences, the richer and more accurate are my guesses of what passes through another person's mind," said Giancarlo Dimaggio, a psychiatrist with the Center for Metacognitive Interpersonal Therapy in Rome, who studies the interplay of self-reflection and empathy.

A recent open-access review summarizes differences and similarities of metacognitive therapy, metacognitive training, cognitive-behavioral therapy and metacognitive reflection insight therapy.

In more recent work, Wells has described in greater detail a metacognitive control system of the S-REF aimed at advancing research and treatment using metacognitive therapy.

Metacognition is classified into three components: # Metacognitive knowledge (also called metacognitive awareness) is what individuals know about themselves and others as cognitive processors. # Metacognitive regulation is the regulation of cognition and learning experiences through a set of activities that help people control their learning. # Metacognitive experiences are those experiences that have something to do with the current, on-going cognitive endeavor. Metacognition refers to a level of thinking that involves active control over the process of thinking that is used in learning situations.

The metacognitions questionnaire is a self-report scale assessing different dimensions of metacognitive beliefs (beliefs about thinking). Examples of metacognitive beliefs are; "Worry is uncontrollable", "I have little confidence in my memory for words and names", and "I am constantly aware of my thinking". The development of the questionnaire was informed by the Self- Regulatory Executive Function model (Wells & Matthews, 1994) which is the metacognitive model and theory of psychological disorder. This model is the foundation for metacognitive therapy developed by Adrian Wells (see e.g. Wells, 2009).

Hartman, 2001. Finally, there is no distinction between domain- general and domain-specific metacognitive skills. This means that metacognitive skills are domain-general in nature and there are no specific skills for certain subject areas. The metacognitive skills that are used to review an essay are the same as those that are used to verify an answer to a math question.

Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2011. Print.p.62 Individuals with high metacognitive awareness are able to avoid depression and negative thought patterns more easily during stressful life situations, in comparison with individuals with low metacognitive awareness. Metacognitive awareness is regularly reflected through an individual's ability to decenter. Decentering is the ability to perceive thoughts and feelings as both impermanent and objective occurrences in the mind.

Metacognitive training exists as a group training (MCT) and as an individualized intervention (MCT+).

The Australian Psychological Society considers metacognitive therapy (MCT) to be a Level II treatment method.

Planning the way to approach a learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating the progress towards the completion of a task: these are skills that are metacognitive in their nature. Metacognition includes at least three different types of metacognitive awareness when considering metacognitive knowledge: # Declarative knowledge: refers to knowledge about oneself as a learner and about what factors can influence one's performance. Declarative knowledge can also be referred to as "world knowledge". # Procedural knowledge: refers to knowledge about doing things.

However, there is also evidence that more specific metacognitive beliefs exist in different disorders. Following this work several questionnaires have been developed to measure more disorder-specific metacognitive beliefs. E.g. Wells proposed that obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with a specific type of metacognitive belief concerning the dangerousness and significance of intrusive thoughts. These meta-beliefs are termed thought-fusion beliefs, and can be measured by the 14 item Thought Fusion Instrument (TFI; Wells, Gwilliam, & Cartwright-Hatton, 2001).

Executive functions are also believed to play a part in how the person can focus and refocus on certain thoughts and mental modes. These mental modes can be categorized as object mode and metacognitive mode, which refers to the different types of relationships people can have towards thoughts. All of the CAS, the metacognitive beliefs, the mental modes and the executive function together constitute the self-regulatory executive function model (S-REF). This is also known as the metacognitive model.

It allows students to allocate their resources when using strategies. This in turn allows the strategies to become more effective. Similar to metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive regulation or "regulation of cognition" contains three skills that are essential. # Planning: refers to the appropriate selection of strategies and the correct allocation of resources that affect task performance.

Both social and cognitive dimensions of sporting expertise can be adequately explained from a metacognitive perspective according to recent research. The potential of metacognitive inferences and domain-general skills including psychological skills training are integral to the genesis of expert performance. Moreover, the contribution of both mental imagery (e.g., mental practice) and attentional strategies (e.g.

In particular, artists spend more time on 'metacognitive' activities such as considering different hypothetical plans for how they might progress with a drawing.

In the metacognitive model, symptoms are caused by a set of psychological processes called the cognitive attentional syndrome (CAS). The CAS includes three main processes, each of which constitutes extended thinking in response to negative thoughts. These three processes are: # Worry/rumination # Threat monitoring # Coping behaviours that backfire All three are driven by patients' metacognitive beliefs, such as the belief that these processes will help to solve problems, although the processes all ultimately have the unintentional consequence of prolonging distress. Of particular importance in the model are negative metacognitive beliefs, especially those concerning the uncontrollability and dangerousness of some thoughts.

The BRIEF is often used to evaluate ADHD in children and has been shown to be superior to other rating systems such as the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) as it taps into unique behaviors typically associated with the disorder (e.g., working memory, metacognitive skills) McCandless & O'Laughlin (2007) found that the Metacognitive and Behavioral Regulation scales of the BRIEF are clinically useful for identifying children with and without ADHD. Specifically, the Metacognitive Scale (Working Memory subscale) is useful for identifying the presence of ADHD whereas the Behavioural Regulation scale (Inhibit subscale) has demonstrated clinical utility at distinguishing between the inattentive and combined (i.e., inattentive and hyperactive) subtypes of the disorder.

Metacognitive interpersonal therapy is a method of treating and improving the social skills of people with personality disorders that are associated with asociality. Through metacognitive interpersonal therapy, clinicians seek to improve their patients' metacognition, meaning the ability to recognize and read the mental states of themselves. The therapy differs from SST in that the patient is trained to identify their own thoughts and feelings as a means of recognizing similar emotions in others. Metacognitive interpersonal therapy has been shown to improve interpersonal and decision- making skills by encouraging awareness of suppressed inner states, which enables patients to better relate to other people in social environments.

The theory that metacognition has a critical role to play in successful learning means it is important that it be demonstrated by both students and teachers. Students who underwent metacognitive training including pretesting, self evaluation, and creating study plans performed better on exams.. They are self-regulated learners who utilize the "right tool for the job" and modify learning strategies and skills based on their awareness of effectiveness. Individuals with a high level of metacognitive knowledge and skill identify blocks to learning as early as possible and change "tools" or strategies to ensure goal attainment. Swanson (1990) found that metacognitive knowledge can compensate for IQ and lack of prior knowledge when comparing fifth and sixth grade students' problem solving.

Metacognitive therapy (MCT) is a psychotherapy focused on modifying metacognitive beliefs that perpetuate states of worry, rumination and attention fixation. It was created by Adrian Wells based on an information processing model by Wells and Matthews. It is supported by scientific evidence from a large number of studies. The goals of MCT are first to discover what patients believe about their own thoughts and about how their mind works (called metacognitive beliefs), then to show the patient how these beliefs lead to unhelpful responses to thoughts that serve to unintentionally prolong or worsen symptoms, and finally to provide alternative ways of responding to thoughts in order to allow a reduction of symptoms.

Adrian Wells' and Gerald Matthews' theory proposes that when faced with an undesired choice, an individual can operate in two distinct modes: "object" and "metacognitive".Wells, A. & Mathews, G. (1997). Attention and Emotion. A clinical perspective.

