As they do, they carry out a metabolic process known as fermentation.
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More broadly, however, fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through the action of enzymes.
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This style of eating prompts ketosis, a metabolic process in which the body burns stored fat instead of glucose for its daily energy.
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New research suggests that cutting calories by 15% for two years can slow the metabolic process that leads to aging and protect against age-related diseases.
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Like the Keto diet, said Wilds, her program uses a metabolic process called ketosis, in which one's body, without carbohydrates to burn for fuel, begins to burn fat.
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"We can accomplish those things…without going into ketosis," she shared, referring to the metabolic process in which the body burns stored fat instead of glucose for its daily energy.
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He also wonders whether extreme divers, who survive for relatively long periods of time without taking in any oxygen, may have unwittingly taught their bodies how to switch from using glucose to fructose in the metabolic process.
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Gene ontology analysis provides a standard way to define these relationships. Gene ontologies start with very broad categories, e.g., "metabolic process" and break them down into smaller categories, e.g., "carbohydrate metabolic process" and finally into quite restrictive categories like "inositol and derivative phosphorylation".
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It consists in the epuration of the blood by the toxical substances resulted from the metabolic process.
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Methylomonas is a genus of bacteria that obtain their carbon and energy from methane, a metabolic process called methanotrophy..
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MTR reactivation can also be NADPH dependent involving two redox proteins, soluble cytochrome b5 and reductase 1. However, this pathway is responsible for a minor role in reactivation, whilst MTRR remains a major contributor in this reductive reactivation. Biological processes influenced by MTRR include: sulfur amino acid metabolic process, DNA methylation, methionine metabolic process, methionine biosynthetic process, methylation, S-adenosylmethionine cycle, homocysteine catabolic process, folic acid metabolic process, oxidation- reduction process and negative regulation of cystathionine beta-synthase activity. Simplified overview of relationship between homocysteine and folate metabolism.
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This shows that highland mice have evolved a metabolic process to economise oxygen usage for physical activities in the hypoxic conditions.
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The acrophase of the metabolic process ran from shortly mid-morning until sunset, with the peak amplitude recorded in mid-afternoon.
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The aim of MEOR is to enhancing oil recovery continuously by making use of the metabolic process of the indigenous beneficial microbes.
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A metabolic disorder can happen when abnormal chemical reactions in the body alter the normal metabolic process. It can also be defined as inherited single gene anomaly, most of which are autosomal recessive.
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Ethanol is a byproduct of the metabolic process of yeast. As such, ethanol will be present in any yeast habitat. Ethanol can commonly be found in overripe fruit. Ethanol produced by symbiotic yeast can be found in bertam palm blossoms.
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MPP+ is produced in vivo from the precursor MPTP. The process involves two successive oxidations of the molecule by monoamine oxidase B to form the final MPP+ product. This metabolic process occurs predominantly in astrocytes in the brain. Metabolism of MPTP to MPP+ in cerebral astrocytes.
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Such a metabolic process had never before been observed in nature. A puzzling observation is the coexistence of and ions under anoxic conditions. No sulfide anions () are found in the system. This suggests an intricate and poorly understood interaction between the sulfur and the iron biochemical cycles.
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For instance, coma induced by a diffuse metabolic process, such as hypoglycemia, can result in a structural coma if it is not resolved. Another example is if cerebral edema, a diffuse dysfunction, leads to ischemia of the brainstem, a structural issue, due to the blockage of the circulation in the brain.
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The Randle cycle, also known as the glucose fatty-acid cycle, is a metabolic process involving the competition of glucose and fatty acids for substrates. It is theorized to play a role in explaining type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance. It was named for Philip Randle, who described it in 1963.
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Apart from caloric intake and pattern of eating, leading an active physical life is one of the key reasons to boost metabolism. Hence, people are advised to go for a walk after having their dinner as it stimulates the metabolic process and influences the functioning of other organs in the body.
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University California Davis, 2 Nov. 2010. Web. <> One molecule that takes advantage of this second part of the metabolic process is the fatty molecule glycerol. This is unfortunately prevented if someone is experiencing Glycerol Kinase Deficiency. When a human's body needs to use stored fat for energy it will release glycerol and other fatty acids into the bloodstream.
