957 Sentences With "medulla" | Random Sentence Generator

In particular, though their cortex is densely packed with neurons, their medulla is disproportionately small.

Then the bullfighter's assistant slices the medulla oblongata to slowly halt respiratory and cardiac functions.

And at the center is an empty zone called the medulla that helps insulate the hair.

My iPhone may as well be lodged in my brainstem, right between the pons and medulla oblongata.

The old brain includes the brain stem, medulla, pons, reticular formation, thalamus, cerebellum, amygdala, hypothalamus and hippocampus.

In 2012, he underwent a second surgery at Washington University in St. Louis to remove the medulla from his remaining adrenal gland.

Medulla saw her taking apart organic sounds, resampling and twisting sounds to make orchestras and staticky instruments out of the human voice.

"It's hard not to have sympathy for somebody who experienced that level of childhood trauma: An overstimulated medulla looks for and perceives danger everywhere," he told Indie Wire.

She mentions it today and I remember her making a similar comment 29 years ago when I interviewed her in London around the release of her fifth album, Medulla.

As Ensemble, he has also provided remixes for Björk—"Sun In My Mouth" and "Triumph of a Heart"—along with co-writing "Desired Constellation" from Björk's 2004 album, Medulla.

" Featuring a row of gentle song stylists cupping their own brains in their hands, this one contains the classic tender line, "I used to love a-lotta your Medulla Oblongata.

The scan showed something unusual: a large "infiltrating" lesion centered in the medulla oblongata, the structure at the lower end of the brainstem that controls breathing and other involuntary functions.

They were interested in two structures that make up the optic lobe — the cortex, which mostly processes visual information, and the medulla, which helps guide camouflage and dynamic body patterning.

A close encounter with extreme danger led to abnormal neuro-electric activity in the limbic system and temporal lobes of my brain, which sent signals to my adrenal medulla, located on top of the kidneys, and told them to secrete adrenaline.

The ventrolateral medulla, part of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem, plays a major role in regulating arterial blood pressure and breathing. It regulates blood pressure by regulating the activity of the sympathetic nerves that target the heart and peripheral blood vessels. The ventrolateral medulla consists of a rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) and a caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM). Neurons in the RVLM project directly to preganglionic neurons in the spinal cord and maintain tonic activity in the sympathetic vasomotor nerves.

Three areas that are highly involved in frog calls are the preoptic area, the medulla-midbrain junction, and the medulla-spinal cord junction. The preoptic area is important in order the frog to initiate mate calling. The medulla- midbrain junction is responsible for producing the calling motor pattern. The medulla-spinal cord junction contains the hypoglossal and vagus nuclei, which are vital to organize the calling and breathing motor patterns.

The adrenal medulla is at the centre of each adrenal gland, and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex. The chromaffin cells of the medulla are the body's main source of the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline, released by the medulla. Approximately 20% noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and 80% adrenaline (epinephrine) are secreted here. The adrenal medulla is driven by the sympathetic nervous system via preganglionic fibers originating in the thoracic spinal cord, from vertebrae T5–T11.

The posterior median sulcus of medulla oblongata (or posterior median fissure or dorsal median sulcus) is a narrow groove; and exists only in the closed part of the medulla oblongata; it becomes gradually shallower from below upward, and finally ends about the middle of the medulla oblongata, where the central canal expands into the cavity of the fourth ventricle.

The brainstem consists of the medulla, the pons and the midbrain. The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, which both have similar organization and functional properties. The tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here. Regulatory functions of the medulla nuclei include control of blood pressure and breathing.

Also the hairpin bend penetrates up to the inner zone of medulla. Juxtamedullary nephrons are found only in birds and mammals, and have a specific location: medullary refers to the renal medulla, while juxta (Latin: near) refers to the relative position of the renal corpuscle of this nephron - near the medulla, but still in the cortex. In other words, a juxtamedullary nephron is a nephron whose renal corpuscle is near the medulla, and whose proximal convoluted tubule and its associated loop of Henle occur deeper in the medulla than the other type of nephron, the cortical nephron. The juxtamedullary nephrons comprise only about 15% of the nephrons in the human kidney.

Sterzi showed that, both in petromyzontes and in the precocious developmental stages of higher vertebrates, the spinal medulla receives its blood from the superficial vessels. It is only in later stages that vessels penetrate the spinal medulla in various patterns. He also demonstrated that, whereas in lower vertebrates there are portions of the spinal medulla supplied by venous blood and others by the arterial one, in later phylo and ontogenetic stages the blood supply becomes uniform for the formation of longitudinal tracts among the primitive metameric systems. In 1913, Sterzi published a study on the development of mammalian central arteries in the spinal medulla, medulla oblongata, and pons (Sterzi, 1913).

The remainder of the tube forms the medulla spinalis or spinal cord; from its ectodermal wall the nervous and neuroglial elements of the medulla spinalis are developed while the cavity persists as the central canal.

The tegmentum forms distinguished divisions in the midbrain, pons, and medulla.

A post office was established at Medulla in 1881, and remained in operation until 1909. Before the post office opened, the community was called Spring Hill. The name Medulla was given to the area due to its connecting link on the stagecoach rail-line between Bartow and Fort Meade, similar to how the medulla oblongata (in the lower part of the brain) connects with spinal cord. Medulla saw a period of rapid growth throughout the 1990s and early 2000s with development of Deer Brooke, a mega deed restricted community.

In mammals, the Bötzinger complex (BötC) is a group of neurons located in the rostral ventrolateral medulla, and ventral respiratory column. In the medulla, this group is located caudally to the facial nucleus and ventral to nucleus ambiguus.

Because it is innervated by preganglionic nerve fibers, the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized sympathetic ganglion. Unlike other sympathetic ganglia, however, the adrenal medulla lacks distinct synapses and releases its secretions directly into the blood.

Hair follicle of Felidae. Each strand of hair is made up of the medulla, cortex, and cuticle.Hair Structure and Hair Life Cycle. follicle.com The innermost region, the medulla, is not always present and is an open, unstructured region.

Medulla is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Polk County, Florida, United States. It is part of the Lakeland-Winter Haven Metropolitan Statistical Area. Medulla is an affluent residential community located south of the Lakeland city limits, and north of the Mulberry city limits. Medulla neighbors Lakeland Highlands, and together the two communities make up much of what is known as south (unincorporated) Lakeland.

The medulla contains large blood vessels, sinuses and medullary cords that contain antibody-secreting plasma cells. There are fewer cells in the medulla. The medullary cords are cords of lymphatic tissue, and include plasma cells, macrophages, and B cells.

Norepinephrine may also be released directly into the blood from the adrenal medulla.

Even so, moderate quantities were expressed in adrenal cortices/medulla, thyroid, and kidney.

Urea transporter 4 has been detected in rat but not mouse kidney medulla.

Both lampreys and hagfish possess a fully developed medulla oblongata. Since these are both very similar to early agnathans, it has been suggested that the medulla evolved in these early fish, approximately 505 million years ago.Haycock, Being and Perceiving The status of the medulla as part of the primordial reptilian brain is confirmed by its disproportionate size in modern reptiles such as the crocodile, alligator, and monitor lizard.

Epithelial reticular cells, or epithelioreticular cells (ERC), some called thymic epithelial cell (TEC), are a structure in both the cortex and medulla of the thymus. However, histologically, they are more easily identified in the medulla. These cells contain secretory granules which are thought to contain the thymic hormones. There are six different types: Types 1-3 are in the cortex, and types 4-6 are in the medulla.

The anterior spinal artery arises bilaterally as two small branches near the termination of the vertebral arteries. One of these vessels is usually larger than the other, but occasionally they are about equal in size. Descending in front of the medulla oblongata, they unite at the level of the foramen magnum. The single trunk descends in the front of the medulla spinalis, extending to the lowest part of the medulla spinalis.

The rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM), also known as the pressor area of the medulla, is a brain region that is responsible for basal and reflex control of sympathetic activity associated with cardiovascular function. Abnormally elevated sympathetic activity in the RVLM is associated with various cardiovascular diseases, such as heart failure and hypertension. The RVLM is notably involved in the baroreflex. It receives inhibitory GABAergic input from the caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM).

The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata and pons, in the brainstem. The respiratory center is made up of three major respiratory groups of neurons, two in the medulla and one in the pons. In the medulla they are the dorsal respiratory group, and the ventral respiratory group. In the pons, the pontine respiratory group includes two areas known as the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre.

The hypoglossal nucleus is a cranial nerve nucleus, found within the medulla. Being a motor nucleus, it is close to the midline. In the open medulla, it is visible as what is known as the hypoglossal trigone, a raised area (medial to the vagal trigone) protruding slightly into the fourth ventricle. The hypoglossal nucleus is located between the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus and the midline of the medulla.

Lastly, it depresses breathing and heart rate by inhibiting neuronal functioning of the medulla.

The renal medulla is incapable of producing glucose due to absence of necessary enzymes.

A small amount of H+/K+ ATPase is also found in the renal medulla.

During embryonic development the medulla oblongata develops from the myelencephalon. The myelencephalon is a secondary vesicle which forms during the maturation of the rhombencephalon, also referred to as the hindbrain. The bulb is an archaic term for the medulla oblongata and in modern clinical usage the word bulbar (as in bulbar palsy) is retained for terms that relate to the medulla oblongata, particularly in reference to medical conditions. The word bulbar can refer to the nerves and tracts connected to the medulla, and also by association to those muscles innervated, such as those of the tongue, pharynx and larynx.

The branchial motor component of CN IX provides voluntary control of the stylopharyngeus muscle, which elevates the pharynx during swallowing and speech. Origin and central course The branchial motor component originates from the nucleus ambiguus in the reticular formation of the medulla Rostral medulla. Fibers leaving the nucleus ambiguus travel anteriorly and laterally to exit the medulla, along with the other components of CN IX, between the olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle. Intracranial course Upon emerging from the lateral aspect of the medulla the branchial motor component joins the other components of CN IX to exit the skull via the jugular foramen.

The common name is bloody beard lichen. The thick axis and medulla are dull red.

The medulla, located below the algal layer, is the widest layer of a heteromerous thallus.

Each side enters the cranial cavity through the foramen magnum along the corresponding side of the medulla. They give off one of the three cerebellar branches. The vertebral arteries join in front of the middle part of the medulla to form the larger basilar artery, which sends multiple branches to supply the medulla and pons, and the two other anterior and superior cerebellar branches. Finally, the basilar artery divides into two posterior cerebral arteries.

The medulla is a horizontal layer within a lichen thallus. It is a loosely arranged layer of interlaced hyphae below the upper cortex and photobiont zone, but above the lower cortex.Galloway, D.J. (1992). Flora of Australia - Lichen Glossary The medulla generally has a cottony appearance.

Besides double positive-single positive transition, TCR-MHC interaction also triggers the expression of CCR7, chemokine receptor which recognizes chemokines CCL19 and CCL21, that are largely produced by mTECs in the medulla, and positively selected T cells start to migrate to medulla via their gradient.

In some judicial hangings, the odontoid process may break and hit the medulla oblongata, causing death.

As red blood cells approach the renal medulla (where there is a high concentration of urea), the urea transporter allows for rapid uptake of urea and prevents cell shrinkage in the hypertonic environment of the medulla. As the red cell leaves the medulla, the urea is transported back out of the cell, preventing cellular swelling and preventing the urea from being carried away from the kidney. HUT11 was detected on endothelial cells of the vasa recta (vascular supply of the renal medulla) but it is not present in renal tubules. Due to absence of the urea transporter, Jk(a-b-) cells are not hemolyzed by 2M urea.

The medulla oblongata or simply medulla is a long stem-like structure which makes up part of the brainstem. It is anterior and partially inferior to the cerebellum. It is a cone-shaped neuronal mass responsible for autonomic (involuntary) functions ranging from vomiting to sneezing. The medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centers and therefore deals with the autonomic functions of breathing, heart rate and blood pressure as well as the sleep wake cycle.

Between the two pyramids can be seen a decussation of fibers which marks the transition from the medulla to the spinal cord. The medulla is above the decussation and the spinal cord below. ;From behind The appearance of a cadaveric brainstem from behind, with major parts labelled The most medial part of the medulla is the posterior median sulcus. Moving laterally on each side is the gracile fasciculus, and lateral to that is the cuneate fasciculus.

The metencephalon will become the cerebellum and the pons. The more caudal myelencephalon will become the medulla.

Modulation of noxious and non-noxious spinal mechanical transmission from the rostral medial medulla in the rat. J Neurophysiol 88, 2928-2941Zhuo M, Sengupta JN, Gebhart GF (2002). Biphasic modulation of spinal visceral nociceptive transmission from the rostroventral medial medulla in the rat. J Neurophysiol 87, 2225-2236.

It is also expressed blood platelets. VMAT2 is also co-expressed in chromaffin cells. Expression of the two transporters in internal organs seems to differ between species: only VMAT1 is expressed in the rat adrenal medulla cells whereas VMAT2 is the major transporter in the bovine adrenal medulla cells.

The renal parenchyma (of the kidney) is divided into two major structures: the outer renal cortex and the inner renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of 7 to 18 cone-shaped renal lobes, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid.

The vasa recta of the kidney, (vasa rectae renis) are the straight arterioles, and the straight venules of the kidney, – a series of blood vessels in the blood supply of the kidney that enter the medulla as the straight arterioles, and leave the medulla to ascend to the cortex as the straight venules. (Latin: vasa, "vessels"; recta, "straight"). They lie parallel to the loop of Henle. These vessels branch off the efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary nephrons (those nephrons closest to the medulla).

Histological section through the adrenal gland. The black pointer indicates the innermost layer known as the adrenal medulla.

The parts of the brainstem are the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata, and sometimes the diencephalon.

The soma (cell bodies) in these nuclei are the second-order neurons of the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway, and their axons, called the internal arcuate fibers or fasciculi, decussate from one side of the medulla to the other to form the medial lemniscus. Just above the tubercles, the posterior aspect of the medulla is occupied by a triangular fossa, which forms the lower part of the floor of the fourth ventricle. The fossa is bounded on either side by the inferior cerebellar peduncle, which connects the medulla to the cerebellum. The lower part of the medulla, immediately lateral to the cuneate fasciculus, is marked by another longitudinal elevation known as the tuberculum cinereum.

Mature B-cells and other APCs can also be found in the medulla which contribute to negative selection processes.

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The myelencephalon or afterbrain is the most posterior region of the embryonic hindbrain, from which the medulla oblongata develops.