This is evidence for both the metacognitive perspective as well as the psycholinguistic perspective. It demonstrates the devotion of resources to searching memory, a source of cumulative information, for the desired correct information, and it also shows that we are aware of what information we know or do not know. This is why the current debate between the psycholinguistic view of TOTs as retrieval failure and the metacognitive view of TOTs as a tool for learning continues. Similar phenomena include Déjà vu (Already seen), Jamais vu (Never Seen), and Déjà entendu (Already Heard).

In A. S. Reber & D. L. Scarborough (Eds.), Toward a psychology of reading (pp. 55-142). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. and control over the formal aspects of the language to extract its meaningBROWN, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading.

From an evolutionary perspective, it has been hypothesized that the executive system may have evolved to serve several adaptive purposes. The prefrontal lobe in humans has been associated both with metacognitive executive functions and emotional executive functions. Theory and evidence suggest that the frontal lobes in other primates also mediate and regulate emotion, but do not demonstrate the metacognitive abilities that are demonstrated in humans. This uniqueness of the executive system to humans implies that there was also something unique about the environment of ancestral humans, which gave rise to the need for executive functions as adaptations to that environment.

Collins, Brown, and Newman developed six teaching methods rooted in cognitive apprenticeship theory and claim these methods help students attain cognitive and metacognitive strategies for "using, managing, and discovering knowledge". The first three, modeling, coaching, scaffolding, are at the core of cognitive apprenticeship and help with cognitive and metacognitive development. The next two, articulation and reflection, are designed to help novices with awareness of problem-solving strategies and execution similar to that of an expert. The final step, exploration, intends to guide the novice towards independence and the ability to solve and identify problems within the domain on their own.

These influences include feelings (such as moods, emotions, and metacognitive experiences), inferences about the meaning implicit in questions, and whether feelings and thoughts are used to form a representation of the target of judgment or the standard against which it is compared.

Studies have shown that pupils with an ability to exert metacognitive regulation over their attentional and reasoning strategies used when engaged in maths, and then shift those strategies when engaged in science or then English literature learning, associate with higher academic outcomes at secondary school.

From a metacognitive perspective, it compares various modalities within human cognition as to their competence and efficacy . It is an underresearched area . More recently, research has been conducted to help understand "the potential role of Web 2.0 technologies for harnessing and managing personal knowledge" .

Some clinicians and research groups in neuropsychology are developing programs to help treat the cognitive problems associated with childhood cancer. Treatment typically involves a program of cognitive rehabilitation which aims to help improve cognitive function either by restoring capacities that were impaired and/or helping the patient learn ways to compensate for the impairment(s). Cognitive rehabilitation therapy usually involves evaluation to determine the specific impairments involved, an individualized program of specific skills training and practice and metacognitive strategies. Metacognitive strategies include helping the patient increase self-awareness regarding problem solving skills by learning how to better monitor the effectiveness of these skills and self- correct when necessary.

Individualized metacognitive training (MCT+) targets the same symptoms and cognitive biases as the group training, but is more flexible in that it allows discussion of individualized topics. The treatment materials for the group training can be obtained free of charge in over 30 languages from the website.

A short instruction of the technique as well as a related method (attention splitting), which aims to attenuate the over-focusing of external stimuli, is part of a metacognitive self-help (myMCT), which leads to a significant improvement of OCD symptoms according to a meta-analysis.

Understanding by design (2nd Ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. They also delve into the idea of being able to use information and apply it to different situations. Helping the students to understand how they are learning and their metacognitive ability is integral in 3S understanding.

Participants used a variety of strategies to solve problems and did not always rely on the most effective strategies within their individual repertories. Kuhn and her colleagues discuss the importance of metacognitive abilities to reflect on one's knowledge and manage the choice of problem solving strategies in cognitive development.

The same OECD report emphasised the importance of metacognitive skills for lifelong learning. Metacognition amounts to thinking about one’s thinking. More specifically, it refers to the processes used to assess one’s understanding. It includes critical thinking, reflection, and awareness of oneself as a thinker and a learner (Chick, 2013).

The role of surprise can help explain the malleability of hindsight bias. Surprise influences how the mind reconstructs pre-outcome predictions in three ways: 1\. Surprise is a direct metacognitive heuristic to estimate the distance between outcome and prediction. 2\. Surprise triggers a deliberate sense-making process. 3\.

After an undergraduate at Victoria University of Wellington, White earned her PhD entitled 'Metacognitive, cognitive, social and affective strategy use in foreign language learning: a comparative study' from Massey University, while working there. She is also an adjunct faculty member at the University of New England in Australia.

Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. It is through this process of exploration and negotiation that the learners acquire the type of functional grammatical competence that is essential for the successful acquisition of pragmatic competence and for the development of cognitive and metacognitive skills.

Cognitive rehabilitation refers to a wide range of evidence-based interventions designed to improve cognitive functioning in brain-injured or otherwise cognitively impaired individuals to restore normal functioning, or to compensate for cognitive deficits. It entails an individualized program of specific skills training and practice plus metacognitive strategies. Metacognitive strategies include helping the patient increase self-awareness regarding problem-solving skills by learning how to monitor the effectiveness of these skills and self-correct when necessary. Cognitive rehabilitation therapy (offered by a trained therapist) is a subset of Cognitive Rehabilitation (community-based rehabilitation, often in traumatic brain injury; provided by rehabilitation professionals) and has been shown to be effective for individuals who suffered a stroke in the left or right hemisphere.

Metacognitive therapy attempts to correct this change in the CAS. One of the techniques in this model is called attention training (ATT). It was designed to diminish the worry and anxiety by a sense of control and cognitive awareness. ATT also trains clients to detect threats and test how controllable reality appears to be.

Hove, UK: Erlbaum. Object mode interprets perceived stimuli as truth, where metacognitive mode understands thoughts as cues that have to be weighted and evaluated. They are not as easily trusted. There are targeted interventions unique of each patient, that gives rise to the belief that assistance in increasing metacognition in people diagnosed with schizophrenia is possible through tailored psychotherapy.

Researchers Putwain, Woods & Symes (2010), found that a low academic self-concept was associated with higher worry and tension about their abilities to do well on a test. A student's metacognitive beliefs play an important role in the maintenance of negative self-beliefs. Anxiety reactions can be generalized from previous experiences to testing situations.Mandler, G. & Sarson, S. B. (1952).

New York: Guilford Press. p.73 The central component of ICS is metacognitive awareness: the ability to experience negative thoughts and feelings as mental events that pass through the mind, rather than as a part of the self.Herbert, James D., and Evan M. Forman. Acceptance and Mindfulness in Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Understanding and Applying New Theories.

Experiments are used to challenge metacognitive beliefs (e.g. "You believe that if you worry too much you will go 'mad' – let's try worrying as much as possible for the next 5 minutes and see if there is any effect") and strategies such as attentional training technique and detached mindfulness (this is a distinct strategy from various other mindfulness techniques).

Saundra Yancy McGuire is the Director Emerita of the Center for Academic Success and a retired Professor of Chemistry at Louisiana State University. She is best known for her work on science education, having written several papers and books on the subject. Her interests focus on improving student learning by involving faculty in metacognitive learning strategies.