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The catalytic enzyme has been isolated in the human liver mitochondria. Furthermore, phenylacetylglutamine has been found in human urine, but not in the excretory material of rats, dogs, cats, monkeys, sheep, or horses. Throughout the metabolic process, phenylacetylglutamine is bound and conjugated by free-plasma in the kidney to remove excess nitrogen through its excretion in the urine.
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Like many yeasts, Candida blankii has been the subject of various biotechnological studies, including for use as a BOD biosensor. The metabolic process of C. blankii is aerobic. Consequently, it oxidizes many forms of alcohol, amino acid, carbohydrates, and other organic compounds. As a BOD biosensor, practical applications may be limited due to short term effectiveness.
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Methylomonas methanica is a Gram-negative bacterium that obtains its carbon and energy from methane, a metabolic process called methanotrophy.. It is found in lakes, ponds, freshwater sediment and marshy ground.George M. Garrity: Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. 2. Auflage. Springer, New York, 2005, Volume 2: The Proteobacteria, Part B: The Gammaproteobacteria They are motile, the cells are rod-shaped.
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Nitrosomonas is a genus comprising Gram-negative, rod-shaped, and chemoautotrophic bacteria. This organism oxidizes ammonia into nitrite as a metabolic process, known as nitritation (a step of nitrification). Nitrosomonas are useful in a polluted water and waste treatment technique known as bioremediation. They are important in the nitrogen cycle as they increase the bioavailability of nitrogen to plants whilst limiting carbon fixation.
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Salicylate Biosynthesis I Pathway Isochorismate lyase is the second enzyme in the pathway salicylate biosynthesis I, a pathway occurring immediately following chorismate biosynthesis I. Using the chorismate produced from that metabolic process, first the enzyme PchA will catalyze the reaction of chorismate into isochorismate, which in turn is used by IPL to cleave off a pyruvate, leaving the product salicylate.
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Metabolite pool is a collective term for all of the substances involved in the metabolic process in a biological system. Metabolic pools are within cells (or organelles such as chloroplasts) and refer to the reservoir of molecules upon which enzymes can operate. The size of the reservoir is referred to as its "metabolic pool." The metabolic pool concept is important to cellular biology.
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Aflatoxin M1 may be found in milk, including human milk. In cows, sheep, goats and buffaloes that have consumed feeds contaminated with aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1 will be formed as a result of the metabolic process in the livers of ruminants and excreted in their milk. Humans can be exposed to the toxins through consumption of contaminated milk and other foods.
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Ethanol end product of vertebrate anaerobic metabolism. Science, N.Y. 209,307-308. Experimentally it has been demonstrated that the metabolic process involves the production of pyruvate from lactate, followed by decarboxylation to acetaldehyde which then is hydrogenated to ethanol as the major metabolic end product. In turn the fish largely excretes the ethanol into the water rather than accumulating it to toxic levels in the tissues.
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Some key factors that determine overall rate include protein half-life, pH, and temperature. Protein half-life helps determine the overall rate as this designates the first step in protein catabolism. Depending on whether this step is short or long will influence the rest of the metabolic process. One key component in determining the protein half-life is based on the N-end rule.
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Surface ocean waters generally have oxygen concentrations close to equilibrium with the Earth's atmosphere. In general, colder waters hold more oxygen than warmer waters. As water moves out of the mixed layer into the thermocline, it is exposed to a rain of organic matter from above. Aerobic bacteria feed on this organic matter; oxygen is used as part of the bacterial metabolic process, lowering its concentration within the water.
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CO2 form a froth on top of the fermentation mixture. Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through the action of enzymes. In biochemistry, it is narrowly defined as the extraction of energy from carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen. In the context of food production, it may more broadly refer to any process in which the activity of microorganisms brings about a desirable change to a foodstuff or beverage.
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Sulfoquinovose, also known as 6-sulfoquinovose and 6-deoxy-6-sulfo-D- glucopyranose, is a monosaccharide sugar that is found as a building block in the sulfolipid sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol (SQDG). Sulfoquinovose is a sulfonic acid derivative of glucose, the sulfonic acid group is introduced into the sugar by the enzyme UDP-sulfoquinovose synthase (SQD1). Sulfoquinovose is degraded through a metabolic process termed sulfoglycolysis. The half-life for mutarotation of sulfoquinovose at pD 7.5 and 26C is 299 minutes.