Since the rete also isolates the inner medulla from gaseous exchange, any metabolism in this area is anaerobic, and red cells, which would serve no purpose there, are ordinarily shunted from the arteriolae recti by an unknown mechanism into the capillary plexus surrounding the tubules of the outer zone of the medulla. Blood in this plexus and returning from the inner medulla finds its way to the renal vein and the general circulation by pathways similar to those providing drainage for the rest of the cortex.

There are four respiratory groups, two in the medulla and two in the pons. The two groups in the pons are known as the pontine respiratory group. # Dorsal respiratory group – in the medulla # Ventral respiratory group – in the medulla # Pneumotaxic center – various nuclei of the pons #Apneustic center – nucleus of the pons From the respiratory center, the muscles of respiration, in particular the diaphragm,Tortora, G. J. and Derrickson, B. H., (2009). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology – Maintenance and continuity of the human body.

Though the renal medulla only receives a small percentage of the renal blood flow, the oxygen extraction is very high, causing a low oxygen tension and more importantly, a critical sensitivity to hypotension, hypoxia, and blood flow.Miller's Anesthesia, 8th edition. 553-554. The renal medulla extracts oxygen at a ratio of ~80% making it exquisitely sensitive to small changes in renal blood flow. The mechanisms of many perioperative renal insults are based on the disruption of adequate blood flow (and therefore oxygen delivery) to the renal medulla.

The Kokko and Rector model is a theory explaining the mechanism of generation of a gradient in the inner medulla of the kidney. Unlike earlier theories explaining the mechanism using counter current mechanism (as is the case in the outer medulla), the driving force for salt reabsorption is stated to be urea accumulation. It has been proved that counter current mechanism cannot be the case in the inner medulla, since there are no salt pumps, and the cell membrane is too permeable to salt.

Areoles are in diameter and round to angular. The prothallus is black and often not distinct. The medulla is white.

The primary B cell follicle matures in germinal centers. In the medulla are hematopoietic cells (which contribute to the formation of the blood) and stromal cells. Near the medulla is the hilum of lymph node. This is the place where blood vessels enter and leave the lymph node and lymphatic vessels leave the lymph node.

T cells also have the opportunity to undergo clonal deletion within the thymic medulla if they express high affinity for self MHC/peptide complexes. Positive selection occurs in the thymic cortex, which suggests it is possible for a cell to undergo positive selection within the cortex and then negative selection in the medulla via clonal deletion. Epithelial cells are responsible for clonal deletion within the medulla. These medullary epithelial cells express an autoimmune regulator (AIRE) which allows these cells to present proteins specific to other parts of the body to T lymphocytes.

The efferent arterioles of the juxtamedullary glomeruli are much different. They do break up, but they form bundles of vessels (arteriolae recti) that cross the outer zone of the medulla to perfuse the inner zone. Vessels returning from the inner medulla (venulae recti) intersperse themselves in a highly regular fashion among the descending arteriolae recti to form a well- organized rete mirabile. This rete is responsible for the osmotic isolation of the inner medulla from the rest of the kidney and so permits the excretion of a hypertonic urine when circumstances require.

Endophyton is a genus of filamentous green algae comprising approximately 3 species. Branching is irregular. The medulla has a filamentous construction.

Asci are club shaped (clavate), with 8 ellipsoid ascospores. Lichen spot tests on the cortex and medulla are K+ red, KC-, P+ yellow or P+ orange, with the medulla sometimes testing K+ yellow and P+ orange. Secondary metabolites include norstictic acid and often connorstictic acid in traces, and more rarely hyposalazinic acid. The photobiont is a chlorococcoid.

Some neurons terminate in the spinal cord, where they contribute to a reflex response. Other neurons continue ipsilaterally, same side, to the medulla oblongata. If the neurons are coming from the lower limbs, they are carried by the fasciculus gracilis into the medulla. If the neurons are coming from the upper limbs; they are carried by the fasciculus cuneatus.

Pheochromocytoma are rare tumors that secrete catecholamines and affect the sympathoadrenal system. They are typically found inside the adrenal medulla, but can also be present right outside the adrenal medulla in tissue. Symptoms include headaches, sweating, palpitations, hypertension, hypoglycemia, anxiety, weight loss, fever, nausea, and cardiovascular complications. Pheochromocytoma can be treated through blocking the effects of the secreted cathecholamines.

Secondary compounds present in the lichen include atranorin and chloratranorin in the cortex, and salazinic acid and consalazinic acid in the medulla.

Upon entering the medulla these fibers descend in the spinal trigeminal tract and synapse in the caudal spinal nucleus of the trigeminal.

Cell group B1 occupies the midline nucleus raphes pallidus and adjacent structures in the caudal medulla oblongata of the rodent and the primate.

Cell group B2 occupies the midline nucleus raphes obscurus and adjacent structures in the caudal medulla oblongata of the rodent and the primate.

The arcuate vein is a vessel of the renal circulation. It is located at the border of the renal cortex and renal medulla.

The adrenal medulla is derived from neural crest cells, which come from the ectoderm layer of the embryo. These cells migrate from their initial position and aggregate in the vicinity of the dorsal aorta, a primitive blood vessel, which activates the differentiation of these cells through the release of proteins known as BMPs. These cells then undergo a second migration from the dorsal aorta to form the adrenal medulla and other organs of the sympathetic nervous system. Cells of the adrenal medulla are called chromaffin cells because they contain granules that stain with chromium salts, a characteristic not present in all sympathetic organs.

The internal arcuate fibers or internal arcuate tract are the axons of second- order sensory neurons that compose the gracile and cuneate nuclei of the medulla oblongata. These second-order neurons begin in the gracile and cuneate nuclei in the medulla. They receive input from first-order sensory neurons, which provide sensation to many areas of the body and have cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia of the dorsal root of the spinal nerves. Upon decussation (crossing over) from one side of the medulla to the other, also known as the sensory decussation, they are then called the medial lemniscus.

Cortical nephrons (the majority of nephrons) start high in the cortex and have a short loop of Henle which does not penetrate deeply into the medulla. Cortical nephrons can be subdivided into superficial cortical nephrons and midcortical nephrons. Juxtamedullary nephrons start low in the cortex near the medulla and have a long loop of Henle which penetrates deeply into the renal medulla: only they have their loop of Henle surrounded by the vasa recta. These long loops of Henle and their associated vasa recta create a hyperosmolar gradient that allows for the generation of concentrated urine.

The arcuate arteries of the kidney, also known as arciform arteries, are vessels of the renal circulation. They are located at the border of the renal cortex and renal medulla. They are named after the fact that they are shaped in arcs due to the nature of the shape of the renal medulla. Arcuate arteries arise from renal interlobar arteries.

The adrenal medulla consists of irregularly shaped cells grouped around blood vessels. These cells are intimately connected with the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). In fact, these adrenal medullary cells are modified postganglionic neurons, and preganglionic autonomic nerve fibers lead to them directly from the central nervous system. The adrenal medulla therefore affects available energy, heart rate, and metabolism.

The adrenal glands are composed of two heterogenous types of tissue. In the center is the adrenal medulla, which produces adrenaline and noradrenaline and releases them into the bloodstream, as part of the sympathetic nervous system. Surrounding the medulla is the cortex, which produces a variety of steroid hormones. These tissues come from different embryological precursors and have distinct prenatal development paths.

However, massive releases of these hormones coupled with sympathetic stimulation may actually lead to arrhythmias. There is no parasympathetic stimulation to the adrenal medulla.

In the following year he read before the Royal Society a paper On the Inverse Ratio which Subsists between Respiration and Irritability in the Animal Kingdom. His most important work in physiology was concerned with the theory of reflex action, embodied in a paper On the Reflex Function of the Medulla Oblongata and the Medulla Spinalis (1833)Hall M. On the reflex function of the medulla oblongata and medulla spinalis. Philosophical Transactions 1833, 123: 635–665, which was supplemented in 1837 by another On the True Spinal Marrow, and the Excito-motor System of Nerves. In this theory, he stated that the spinal cord is comprised by a chain of units that functions as an independent reflex arcs, and their activity integrates sensory and motor nerves at the segment of the spinal cord from which these nerves originate.

Each adrenal gland has two distinct parts, each with a unique function, the outer adrenal cortex and the inner medulla, both of which produce hormones.

Because of its location in the brainstem and its many important roles in the autonomic nervous system, damage to the medulla oblongata is usually fatal.

She is a designer too. She has judged many reality shows also. In a film called Medulla Oblangatta (2014) she has done lyrics work too.

The layer beneath the symbiont layer called is called the medulla. The medulla is less densely packed with fungal filaments than the layers above. In foliose lichens, there is usually, as in Peltigera, another densely packed layer of fungal filaments called the lower cortex. Root-like fungal structures called rhizines (usually) grow from the lower cortex to attach or anchor the lichen to the substrate.

The pars recta (Latin "straight part") is the following straight (descending) portion. Straight segments descend into the outer medulla. They terminate at a remarkably uniform level and it is their line of termination that establishes the boundary between the inner and outer stripes of the outer zone of the renal medulla. As a logical extension of the nomenclature described above, this segment is sometimes designated as S3.

Their lifespan averages between 30 and 60 years (Armstrong & Bradwell pg.3). Lichens have a main body part called the thallus, which is composed of hyphae, and houses the cortex and medulla. The cortex contains the photosynthetic cells while the medulla allows for gas exchange and makes up the bulk of the lichen's thallus. There are three main types of lichens: crustose, foliose, and fruticose.

The bursa of fabricius is a circular pouch connected to the superior dorsal side of the cloaca . The bursa is composed of many folds, known as plica, which are lined by more than 10,000 follicles encompassed by connective tissue and surrounded by mesenchyme. Each follicle consists of a cortex that surrounds a medulla. The cortex houses the highly compacted B lymphocytes, whereas the medulla houses lymphocytes loosely.

The AQP4 channels are highly concentrated in the blood-brain barrier (BBB), as well as in other cerebrospinal fluid barriers. In the kidneys, AQP4 is primarily found in the inner medulla, and shows little to no presence in the outer medulla and cortex. It is constitutively expressed in the basolateral cell membrane of principal collecting duct cells and provide a pathway for water to exit these cells.

The ventral portion of the medulla oblongata contains the medullary pyramids. These two ridge-like structures travel along the length of the medulla oblongata and are bordered medially by the anterior median fissure. They each have an anterolateral sulcus along their lateral borders, where the hypoglossal nerve emerges from. Also at the side of each pyramid there is a pronounced bulge known as an olive.

The respiratory centre is divided into three major groups, two in the medulla and one in the pons. The two groups in the medulla are the dorsal respiratory group and the ventral respiratory group. In the pons, the pontine respiratory group is made up of two areas – the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre. The dorsal and ventral medullary groups control the basic rhythm of respiration.

Within the spinal trigeminal nucleus, information is represented in a layered, or "onion-skin" fashion. The lowest levels of the nucleus (in the upper cervical cord and lower medulla) represent peripheral areas of the face (the scalp, ears and chin). Higher levels (in the upper medulla) represent central areas (nose, cheeks and lips). The highest levels (in the pons) represent the mouth, teeth and pharyngeal cavity.

Frogs have a highly developed nervous system that consists of a brain, spinal cord and nerves. Many parts of frog brains correspond with those of humans. It consists of two olfactory lobes, two cerebral hemispheres, a pineal body, two optic lobes, a cerebellum and a medulla oblongata. Muscular coordination and posture are controlled by the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata regulates respiration, digestion and other automatic functions.

The counterpart to the gracile nucleus and fasciculus is the cuneate nucleus and cuneate fasciculus, which carries the same type of information, but from the upper body (above T6, except the face and ear which is carried by the principal sensory nucleus of trigeminal nerve). The cuneate nucleus is wedge-shaped and located in the closed part of the medulla. It lies lateral to the gracile nucleus and medial to the spinal trigeminal nucleus in the medulla. The large number of neurons found there give rise to the cuneate tubercle seen on viewing the posterior aspect of the medulla on the side of the brainstem.

Even though the gene does not have a significant high expression in the mouse brain, it is most expressed in midbrain, isocortex, olfactory areas, and medulla.

Its action at the chemoreceptor trigger zone (in the area postrema) and the solitary nucleus (in the medulla oblongata) allow it to have an antiemetic effect.

Embryonic vertebrate subdivisions of the developing human brain developmental categorization of portions of the central nervous system in vertebrates. It includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

Galaxaura is a genus of thalloid red algae. Dichotomous branches are formed; the medulla has a filamentous construction. It may be related to the fossil Gymnocodiaceae.

The other 10% of the fibers stay uncrossed in the anterior corticospinal tract. The pyramidal decussation marks the border between the spinal cord and the medulla oblongata.

Trimethobenzamide is an antagonist of the D2 receptor. It is believed to affect the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ) of the medulla oblongata to suppress nausea and vomiting.

RAI14 is expressed within a wide range of human tissues. Some areas of the highest expression by TPM (transcripts per million) include tissues of the endometrium, smooth muscle, cervix, cervix, testis, and spleen. Within the human brain, RAI14 expression is abundant in the area around the brain stem and medulla. The highest expression levels came from the myelencephalon, a region of the embryonic brain that would later become the medulla oblongata.

Sci Rep. 2017 Aug 25;7(1):9560. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-09808-8.]. RVD- hemopressin (pepcan-12) is generated from a pro-peptide called pepcan-23 and these peptides are exclusively found in noradrenergic neurons in the brain and in the adrenal medulla [Hofer SC, Ralvenius WT, Gachet MS, Fritschy JM, Zeilhofer HU, Gertsch J. Localization and production of peptide endocannabinoids in the rodent CNS and adrenal medulla. Neuropharmacology.

Information about the pressure changes in the carotid sinus comes from carotid bodies located near the carotid artery and this is passed via a nerve joining with the glossopharyngeal nerve. This information travels up to the solitary nucleus in the medulla. Signals from here influence the vasomotor centre to adjust vein and artery constriction accordingly. The brain controls the rate of breathing, mainly by respiratory centres in the medulla and pons.

The figure shows the cross section of the closed medulla at the level of the sensory decussation. Number 9 illustrates the sensory decussation at the posterior column. At the level of the closed medulla in the posterior white column, two large nuclei namely the gracile nucleus and the cuneate nucleus can be found. The two nuclei receive the impulse from the two ascending tracts: fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus.

Babinski–Nageotte syndrome is an alternating brainstem syndrome. It occurs when there is damage to the dorsolateral or posterior lateral medulla oblongata, likely syphilitic in origin. Hence it is also called the alternating medulla oblongata syndrome. The rare disorder is caused by damage to a part of the brain (medullobulbar transitional area) which causes a variety of neurological symptoms, some of which affect only one side of the body.