"AIM is a 10-week, computerized treatment program that incorporates goal setting, the use of metacognitive strategies, and computer-based exercises designed to improve various aspects of attention." "During the initial meeting with the child, the computer program leads the clinician through an intake procedure that assists in identifying the nature and severity of the child’s attention difficulties and then facilitates the selection of attention training tasks and metacognitive strategies tailored to the needs of the child." The clinician's role is to select the specific, presenting mental areas that are impaired, as well as to modify the tasks and strategies in response to improvements of the patients’ overtime. This is a helpful way to figure out what problems the child/adolescent is facing, while also helping them to gradually improve their injury.

Based on techniques of neuropsychological rehabilitation, early evidence has shown it to be cognitively effective, resulting in the improvement of previous deficits in psychomotor speed, verbal memory, nonverbal memory, and executive function, such improvements being related to measurable changes in brain activation as measured by fMRI. Metacognitive training: In view of many empirical findings suggesting deficits of metacognition (thinking about one's thinking, reflecting upon one's cognitive process) in patients with schizophrenia, metacognitive training (MCT) is increasingly adopted as a complementary treatment approach. MCT aims at sharpening the awareness of patients for a variety of cognitive biases (e.g. jumping to conclusions, attributional biases, over-confidence in errors), which are implicated in the formation and maintenance of schizophrenia positive symptoms (especially delusions), and to ultimately replace these biases with functional cognitive strategies.

The essence of the cognitive theory of Inquiry teaching is that of developing students' metacognitive skills. Inquiry teaching deliberately attempts to develop these stills through instruction. The theory is a prescriptive model rooted in the discovery tradition and cognitive sciences. It was derived form an analysis of the transcripts of teachers, described as interactive teachers, using a variety of teaching strategies.

The way that individuals think about attitude greatly affects the way that they behave. Metacognitions about attitudes influence how individuals act, and especially how they interact with others. Some metacognitive characteristics of attitudes include importance, certainty, and perceived knowledge, and they influence behavior in different ways. Attitude importance is the strongest predictor of behavior and can predict information seeking behaviors in individuals.

This also applies to interpersonal relationships. A person might hold a lot of favorable knowledge about their family, but they may not maintain close relations with their family if it is of low importance. Metacognitive characteristics of attitudes may be key to understanding how attitudes change. Research shows that the frequency of positive or negative thoughts is the biggest factor in attitude change.

Patients with OCD exemplify varying degrees of these "intrusive thoughts". Patients also suffering from generalized anxiety disorder also show negative thought process in their cognition. Cognitive-attentional syndrome (CAS) characterizes a metacognitive model of emotion disorder (CAS is consistent with the attention strategy of excessively focusing on the source of a threat). This ultimately develops through the client's own beliefs.

It has been shown that experiencing an emotion predicts TOT memory performance later. Emotional TOTs are more likely to be recalled later than TOTs that had no emotional experience attached. Emotion and TOT are related to the metacognitive theory that is mentioned above. In this theory, TOTs inform our cognitive system if the information we are trying to recall is accessible.

It appears to be a form of play and is most commonly seen off the coast of Argentina and South Africa. Humpback whales also display this behaviour. Self-awareness appears to be a sign of abstract thinking. Self- awareness, although not well-defined, is believed to be a precursor to more advanced processes such as metacognitive reasoning (thinking about thinking) that humans exploit.

The training consists of 8 modules and can be obtained cost-free from the internet in 15 languages. Studies confirm the feasibility and lend preliminary support to the efficacy of the intervention. Recently, an individualized format has been developed which combines the metacognitive approach with methods derived from cognitive- behavioral therapy.Moritz S, Veckenstedt R, Randjbar S, Vitzthum F (in press).

" (p 31-32) When teachers teach metacognitive skills, it promotes student self-monitoring and self-regulation that can lead to intellectual growth, increase academic achievement, and support transfer of skills so that students are able to use any strategy at any time and for any purpose. Guiding students in the habits of reflection requires teachers to approach their role as that of "facilitator of meaning- making" – they organize instruction and classroom practice so that students are the producers, not just the consumers, of knowledge. Rolheiser and colleagues (2000) state that "When students develop their capacity to understand their own thinking processes, they are better equipped to employ the necessary cognitive skills to complete a task or achieve a goal. Students who have acquired metacognitive skills are better able to compensate for both low ability and insufficient information.

Schul, Y., & Peri, N. (2015) Influences of distrust (and trust) on decision making. Social Cognition, 33, 414-435 The research with Yahalom further shows that suspicion in people’s motivation weakens reliance on the metacognitive cues associated with ease of retrieval.Yahalom, N., & Schul, Y (2013) How thinking about the other affects our reliance on cognitive feelings of ease and effort: Immediate discounting and delayed utilization.

Metacognitive-like processes are especially ubiquitous when it comes to the discussion of self-regulated learning. Self-regulation requires metacognition by looking at one's awareness of their learning and planning further learning methodology. Attentive metacognition is a salient feature of good self-regulated learners, but does not guarantee automatic application. Reinforcing collective discussion of metacognition is a salient feature of self-critical and self-regulating social groups.

Some possibilities that explain this inability are knowledge deficits and lack of utilization skills. Children lack the metacognitive knowledge necessary to know when to use any strategies they do possess to change their approach to decision-making. When it comes to the idea of fairness in decision making, children and adults differ much less. Children are able to understand the concept of fairness in decision making from an early age.

Alexander is a leader in students' reading and literacy development throughout the lifespan and in connection to prior knowledge and domain learning. She has characterized reading as multidimensional, developmental, goal directed, and intentional. Alexander and colleagues have introduced a conceptual framework for prior knowledge including conceptual knowledge, metacognitive knowledge, and knowledge construction interacting with one another, within a broader context of sociocultural knowledge and tacit knowledge. See Figure 2 .

Previous measures of graph comprehension have tended to focus on the comprehension of specific features or types of graphs (e.g., line or bar graphs), incorporate relatively complex items, or have been developed in the context of examining the effects of teaching methods on the acquisition of graph skills (e.g.,Kramarski, B., & Mevarech, Z. R. (2003). Enhancing mathematical reasoning in the classroom: The effects of cooperative learning and metacognitive training.

Some authors specify two types of prior knowledge necessary for successful comprehension: world knowledge (aids in understanding fiction) and domain-specific knowledge (facilitates nonfiction comprehension). Students who lack these request background information to make connections with and within the text. Metacognition greatly influences reading comprehension. The metacognitive approach to instruction can help students learn to master their learning by defining learning goals and monitoring their progress in achieving them.

Eight-time World Memory Champion Dominic O'Brien uses this technique. The 2006 World Memory Champion, Clemens Mayer, used a 300-point-long journey through his house for his world record in "number half marathon", memorising 1040 random digits in a half-hour. Gary Shang has used the method of loci to memorise pi to over 65,536 (216) digits. The technique is taught as a metacognitive technique in learning-to-learn courses.