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A change in a single metabolic process has particular consequences for both growth and reproduction of the organism. Therefore, the specific pattern of growth and reproduction over time provides information about the affected process. In this way, the DEBtox method can be used to explain observed effect patterns over time, as well as the links between effects on body size and reproduction. A key concept in this method is the determination of the no effect concentration.
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AMP deaminase is an enzyme that converts adenosine monophosphate (AMP) to inosine monophosphate (IMP), freeing an ammonia molecule in the process. It is a part of the metabolic process that converts sugar, fat, and protein into cellular energy. In order to use energy, a cell converts one of the above fuels into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via the mitochondria. Cellular processes, especially muscles, then convert the ATP into adenosine diphosphate (ADP), freeing the energy to do work.
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Lipogenesis is the metabolic process through which acetyl-CoA is converted to triglyceride for storage in fat. The triglycerides in fat are packaged within cytoplasmic lipid droplets. The process begins with acetyl-CoA, which is an organic compound used to transfer energy from metabolism of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and ethanol. Through the citric acid cycle, acetyl-CoA is broken down to produce ATP, which is then an energy source for many metabolic processes, including protein synthesis and muscle contraction.
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At this point in the metabolic process, the ACS alcohol point system is utilized. It standardizes ethanol concentration regardless of volume, based on fermentation and reaction coordinates, cascading through the β-1,6 linkage. Acetaldehyde is a highly unstable compound and quickly forms free radical structures which are highly toxic if not quenched by antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C) or thiamine (vitamin B1). These free radicals can result in damage to embryonic neural crest cells and can lead to severe birth defects.
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Crude oil, or petroleum, is predominantly made up of hydrocarbons, a product that consists of a long chain of carbon atoms attached to hydrogen atoms. Whereas most organisms use sugars or amino acids for their source of carbon/energy, A. borkumensis uses alkanes, a type of hydrocarbon, in its metabolic process. This diet allows A. borkumensis to flourish in marine environments that have been affected by oil spills. Through its metabolism, A. borkumensis can break down oil into harmless compounds.
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This suggests that an organism in of the phylum Thermotogae was the most recent common ancestor of modern bacteria. Further chemical and isotopic analysis of ancient rock reveals that by the Siderian period, roughly 2.45 billion years ago, oxygen had appeared. This indicates that oceanic, photosynthetic Cyanobacteria evolved during this period because they were the first microbes to produce oxygen as a byproduct of their metabolic process. Therefore, this phylum was thought to have been predominant roughly 2.3 billion years ago.
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Adverse drug reactions are classified as type A (intrinsic or pharmacological) or type B (idiosyncratic). Type A drug reaction accounts for 80% of all toxicities. Drugs or toxins that have a pharmacological (type A) hepatotoxicity are those that have predictable dose-response curves (higher concentrations cause more liver damage) and well characterized mechanisms of toxicity, such as directly damaging liver tissue or blocking a metabolic process. As in the case of acetaminophen overdose, this type of injury occurs shortly after some threshold for toxicity is reached.
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Body heat is generated by metabolism. This refers to the chemical reactions cells use to break down glucose into water and carbon dioxide and, in so doing, generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a high-energy compound used to power other cellular processes. Muscle contraction is a type of metabolic process that generates heat energy, and heat is also generated through friction when blood flows through the circulatory system. All organisms metabolize food and other inputs, but some make better use of the output than others.
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Camels do not directly store water in their humps; they are reservoirs of fatty tissue. Concentrating body fat in their humps minimizes the insulating effect fat would have if distributed over the rest of their bodies, helping camels survive in hot climates. When this tissue is metabolized, it yields more than one gram of water for every gram of fat processed. This fat metabolization, while releasing energy, causes water to evaporate from the lungs during respiration (as oxygen is required for the metabolic process): overall, there is a net decrease in water.
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An extensive discussion of the connection of autopoiesis to cognition is provided by Thompson. The basic notion of autopoiesis as involving constructive interaction with the environment is extended to include cognition. Initially, Maturana defined cognition as behavior of an organism "with relevance to the maintenance of itself". However, computer models that are self-maintaining but non-cognitive have been devised, so some additional restrictions are needed, and the suggestion is that the maintenance process, to be cognitive, involves readjustment of the internal workings of the system in some metabolic process.