The adrenal medulla is located anatomically at the center of each adrenal gland, and is composed of neuroendocrine (chromaffin) cells which produce and release epinephrine (adrenaline) into the bloodstream in response to activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Neuroblastoma and pheochromocytoma are the two most important tumors which arise from the adrenal medulla. Both tumors may also arise from extra-adrenal sites, specifically, in the paraganglia of the sympathetic chain.

It measures changes in blood pressure and the composition of arterial blood flowing past it, including the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The chemoreceptors responsible for sensing changes in blood gases are called glomus cells. It gives feedback to the medulla oblongata, specifically to the dorsal respiratory group, via the afferent branches of the vagus nerve (X). The medulla, in turn, regulates breathing and blood pressure.

The renal medulla is the innermost part of the kidney. The renal medulla is split up into a number of sections, known as the renal pyramids. Blood enters into the kidney via the renal artery, which then splits up to form the interlobar arteries. The interlobar arteries each in turn branch into arcuate arteries, which in turn branch to form interlobular arteries, and these finally reach the glomeruli.

Each cell or group of cells of the photobiont is usually individually wrapped by hyphae, and in some cases penetrated by an haustorium. Beneath this algal layer is a third layer of loosely interwoven fungal hyphae without algal cells. This layer is called the medulla. Beneath the medulla, the bottom surface resembles the upper surface and is called the lower cortex, again consisting of densely packed fungal hyphae.

Fibers of the posterior column, which transmit sensory and proprioceptive information, are located behind the pyramids on the medulla oblongata. The medullary pyramids contain motor fibers that are known as the corticobulbar and corticospinal tracts. The corticospinal tracts are on the anterior surface of the pyramids. These tracts transport motor signals that originated in the precentral gyrus and travelled through the internal capsule to the medulla oblongata and pyramids.

The hyphal network differs in growth between the cortical and medullar region, with radial versus multidirectional growth respectively. When stained with hematoxylin and eosin it appears rust-brown in color. In contrast, the second type, vesicular, has a light colored medulla and a brown cortical region filled with hyphae and vesicles 6 to 14 µm in diameter. Often it is difficult to determine the transition point from cortex to medulla.

Lichen spot test on the cortex and medulla are I-, K+ yellow to red, P+ orange, and C-. Secondary metabolites include much stictic acid, and some norstictic acid.

A bilateral infarction in the pyramids of the medulla can result in motor quadriplegia. This is rare, however, as there have only been four cases of this reported.

The vestibular nuclei (VN) are the cranial nuclei for the vestibular nerve. In Terminologia Anatomica they are grouped in both the pons and the medulla in the brainstem.

Axons from the hypoglossal nucleus pass anteriorly through the medulla forming the hypoglossal nerve which exits between the pyramid and olive in a groove called the anterolateral sulcus.

The motor division of the vagus nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic medulla oblongata, while the sensory division originates from the cranial neural crest.

Vermilacinia was segregated from Niebla based on difference in the cortex, medulla, and chemistry.Spjut R. W. 1995. Vermilacinia (Ramalinaceae, Lecanorales), a new genus of lichens. In: Flechten Follmann; Contr.

The surface of the thallus does not have a well-defined cortex, an outer layer of well-packed hyphae. The medulla (a loosely arranged layer of hyphae below the cortex and photobiont zone) is whitish but the lower part is red. It has few to many calcium oxalate crystals that are 3–8 μm diameter. The hyphae of the medulla have many such crystals on the walls, that are 1–2 μm in diameter.

In H&E; staining the adrenal medulla (on the pointer) stains lighter than the adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla () is part of the adrenal gland. It is located at the center of the gland, being surrounded by the adrenal cortex. It is the innermost part of the adrenal gland, consisting of cells that secrete epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and a small amount of dopamine in response to stimulation by sympathetic preganglionic neurons.

The neurons in these two nuclei (the dorsal column nuclei) are second-order neurons. Their axons cross over to the other side of the medulla and are now named as the internal arcuate fibers, that form the medial lemniscus on each side. This crossing over is known as the sensory decussation. At the medulla, the medial lemniscus is orientated perpendicular to the way the fibres travelled in their tracts in the posterior column.

The renal cortex is the outer portion of the kidney between the renal capsule and the renal medulla. In the adult, it forms a continuous smooth outer zone with a number of projections (cortical columns) that extend down between the pyramids. It contains the renal corpuscles and the renal tubules except for parts of the loop of Henle which descend into the renal medulla. It also contains blood vessels and cortical collecting ducts.

In the medulla, the ventral respiratory group (VRG) consists of four groups of neurons that make up the exhalation (expiratory) area of respiratory control. This area is in the ventrolateral part of medulla, about 5 mm anterior and lateral to the dorsal respiratory group. The neurons involved include those in the nucleus ambiguus, the nucleus retroambiguus, and the interneurons in the pre-Bötzinger complex. The VRG contains both inspiratory and expiratory neurons.

Negative selection removes thymocytes that are capable of strongly binding with "self" MHC peptides. Thymocytes that survive positive selection migrate towards the boundary of the cortex and medulla in the thymus. While in the medulla, they are again presented with a self-antigen presented on the MHC complex of medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs). mTECs must be AIRE+ to properly express self-antigens from all tissues of the body on their MHC class I peptides.

The glossopharyngeal nerve, known as the ninth cranial nerve (CN IX), is a mixed nerve that carries afferent sensory and efferent motor information. It exits the brainstem out from the sides of the upper medulla, just anterior (closer to the nose) to the vagus nerve. The motor division of the glossopharyngeal nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic medulla oblongata, while the sensory division originates from the cranial neural crest.

The proglottids of the worms contain both longitudinal and traverse muscles; this was determined by microscopic evaluation. The proglottid is divided into two distinct compartments called the cortex and medulla.

These species are distinguished by the presence or absence of chondroid strands in the medulla, and by their chemistry, N. contorta has divaricatic acid and triterpenes not found in Vermilacinia.

This process does not remove thymocytes that may cause autoimmunity. The potentially autoimmune cells are removed by the process of negative selection, which occurs in the thymic medulla (discussed below).

Thallophyca is a non-mineralized Ediacarian alga that probably dwelt on the sea floor. Its thallus is differentiated into a cortex and a medulla. Possible reproductive structures have been identified.

The hindbrain or rhombencephalon is a developmental categorization of portions of the central nervous system in vertebrates. It includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. Together they support vital bodily processes.

Its thallus measures up to in diameter. It is characterized by the pigmentation of most of its medulla, coloured pale orange or salmon-red to yellow (except for the upper part).

Zhuo M and Gebhart GF (2002). Facilitation and attenuation of a visceral nociceptive reflex from the rostroventral medulla in the rat. Gastroenterology 122, 1007-1019.Zhuo M and Gebhart GF (2002).

It is expressed in noradrenergic neurons of the central nervous system (i.e. locus coeruleus) and peripheral nervous systems (i.e. sympathetic ganglia), as well as in chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla.

Middle cerebellar peduncle is located inferior and lateral to the superior cerebellar peduncle, connecting pons to the cerebellum. Likewise, inferior cerebellar peduncle is found connecting the medulla oblongata to the cerebellum.

Ascospores are ellipsoid, colourless, simple, with dimensions of 10–18 by 7–10 μm. The conidia are bifusiform, hyaline, and measure 5–7 by l μm. The medulla contains gyrophoric acid.

But the adrenal medulla, in contrast to the adrenal cortex, is not required for survival. In adrenalectomized patients hemodynamic and metabolic responses to stimuli such as hypoglycemia and exercise remain normal.

The pontine tegmentum, or dorsal pons, is located within the brainstem, and is one of two parts of the pons, the other being the ventral pons or basilar part of the pons. The pontine tegmentum can be defined in contrast to the basilar pons: basilar pons contains the corticospinal tract running craniocaudally and can be considered the rostral extension of the ventral medulla oblongata; however, basilar pons is distinguished from ventral medulla oblongata in that it contains additional transverse pontine fibres that continue laterally to become the middle cerebellar peduncle. The pontine tegmentum is all the material dorsal from the basilar pons to the fourth ventricle. Along with the dorsal surface of the medulla, it forms part of the rhomboid fossa – the floor of the fourth ventricle.

The adrenal medulla is considered a sympathetic ganglion and, like other sympathetic ganglia, is supplied by cholinergic preganglionic sympathetic fibers: acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter utilized at this synapse. The chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla act as "modified neurons", releasing adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream as hormones instead of as neurotransmitters. The other postganglionic fibers of the peripheral autonomic system belong to the parasympathetic division; all are cholinergic fibers, and use acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter.

The pontine nuclei (or griseum pontis) are the nuclei of the pons involved in motor activity. The pontine nuclei are located in the ventral pons. Corticopontine fibres carry information from the primary motor cortex to the ipsilateral pontine nucleus in the ventral pons, and the pontocerebellar projection then carries that information to the contralateral cerebellum via the middle cerebellar peduncle. Extension of these nuclei in the medulla oblongata are named arcuate nucleus (medulla) which has the same function.

Fruticose lichens have a single cortex wrapping all the way around the "stems" and "branches". The medulla is the lowest layer, and may form a cottony white inner core for the branchlike thallus, or it may be hollow. Crustose and squamulose lichens lack a lower cortex, and the medulla is in direct contact with the substrate that the lichen grows on. In crustose areolate lichens, the edges of the areolas peel up from the substrate and appear leafy.

The lichen has a seafoam-green thallus up to wide, comprising overlapping lobes that are 2.0–5.0 mm wide. The margins of the lobes have simple cilia that are up to 1 mm long. The cortex contains atranorin, while the medulla contains protocetraric acid. Occasionally, the medullary K spot test reaction is positive, producing a very light yellow colour that indicates the presence of traces of atranorin in the upper part of the medulla near the cortex.

Rather than releasing a neurotransmitter, the cells of the adrenal medulla secrete hormones. The adrenal medulla is the principal site of the conversion of the amino acid tyrosine into the catecholamines; epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine. Because the ANS, specifically the sympathetic division, exerts direct control over the chromaffin cells the hormone release can occur rather quickly. In response to stressors such as exercise or imminent danger, medullary cells release the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline into the blood.

The first cell-based therapy investigated for Parkinson's disease utilized the adrenal medulla. The adrenal medulla is the innermost part of the adrenal gland and contains neural crest derived chromaffin cells which secrete norepinephrine, epinephrine and to a far lesser extent dopamine into the blood. Autotransplantation of adrenal medullary tissue into the brains of animal models of Parkinson's disease showed minimal benefits. Despite this, open-label trials were undergone in humans which showed only modest benefits.

There are three phases of the respiratory cycle: inspiration, post-inspiration or passive expiration, and late or active expiration. The number of cycles per minute is the respiratory rate. The respiratory rate is set in the respiratory center by the dorsal respiratory group, in the medulla, and these neurons are mostly concentrated in the solitary nucleus that extends the length of the medulla. The basic rhythm of respiration is that of quiet, restful breathing known as eupnea.

The CTZ is in the medulla oblongata, which is phylogenetically the oldest part of the central nervous system. Early lifeforms developed a brainstem, or inner brain, and nothing more. This part of the brain is responsible for basic survival instincts and reactions, for example to make an organism turn its head and look where an auditory stimulus was heard. The brainstem is where the medulla is located, and therefore also the area postrema and the CTZ.

In the adrenal medulla, acetylcholine is used as a neurotransmitter, and the receptor is of the nicotinic type. The somatic nervous system uses a nicotinic receptor to acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction.

Noradrenergic cell group A2 is a group of cells in the vicinity of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve in the medulla that label for norepinephrine in primates and rodents.

Cell group B3 occupies the midline nucleus raphes magnus and adjacent structures in the caudal medulla oblongata of the rodent and the primate. Its boundary with the serotonergic group B1 is indistinct.

In humans, osmolytes are of particular importance in the renal medulla. Current understanding of osmolytes have been used to calculate the maximum depth where a fish can survive: 26,900 feet (8,200 meters).

An acoustic neuroma, particularly at the junction between the pons and medulla, may compress the facial nerve (VII) and vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), leading to hearing and sensory loss on the affected side.

It extends throughout the entire length of the medulla spinalis, and on transverse section appears as an oval area in front of the posterior column and medial to the posterior spinocerebellar tract.

The anterolateral sulcus (or ventrolateral sulcus) is a sulcus on the side of the medulla oblongata between the olive and pyramid. The rootlets of the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) emerge from this sulcus.

Examples of cells producing chromogranin A (ChgA) are chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla, paraganglia, enterochromaffin-like cells and beta cells of the pancreas. It is present in islet beta cell secretory granules.

Solitary tract nucleus in the dorsal respiratory group and nucleus ambiguus of the ventral respiratory group shown in their positions on the medulla oblongata. The dorsal respiratory group (DRG) has the most fundamental role in the control of respiration, initiating inspiration (inhalation). The DRG is a collection of neurons forming an elongated mass that extends most of the length of the dorsal medulla. They are near to the central canal of the spinal cord, and just behind the ventral group.

Anatomy of hair The medulla is the innermost layer of the hair shaft. This nearly invisible layer is the most soft and fragile, and serves as the pith or marrow of the hair. Scientists are still uncertain about the exact role of the medulla, but they speculate that it is primarily an extension that is more prominent in depigmented (grey or white) hair .James, William; Berger, Timothy; Elston, Dirk (2005) Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology (10th ed.). Saunders.

The anterior spinal artery arises bilaterally as two small branches near the termination of the vertebral arteries which descend anterior to the medulla and unite at the level of the foramen magnum. The infarction (which arises in the paramedian branches of the anterior spinal artery and/or the vertebral arteries) leads to death of the ipsilateral medullary pyramid, the medial lemniscus, and the hypoglossal nerve fibers that pass through the medulla. The spinothalamic tract is spared because it is located more laterally in the brainstem and is not supplied by the anterior spinal artery, but rather by the vertebral and posterior inferior cerebellar arteries. The trigeminal nucleus is also spared, since most of it is higher up in the pons, and the spinal part of it found in the medulla is lateral to the infarct.

The medulla is separated from the lumen by the epithelium and this aids in the transport of epithelial cells into the lumen of the bursa. There are 150,000 B lymphocytes located around each follicle.

Ultrasonography shows bilateral small kidneys with loss of corticomedullary junction and multiple cysts only in the medulla. Cysts may only be seen if they are large enough, they are rarely visible early in disease.