In Villalon and Calvo's (2011) Concept Maps as Cognitive Visualizations of Writing Assignments, concept maps are discussed as a means of scaffolding university-aged students' ideas in writing, as well as their metacognitive skills. In their study, Villalon and Calvo evaluated a new Concept Map Mining tool, which was used in an "e-learning environment" that automatically generated maps using students' written work (p. 16). The Concept Map Mining tool was used to look at a collection of annotated essays written by undergraduate college students (p. 16). Villalon and Calvo (2011) found that "Cognitive Visualizations [such as Concept Map Mining] provide quality feedback because they make the author's thinking visible, making explicit the mental model learners are using…Within the writing process, providing automatic feedback in the form of [Cognitive Visualizations] allows learners to reflect on their own work and their own mental models that guided its construction, facilitating the development of metacognitive skills" (p. 23).

Peer assessment, or self-assessment, is a process whereby students or their peers grade assignments or tests based on a teacher’s benchmarks.Sadler, Philip M., and Eddie Good The Impact of Self- and Peer-Grading on Student Learning p.2 The practice is employed to save teachers time and improve students' understanding of course materials as well as improve their metacognitive skills. Rubrics are often used in conjunction with Self- and Peer-Assessment.

Cultural backgrounds influence social metacognitive assumptions, including stereotypes. For example, cultures without the stereotype that memory declines with old age display no age differences in memory performance. When it comes to making judgments about other people, implicit theories about the stability versus malleability of human characteristics predict differences in social stereotyping as well. Holding an entity theory of traits increases the tendency for people to see similarity among group members and utilize stereotyped judgments.

In other work from the feelings-as-information perspective, Schwarz suggests that metacognitive experiences, such as the feeling of ease or difficulty in recalling or processing information, can exert significant influence on judgments. In other words, people tend to make judgments based on this interpretation of their subjective feelings of ease or difficulty in information processing. Such feelings can come from a variety of different sources that are irrelevant to a judgment.

This behaviour is passed on from mother to daughter, and it is only observed in 54 female individuals. Self-awareness is seen, by some, to be a sign of highly developed, abstract thinking. Self-awareness, though not well-defined scientifically, is believed to be the precursor to more advanced processes like metacognitive reasoning (thinking about thinking) that are typical of humans. Research in this field has suggested that cetaceans, among others, possess self-awareness.

This is where Bloom came up with the idea of the educational taxonomy, and Krathwohl assisted on many accounts. Although Bloom's original taxonomy consisted of six categories, when Krathwohl revised it, it consisted of four, more precise categories. These categories were known as knowledge dimension parts, and these included: factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge. Each of those categories were broke down into smaller, more complex parts than the original taxonomy.

When strong evidence has less impact than weak evidence: Bias, adjustment, and instructions to ignore. Social Cognition, 15, 133-155.Schul, Y., & Mayo, R. (1999) Two sources are better than one: The effects of ignoring one message on using a different message from the same source. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 327-345 The research on discounting developed into the study of distrust, negation processing, and research on reliance on weak internal cues such as metacognitive experiences.

Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an encephalisation quotient that can be used as another indication of animal intelligence. Sperm whales have the largest brain mass of any animal on earth, averaging and in mature males. Self-awareness appears to be a sign of abstract thinking. Self-awareness, although not well-defined, is believed to be a precursor to more advanced processes such as metacognitive reasoning.

Learner metacognition is defined and investigated by examining their person knowledge, task knowledge and strategy knowledge. Wenden (1991) has proposed and used this framework and Zhang (2001) has adopted this approach and investigated second language learners' metacognition or metacognitive knowledge. In addition to exploring the relationships between learner metacognition and performance, researchers are also interested in the effects of metacognitively-oriented strategic instruction on reading comprehension (e.g., Garner, 1994, in first language contexts, and Chamot, 2005; Zhang, 2010).

Contrary to this, metacognitive therapy encourages the ritual behaviors as to alter the relationship to one's thoughts about them. While clomipramine appears to work as well as SSRIs, it has greater side effects and thus is typically reserved as a second-line treatment. Atypical antipsychotics may be useful when used in addition to an SSRI in treatment-resistant cases but are also associated with an increased risk of side effects. Without treatment, the condition often lasts decades.

However, this claim was doubted by some researchers in 2000, who criticized the quality of many studies. A 2018 review found that self-help metacognitive training improved symptoms in OCD. A 2007 Cochrane review also found that psychological interventions derived from CBT models were more effective than treatment as usual consisting of no treatment, waiting list or non-CBT interventions. It has generally been accepted that psychotherapy in combination with psychiatric medication is more effective than either option alone.

MCT is a time-limited therapy which usually takes place between 8–12 sessions. The therapist uses discussions with the patient to discover their metacognitive beliefs, experiences and strategies. The therapist then shares the model with the patient, pointing out how their particular symptoms are caused and maintained. Therapy then proceeds with the introduction of techniques tailored to the patient's difficulties aimed at changing how the patient relates to thoughts and that bring extended thinking under control.

Ann Lesley Brown (1943–1999) was an educational psychologist who developed methods for teaching children to be better learners. Her interest in the human memory brought Brown to focus on active memory strategies that would help enhance human memory and developmental differences in memory tasks. Her realization that children's learning difficulties often stem from an inability to use metacognitive strategies such as summarizing led to profound advances in educational psychology theory and teaching practices.Palincsar, A. S. (2003).

Through her research, Brown and her colleagues hypothesized that some metacognitive strategies, such as general problem solving routines like summarizing and self-testing, had advantages over other strategies i.e. mnemonic instruction. Instead of recalling relative meaningless material, studies moved towards connecting the material, which allowed Brown to move towards further research in text comprehension. Brown was also instrumental in the development of the method of reciprocal teaching, in which teachers and students take turns leading structured discussions of text.

Metacognitive training, (MCT), is an approach for treating the symptoms of psychosis in schizophrenia , especially delusions , which has been adapted for other disorders such as depression and borderline over the years. It was developed by Steffen Moritz and Todd Woodward. The intervention is based on the theoretical principles of cognitive behavioral therapy, but focuses in particular on problematic thinking styles (cognitive biases) that are associated with the development and maintenance of positive symptoms; e.g. overconfidence in errors and jumping to conclusions.

Betty's Brain is a software environment created at Vanderbilt University by the Teachable Agents Group to help promote students' understanding of metacognitive skills and to reinforce river ecosystem knowledge as part of a science curriculum. It is a qualitative constraint system, using node-link diagrams to represent models for teaching complex scientific and engineering domains in high school.Leelawong & Biswas, 2008 Designing learning by teaching agents: The Betty's Brain system. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Education, 18(3),181-208.

Vincent Aleven attended the Delft University of Technology (TU Delft) from 1980 to 1988, graduating in 1988 with a Master of Science degree in computer science. He then attended the University of Pittsburgh from 1989 to 1997, where he earned a PhD in Intelligent Systems. In 1997, he joined Carnegie Mellon University as a postdoctoral fellow. Since then, he has been conducting research, specializing in artificial intelligence, intelligent educational systems, cognitive modeling, learning and metacognitive skills, and case-based reasoning.

The prefrontal lobe controls two related executive functioning domains. The first is mediation of abilities involved in planning, problem solving, and understanding information, as well as engaging in working memory processes and controlled attention. In this sense, the prefrontal lobe is involved with dealing with basic, everyday situations, especially those involving metacognitive functions. The second domain involves the ability to fulfill biological needs through the coordination of cognition and emotions which are both associated with the frontal and prefrontal areas.