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Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to ethanol. Fermentation has been used by humans for the production of drinks since the Neolithic age. In winemaking, grape juice is combined with yeast in an anaerobic environment to allow the fermentation.Jeff Cox "From Vines to Wines: The Complete Guide to Growing Grapes and Making Your Own Wine" pgs 133–136 Storey Publishing 1999 The amount of sugar in the wine and the length of time given for fermentation determine the alcohol level and the sweetness of the wine.
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In 1914 he was elected to the Chair of Biochemistry at Cambridge University, thus becoming the first Professor in that discipline at Cambridge. His Cambridge students included neurochemistry pioneer Judah Hirsch Quastel and pioneer embryologist Joseph Needham. Hopkins had for a long time studied how cells obtain energy via a complex metabolic process of oxidation and reduction reactions. His study in 1907 with Sir Walter Morley Fletcher of the connection between lactic acid and muscle contraction was one of the central achievements of his work on the biochemistry of the cell.
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An explanation may be that the microbes use sulfate as a catalyst to respire with ferric ions and metabolize the trace levels of organic matter trapped with them. Such a metabolic process had never before been observed in nature. This process is of astrobiological importance as an analogue for environments below the Glaciers on Mars, if there is any liquid water there, for instance through hydrothermal melting (though none such has been discovered yet). This process is also an analogue for cryovolcanism in icy moons such as Enceladus.
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All known luminescent species are white rot fungi capable of breaking down lignin, found in abundance in wood. Bioluminescence is an oxygen-dependent metabolic process and therefore may provide antioxidant protection against the potentially damaging effects of reactive oxygen species produced during wood decay. The physiological and ecological function of fungal bioluminescence has not been established with certainty. It has been suggested that in the dark beneath closed tropical forest canopies, bioluminescent fruit bodies may be at an advantage by attracting grazing animals (including insects and other arthropods) that could help disperse their spores.
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The HILIC mode of separation is used extensively for separation of some biomolecules, organic and some inorganic molecules by differences in polarity. Its utility has increased due to the simplified sample preparation for biological samples, when analyzing for metabolites, since the metabolic process generally results in the addition of polar groups to enhance elimination from the cellular tissue. This separation technique is also particularly suitable for glycosylation analysis and quality assurance of glycoproteins and glycoforms in biologic medical products.Glycosylation analysis by hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) – N-Glyco mapping of the ZP-domain of murine TGFR-3 (Application Note TOSOH Biosciences).
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Organisms use ingested food resources (C=consumption) as building blocks in the synthesis of tissues (P=production) and as fuel in the metabolic process that power this synthesis and other physiological processes (R=respiratory loss). Some of the resources are lost as waste products (F=faecal loss, U=urinary loss). All these aspects of metabolism can be represented in energy units. The basic model of energy budget may be shown as: > P = C - R - U - F or > P = C - (R + U + F) or > C = P + R + U + F All the aspects of metabolism can be represented in energy units (e.g.
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Process of Fermentation Fermentation is the anaerobic metabolic process that converts sugar into acids, gases, or alcohols in oxygen starved environments. Yeast and many other microbes commonly use fermentation to carry out anaerobic respiration necessary for survival. Even the human body carries out fermentation processes from time to time, such as during long distance running; lactic acid will build up in muscles over the course of long-term exertion. Within the human body, lactic acid is the by-product of ATP- producing fermentation, which produces energy so the body can continue to exercise in situations where oxygen intake cannot be processed fast enough.
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Aerobic fermentation or aerobic glycolysis is a metabolic process by which cells metabolize sugars via fermentation in the presence of oxygen and occurs through the repression of normal respiratory metabolism. It is referred to as the crabtree effect in yeast. and is part of the Warburg effect in tumor cells. While aerobic fermentation does not produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in high yield, it allows proliferating cells to convert nutrients such as glucose and glutamine more efficiently into biomass by avoiding unnecessary catabolic oxidation of such nutrients into carbon dioxide, preserving carbon- carbon bonds and promoting anabolism.
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The chemicals involved in both were later shown to be polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). PAHs by themselves are not carcinogenic, and it was proposed in 1950 that the carcinogenic forms of PAHs are the oxides produced as metabolites from cellular processes. The metabolic process was identified in 1960s as catalysis by cytochrome P450 which produces reactive species that can interact with the DNA to form adducts,; the mechanism by which the PAH adducts give rise to mutation, however, is still under investigation. Mammalian nuclear DNA may sustain more than 60,000 damage episodes per cell per day, as listed with references in DNA damage (naturally occurring).