The anterior layer is continuous inferiorly with the pia mater on the inferior cerebellar peduncles and the closed part of the medulla oblongata. The posterior layer covers the antero-inferior surface of the cerebellum.

The cough center is a region of the brain which controls coughing. The cough center is located in the medulla oblongata in the brainstem. Cough suppressants focus their action on the cough center.D.C. Bolser.

While PNMT is found primarily in the cytosol of the endocrine cells of the adrenal medulla (also known as chromaffin cells), it has been detected at low levels in both the heart and brain.

Manifestations in structural malformation are common as well. Hypoplasia of mesencephalon, pons, cerebellum and medulla are often. Aplasia may occur on top of hypoplasia. Flattened brainstem, ventriculomegaly, pachygyria, Type II lissencephaly have been reported.

The specific epithet alectoronicum refers to the presence of alectoronic acid in the medulla. This presence of this compound, as well as usnic acid in its cortex, is a rare combination in the genus Parmotrema.

It is caused by damage to the medulla oblongata due to strokes or trauma. It generally indicates a poor prognosis, and usually progresses to complete apnea. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with Biot's Respirations.

Chemical characteristics are the production of zeorin and related triterpenoids in the medulla. Myelochroa contains about 30 species, most of which grow on bark. The genus has centres of distribution in Asia and North America.

A lymph node is divided into compartments called nodules (or lobules), each consisting of a region of cortex with combined follicle B cells, a paracortex of T cells, and a part of the nodule in the medulla. The substance of a lymph node is divided into the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The cortex of a lymph node is the outer portion of the node, underneath the capsule and the subcapsular sinus. It has an outer part and a deeper part known as the paracortex.

Studies have indicated that due to polymorphism of platelet V1R there is significant heterogeneity in the aggregation response of normal human platelets to vasopressin. V1Rs are found in kidney, where they occur in high density on medullary interstitial cells, vasa recta, and epithelial cells of the collecting duct. Vasopressin acts on medullary vasculature through V1R to reduce blood flow to inner medulla without affecting blood flow to outer medulla. V1Rs on the luminal membrane of the collecting duct limit the antidiuretic action of vasopressin.

The two pyramids contain the motor fibers that pass from the brain to the medulla oblongata and spinal cord. These are the corticobulbar and corticospinal fibers that make up the pyramidal tracts. About 90% of these fibers leave the pyramids in successive bundles and decussate (cross over) in the anterior median fissure of the medulla oblongata as the pyramidal decussation or motor decussation. Having crossed over at the middle line, they pass down in the posterior part of the lateral funiculus as the lateral corticospinal tract.

They enter the medulla, and surround the loop of Henle. Whereas the peritubular capillaries surround the cortical parts of the tubules, the vasa recta go into the medulla and are closer to the loop of Henle, and leave to ascend to the cortex. Terminations of the vasa recta form the straight venules, branches from the plexuses at the apices of the medullary pyramids. They run outward in a straight course between the tubes of the medullary substance and join the interlobular veins to form venous arcades.

The apneustic center of the lower pons appears to promote inhalation by a constant stimulation of the neurons in the medulla oblongata. The apneustic center sends signals to the dorsal group in the medulla to delay the 'switch off', the inspiratory off switch (IOS) signal of the inspiratory ramp provided by the pneumotaxic centre. It controls the intensity of breathing, giving positive impulses to the neurons involved with inhalation. The apneustic center is inhibited by pulmonary stretch receptors and also by the pneumotaxic center.

The upper part of the posterior district of the medulla oblongata is occupied by the inferior cerebellar peduncle, a thick rope-like strand situated between the lower part of the fourth ventricle and the roots of the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves. Each cerebellar inferior peduncle connects the spinal cord and medulla oblongata with the cerebellum, and comprises the juxtarestiform body and restiform body. Important fibers running through the inferior cerebellar peduncle include the dorsal spinocerebellar tract and axons from the inferior olivary nucleus, among others.

During numerous diseased states, such as hypoglycemia or even stress, the body's metabolic processes are skewed. The sympathoadrenal system works to return the body to homeostasis through the activation or inactivation of the adrenal gland. However, more severe disorders of the sympathoadrenal system such as phaeochromocytoma (a tumor on the adrenal medulla) can affect the body's ability to maintain a homeostatic state. In such cases, curative agents such as adrenergic agonists and antagonists are used to modify epinephrine and norepinephrine levels released by the adrenal medulla.

Anzia mahaeliyensis is a species of lichenised ascomycetes of the genus Anzia in the large family Parmeliaceae. It is endemic to Sri Lanka. The species is characterized by white, single layered medulla and pale tipped isidia.

This requires norepinephrine to diffuse from the site it is released to the transporter for reuptake. Norepinephrine transporters are confined to the neurons of the sympathetic system, and those innervating the adrenal medulla, lung, and placenta.

Recent research indicates that the adrenal medulla may receive input from higher-order cognitive centers in the prefrontal cortex as well as the sensory and motor cortices, providing credence to the idea that there are psychosomatic illnesses.

The cephalic phase of digestion is the stage in which the stomach responds to the mere sight, smell, taste, or thought of food. About 20% of total acid secretion occurs before food enters the stomach. These sensory and mental inputs converge on the hypothalamus to induce the responses needed for preparing the gastrointestinal tract for food processing, which relays signals to the medulla oblongata. Vagus nerve fibers from the medulla stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system of the stomach which, in turn, stimulates gastric secretion (via parietal and G cells).

Murrill's designated type species, P. unita, had a broad and poorly defined species concept that included other species, including Perenniporia medulla-panis. Additionally, P. unita was discovered to be a nomen dubium, which also threatened the validity of the genus Perenniporia. To remedy this nomenclatural instability, Cony Decock and Joost Stalpers proposed to conserve Perenniporiella with P. medulla-panis as the type. Although Truncospora has traditionally been considered a synonym of Perenniporia, molecular phylogenetic analysis shows that it is genetically unique and worthy of recognition as a distinct genus.

Within the cortex, nephrons are organized around central veins of the efferent venous system. In contrast, the medulla is structured into medullary cones that contain nephron elements, specifically collecting ducts and loops of Henle. As the collecting ducts descend through the medulla, they combine and empty their contents into the ureter. There are two types of avian nephrons, and nephrons become larger as depth from the kidney surface increases. Reptilian-type nephrons are the smallest nephrons, are found near a kidney’s surface, possess simple glomeruli, and do not have loops of Henle.

He began a long series of physiological experiments to study the basic physical conditions necessary for the maintenance of life functions throughout the organism. Legallois conducted a series of animal experiments to clarify the mechanism of respiration. By decapitation of vertebrates or other targeted destruction of neural connections in the brain and spinal cord, he came to the conclusion that respiration is controlled by a respiratory center located in the medulla oblongata. His discovery was that a lesion, on a small circumscribed area in the medulla, inhibits breathing (1811).

Carotid and aortic bodies are clusters of cells located on the common carotid artery and the aortic arch, respectively. Each of these peripheral chemoreceptors is composed of type I glomus cells and glia-like type II cells. The type-I cells transduce the signals from the bloodstream and are innervated by afferent nerve fibers leading back to (in the carotid body) the carotid sinus nerve and then on to the glossopharyngeal nerve and medulla of the brainstem. The aortic body, by contrast, is connected to the medulla via the vagus nerve.

His book Medulla theologiae moralis, facili ac perspicua methodo resolvens casus conscientiae (1645) grew out of his lectures to students at Cologne. The manual obtained a wide popularity and passed through over two hundred editions before 1776. Although less bold in its declarations than some other Jesuit books, such as, for example, the Defensio Fidei (1613) of Francisco Suarez, it was the most complete and systematized in its exposition, and served as a type for succeeding treatises of the sort. The theology of Medulla was generally well received within the Catholic Church.

The pyramidal cells of the precentral gyrus are also called upper motor neurons. The fibers of the upper motor neurons project out of the precentral gyrus ending in the brainstem, where they will decussate (intersect) within the lower medulla oblongata to form the lateral corticospinal tract on each side of the spinal cord. The fibers that do not decussate will pass through the medulla and continue on to form the anterior corticospinal tracts. The upper motor neuron descends in the spinal cord to the level of the appropriate spinal nerve root.

The ascending limb of the loop of Henle is a direct continuation from the descending limb of loop of Henle, and one of the structures in the nephron of the kidney. The ascending limb has a thin and a thick segment. The ascending limb drains urine into the distal convoluted tubule. The thin ascending limb is found in the medulla of the kidney, and the thick ascending limb can be divided into a part that is in the renal medulla and a part that is in the renal cortex.

Here they form two prominences called the medulla oblongatary pyramids. Below the prominences, the majority of axons cross over to the opposite side from which they originated, known as decussation. The axons that cross over move to the outer part of the medulla oblongata and form the lateral corticospinal tract, whereas the fibres that remain form the anterior corticospinal tract. About 80% of axons cross over and form the lateral corticospinal tract; 10% do not cross over and join the tract, and 10% of fibres travel in the anterior corticospinal tract.

Whiplash as a result of a car accident can lead to brainstem injuries that affect the pyramids at the medulla oblongata. These pyramid injuries are usually a result of a dislocation at the occiput or spinal level C1. Injuries to the pyramids of the medulla oblongata can also be caused by the quick hyperextension of the neck (cervical region of the spine). Hyperextension of the neck can pull and tear the pyramids, leading to a variety of symptoms such as weakness in all four limbs, difficulty swallowing, and difficulty speaking.

The majority of adult patients experiencing CNH have clinical histories of infiltrative, expanding tumors of the cortex, primarily involving the brainstem. Over three-quarters of the cases reported since the discovery of CNH by Plum and Swanson had tumors clearly involving the pons, with specific consideration given to pathology of the pontine tegmentum. CNH was also reported in patients with tumors affecting the medulla oblongata. Though a diagnosis of CNH is rarely considered without evidence of brainstem infiltration, there have been other reported cases of CNH not directly involving the pons or medulla.

The inferior salivatory nucleus (or nucleus salivatorius inferior) is a cluster of neurons in the pontine tegmentum (dorsal part of the pons), just above its junction with the medulla. It is the general visceral efferent (GVE) component of the glossopharyngeal nerve supplying the parasympathetic input to the parotid gland for salivation. It lies immediately caudal to the superior salivatory nucleus and just above the upper end of the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve in the medulla. The preganglionic parasympathetic fibres originate in the inferior salivatory nucleus of the glossopharyngeal nerve.

The biosynthesis of adrenaline involves a series of enzymatic reactions. In chemical terms, adrenaline is one of a group of monoamines called the catecholamines. Adrenaline is synthesized in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland and a small number of neurons in the medulla oblongata in the brain through a metabolic pathway that converts the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine into a series of metabolic intermediates and, ultimately, adrenaline. Tyrosine is first oxidized to L-DOPA by Tyrosine hydroxylase, this is the rate-limiting step.

Considerable differences aid in distinguishing the descending and ascending limbs of the loop of Henle. The descending limb is permeable to water and noticeably less permeable to salt, and thus only indirectly contributes to the concentration of the interstitium. As the filtrate descends deeper into the hypertonic interstitium of the renal medulla, water flows freely out of the descending limb by osmosis until the tonicity of the filtrate and interstitium equilibrate. The hypertonicity of the medulla (and therefore concentration of urine) is determined in part by the size of the loops of Henle.

The I1 receptor appears to be a G protein-coupled receptor that is localized on the plasma membrane. It may be coupled to PLA2 signalling and thus prostaglandin synthesis. In addition, activation inhibits the sodium- hydrogen antiporter and enzymes of catecholamine synthesis are induced, suggesting that the I1 receptor may belong to the neurocytokine receptor family, since its signaling pathways are similar to those of interleukins. It is found in the neurons of the reticular formation, the dorsomedial medulla oblongata, adrenal medulla, renal epithelium, pancreatic islets, platelets, and the prostate.

For her dissertation work at Radcliffe, Reddick studied neurodevelopment of the chick medulla. For these experiments, she used embryos from Plymouth Rock chickens. The goal of her experiments was to understand how much of that area of the brain was already determined and how much was dependent on interactions with surrounding developing tissues, such as notochord, somites, and ectoderm. The results of these experiments supported the hypothesis that while some aspects of the post-otic medulla in chick have already been determined, there needs to be a continuous interaction with surrounding developing tissues.

The vestibulocochlear nerve consists mostly of bipolar neurons and splits into two large divisions: the cochlear nerve and the vestibular nerve. Cranial nerve 8, the vestibulocochlear nerve, goes to the middle portion of the brainstem called the pons, (which then is largely composed of fibers going to the cerebellum). The 8th cranial nerve runs between the base of the pons (the middle portion of the brainstem) and medulla oblongata (the lower portion of the brainstem). This junction between the pons, medulla, and cerebellum that contains the 8th nerve is called the cerebellopontine angle.

Descending motor pathways carry motor signals from the brain down the spinal cord and to the target muscle or organ. They typically consist of an upper motor neuron and a lower motor neuron. The lateral corticospinal tract is a descending motor pathway that begins in the cerebral cortex, decussates in the pyramids of the lower medulla (also known as the medulla oblongata or the cervicomedullary junction, which is the most posterior division of the brain) and proceeds down the contralateral side of the spinal cord. It is the largest part of the corticospinal tract.

The diencephalon gives rise to the thalamus and hypothalamus. The hindbrain also splits into two areas – the metencephalon and the myelencephalon. The metencephalon gives rise to the cerebellum and pons. The myelencephalon gives rise to the medulla oblongata.

He described a finger flexion reflex called the Bekhterev- Jacobsohn reflex or Jacobsohn reflex. In 1909 he first described the pedunculopontine nucleus.Über die Kerne des menschlichen Hirnstamms (Medulla oblongata, Pons und Pedunculus cerebri), Berlin, 1909. pag. 58, fig.

Arnold–Chiari malformation is a malformation of the brain. It consists of a downward displacement of the cerebellar tonsils and the medulla through the foramen magnum, sometimes causing hydrocephalus as a result of obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid outflow.

In anatomy, the olivary bodies or simply olives (Latin oliva and olivae, singular and plural, respectively) are a pair of prominent oval structures in the medulla oblongata, the lower portion of the brainstem. They contain the olivary nuclei.

Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. . The blade consists of an outer cortex of small cells enclosing a medulla of larger cells up to 0.35 thick.Bunker, F.StP, Brodie, J.A., Maggs, C.A. and Bunker, A.R.2017.

Medulla Oblongata is a 2014 Indian Malayalam-language film produced by S. Madhan and directed by Suresh Nair. It is the remake of 2012 Tamil film Naduvula Konjam Pakkatha Kaanom. The remake stars Rahul Madhav and newcomer Aavaana.