The entropic brain is a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs. The theory suggests that the brain in primary states such as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, early psychosis and under the influence of psychedelic drugs, is in a disordered state; normal waking consciousness constrains some of this freedom and makes possible metacognitive functions such as internal self-administered reality testing and self-awareness. Criticism has included questioning whether the theory has been adequately tested.

Wells has contributed to the understanding of mechanisms underlying vulnerability to psychological disorders, the maintenance of mental health problems and their treatment. His work has informed the areas of social anxiety disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, trauma reactions (such as post traumatic stress disorder), obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression. His research has particularly focused on developing models and treatment for these disorders using cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and metacognitive therapy (MCT). He has authored over 200 publications in books and peer-reviewed journals.

18 MBCT is an intervention program developed to specifically target vulnerability to depressive relapse. Throughout the program, patients learn mind management skills leading to heightened metacognitive awareness, acceptance of negative thought patterns, and an ability to respond in skillful ways. During MBCT patients learn to decenter their negative thoughts and feelings, allowing the mind to move from an automatic thought pattern to conscious emotional processing. MBCT can be used as an alternative to maintenance antidepressant treatment, though it may be no more effective.

The Social Thinking Methodology is a developmental, language-based and thinking-based (metacognitive) methodology that uses visual frameworks, unique vocabulary, strategies, and activities to foster social competence. The methodology has assessment and treatment components for both interventionists and social learners. The methodology includes components of other well-known and evidence based interventions such as Social Stories, Hidden Curriculum, 5-point scale, and others, etc. Social Thinking™ shares ideals with self-regulation, executive functioning, central coherence issues, and perspective-taking.

The group met once a week in one-hour sessions, where they learned about OGM and practiced recalling specific memories. The initial session presented research on OGM and discussed examples of specific memories, while the last three sessions focused on recalling multiple specific memories for a particular cue word. The last session also included a metacognitive component, focusing on how to recognize when thoughts are becoming too general. Homework was given after every session to promote further experiences recalling specific memories.

"Individualized metacognitive therapy for people with schizophrenia psychosis (MCT+)", Springer, Heidelberg. Family Therapy or Education, which addresses the whole family system of an individual with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, may be beneficial, at least if the duration of intervention is longer-term. A 2010 Cochrane review concluded that many of the clinical trials that studied the effectiveness of family interventions were poorly designed, and may over estimate the effectiveness of the therapy. High-quality randomized controlled trials in this area are required.

The BRIEF has also been useful for highlighting differences between ADHD and other diagnoses. For example, Pratt (2000) examined parent reports on the BRIEF for children (ages 6–11) who had a diagnosis of ADHD, ADHD and reading disorder (RD), RD only, or no diagnosis. Children with ADHD demonstrated higher scores on all of the BRIEF scales compared to children with no formal diagnosis. Children with a reading disorder showed greater difficulties on the Working Memory and the Plan/Organize subscales of the Metacognitive Scale.

Recent adaptations of the ELM have added a role for variables: to affect the extent to which a person trusts their thoughts in response to a message (self-validation role). A person may think, "If an expert presented this information, it is probably correct, and thus I can trust that my reactions to it are informative with respect to my attitude." This role, because of its metacognitive nature, only occurs in high-elaboration conditions. Scholars have been studying different variables in this model in difference context.

The Social Thinking Methodology is a developmental, language-based and thinking-based (metacognitive) methodology that uses visual frameworks, unique vocabulary, strategies, and activities to foster social competence for children ages 4 – 18 years old. The methodology has assessment and treatment components for both interventionists and social learners. The methodology includes components of other well-known and evidence based interventions such as Social Stories, Hidden Curriculum, 5-point scale, and others, etc. Social Thinking™ shares ideals with executive functioning, central coherence issues, and perspective-taking.

Shimamura developed a broad theoretical framework that integrates memory encoding, storage, and retrieval. Shimamura (2000) defined encoding in terms of dynamic filtering theory, which describes the role of the prefrontal cortex in metacognitive or executive control processes. The prefrontal cortex acts as a high-level gating or filtering mechanism that enhances goal-directed activations and inhibits irrelevant activations. This filtering mechanism guides executive control at various levels of processing, including selecting, maintaining, updating, and rerouting activations, thus allowing us to select relevant sights, sounds, and thoughts.

Primary consciousness is the simple awareness of perception and emotion; that is, the awareness of the world via advanced visual and motor coordination information your brain receives. Secondary consciousness is an advanced state that includes both primary consciousness and abstract analysis, or thinking, and metacognitive components, or the awareness of being aware. Most animals show some stages of primary consciousness, but only humans have been experimentally shown to experience secondary consciousness. The cycle of waking-NREM-REM sleep is essential to mental health of mammals.

It was found that the effect of illusory superiority was greater in the condition where participants were free to assess the traits. The effects of illusory superiority have also been found to be strongest when people rate themselves on abilities at which they are totally incompetent. These subjects have the greatest disparity between their actual performance (at the low end of the distribution) and their self-rating (placing themselves above average). This Dunning–Kruger effect is interpreted as a lack of metacognitive ability to recognize their own incompetence.

For individuals with anorexia nervosa (AN), CRT is an interactive treatment which combines practical exercises with discussions about their relevance to the patient’s everyday life. Cognitive remediation therapy was adapted for anorexia nervosa by Professor Kate Tchanturia and colleagues at the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience to address the process rather than the content of thinking, thus helping patients to develop a metacognitive awareness of their own thinking style.Davies, H., & Tchanturia, K. (2005). Cognitive remediation therapy as an intervention for acute anorexia nervosa: A case report. European Eating Disorders Review, 13(5), 311-316.

Albert L. Stevens was a senior scientist at Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc. He was also director of the company's Artificial Intelligence, Education Technology and Training Systems Division. He is also a specialist in cognitive science. (Reigeluth, 1983) The Cognitive Theory of Inquiry Teaching according to Collins and Stevens (1981) requires the learner to construct theories and principles through dialogue, the teaching of self-questioning techniques and the teaching of metacognitive or self-monitoring skills, all with the intent of clarifying misconceptions so the theory or principle is well articulated and developed.

For example, a person who has accepted a cultural belief that memory loss is an unavoidable consequence of old age may avoid cognitively demanding tasks as they age, thus accelerating cognitive decline. Similarly, a woman who is aware of the stereotype that purports that women are not good at mathematics may perform worse on tests of mathematical ability or avoid mathematics altogether. These examples demonstrate that the metacognitive beliefs people hold about the self - which may be socially or culturally transmitted - can have important effects on persistence, performance, and motivation.

Interventions for specific language impairment will be based upon the individual difficulties in which the impairment manifests. For example, if the child is incapable of separating individual morphemes, or units of sound, in speech, then the interventions may take the form of rhyming, or of tapping on each syllable. If comprehension is the trouble, the intervention may focus on developing metacognitive strategies to evaluate his/her knowledge while reading, and after reading is complete. It is important that whatever intervention is employed, it must be generalized to the general education classroom.