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Beta oxidation is the metabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria or in peroxisomes to generate acetyl-CoA. For the most part, fatty acids are oxidized by a mechanism that is similar to, but not identical with, a reversal of the process of fatty acid synthesis. That is, two-carbon fragments are removed sequentially from the carboxyl end of the acid after steps of dehydrogenation, hydration, and oxidation to form a beta-keto acid, which is split by thiolysis. The acetyl- CoA is then ultimately converted into ATP, CO2, and H2O using the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain.
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Artificial ventilation (also called artificial respiration) is a means of assisting or stimulating respiration, a metabolic process referring to the overall exchange of gases in the body by pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, and internal respiration. It may take the form of manually providing air for a person who is not breathing or is not making sufficient respiratory effort, or it may be mechanical ventilation involving the use of a mechanical ventilator to move air in and out of the lungs when an individual is unable to breathe on their own, for example during surgery with general anesthesia or when an individual is in a coma or trauma.
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In OMZs oxygen concentration drops to levels <10nM at the base of the oxycline and can remain anoxic for over 700m depth. This lack of oxygen can be reinforced or increased due to physical processes changing oxygen supply such as eddy-driven advection, sluggish ventilation, increases in ocean stratification, and increases in ocean temperature which reduces oxygen solubility. At a microscopic scale the processes causing ocean deoxygenation rely on microbial aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration is a metabolic process that microorganisms like bacteria or archaea use to obtain energy by degrading organic matter, consuming oxygen, producing CO2 and obtaining energy in the form of ATP.
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100 °C) off ridge vents such as Lost City than to the more familiar black smoker type vents (ca. 350 °C). In an abiotic world, a thermocline of temperatures and a chemocline in concentration is associated with the pre-biotic synthesis of organic molecules, hotter in proximity to the chemically rich vent, cooler but also less chemically rich at greater distances. The migration of synthesized compounds from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration gives a directionality that provides both source and sink in a self-organizing fashion, enabling a proto- metabolic process by which acetic acid production and its eventual oxidization can be spatially organized.
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There are two associated metabolites of cocaine, benzoylecgonine (BZ) and ecgonine methyl ester (EME), the first (BZ) is created by the presence of cocaine in an aqueous solution with a pH greater than 7.0, while the second (EME) results from the actual human metabolic process. The presence of EME confirms actual ingestion of cocaine by a human being, while the presence of BZ is indicative only. BZ without EME is evidence of sample contamination, however, the US Department of Defense has chosen not to test for EME in its urinalysis program. A number of different analyses (defined as the unknown substance being tested for) are available on Urine Drug Screens.
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Though bioaccumulation and biosorption are used synonymously, they are very different in how they sequester contaminants: Biosorption is a metabolically passive process, meaning it does not require energy, and the amount of contaminants a sorbent can remove is dependent on kinetic equilibrium and the composition of the sorbents cellular surface. Contaminants are adsorbed onto the cellular structure. Bioaccumulation is an active metabolic process driven by energy from a living organism and requires respiration. Both bioaccumulation and biosorption occur naturally in all living organisms however, in a controlled experiment conducted on living and dead strains of bacillus sphaericus it was found that the biosorption of chromium ions was 13–20% higher in dead cells than living cells.
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The hump stores up to of fat, which the camel can break down into energy to meet its needs when resources are scarce; the hump also helps dissipate body heat. When this tissue is metabolized, through fat metabolization, it releases energy while causing water to evaporate from the lungs during respiration (as oxygen is required for the metabolic process): overall, there is a net decrease in water. If the hump is small, the animal can show signs of starvation. In a 2005 study, the mean volume of adipose tissues (in the external part of the hump that have cells to store lipids) is related to the dromedary's unique mechanism of food and water storage.
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When IMC is used to determine metabolismics, the products of the metabolic processes studied are subsequently available for metabolomics studies. Since IMC does not employ biochemical or radioactive markers, the post-IMC specimens consist only of metabolic products and remaining culture medium (if any was used). If metabolismics and metabolomics are used together, they can provide a comprehensive record of a metabolic process taking place in vitro: its rate and energetics, and its metabolic products. To determine metabolismics using IMC, there must of course be sufficient cells, tissue or organisms initially present (or present later if replication is taking place during IMC measurements) to generate a heat flow signal above a given instrument's detection limit.