Hemipseudaoathetosis refers to pseudoathetosis on one side of the body, usually the upper limb and is most commonly caused by a lesion affecting the cuneate tract or cuneate nucleus in the cervical spine or lower brainstem (medulla) respectively.

The myenteric plexus originates in the medulla oblongata as a collection of neurons from the ventral part of the brain stem. The vagus nerve then carries the axons to their destination in the gastrointestinal tract. They contain Dogiel cells.

Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) is an enzyme found primarily in the adrenal medulla that converts norepinephrine (noradrenaline) to epinephrine (adrenaline). It is also expressed in small groups of neurons in the human brain and in select populations of cardiomyocytes.

Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock (these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH, and increase arterial pCO2) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla.

Medulla Musicke (The Stationer's Company, London, 1603) was a music tutor now presumably lost. It is supposedWilliam Casey, Alfredo Colman to have included 40 canons on the then popular plainsong Miserere after arrangements by William Byrd and Alfonso Ferrabosco.

The vessel is placed in the pia mater along the anterior median fissure. It supplies that membrane, and the substance of the medulla spinalis, also sending off branches at its lower part to be distributed to the cauda equina.

The African species B. decurtata is an obligately saxicolous lichen, and while similar, it has a dark underside and produces salazinic acid in its medulla. The species' name thus refers to its uncommon dark gray colouration of its thallus.

Medulla is also important for implementation of self tolerance, which is mediated by CD4+CD25+Foxp3 nTreg cells. Foxp3 Treg development is supported by mTECs during negative selection, when thymocytes have TCR specificities with intermediate affinity for self antigens.

Germ cells migrate from near the allantois and colonize the primordial gonads. In the female, the germ cells colonise the cortex and become oogonia. In the male, the germ cells colonise the seminiferous cords of the medulla, becoming spermatogonia.

The specific epithet alidactylatum refers to the presence of aliphatic acids in the medulla and the dactylate (referring to finger-like processes) upper surface. Parmotrema alidactylatum is similar in appearance and morphology to P. tsavoënse, but has different medullary chemistry.

The medulla fastens the lichen to the substrate and is made up of fungal hyphae. The surface of crustose lichens is characterized by branching cracks that periodically close in response to climatic variations such as alternate wetting and drying regimes.

Caffeine is the most widely consumed stimulant in North America. Caffeine causes the release of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla. In small doses, caffeine can improve endurance. Recently, it has also been shown to delay the onset of fatigue in exercise.

Medulla is located at . According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 5.7 square miles (14.7 km2), of which 5.7 square miles (14.7 km2) is land and 0.04 square mile (0.1 km2) (0.35%) is water.

The specific name refers to the medulla oblongata, the brain part encased by the partial braincase.Kurzanov, S. M. (1976) Braincase structure in the carnosaur Itemirus n. gen. and some aspects of the cranial anatomy of dinosaurs. Paleontological Journal 10:361-369.

The pons regulates breathing through particular nuclei that regulate the breathing center of the medulla oblongata. The cerebellum works to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and integrate sensory information from the inner ear and proprioceptors in the muscles and joints.

Pycnidia are typically abundant, with either a marginal or laminal arrangement. They are generally conspicuous, black, situated on projections, and raised or immersed. The medulla is yellow to orange (from pinastric and vulpinic acids). The pycnidial wall contains some black pigment.

At the caudal part of the medulla these tracts cross over in the decussation of the pyramids obscuring the fissure at this point. Some other fibers that originate from the anterior median fissure above the decussation of the pyramids and run laterally across the surface of the pons are known as the anterior external arcuate fibers. The region between the anterolateral and posterolateral sulcus in the upper part of the medulla is marked by a pair of swellings known as olivary bodies (also called olives). They are caused by the largest nuclei of the olivary bodies, the inferior olivary nuclei.

Wnt7b regulates orientation of cell divisions in renal medullary collecting duct epithelium, in which is the major structure driving renal medulla formation. There are two interstitial regulators that are explicitly linked to medullary development; Pod1 which encodes a transcription factor expressed in the renal interstitium while p57Kip2 encodes a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor which is linked to Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome. Pod1, p57Kip2 and integrin α3 (ITGA3) are three factors that are involved in renal medullary morphogenesis. The knockout of Pod1 results in no renal medullary formation while p57Kip2 and Itga3 knockouts resulted in a reduced renal medulla.

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) becomes activated in response to stress. Sympathetic arousal stimulates the medulla of the medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood stream, which facilitates the fight-or-flight response. Blood pressure, heart rate, and sweating increase, veins constrict to allow the heart to beat with more force, arteries leading to muscles dilate, and blood flow to parts of the body not essential for the fight or flight response decreases. If stress persists in the long run, then blood pressure remains elevated, leading to hypertension and atherosclerosis, both precursors to cardiovascular disease.

The anterior median fissure (ventral or ventromedian fissure) contains a fold of pia mater, and extends along the entire length of the medulla oblongata: It ends at the lower border of the pons in a small triangular expansion, termed the foramen cecum. Its lower part is interrupted by bundles of fibers that cross obliquely from one side to the other, and constitute the pyramidal decussation. Some fibers, termed the anterior external arcuate fibers, emerge from the fissure above this decussation and curve lateralward and upward over the surface of the medulla oblongata to join the inferior peduncle.

The Clearwing mutation is one of the few that affect different areas of the body selectively. Like many budgerigar mutations, it is the black melanin pigment that is affected. This pigment is present in the medulla or inner cells of the barbs of all the feathers which appear green (or blue in the white series), and in the cortex or outer cells of the barbs of all the feathers which appear black. The Clearwing mutation causes a large reduction in the number of pigment granules in the cortex, but only a very small reduction in the number of pigment granules in the medulla.

This protein is a member of the rhodopsin-like family of G protein-coupled receptors and is a multi-pass membrane protein that localizes to the plasma membrane. The protein binds estradiol, resulting in intracellular calcium mobilization and synthesis of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate in the nucleus. This protein therefore plays a role in the rapid nongenomic signaling events widely observed following stimulation of cells and tissues with estradiol. The distribution of GPER is well established in the rodent, with high expression observed in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal medulla, kidney medulla and developing follicles of the ovary.

The middle tissue layer (the medullary excipulum) of both the cup and the internal tissue layer (the medulla) of the stalk contain a layer of tissue made of hyphae similar to the ectal excipulum. A second layer of tissue is made of hyphae that are translucent and gelatinous; this layer may be present in either the medullary excipulum, the medulla, or both. The asci are elongated reproductive structures that bear ascospores, in groups of eight. Banksiamyces species have asci that are cylindrical to club-shaped, and contain a plug at their extreme tips that will absorb color when stained with iodine.

Each straight arteriole has a hairpin turn in the medulla and carries blood at a very slow rate – two factors crucial in the maintenance of countercurrent exchange that prevent washout of the concentration gradients established in the renal medulla. The maintenance of this concentration gradient is one of the components responsible for the kidney's ability to produce concentrated urine. On the descending portion of the vasa recta, sodium chloride and urea are reabsorbed into the blood, while water is secreted. On the ascending portion, sodium chloride and urea are secreted into the interstitium, while water is reabsorbed.

The fibres that form the spinal accessory nerve are formed by lower motor neurons located in the upper segments of the spinal cord. This cluster of neurons, called the spinal accessory nucleus, is located in the lateral aspect of the anterior horn of the spinal cord, and stretches from where the spinal cord begins (at the junction with the medulla) through to the level of about C6. The lateral horn of high cervical segments appears to be continuous with the nucleus ambiguus of the medulla oblongata, from which the cranial component of the accessory nerve is derived.

The spinal counterparts of the trigeminal nucleus (cells in the dorsal horn and dorsal column nuclei of the spinal cord) contain a sensory map of the rest of the body. The trigeminal nucleus extends throughout the brainstem, from the midbrain to the medulla, continuing into the cervical cord (where it merges with the dorsal horn cells of the spinal cord). The nucleus is divided into three parts, visible in microscopic sections of the brainstem. From caudal to rostral (ascending from the medulla to the midbrain), they are the spinal trigeminal, the principal sensory and the mesencephalic nuclei.

However, some hyphae also give rise to appressoria, or flattened hyphal pressing organs, which are characteristic of non-keratinophilic fungi. Dermatophytes digest the hair cuticle rapidly, unlike A. fulvescens, which breaks the cuticle down so slowly that the scales are still visible for weeks after the hair has been infected. After the cuticle has been broken down, the next structure that is targeted is the medulla. This region is first colonized by hyphae present in the cuticle and fungal growth is more rapid here because the trichohyalin of the medulla is more readily digested than the keratin of the cuticle.

The medial reticular formation and lateral reticular formation are two columns of nuclei with ill-defined boundaries that send projections through the medulla and into the midbrain. The nuclei can be differentiated by function, cell type, and projections of efferent or afferent nerves. Moving caudally from the rostral midbrain, at the site of the rostral pons and the midbrain, the medial RF becomes less prominent, and the lateral RF becomes more prominent. Existing on the sides of the medial reticular formation is its lateral cousin, which is particularly pronounced in the rostral medulla and caudal pons.

Field Guide to California Lichens, Stephen Sharnoff, Yale University Press, 2014, Lichen spot tests are K+ yellow or K-, KC+ yellow-orange, C-, and P- on the cortex, and K-, KC+ red or KC-, C-, and P+ yellow or P- on the medulla.

Punctelia lichens are medium-sized, grey and foliose. They have conspicuous white pseudocyphellae on the upper surface. The lobes that comprise the thallus are typically 3–10 mm across. The medulla is white, while the lower surface ranges from pale to black.

PC 12 cells, having been cultured about two days. PC12 is a cell line derived from a pheochromocytoma of the rat adrenal medulla, that have an embryonic origin from the neural crest that has a mixture of neuroblastic cells and eosinophilic cells.

Carter et al., 1992 Collecting duct carcinomas are derived from the medulla, but many are infiltrative, and extension into the cortex is common.Pickhardt et al., 2001 Most reported cases have been high grade and advanced stage and have not responded to conventional therapies.

The pontine flexure, also called the rhombic flexure, forms the boundary between the metencephalon and the myelencephalon. The metencephalon becomes the pons and the cerebellum, and the myelencephalon becomes the medulla oblongata. These two regions develop and fold dorsally at the pontine flexure.

In the brain, C8orf34 is expressed in the dentate gyrus, epithalamus, and medulla. In the mouse brain, an orthologous C8orf34 is expressed highly in the granule layer of the dentate gyrus, the somatosensory areas of the cerebral cortex and in the amygdala.

The medulla is white, while the lower surface is black to dark brown near the margins. The apothecia are 2–10 mm wide with a dark brown disc. Ascospores of H. vainioi are ellipsoid and measure 10–12 by 5–8 μm.

The hallmark of radiographic diagnosis is the presence of osteochondromas at the metaphyseal ends of long bones in which the cortex and medulla of the osteochondroma represent a continuous extension of the host bone. This is readily demonstrable in radiographs of the knees.

The medullary pyramids are paired white matter structures of the brainstem's medulla oblongata that contain motor fibers of the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts – known together as the pyramidal tracts. The lower limit of the pyramids is marked when the fibers cross (decussate).

Chlorpheniramine maleate, an H1-blocking antihistamine, relieves histamine-induced allergic edema of respiratory mucosa. Codeine phosphate, by its action on the cough center in the medulla, helps reduce excessive frequency and intensity of cough bouts, which allows the patient to rest or sleep.

2008 Jan;57(1):183-191. These areas project to reticulospinal neurons in the pons and medulla, which themselves project throughout the spinal cord to activate the CPGs involved in locomotion.Whelan PJ. Control of locomotion in the decerebrate cat. Progress in Neurobiology.

Anzia flavotenuis is a species of lichenised ascomycetes of the genus Anzia in the large family Parmeliaceae. It is endemic to Sri Lanka. The species is characterized by two layered medulla with yellow upper layer and white lower layer. Isidia brown-black tipped.

Lichens in the genus Pleurosticita are similar in appearance, but are distinguished from Melanelixia by their broader lobes, pores on the epicortex that are reticulated, a pigment that reacts violet in K and HNO3, and the presence of depsidones in the medulla.

Flocculonodular lobe is a cerebellar lobe that helps maintain body equilibrium by modifying muscle tone (continuous and passive muscle contractions). MVN and IVN are in the medulla, LVN and SVN are smaller and in pons. SVN, MVN, and IVN ascend within medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF).

Periosteal Reaction The advancing tumour displaces the perisosteum away from the bone medulla. The displaced and now lateral periosteum attempts to regenerate underlying bone. This describes a periosteal reaction. The main causes for this sign are osteosarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, eumycetoma, and a subperiosteal abscess.

Noradrenergic cell group A1 is a group of cells in the vicinity of the lateral reticular nucleus of the medullary reticular formation that label for norepinephrine in primates and rodents. They are found in the ventrolateral medulla in conjunction with the adrenergic cell group C1.

Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland. Second Edition, Wild Nature Press, Plymouth, UK. The mature blade has a compact medulla enclosed within a cortex of rounded cells inwards and outwards of close radial filaments of about 6 cells.Irvine, L.M.1983. Seaweeds of the British Isles.

Major secondary metabolites produced by the lichen are lichexanthone in the upper cortex, and echinocarpic acid in the medulla. Minor compounds include barbatic acid (minor), conechinocarpic acid (minor), subechinocarpic acid (minor), 4-O-demethylbarbatic acid (minor/trace), obtusatic acid (trace), and norobtusatic acid (trace).

The neural crest of the ectoderm develops into: peripheral nervous system, adrenal medulla, melanocytes, facial cartilage. The neural tube of the ectoderm develops into: brain, spinal cord, posterior pituitary, motor neurons, retina. Note: The anterior pituitary develops from the ectodermal tissue of Rathke's pouch.

Pheochromocytomas are tumors of the adrenal medulla that arise from chromaffin cells. They can produce a variety of nonspecific symptoms, which include headaches, sweating, anxiety and palpitations. Common signs include hypertension and tachycardia. Surgery, especially adrenal laparoscopy, is the most common treatment for small pheochromocytomas.

In hypertension adrenaline from the adrenal medulla, getting enriched in sympathetic axon terminals, might create a pathological positive feedback with excessive release of sympathetic transmitter; beta blockers might bring release down to normal levels.K. Starke: Pharmakologie noradrenerger und adrenerger Systeme. Pharmakotherapie des Asthma bronciale – Doping.