Metacognition, Greek for "after" (meta) "thought" (cognition), refers to the human capacity to be aware of and control one's own thoughts and internal mental processes. Metacognition has been studied for several decades by researchers, originally as part of developmental psychology and neuropsychology. Examples of metacognition include a person knowing what thoughts are currently in their mind and knowing where the focus of their attention is, and a person's beliefs about their own thoughts (which may or may not be accurate). The first metacognitive interventions were devised for children with attentional disorders in the 1980s.

Main page: Tip of the tongue A tip of the tongue (TOT) state refers to the perception of a large gap between the identification or knowledge of a specific subject and being able to recall descriptors or names involving said subject. This phenomenon is also referred to as 'presque vu', a French term meaning "almost seen". There are two prevalent perspectives of TOT states: the psycholinguistic perspective and the metacognitive perspective. Psycholinguistics views TOT states as a failure of retrieval from lexical memory (see Cohort Model) being cued by semantic memory (facts).

Research has shown that college students who report that their course material is more interesting, important, and useful to them are more likely to use deeper processing strategies like elaboration and metacognitive control strategies. "At the classroom and task level, there are a number of features that could increase students' situational interest – such as challenge, choice, novelty, fantasy, and surprise."Malone, TW and Lepper, MR (1987), Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In RE Snow and MJ Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, Learning and Instruction III: Cognitive and Affective Process Analyses.

Through self- and peer- assessment students are able to see mistakes in their thinking and can correct any problems in future assignments. By grading assignments, students may learn how to complete assignments more accurately and how to improve their test results. Professors Lin-Agler, Moore, and Zabrucky conducted an experiment in which they found “that students are able to use their previous experience from preparing for and taking a test to help them build a link between their study time allocation.”Lin-Agler, Lin Miao, DeWayne Moore, and Karen M. Zabrucky EFFECTS OF PERSONALITY ON METACOGNITIVE SELF-ASSESSMENTS p.

Students with a high-metacognition were reported to have used fewer strategies, but solved problems more effectively than low- metacognition students, regardless of IQ or prior knowledge. In one study examining students who send text messages during college lectures, it was suggested that students with higher metacognitive abilities were less likely than other students to have their learning affected by using a mobile phone in class.Rosen, L. D., Lim, A. F., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2011). An empirical examination of the educational impact of message-induced task switching in the classroom: Educational implications and strategies to enhance learning.

The concept of metacognition has also been applied to reader-response criticism. Narrative works of art, including novels, movies and musical compositions, can be characterized as metacognitive artifacts which are designed by the artist to anticipate and regulate the beliefs and cognitive processes of the recipient, for instance, how and in which order events and their causes and identities are revealed to the reader of a detective story. As Menakhem Perry has pointed out, mere order has profound effects on the aesthetical meaning of a text. Narrative works of art contain a representation of their own ideal reception process.

Applications of BCSS may include game and training elements in several market domains which can range from Health and Education and Quality of Life (QoL), to professional development and workability. Virtually any concept designed to cause a shift in a person's behavior can be considered a BCSS, even if this change is not directly observed by the users. When users are aware of this intention and choose to work within the system, the chances of favorable results from this system increase. This effect is attributed to metacognition, as most BCSS systems implement metacognitive strategies for goal attainment.

Intercultural intelligence, or ICI, is a term that is used for the capability to function effectively in culturally diverse settings and consists of different dimensions (metacognitive, cognitive, motivational and behavioral) which are correlated to effectiveness in global environment (cultural judgement and decision making, cultural adaptation and task performance in culturally diverse settings). Intercultural intelligence differs from cultural intelligence in that it is based from the belief in interculturalism while CQ is based from the belief in multiculturalism. The term was first used in 2006 in response to the qualities observed in international executives that enabled them to succeed globally.

Brown & Paliscar (1982) developed reciprocal teaching, which — as currently practiced — pertains to the form of guided, cooperative learning that features a collaborative learning setting between learning leaders and listeners; expert scaffolding by an adult teacher; and direct instruction, modeling, and practice in the use of simple strategies that facilitate a dialogue structure. In a model that allows for student pairs to participate in a dialogue about text, partners take turns reading and asking questions of each other, receiving immediate feedback. This approach enables students to use important metacognitive techniques such as clarifying, questioning, predicting, and summarizing. It embraces the idea that students can effectively learn from each other.

In 2019, BEE released a review of research on 61 studies of 48 different programs for struggling readers in elementary schools. 84% were randomized experiments and 16% quasi-experiments. The vast majority were done in the USA, the programs are replicable, and the studies, done between 1990 and 2018, had a minimum duration of 12 weeks. Many of the programs used phonics-based teaching and/or one or more of the following: cooperative learning, technology-supported adaptive instruction (see Educational technology), metacognitive skills, phonemic awareness, word reading, fluency, vocabulary, multisensory learning, spelling, guided reading, reading comprehension, word analysis, structured curriculum, and balanced literacy (non-phonetic approach).

In late elementary school, children engage in self-directed use of organization and demonstrate the ability to impose a semantic structure on the to-be-remembered items to guide memory performance. For example, if a child is packing their bag for school they can go through each part of their day and think of each item that they need to pack. Children at this age understand the advantages of using memory strategies and make use of strategies like categorization over looking or naming if they are instructed to think about learning strategies prior to learning. A strong metacognitive strategy for a student would be practicing reflective and critical thinking skills.

Source information is one type of episodic memory that suffers with old age; this kind of knowledge includes where and when the person learned the information. Knowing the source and context of information can be extremely important in daily decision-making, so this is one way in which memory decline can affect the lives of the elderly. Therefore, reliance on political stereotypes is one way to use their knowledge about the sources when making judgments, and the use of metacognitive knowledge gains importance. This deficit may be related to declines in the ability to bind information together in memory during encoding and retrieve those associations at a later time.

Video games have been found to be more engaging; instead of providing information over an extended class period, games provide small amounts of information at relevant stages. Playing video games helps with metacognition (which describes the ability to think about your own thinking); strong metacognitive skills have been proven to help with developing academic skills and allows students to learn about their strengths and weaknesses and increase their performance. Video games that are used as objects of study in classroom can enable students to be skilled rhetorical readers, by exposing literature and language from different discourse communities, and by encouraging students to practice reading the symbolic structure of inherently consumption-based video games.

One of Alexander's current lines of research delves into relational reasoning strategies, which include metacognitive strategies that help individuals transfer knowledge across texts, tasks, and domains. Relational reasoning strategies are defined as, "cognitive procedures purposefully applied to recognizing or deriving meaningful relations or patterns between and among pieces of information that would otherwise appear unrelated." Even though there are many forms of relational reasoning, Alexander and colleagues have proposed that analogy (similarity), anomaly (discrepancy), antinomy (incompatibility), and antithesis (opposition) are four manifestations of relational reasoning of importance for academic learning and development. Of the four proposed manifestations of relational reasoning, analogy and anomaly have been widely studied, while antinomy and antithesis are not as well-established.