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In physiology, respiration is the movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the cells within tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. The physiological definition of respiration differs from the biochemical definition, which refers to a metabolic process by which an organism obtains energy (in the form of ATP and NADPH) by oxidising nutrients and releasing waste products. Although physiologic respiration is necessary to sustain cellular respiration and thus life in animals, the processes are distinct: cellular respiration takes place in individual cells of the organism, while physiologic respiration concerns the diffusion and transport of metabolites between the organism and the external environment. In animals with lungs, physiological respiration involves respiratory cycles of inhaled and exhaled breaths.
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Some of the steps in engineering a metabolic process Metabolic engineering is the practice of optimizing genetic and regulatory processes within cells to increase the cells' production of a certain substance. These processes are chemical networks that use a series of biochemical reactions and enzymes that allow cells to convert raw materials into molecules necessary for the cell's survival. Metabolic engineering specifically seeks to mathematically model these networks, calculate a yield of useful products, and pin point parts of the network that constrain the production of these products.Yang, Y.T., Bennet, G. N., San, K.Y., (1998) Genetic and Metabolic Engineering, Electronic Journal of Biotechnology, Genetic engineering techniques can then be used to modify the network in order to relieve these constraints.
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Clock gene mutations, including those to Drosophila's dbt, alter the sensitization of drug-induced locomotor activity after repeated exposure to psychostimulants. Drosophila with mutant alleles of dbt failed to display locomotor sensitization in response to repeated cocaine exposure. Additionally, there is experimental evidence for this gene to function in 13 unique biological processes, including biological regulation, phosphorus metabolic process, establishment of planar polarity, positive regulation of biological process, cellular process, single-organism developmental process, response to stimulus, response to organic substance, sensory organ development, macromolecule modification, growth, cellular component organization or biogenesis, and rhythmic process. The gene's alternative name, discs overgrown, refers to its role as a cell growth regulating gene that has strong effects of cell survival and growth control in imaginal discs, an attribute of the larvae fly stage.
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Blue-light hazard is the potential for photochemically-induced retinal injury resulting from electromagnetic radiation-exposure at wavelengths primarily between 400 and Researchers have not studied the phenomenon in humans, but only (and inconclusively) in some rodent, primate, and in vitro studies. Photochemically-induced retinal injury is caused by the absorption of light by photoreceptors in the eye. Under normal conditions, when light hits a photoreceptor, the cell bleaches and becomes useless until it has recovered through a metabolic process called the visual cycle. Absorption of blue light, however, has been shown in rats and in a susceptible strain of mice to cause a problem in the process so that cells become unbleached and responsive again to light before they are ready. At wavelengths of blue light below 430 nm this greatly increases the potential for oxidative damage.
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Convection cells in fluid placed in a gravity field are selforganizing and enable thermal cycling of the suspended contents in the fluid such as protocells containing protoenzymes that work on thermal cycling. Emergence of chemiosmotic machinery Today's bioenergetic process of fermentation is carried out by either the aforementioned citric acid cycle or the Acetyl-CoA pathway, both of which have been connected to the primordial Iron–sulfur world. In a different approach, the thermosynthesis hypothesis considers the bioenergetic process of chemiosmosis, which plays an essential role in cellular respiration and photosynthesis, more basal than fermentation: the ATP synthase enzyme, which sustains chemiosmosis, is proposed as the currently extant enzyme most closely related to the first metabolic process. First life needed an energy source to bring about the condensation reaction that yielded the peptide bonds of proteins and the phosphodiester bonds of RNA.
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Vittorini's death in 1966 greatly affected Calvino. He went through what he called an "intellectual depression", which the writer himself described as an important passage in his life: "...I ceased to be young. Perhaps it's a metabolic process, something that comes with age, I'd been young for a long time, perhaps too long, suddenly I felt that I had to begin my old age, yes, old age, perhaps with the hope of prolonging it by beginning it early." In the fermenting atmosphere that evolved into 1968's cultural revolution (the French May), he moved with his family to Paris in 1967, setting up home in a villa in the Square de Châtillon. Nicknamed L'ironique amusé, he was invited by Raymond Queneau in 1968 to join the Oulipo (Ouvroir de littérature potentielle) group of experimental writers where he met Roland Barthes, and Georges Perec, all of whom influenced his later production.
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