Daftary, Shirish; Chakravarti, Sudip (2011). Manual of Obstetrics, 3rd Edition. Elsevier. pp. 1-16. . The ovaries are surrounded by a capsule, and have an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The capsule is of dense connective tissue and is known as the tunica albuginea.

The inferior olivary nucleus (ION), is a structure found in the medulla oblongata underneath the superior olivary nucleus.Gado, Thomas A. Woolsey; Joseph Hanaway; Mokhtar H. (2003). The brain atlas a visual guide to the human central nervous system (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. p. 206. .

The medulla is white with a flat lower surface. The rhizines are pale, unbranched, and measure 0.2–0.4 mm long. The lichen has well-developed apothecia (2–5 in diameter) that sit on rudimentary stalks. The ascospores are 6–7 by 9–12 um.

The cerebrospinal fibers, derived from the cells of the motor area of the cerebral cortex, occupy the middle three-fifths of the base; they are continued partly to the nuclei of the motor cranial nerves, but mainly into the pyramids of the medulla oblongata.

Her doctoral dissertation was titled The differentiation of embryonic chick medulla in chorioallantoic grafts. She was elected to the Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi honor societies. Geraldine Pittman Woods was a classmate. Reddick was the 10th member of Morehouse faculty to earn a doctorate.

It transmits the hypoglossal nerve from its point of entry near the medulla oblongata to its exit from the base of the skull near the jugular foramen. It lies in the epiphyseal junction between the basiocciput and the jugular process of the occipital bone.

The interior of the lymph node has two regions: the cortex and the medulla. In the cortex, lymphoid tissue is organized into nodules. In the nodules, T lymphocytes are located in the T cell zone. B lymphocytes are located in the B cell follicle.

In the Parmeliaceae, Hypogymnia belongs to the hypogymnioid clade along with the genera Arctoparmelia, Brodoa, and Pseudevernia. All of these genera share the common characteristic of having a loosely compact medulla. Hypogymnia lichens are commonly known as "tube lichens", "bone lichens", or "pillow lichens".

It is located within the pons or in the upper part of the medulla oblongata. CSF entering the fourth ventricle through the cerebral aqueduct can exit to the subarachnoid space of the spinal cord through two lateral apertures and a single, midline median aperture.

It has also sought to understand how color information that arises within the retina is processed in the optic lobe of the Drosophila brain by investigating the development and function of this structure.Morante J., & Desplan C. The color-vision circuit in the medulla of Drosophila. Current Biology, 18, 553-565 (2008). His lab has shown that neuronal diversity in optic lobes is generated by the lineage of neural stem cells and by spatial input from patterning genes,Li X., Erclik T., Bertet C., Chen Z., Voutev R., Venkatesh S., Morante J., Celik A. & Desplan C. Temporal patterning of Drosophila medulla neuroblasts controls neural fates.

This allows urea to leave the collecting duct into the medulla, creating a hyperosmotic solution that "attracts" water. Urea can then re-enter the nephron and be excreted or recycled again depending on whether ADH is still present or not. The 'single effect' describes the fact that the ascending thick limb of the loop of Henle is not permeable to water but is permeable to sodium chloride. This allows for a countercurrent exchange system whereby the medulla becomes increasingly concentrated, but at the same time setting up an osmotic gradient for water to follow should the aquaporins of the collecting duct be opened by ADH.

Adrenorphin, also sometimes referred to as metorphamide, is an endogenous, C-terminally amidated, opioid octapeptide (Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met-Arg-Arg-Val- NH2) that is produced from proteolytic cleavage of proenkephalin A and is widely distributed throughout the mammalian brain. It was named based on the fact that it was originally detected in human phaeochromocytoma tumour derived from the adrenal medulla, and was subsequently found in normal human and bovine adrenal medulla as well. Adrenorphin exhibits potent opioid activity, acting as a balanced μ- and κ-opioid receptor agonist while having no effects on δ-opioid receptors. It possesses analgesic and respiratory depressive properties.

Afferent neurons significant in dyspnea arise from a large number of sources including the carotid bodies, medulla, lungs, and chest wall. Chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies and medulla supply information regarding the blood gas levels of O2, CO2 and H+. In the lungs, juxtacapillary (J) receptors are sensitive to pulmonary interstitial edema, while stretch receptors signal bronchoconstriction. Muscle spindles in the chest wall signal the stretch and tension of the respiratory muscles. Thus, poor ventilation leading to hypercapnia, left heart failure leading to interstitial edema (impairing gas exchange), asthma causing bronchoconstriction (limiting airflow) and muscle fatigue leading to ineffective respiratory muscle action could all contribute to a feeling of dyspnea.

Chromaffin cells, also pheochromocytes, are neuroendocrine cells found mostly in the medulla of the adrenal glands in mammals. These cells serve a variety of functions such as serving as a response to stress, monitoring carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations in the body, maintenance of respiration and the regulation of blood pressure. They are in close proximity to pre-synaptic sympathetic ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system, with which they communicate, and structurally they are similar to post-synaptic sympathetic neurons. In order to activate chromaffin cells, the splanchnic nerve of the sympathetic nervous system releases acetylcholine, which then binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the adrenal medulla.

They are found in the medulla and the junction between the cortex and medulla of the thymus, and, in the lower gastrointestinal tract, ovaries, uterus, spleen, and lymph nodes, but not in the lungs, skin, esophagus, or some other internal organs under normal conditions. The presence of eosinophils in these latter organs is associated with disease. For instance, patients with eosinophilic asthma have high levels of eosinophils that lead to inflammation and tissue damage, making it more difficult for patients to breathe. Eosinophils persist in the circulation for 8–12 hours, and can survive in tissue for an additional 8–12 days in the absence of stimulation.

Brain and the central nervous system are the two most important components of the fetus. Further analysis by this same group involved the CNS up to the medulla at 2nd cervical vertebral level. The process of analyzing the fetal brain and the CNS involved dissecting out the whole brain tissue followed by decantation of an 8.5 weeks old fetal brain weighing 15 grams. The brain at this time had already assumed the appearance of primary divisions and flexures, and the prosen, messen and rhombocephalon already gave rise to the different brain- derived constituents like rhinocephalon, corporastriata, cerebral cortex, hypo and epithalamus and pons medulla to a less differentiation extent.

Supraspinal vasomotor neurons send projections to the intermediolateral cell column, which is composed of sympathetic preganglionic neurons (SPN) through the T1-L2 segments. The supraspinal neurons act on the SPN and its tonic firing, modulating its action on the peripheral sympathetic chain ganglia and the adrenal medulla. The sympathetic ganglia act directly on the blood vessels they innervate throughout the body, controlling vessel diameter and resistance, while the adrenal medulla indirectly controls the same action through the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. The descending autonomic pathways, which are responsible for the supraspinal communication with the SPN, are interrupted resulting in decreased sympathetic outflow below the level of the injury.

The special sensory component of CN IX provides taste sensation from the posterior one-third of the tongue. ;Peripheral course :Special sensory fibers from the posterior one-third of the tongue travel via the pharyngeal branches of CN IX to the inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion where their cell bodies reside. ;Central course – special sensory component :The central processes of these neurons exit the inferior ganglion and pass through the jugular foramen to enter the brainstem at the level of the rostral medulla between the olive and inferior cerebellar peduncle. Upon entering the medulla, these fibers ascend in the tractus solitarius and synapse in the gustatory part of nucleus solitarius.

342x342px The sympathoadrenal system is a physiological connection between the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla and is crucial in an organism's physiological response to outside stimuli. When the body receives sensory information, the sympathetic nervous system sends a signal to preganglionic nerve fibers, which activate the adrenal medulla through acetylcholine. Once activated, norepinephrine and epinephrine are released directly into the blood by postganglionic nerve fibers where they act as the bodily mechanism for "fight-or-flight" responses. Because of this, the sympathoadrenal system plays a large role in maintaining glucose levels, sodium levels, blood pressure, and various other metabolic pathways that couple with bodily responses to the environment.

In humans, tyrosine hydroxylase is encoded by the TH gene, and the enzyme is present in the central nervous system (CNS), peripheral sympathetic neurons and the adrenal medulla. Tyrosine hydroxylase, phenylalanine hydroxylase and tryptophan hydroxylase together make up the family of aromatic amino acid hydroxylases (AAAHs).

Drake et al. (2010), Gray's Anatomy for Students, 2nd Ed., Churchill Livingstone. The sensory processes, using their primary cell bodies from the inferior ganglion, send projections to the medulla, from which they travel in the tractus solitarius, later terminating at the rostral nucleus solitarius.Bhatnagar C. Subhash.

Conrad Khunrath (1555, Leipzig -1613, probably in Hamburg) was a German merchant, alchemist, mint worker, doctor, author, editor, and translator. He is particularly important as the author of Medulla destillatoria, a work of Paracelsian iatrochemistry which was published in many editions for well over a century.

CB1 has also been noted to form a functional human receptor heterodimer in orexin neurons with OX1, the CB1–OX1 receptor, which mediates feeding behavior and certain physical processes such as cannabinoid-induced pressor responses which are known to occur through signaling in the rostral ventrolateral medulla.

Distinguishing between species involves how much they are attached to the substrate, whether or not isidia are present, lower surface color, and chemical spot tests. All members of the genus react to spot test as K-, KC+ yellow, with medulla reaction varying from species to species.

It reaches the level of the renal medulla where the thin descending limb of loop of Henle borders with the thick ascending limb of loop of Henle The inner segment is the part of the collecting duct system between the outer segment and the papillary ducts.

Perenniporia medulla-panis is a species of poroid fungus in the family Polyporaceae. It is a plant pathogen that infects stone fruit trees. The species was first described by Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin in 1778. Marinus Anton Donk transferred it to the genus Perenniporia in 1967.

The renal papilla is the location where the renal pyramids in the medulla empty urine into the minor calyx in the kidney. Histologically it is marked by medullary collecting ducts converging to form a papillary duct to channel the fluid. Transitional epithelium begins to be seen.

Lateral line neurons form somatotopic maps within the brain informing the fish of amplitude and direction of flow at different points along the body. These maps are located in the medial octavolateral nucleus (MON) of the medulla and in higher areas such as the torus semicircularis.

In 1871, he discovered the vasomotor center and determined its precise limits in the medulla oblongata.Овсянников Филипп Васильевич Biography in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.Owsjannikow, PH. Die tonischen und reflektorischen Centren der Gefäßnerven. / Berichte über die Verhandlungen der Königlich Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig (1871) 23.

The nuclei of CN III and IV are located in the tegmentum portion of the midbrain. The nuclei of CN V to VIII are located in the tegmentum at the level of the pons. The nuclei of CN IX, X, and XII are located in that of the medulla.

The brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. Behind the brainstem is the cerebellum (). The cerebrum, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord are covered by three membranes called meninges. The membranes are the tough dura mater; the middle arachnoid mater and the more delicate inner pia mater.

Several receptor groups in the body regulate metabolic breathing. These receptors signal the respiratory center to initiate inhalation or exhalation. Peripheral chemoreceptors are located in the aorta and carotid arteries. They respond to changing blood levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and H+ by signaling the pons and medulla.

On wakefulness, this constitutes an error signal which provokes hyperventilation until the wakefulness set point is reached. When the subject falls asleep, ventilation decreases and pCO2 rises, resulting in hypoventilation or even apnea. These oscillations continue until steady state sleep is obtained. The medulla oblongata controls our respiration.

The efferent impulses are then triggered by the medulla causing the signal to travel down the larynx and bronchial tree. This then triggers a cascade of events that involve the intercostal muscles, abdominal wall, diaphragm and pelvic floor which in conjunction together create the reflex known as coughing.

Bulbar palsy refers to a range of different signs and symptoms linked to impairment of function of the cranial nerves IX, X, XI, XII, which occurs due to a lower motor neuron lesion in the medulla oblongata or from lesions of the lower cranial nerves outside the brainstem.

Niebla, a new generic name for the lichen genus Desmazieria (Ramalinaceae). Mycotaxon 6: 497–499 The species was transferred to Vermilacinia when described in 1995, distinguished by its cortical morphology, lack of chondroid strands in the medulla, and by its lichen metabolites, notably (-)-16 α-hydroxykaurane.Spjut R. W. 1995.

Death may result from several pathologies that deviate from benign laughter. Infarction of the pons and medulla oblongata in the brain may cause pathological laughter. Laughter can cause atonia and collapse ("agelastic syncope"), which in turn can cause trauma. See also laughter-induced syncope, cataplexy, and Bezold-Jarisch reflex.

The blood exiting the efferent arterioles of these nephrons enter the vasa recta, which are straight capillary branches that deliver blood to the renal medulla. These vasa recta run adjacent to the descending and ascending loop of Henle, and participate in the maintenance of the medullary countercurrent exchange system.

It is a powerful upregulator of certain neural growth factors, in particular NGF and BDNF, epigenetic downregulation of which has been associated with addictive behaviour in rats. Apomorphine causes vomiting by acting on dopamine receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone of the medulla; this activates the nearby vomiting center.

The cerebellum rests at the back of the cranial cavity, lying beneath the occipital lobes, and is separated from these by the cerebellar tentorium, a sheet of fibre. It is connected to the midbrain of the brainstem by the superior cerebellar peduncles, to the pons by the middle cerebellar peduncles, and to the medulla by the inferior cerebellar peduncles. The cerebellum consists of an inner medulla of white matter and an outer cortex of richly folded grey matter. The cerebellum's anterior and posterior lobes appear to play a role in the coordination and smoothing of complex motor movements, and the flocculonodular lobe in the maintenance of balance although debate exists as to its cognitive, behavioural and motor functions.

Peripheral chemoreceptors work in concert with central chemoreceptors, which also monitor blood CO2 but do it in the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain. A high concentration of central chemoreceptors is found in the ventral medulla, the brainstem area that receives input from peripheral chemoreceptors. Taken together, these blood oxygen monitors contribute nerve signals to the vasomotor center of the medulla which can modulate several processes, including breathing, airway resistance, blood pressure, and arousal, with central chemoformation about medullary oxygen levels and peripheral chemoreceptors about arterial oxygen. At an evolutionary level, this stabilization of oxygen levels, which also results in a more constant carbon dioxide concentration and pH, was important to manage oxygen flow in air-vs.

Neurogenesis has been best characterized in model organisms such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Neurogenesis in these organisms occur in the medulla cortex region of their optic lobes. These organisms can represent a model for the genetic analysis of adult neurogenesis and brain regeneration. There has been research that discuss how the study of “damage- responsive progenitor cells” in Drosophila can help to identify regenerative neurogenesis and how to find new ways to increase brain rebuilding. Recently, a study was made to show how “low-level adult neurogenesis” has been identified in Drosophila, specifically in the medulla cortex region, in which neural precursors could increase the production of new neurons, making neurogenesis occur.