Since there is an observed increase in the frequency of TOT states with age, there are two mechanisms within psycholinguistics that could account for the TOT phenomenon. The first is the degradation of lexical networks with age, where degrading connections between the priming of knowledge and vocabulary increases difficulty of successfully retrieving a word from memory. The second suggests that the culmination of knowledge, experience, and vocabulary with age results in a similar situation where many connections between a diverse vocabulary and diverse knowledge also increases the difficulty of successful retrieval of a word from memory. The metacognitive perspective views TOT states simply as the awareness felt when such an event occurs and the perception of the experience involved.

Clinically, anosognosia is often assessed by giving patients an anosognosia questionnaire in order to assess their metacognitive knowledge of deficits. However, neither of the existing questionnaires applied in the clinics are designed thoroughly for evaluating the multidimensional nature of this clinical phenomenon; nor are the responses obtained via offline questionnaire capable of revealing the discrepancy of awareness observed from their online task performance. The discrepancy is noticed when patients showed no awareness of their deficits from the offline responses to the questionnaire but demonstrated reluctance or verbal circumlocution when asked to perform an online task. For example, patients with anosognosia for hemiplegia may find excuses not to perform a bimanual task even though they do not admit it is because of their paralyzed arms.

Or, an enterprise scenario may help a student of physics to bring to mind the relation between the practice of electric heating and the cost of electric power. The enterprise schema is likely to be a factor of considerable prominence in the mediation of transfer of learning from one task to another, or from a learning task to a later performance. As contrasted with factors pertaining to the quality of learning content such as amount and variety of practice, the enterprise frame is a metacognitive feature. The implication it carries for instructional design is to ensure transfer from training to the job, provision must be made for learner acquisition of an enterprise schema in addition to the specific knowledges and skills that the performance requires.

There are various aspects of consciousness generally deemed necessary for a machine to be artificially conscious. A variety of functions in which consciousness plays a role were suggested by Bernard Baars () and others. The functions of consciousness suggested by Bernard Baars are Definition and Context Setting, Adaptation and Learning, Editing, Flagging and Debugging, Recruiting and Control, Prioritizing and Access-Control, Decision-making or Executive Function, Analogy-forming Function, Metacognitive and Self- monitoring Function, and Autoprogramming and Self-maintenance Function. Igor Aleksander suggested 12 principles for artificial consciousness () and these are: The Brain is a State Machine, Inner Neuron Partitioning, Conscious and Unconscious States, Perceptual Learning and Memory, Prediction, The Awareness of Self, Representation of Meaning, Learning Utterances, Learning Language, Will, Instinct, and Emotion.

Mainly being aware of a TOT state can result in the rapid devotion of cognitive resources to resolving the state and successfully retrieving the word from memory. Such an explanation leaves much to be desired; however, the psycholinguistic perspective and the metacognitive perspective on TOT states are not mutually exclusive and both are used to observe TOT states in a laboratory setting. An incubation effect can be observed in TOT states, where the passage of time alone can influence the resolution of the state and result in successful recall. Also, the presence of a TOT state is a good predictor that the problem can be resolved correctly, although this has been shown to occur more frequently with older-young-adults than young-adults or seniors.

They found that although experienced viewers of Blue's Clues interacted with an episode of another series, they did not spend more time watching it than viewers unfamiliar with the show. The researchers stated, "It is apparent that, although preschoolers learn to enthusiastically engage in overt audience participation, they do not, by and large, have a metacognitive understanding of why they do so." The 2002 studies demonstrated that experience with watching one TV series affects how children watch other programs, especially in the way they interact with them. They also showed that since children are selective in the material they attend to and that their interaction increases with comprehension and mastery, children tend to pay more attention to novel information and interact more with material they have seen before and mastered.

The creators and producers used film techniques to present information from multiple perspectives in many "real world" contexts, or situations within the daily experiences of young children. They wanted to provide their viewers with more "authentic learning opportunities" by placing problem-solving tasks within the stories they told, by slowly increasing the difficulty of these tasks, and by inviting their involvement. These learning opportunities included the use of mnemonics in the form of mantras and songs, and what Tracy called "metacognitive wrap-up" at the end of each episode, in which the lessons were summarized and rehearsed. The producers wanted to foster their audience's sense of empowerment by eliciting their assistance for the show's host and by encouraging their identification with the character Blue, who served as a stand-in for the typical preschooler.

Wells' first book Attention and Emotion: A Clinical Perspective (co-authored with Gerald Matthews) presented a critique and framework for applying cognitive psychology to the understanding of psychopathology. It was awarded the 1998 British Psychological Society Book Award for significant contributions to psychology and remains a definitive text in this field; recently being reprinted for a 20th anniversary edition. Wells has authored a comprehensive treatment manual for anxiety disorders using cognitive behavioural therapy, which is widely used in UK mental health settings and includes a model and treatment for social anxiety disorder (developed with D. M. Clark) which was recommended by The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence as the most effective treatment. Wells is the originator of metacognitive therapy, a new psychological treatment which is undergoing extensive evaluation in controlled trials.

Other forms of assessment include peer assessment, self- assessment, and alternative assessment. Peer assessment is designed to help students gain insight into the aspects of learning that the teacher sees as important, and therefore increases metacognitive thinking skills that are useful when the student is working on their own projects and learning activities. In a similar vein, a self assessment also encourages students to take an objective, critical look at their own work and assess their performance and understanding based on rubrics provided by the teacher. Both methods, rather than being entirely separate from the learning process, enhance the student’s learning by becoming part of it. Education for Justice includes developing social and emotional learning (SEL) and behavioural learning outcomes that are traditionally more difficult to assess; and ‘grading’ of values is discouraged.

Another reason cited against child voting rights is that children would be unduly biased by media and other societal pressures. On the whole, this view is unsubstantiated, with interviews with youth revealing that they often have a great deal of knowledge about news programming, media bias, the importance of evidence, evaluation of arguments on the merits of their evidence, as well as a preparedness for forming arguments of one's own using available evidence. In cognitive research, some studies conducted in the 1970s offered a skeptical view of adolescent understanding of democratic principles like freedom of speech. However, this research is now recognized to have used challenging and contradictory vignettes that placed a high demand on still-developing verbal and metacognitive skills which are not recognized as requisite to an understanding of individual political rights.

Although internet and video game addictions are generally considered different from gambling disorder and substance abuse, there is a growing body of evidence indicating they share common features, including behavioral and neural features. Indeed, it is suggested that while behavioral addiction may differ with drug addictions in magnitude, they share several characteristics, with Hellman et al proposing that the concept of addiction should be de- medicalized. On the contrary, a literature review found that as the video game addiction develops, online gaming addicts spend increasing amounts of time not only playing but also preparing for and organizing their playing sessions, suggesting this addiction may be behavioral rather than a disorder of impulse control. There is recent evidence suggesting that internet gaming disorder can cause two distinct types of dysfunctions: cognitive and metacognitive.

According to this model individuals differ in their beliefs about the legitimacy of certain emotions, their duration, the ability to express emotions, the need to control emotions, how similar their emotions are to those of others and the ability to tolerate ambivalent feelings. These beliefs and the strategies connected to them are referred to as "emotional schemas". The Emotional Schema Model draws on Beck's cognitive model, the metacognitive model advanced by AdrIan Wells, the Acceptance and Commitment Model advanced by Steven C. Hayes, and on social cognitive research on attribution processes and implicit theories of emotion. Leahy has described how his model can help in understanding and treating jealousy, envy, ambivalence and other emotions and how these emotional schemas can impact intimate relationships and affect the therapeutic relationship.

There is evidence that, in addition to its base functions, the insula may play a role in certain higher-level functions that operate only in humans and other great apes. The spindle neurons found at a higher density in the right frontal insular cortex are also found in the anterior cingulate cortex, which is another region that has reached a high level of specialization in great apes. It has been speculated that these neurons are involved in cognitive-emotional processes that are specific to primates including great apes, such as empathy and metacognitive emotional feelings. This is supported by functional imaging results showing that the structure and function of the right frontal insula is correlated with the ability to feel one's own heartbeat, or to empathize with the pain of others.

Some examples of possible adaptive problems that would have been solved by the evolution of an executive system are: social exchange, imitation and observational learning, enhanced pedagogical understanding, tool construction and use, and effective communication. In a similar vein, some have argued that the unique metacognitive capabilities demonstrated by humans have arisen out of the development of a sophisticated language (symbolization) systems and culture. Moreover, in a developmental context, it has been proposed that each executive function capability originated as a form of public behaviour directed at the external environment, but then became self-directed, and then finally, became private to the individual, over the course of the development of self-regulation. These shifts in function illustrate the evolutionarily salient strategy of maximizing longer-term social consequences over near-term ones, through the development of an internal control of behaviour.

Donna Wilson Donna Wilson is an educational and school psychologist, teacher educator, and author of 20 books applying mind, brain, and education science. Recent works, with coauthor Marcus Conyers, include Teaching Students to Drive Their Brains: Metacognitive Strategies, Activities, and Lesson Ideas (ASCD, 2016), Smarter Teacher Leadership: Neuroscience and the Power of Purposeful Collaboration (Teachers College Press, 2016), Positively Smarter: Science and Strategies to Increase Happiness, Achievement, and Well-Being (Wiley- Blackwell, 2015), Five Big Ideas for Effective Teaching: Connecting Mind, Brain, and Education Research to Classroom Practice (Teachers College Press, 2013), and Flourishing in the First Five Years: Connecting Implications from Mind, Brain, and Education Research to the Development of Young Children (Rowman & Littlefield Education, 2013). Wilson is the head of academic affairs of the Center for Innovative Education and Prevention (CIEP) and BrainSMART. She presents at educational conferences in the United States and internationally and blogs regularly on Edutopia.

Leyton was a vocal proponent of the Creative CommonsLeyton on Creative Commons giving several seminars and speaking at conferences about its possible uses in the music industry, including Music TankMusic Tank (London) and Popkomm (Berlin). He has also played guitar for other musical projects live and in the studio, most notably British glam rockers Dogs D'Amour, Canadian rockers Crash Kelly (fellow Canadian musician Sean Kelly's band) and Canadian power pop outfit Galore. He participated in a side-project with Ky Anto, titled Pretty Volume, and recorded an EP with fellow Canadian guitarist Rich Jones and The Wildhearts' frontman Ginger in the UK. The Hellacopters's Nicke Andersson and Backyard Babies's guitarist Dregen were guests on Leyton's The Betrayal of the Self album, released in 2006 via Feedback Boogie and Fading Ways Records. In December 2008 he released an exclusive fans-only new album, Metacognitive Apperceptions.

For students to acquire necessary skills in reflection, their teachers need to be able to teach and model reflective practice (see above); similarly, teachers themselves need to have been taught reflective practice during their initial teacher education, and to continue to develop their reflective skills throughout their career. However, Mary Ryan has noted that students are often asked to "reflect" without being taught how to do so, or without being taught that different types of reflection are possible; they may not even receive a clear definition or rationale for reflective practice. Many new teachers do not know how to transfer the reflection strategies they learned in college to their classroom teaching. Some writers have advocated that reflective practice needs to be taught explicitly to student teachers because it is not an intuitive act; it is not enough for teacher educators to provide student teachers with "opportunities" to reflect: they must explicitly "teach reflection and types of reflection" and "need explicitly to facilitate the process of reflection and make transparent the metacognitive process it entails".

Marcus Conyers is an author and developer of graduate degree programs focused on improving leading and learning by bridging education, mind, and brain research to practice. Conyers is the coauthor, with Donna Wilson, of 20 books in this field, including Smarter Teacher Leadership: Neuroscience and the Power of Purposeful Collaboration (Teachers College Press, 2016), Teaching Students to Drive Their Brains: Metacognitive Strategies, Activities and Lesson Ideas (ASCD, 2016), Positively Smarter: Science and Strategies for Increasing Happiness, Achievement, and Well-Being (Wiley-Blackwell, 2015), Five Big Ideas for Effective Teaching: Connecting Mind, Brain, and Education Research to Classroom Practice (Teachers College Press, 2013), and Flourishing in the First Five Years: Connecting Implications from Mind, Brain, and Education Research to the Development of Young Children (Rowman & Littlefield Education, 2013). Conyers is the lead developer of the doctoral minor in Brain-Based Leadership and co-developer of the Master of Science and Educational Specialist degree programs with a major in Brain-Based Teaching with the Abraham S. Fischler School of Education at Nova Southeastern University. Conyers serves as a subject matter supervisor for the Ph.D. in Professional Practice: Psychological Perspectives with Canterbury Christ Church University.

From the beginning of his career, Conyers has shared a philosophy that virtually every human being has vast untapped cognitive potential and that effective leadership supports the transformation of this potential into higher levels of performance and well-being. His work has focused on improving leading, learning, and teaching by bridging implications of relevant brain science and cognitive psychology to practice. Additionally, in the field of education, Conyers has focused on empowering educators with the knowledge and skills they need to help all students learn the metacognitive, cognitive, and social emotional skills required to reach more of their unique potential and to thrive in the global innovation economy. His work with tens of thousands of educational leaders and educators is informed by a synergy of education, mind, and relevant brain research. He is developer of the original BrainSMART model, which offers practical strategies designed to help students maintain a healthy and optimistic state for learning, to make lessons meaningful, to maintain students’ focus and attention on learning, to retain what they have learned, and to transfer and demonstrate their new knowledge in assessments and real- life applications.

Formal education environments, such as elementary and secondary schools, present opportunities for learners to acquire new knowledge and skills, and to achieve deep, domain-specific conceptual mastery which, through well-designed pedagogical guidance and academic study, may enhance future career readiness, civic engagement, and general well-being. However, although it is understood that the basic principles of learning assert the importance of attending to students’ prior knowledge, fostering conceptual understanding, and cultivating metacognitive awareness, students must also become engaged and be willing to tolerate and cognitively work through the intellectual ambiguity often associated with exposure to novel information and tasks. Yet for students who have high need for cognitive closure, this phenomenon may inadvertently lead to the inhibition of cognitive functions and processes essential to the learning process, so that they can maintain their prior certainty and/or perceived permanence of personally or socially important ideas, even if those ideas or knowledge are distinctly unrelated to any specific content or information being presented in the classroom. In instances such as these, an individual's desire for cognitive closure in another area may outweigh her/his motivation to expend cognitive resources toward learning new information.