There are two types of cells that originate from the neural crest and are related to the sympathetic nervous system (originate from a cell called sympathogonia): 1) Neuroblasts: These cells migrate, during the fourth to the fifth week of fetal development in humans, on both sides of the spinal cord toward the region just behind the dorsal aorta forming the two chains of sympathetic ganglia (Sympathetic chain). From these ganglia, the post synaptic sympathetic fibers will arise and extend toward their target organ. Some of these cells will migrate to the adrenal medulla to form sympathetic ganglia cells within the adrenal medulla (without postsynaptic sympathetic fibers). A tumor arising from these cells is called neuroblastoma.

Parasympathetic component of the glossopharyngeal nerve that innervates the ipsilateral parotid gland. Origin and central course The preganglionic nerve fibers originate in the inferior salivatory nucleus of the rostral medulla and travel anteriorly and laterally to exit the brainstem between the medullary olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle with the other components of CN IX. Note: These neurons do not form a distinct nucleus visible on cross-section of the brainstem. The position indicated on the diagram is representative of the location of the cell bodies of these fibers. Intracranial course Upon emerging from the lateral aspect of the medulla, the visceral motor fibers join the other components of CN IX to enter the jugular foramen.

The two other principal cisterns are the pontine cistern located between the pons and the medulla and the interpeduncular cistern located between the cerebral peduncles. While the most commonly used clinical method for obtaining cerebrospinal fluid is a lumbar puncture, puncture of the cisterna magna may be performed in rare instances.

Involuntary respiration is controlled by respiratory centers within the medulla oblongata and pons. The medullary respiratory center can be subdivided into anterior and posterior portions. They are called the ventral and dorsal respiratory groups respectively. The pontine respiratory group consists of two parts: the pneumotaxic center and the apneustic center.

Brainstem (dorsal view). A:Thalamus B:Midbrain C:Pons D:Medulla oblongata 7 and 8 are the colliculi. The principal regions of the midbrain are the tectum, the cerebral aqueduct, tegmentum, and the cerebral peduncles. Rostrally the midbrain adjoins the diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, etc.), while caudally it adjoins the hindbrain (pons, medulla and cerebellum).

The zona reticularis (sometimes, reticulate zone) is the innermost layer of the adrenal cortex, lying deep to the zona fasciculata and superficial to the adrenal medulla. The cells are arranged cords that project in different directions giving a net-like appearance (L. reticulum - net).Histology: A Text and Atlas, 5th ed.

The motor neuron is present in the grey matter of the spinal cord and medulla oblongata, and forms an electrochemical pathway to the effector organ or muscle. Besides motor nerves, there are efferent sensory nerves that often serve to adjust the sensitivity of the signal relayed by the afferent sensory nerve.

Its isidia are also laminal and cylindrical, being between 0.2 and 0.6mm high. Its medulla is white, while its underside possesses a rugose, veined and papillate margin. Its central surface is black and also papillate. Its rhizinae are dimorphic, measuring between long, being coloured black and with a frequent distribution.

The solitary tract () is a compact fiber bundle that extends longitudinally through the posterolateral region of the medulla. The solitary tract is surrounded by the nucleus of the solitary tract, and descends to the upper cervical segments of the spinal cord. It was first named by Theodor Meynert in 1872.

Medial medullary syndrome, also known as inferior alternating syndrome, hypoglossal alternating hemiplegia, lower alternating hemiplegia, or Dejerine syndrome, is a type of alternating hemiplegia characterized by a set of clinical features resulting from occlusion of the anterior spinal artery. This results in the infarction of medial part of the medulla oblongata.

Effect of nicotine on chromaffin cells Nicotine also activates the sympathetic nervous system, acting via splanchnic nerves to the adrenal medulla, stimulating the release of epinephrine. Acetylcholine released by preganglionic sympathetic fibers of these nerves acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, causing the release of epinephrine (and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream.

Adrenergic cell group C2 is a group of cells that label for PNMT, the enzyme that converts norepinephrine to epinephrine (adrenalin); thus, they are regarded as 'putative adrenergic cells'. They are found in the dorsomedial medulla in conjunction with the noradrenergic cell group A2. They are seen in vertebrates, including rodents and primates.

The sense organs are composed of modified epithelial cells that act as sensory transducers for electric currents. Besides these, there are also supporting cells, and a sensory neuron which projects to the nucleus of the electrosensory lateral line lobe (nELL) of the medulla via the posterior branch of the lateral line nerve.

Included among catecholamines are epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and dopamine. Release of the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla of the adrenal glands is part of the fight-or-flight response. Tyrosine is created from phenylalanine by hydroxylation by the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. Tyrosine is also ingested directly from dietary protein.

Sunderland, Massachusetts. p. 782. with an osmoregulatory system consisting of a pair of kidneys that constitute 0.8% of its body mass. Similar to mammalian species, the functional units of avian kidneys are the nephrons. Externally, the kidneys are elongated and have three lobes, and the inner portion contains a cortex and medulla.

On either side of the posterior median sulcus of the spinal cord, and at a short distance from it, the posterior nerve roots are attached along a vertical furrow named the posterolateral sulcus. The portion of the medulla spinalis which lies between this and the posterior median sulcus is named the posterior funiculus.

There is a distinction between endogenous and exogenous biogenic amines. Endogenous amines are produced in many different tissues (for example: adrenaline in adrenal medulla or histamine in mast cells and liver). The amines are transmitted locally or via the blood system. The exogenous amines are directly absorbed from food in the intestine.

1996 Aug;49(5):481-515. In particular, the reticular formation in the pons plays an important role in inducing locomotion. The parapyramidal region (PPR) in the ventral medulla is also known to produce locomotion when stimulated in neonatal rats. Several different command pathways play a role in the initiation of locomotion.

Trichohyalin is highly expressed in the inner root sheath cells of the hair follicle and medulla. It was also detected in the granular layer and stratum corneum of normal epidermis, newborn human foreskin epidermis, the hard palate, in the nail matrix, the filiform papillae of dorsal tongue epithelium and in rodent forestomack.

The cardiovascular centre is a part of the human brain which regulates heart rate through the nervous and endocrine systems. It is found in the medulla oblongata. Normally, the heart beats without nervous control, but in some situations (e.g., exercise, body trauma), the cardiovascular centre is responsible for altering the heart rate.

Roberts was a notable author, writing both scholarly and popular works including Synopsis of Theology or Divinity (1645), Mysterium & medulla bibliorum, the Mysterie and Marrow of the Bible (1657), and Clavis bibliorum; the Key of the Bible (1665) – written for "the help of the weakest capacity in the understanding of the whole Bible".

PET117 homolog is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PET117 gene. Localized to mitochondria, this protein is a chaperone protein involved in the assembly of mitochondrial Complex IV, or Cytochrome C Oxidase. Mutations in this gene can cause Complex IV deficiency with symptoms including medulla oblongata lesions and lactic acidosis.

At the glomerulus the blood reaches a highly disfavourable pressure gradient and a large exchange surface area, which forces the serum portion of the blood out of the vessel and into the renal tubules. Flow continues through the renal tubules, including the proximal tubule, the Loop of Henle, through the distal tubule and finally leaves the kidney by means of the collecting duct, leading to the renal pelvis, the dilated portion of the ureter. The renal medulla (Latin renes medulla = kidney middle) contains the structures of the nephrons responsible for maintaining the salt and water balance of the blood. These structures include the vasa rectae (both spuria and vera), the venulae rectae, the medullary capillary plexus, the loop of Henle, and the collecting tubule.

In the kidney, the loop of Henle () (or Henle's loop, Henle loop, nephron loop or its Latin counterpart ansa nephroni) is the portion of a nephron that leads from the proximal convoluted tubule to the distal convoluted tubule. Named after its discoverer, the German anatomist Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle, the loop of Henle's main function is to create a concentration gradient in the medulla of the kidney. By means of a countercurrent multiplier system, which uses electrolyte pumps, the loop of Henle creates an area of high urea concentration deep in the medulla, near the papillary duct in the collecting duct system. Water present in the filtrate in the papillary duct flows through aquaporin channels out of the duct, moving passively down its concentration gradient.

The descending loop of Henle receives isotonic (300 mOsm/L) fluid from the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT). The fluid is isotonic because as ions are reabsorbed by the gradient time system, water is also reabsorbed maintaining the osmolarity of the fluid in the PCT. Substances reabsorbed in the PCT include urea, water, potassium, sodium, chloride, glucose, amino acids, lactate, phosphate, and bicarbonate. Since water is also reabsorbed the volume of fluid in the loop of Henle is less than the PCT, approximately one-third of the original volume. The interstitium of the kidney increases in osmolarity outside as the loop of Henle descends from 600 mOsm/L in the outer medulla of the kidney to 1200 mOsm/L in the inner medulla.

This small alga grows to 20 mm high from a discoid holdfast and dark brown in colour. Very irregularly branched, creeping moss-like and terete. Branches easily seen to be constricted at intervals. Medulla, the inner cells, formed of thick- walled filaments and with a cortex of rows of elongated cells radially arranged compact cells.

The hypothalamospinal tract connects the hypothalamus to the ciliospinal center of the intermediolateral cell column in the spinal cord (T1 to L2). It is found in the dorsolateral quadrant of the lateral funiculus, in the lateral tegmentum of the medulla, pons and midbrain. Lesions of the hypothalamospinal tract cause ipsilateral Horner's syndrome.James D. Fix.

In the mammalian kidney they follow two markedly different courses, depending on the location of the glomeruli from which they arise. In the mammalian kidney about 15% of glomeruli lie close to the boundary between the renal cortex and renal medulla and are known as juxtamedullary glomeruli. The rest are simply undifferentiated cortical glomeruli.

Sensory stimuli from food activate dorsal motor nucleus of vagus nerve in the medulla (activating the parasympathetic nervous system). Insulin induced hypoglycemia also stimulates the vagus nerve. This results in four distinct physiological events. 1) In the body of the stomach, the vagal postganglionic muscarinic nerves release acetylcholine(ACh) which stimulates parietal cell H+ secretion.

Elongation of the cerebellar tonsils can, due to pressure, lead to this portion of the cerebellum to slip or be pushed through the foramen magnum of the skull resulting in tonsillar herniation. This is a life-threatening condition as it causes increased pressure on the medulla oblongata which contains respiratory and cardiac control centres.

Since it is not stained by chromic salts, it is not truly a part of Chromafin system; viz. the system which includes cells stained by chromic salts, consisting of renal medulla, para ganglia, and para aortic bodies. It is situated near the ganglion impar in pelvis, and also near the termination of median sacral artery.

The feedback from the carotid body is sent to the cardiorespiratory centers in the medulla oblongata via the afferent branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve. The efferent fibres of the aortic body chemoreceptors are relayed by the vagus nerve. These centers, in turn, regulate breathing and blood pressure, with hypoxia causing an increase in ventilation.

Its isidia are cylindrical with an irregular diameter, being between 0.2 and 0.8mm high. Its medulla is white, while its underside is black, possessing a shiny and rugose, lighter margin. Its central surface is veined and papillate. Its rhizinae measure between long, being coloured the same as the lower cortex and with a frequent distribution.

The very similar, Flavoparmelia caperata, usually grows on the bark of trees, but may be found on rock. The granular soredia produced in irregular soralia distinguishes it from F. baltimorensis which lacks true soredia. Flavopunctelia flaventior and Flavopunctelia soredica have pseudocyphellae in the upper surface of the thallus, and the medulla is C+ red.

Preganglionic sympathetic neurons are located in the spinal cord, at the thorax and upper lumbar levels. Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons are found in the medulla oblongata where they form visceral motor nuclei; the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve; the nucleus ambiguus, the salivatory nuclei, and in the sacral region of the spinal cord.

The medulla oblongata, located between pons and spine, seems to have the capacity for organism-wide muscle inhibition.Yuan- Yang Lai & Jerome M. Siegel (1999), "Muscle Atonia in REM Sleep", in Rapid Eye Movement Sleep ed. Mallick & Inoué. Some localized twitching and reflexes can still occur.Parmeggiani (2011), Systemic Homeostasis and Poikilostasis in Sleep, p. 17.

Recent studies have shown that SIDS infants show decreased levels of ChAT in both the hypothalamus and the striatum. SIDS infants also display fewer neurons capable of producing ChAT in the vagus system. These defects in the medulla could lead to an inability to control essential autonomic functions such as the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.

Lacinules, soredia and pustulae are absent in this species. Its isidia are abundant, being laminal, cylindrical, irregular in diameter, and slightly inflated in shape. Its medulla is white, with a chestnut-dark brown coloured underside, being rugose, veined and papillate. The rhizinae are light brown, simple and bulbate, measuring between 0.1 and 0.5 mm long.

Besides this main chronicle, which bears the title Series temporum ab initio mundi, Eversden was the author of Regna pristina Angliæ et eorum episcopatus, a list of names compiled about 1270, and preserved in manuscript at the College of Arms. To these writings Bale adds Concordantiæ divinæ Historiæ, Legum Medulla (poems) and Concordia Decretorum.

The cortex of Melanohalea lichens have a brown pigment, but lack other compounds. The medulla contains depsidones (including fumarprotocetraric acid and norstictic acid) or lack secondary metabolites. M. nilgirica contains the aliphatic compound caperatic acid, which is rare in the brown parmelioid lichens, known only to exist in Melanelia stygia, the type species of Melanelia.

Met-enkephalin is found mainly in the adrenal medulla and throughout the central nervous system (CNS), including in the striatum, cerebral cortex, olfactory tubercle, hippocampus, septum, thalamus, and periaqueductal gray, as well as the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. It is also present in the periphery, notably in some primary afferent fibers that innervate the pelvic viscera.

In the upper part of the medulla oblongata, the hypoglossal nucleus approaches the rhomboid fossa, where it lies close to the middle line, under an eminence named the hypoglossal trigone. It is a slight elevation in the floor of the inferior recess of the fourth ventricle, beneath which is the nucleus of origin of the twelfth cranial nerve.

Adrenergic cell groups refers to collections of neurons in the central nervous system that stain for PNMT, the enzyme that converts norepinephrine to epinephrine (adrenaline). Thus, it is postulated that the neurotransmitter they produce may be epinephrine (adrenaline). Located in the medulla, they are named adrenergic cell group C1, adrenergic cell group C2, and adrenergic cell group C3.

Very few parts of the sympathetic system use cholinergic receptors. In sweat glands the receptors are of the muscarinic type. The sympathetic nervous system also has some preganglionic nerves terminating at the chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla, which secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream. Some believe that chromaffin cells are modified postganglionic CNS fibers.

Yellow represents full neocortex engagement and Stage 6. The disease begins in structures of the lower brainstem and the olfactory system. In particular, the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve in the medulla oblongata and anterior olfactory nucleus are affected. Lewy neurites, thread- like alpha-synuclein aggregates, are more prevalent than globular Lewy bodies in this stage.

In addition to the pathology observed in Stage 1, Stage 2 is characterized by additional lesions in the raphe nuclei and gigantocellular reticular nucleus of the medulla oblongata. The disease then moves up the brainstem, traveling from the medullary structures to the locus ceruleus in the pontine tegmentum. Similar to Stage 1, Lewy neurites outnumber Lewy bodies.

Lateral budding is present and mucilage, or sap, is excreted from any cut surfaces on the plant body. The plant has a large central medulla and a single vascular bundle containing the xylem, phloem and cambium. Since the organism is slow-growing and xerophilous (i.e. drought-tolerant), only a small conduction channel is needed, unlike other plants.

Irritant and stretch receptors in the lungs can directly cause exhalation. Both sense foreign particles and promote spontaneous coughing. They are also known as mechanoreceptors because they recognize physical changes not chemical changes. Central chemoreceptors in the medulla also recognize chemical variations in H+. Specifically, they monitor pH change within the medullary interstitial fluid and cerebral spinal fluid.

Degenerative lumbosacral stenosis (DLSS), also known as cauda equina syndrome, is a pathologic degeneration in the lumbosacral disk in dogs; affecting the articulation, nerve progression, tissue and joint connections of the disk. This degeneration causes compressions in soft tissues and nerve root locations in the ultimate caudal area of the medulla, causing neuropathic pain in the lumbar vertebrae.

Image of a Nissl-stained histological section through the rodent hippocampus showing various classes of cells (neurons and glia). Motor nerve cell from ventral horn of medulla spinalis of rabbit. The angular and spindle-shaped Nissl bodies are well shown. A Nissl body, also known as Nissl substance and Nissl material, is a large granular body found in neurons.

It may form areoles when growing on more solid substrates. Apothecia are rare. Lichen spot tests on the cortex and medulla are K+ red, KC-, C-, + orange, and I-. The olive brown Aspicilia filiformis is another fruticose species in this mostly crustose genus, occurring in Oregon, Idaho, Utah, Washington and Montana, with one known location also in California.

Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland Second Edition. Wild Nature Press, Plymouth, UK. Dixon, P.S. and Irvine, L.M. 1977. Seaweeds of the British Isles Volume 1 Rhodophyta Part 1 Introduction, Nemaliales, Gigartinales. British Museum (Natural History) The medulla, the inner parts of the frond, is composed of large thick walled cells, closely packed become smaller towards the cortex.

19-20 Skinner's incomplete fair copy has stirred controversy over the work, because it does not provide critics with the ability to determine what the fair copy was based on.Lieb p. 20 The manuscript itself is patterned on the theological treatises common to Milton's time, such as William Ames's Medulla Theologica and John Wolleb's Compendium Theologiae Christianae.Lieb p.

Alfred Vulpian Edmé Félix Alfred Vulpian (5 January 1826 – 18 May 1887) was a French physician and neurologist. He was the co-discoverer of Vulpian- Bernhardt spinal muscular atrophy and the Vulpian-Heidenhain-Sherrington phenomenon. Vulpian was born in Paris, France, in 1826. Among other noted discoveries and experiments, Vulpian discovered adrenaline in the adrenal medulla.

Adrenomedullin (ADM or AM) is a vasodilator peptide hormone of uncertain significance in human health and disease. It was initially isolated in 1993 from a pheochromocytoma, a tumor of the adrenal medulla: hence the name. In humans ADM is encoded by the ADM gene. ADM is a peptide expressed by all tissues, and found in the circulation.

In anatomy, the medullary ray (Ferrein's pyramid) is the middle part of the cortical lobule or renal lobule, consisting of a group of straight tubes connected to the collecting ducts. Their name is potentially misleading — the "medullary" refers to their destination, not their location. They travel perpendicular to the capsule and extend from the cortex to the medulla.

Flow of the fluid through the entire loop of Henle is considered slow. As flow increases, the ability of the loop to maintain its osmolar gradient is reduced. The vasa recta (capillary loops) also have a slow flow as well. Increases in vasa recta flow wash away metabolites and cause the medulla to lose osmolarity as well.

Positive selection occurs in the cortex and negative selection occurs in the medulla of the thymus. After this process T cells that have survived leave the thymus, regulated by sphingosine-1-phosphate. Further maturation occurs in the peripheral circulation. Some of this is because of hormones and cytokines secreted by cells within the thymus, including thymulin, thymopoietin, and thymosins.

T cells that attack the body's own proteins are eliminated in the thymus, called "negative selection". Epithelial cells in the medulla and dendritic cells in the thymus express major proteins from elsewhere in the body. The gene that stimulates this is AIRE. Thymocytes that react strongly to self antigens do not survive, and die by apoptosis.

He worked as secondary physician at the Allgemeines Krankenhaus in Vienna, and in 1879 became habilitated for internal medicine. Weiss is remembered for pioneer systematic research of the spinal marrow, medulla oblongata and basal ganglia. The eponymous "Weiss' sign" is named after him, which today is usually referred to as "Chvostek's sign".Weiss N. Centralbl Gesammt Ther 1883;1:9.

It is caused by damage to the pons or upper medulla caused by strokes or trauma. Specifically, concurrent removal of input from the vagus nerve and the pneumotaxic center causes this pattern of breathing. It is an ominous sign, with a generally poor prognosis. It can also be temporarily caused by some drugs, such as ketamine.

Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase. The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine.

A lymph node is small, capsulated lymphoid organ that is present along the lymphatic system. It is composed of cortex and medulla. The cortex is also divided into outer cortex and inner cortex (also known as the paracortex). The outer cortex is composed of follicles of B cells so that it is called the B-cell zone.

The zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells in this layer are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol. It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards the medulla.

Different hormones are produced in different zones of the cortex and medulla of the gland. Light microscopy at magnification × 204. The adrenal gland secretes a number of different hormones which are metabolised by enzymes either within the gland or in other parts of the body. These hormones are involved in a number of essential biological functions.

The vomiting center in the medulla, called the Area Postrema, contains high concentrations of substance P and its receptor, in addition to other neurotransmitters such as choline, histamine, dopamine, serotonin, and opioids. Their activation stimulates the vomiting reflex. Different emetic pathways exist, and substance P/NK1R appears to be within the final common pathway to regulate vomiting.

He contributed treatises to the discussion of the subject of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary. He collaborated to the compilation of the Menology of the Society, and published a compendium of Jean-Pierre Gury. His chief work, the commentary on Busenbaum's Medulla, was completed and published by Domenico Palmieri. He died in Rome in 1881.

Autonomic innervation of the heart The heart receives nerve signals from the vagus nerve and from nerves arising from the sympathetic trunk. These nerves act to influence, but not control, the heart rate. Sympathetic nerves also influence the force of heart contraction. Signals that travel along these nerves arise from two paired cardiovascular centres in the medulla oblongata.

Degenerative lumbosacral stenosis (DLSS), also known as cauda equina syndrome, is a pathologic degeneration in the lumbosacral disk in dogs; affecting the articulation, nerve progression, tissue and joint connections of the disk. This degeneration causes compressions in soft tissues and nerve root locations in the ultimate caudal area of the medulla, causing neuropathic pain in the lumbar vertebrae.

Parmelia sulcata is a foliose lichen with a generally circular thallus that can range in color from glaucous white to gray on the upper cortex; the lower surface is black. The thallus is broadly lobed. Each lobe measures between in width, and lobes are overlapping. The lichen's medulla and soredia react positively with potassium hydroxide (K), turning red-orange.

Location of structures connected to the gustatory nucleusBasic neuroanatomy of the gustatory system.Different taste receptors in the tongue and their connections to afferent neurons. The gustatory nucleus is the rostral part of the solitary nucleus located in the medulla. The gustatory nucleus is associated with the sense of taste and has two sections, the rostral and lateral regions.

In 2002 Lyzanxia recorded their second album, Mindcrimes. The group worked again with Nordström and the Potvin brothers travelled to Gothenburg, Sweden to mix the songs with Nordström and master the album with Goran Finnberg. To support the album, Lyzanxia released two videos, "Silence Code" and "Medulla Need". They toured with Shaman and Behemoth to promote the album.

The breathing rate increases when the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood increases. This is detected by central blood gas chemoreceptors on the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata. The aortic and carotid bodies, are the peripheral blood gas chemoreceptors which are particularly sensitive to the arterial partial pressure of O2 though they also respond, but less strongly, to the partial pressure of CO2. At sea level, under normal circumstances, the breathing rate and depth, is determined primarily by the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide rather than by the arterial partial pressure of oxygen, which is allowed to vary within a fairly wide range before the respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata and pons respond to it to change the rate and depth of breathing.

For instance, the arterial blood pressure in mammals is homeostatically controlled, and measured by stretch receptors in the walls of the aortic arch and carotid sinuses at beginnings of the internal carotid arteries. The sensors send messages via sensory nerves to the medulla oblongata of the brain indicating whether the blood pressure has fallen or risen, and by how much. The medulla oblongata then distributes messages along motor or efferent nerves belonging to the autonomic nervous system to a wide variety of effector organs, whose activity is consequently changed to reverse the error in the blood pressure. One of the effector organs is the heart whose rate is stimulated to rise (tachycardia) when the arterial blood pressure falls, or to slow down (bradycardia) when the pressure rises above set point.

When the arterial blood pressure rises the arterioles are stimulated to dilate making it easier for blood to leave the arteries, thus deflating them, and bringing the blood pressure down, back to normal. At the same time the heart is stimulated via cholinergic parasympathetic nerves to beat more slowly (called bradycardia), ensuring that the inflow of blood into the arteries is reduced, thus adding to the reduction in pressure, and correction of the original error. Low pressure in the arteries, causes the opposite reflex of constriction of the arterioles, and a speeding up of the heart rate (called tachycardia). If the drop in blood pressure is very rapid or excessive, the medulla oblongata stimulates the adrenal medulla, via "preganglionic" sympathetic nerves, to secrete epinephrine (adrenaline) into the blood.

There he published the first edition of his magnum opus Medulla destillatoria, as well as a number of ancillary works and later editions. From about 1606 Khunrath worked as coin controller for the mint in Hamburg, managing the upheavals of the Kipper und Wipper financial crisis. He died, probably in Hamburg, shortly before 6 May 1613.See Max Bahrfeldt, ed.

CCDC37 protein is widely expressed in mus musculus but only minimally so. Most areas that express CCDC37 have an expression level of 20-40%. Expression levels in the trigeminal nerve, testis, medial olfactory epithelium, dorsal root ganglia, and trachea are the highest with almost 75% expression. CCDC37 is expressed in the cerebellum, medulla, and hippocampal formation in the brain of mus musculus.

Adrenergic cell group C1 is a group of cells that show evidence of phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT), the enzyme that converts norepinephrine to epinephrine (adrenalin); thus, they are regarded as 'putative adrenergic cells'. They are found in the ventrolateral medulla in conjunction with the noradrenergic cell group A1. The adrenergic group C1 is seen in vertebrates, including rodents and primates.

Urinalysis will be able to detect high levels of proteins and occasionally microscopic haematuria. Ultrasound of a kidney with nephrotic syndrome. There is a hyperechoic kidney without demarcation of the cortex and medulla. Along with obtaining a complete medical history, a series of biochemical tests are required in order to arrive at an accurate diagnosis that verifies the presence of the illness.

Camels' kidneys have a 1:4 cortex to medulla ratio. Thus, the medullary part of a camel's kidney occupies twice as much area as a cow's kidney. Secondly, renal corpuscles have a smaller diameter, which reduces surface area for filtration. These two major anatomical characteristics enable camels to conserve water and limit the volume of urine in extreme desert conditions.

The medulla of ovary (or Zona vasculosa of Waldeyer) is a highly vascular stroma in the center of the ovary. It forms from embryonic mesenchyme and contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. This stroma forms the tissue of the hilum by which the ovarian ligament is attached, and through which the blood vessels enter: it does not contain any ovarian follicles.

Osmundea hybrida is small branched alga which grows from a holdfast to 15 mm long. The axes show a main axis with branches which may be spiral or irregular. The main axis may be slightly compressed with a medulla of cells surrounded by a cortex deep purplish-brown in colour. A small circular pit occurs at the apex of the branches.

The 12 rhombomeres, which are numbered from r0 to r11, construct the hindbrain. The myelencephalon is made from rhombomeres r2 to r11, which also form the medulla. These rhombomeres are also associated with the neural crest that supplies the pharyngeal arches, a set of visible tissues that are in line with the developing brain and give rise to the head and neck.

The amount of reabsorbtion or secretion that occurs is related to needs of the body at any given time. These processes are mediated by hormones (aldosterone, vasopressin) and the osmolarity (concentration of electrically charged chemicals) of the surrounding medulla. Hormones regulate how permeable the papillary duct is to water and electrolytes. In the medullary collecting duct specifically, vasopressin upregulates urea transporter A1.

Gothberg, 1994 - Gothberg G. Physiology of the renomedullary depressor system. J Hypertens 1994;12:S57-S64. This hypotensive response depends on an intact renal medulla and is not altered by renal denervation or the inhibition of the renin–angiotensin system (RAS) or autonomic nervous functionCowley, 1994 – Cowley AW Jr. A tribute to Eric Muirhead. Evolution of the Medullipin concept of blood pressure control.

This small red alga grows to a length of , erect from a disc shaped holdfast. It has a short, erect, terete stipe which expands as a flattened blade branching once or twice. The blades have a cartilaginous texture with a medulla of large cells within a cortex of one or two layers of small cells.Dixon, P.S. and Irvine, L.M. 1977.

Inferior alternating hemiplegia (also known as medial medullary syndrome) typically involves a “weakness of the extremities accompanied by paralysis of muscles on the ipsilateral side of the tongue (seen as a deviation of the tongue on that side on protrusion). These symptoms indicate a lesion in the medulla involving the corticospinal fibers in the pyramid and the exiting hypoglossal nerve roots.

Functionally, the parts of the ascending limb in the medulla and cortex are very similar. The medullary ascending limb is largely impermeable to water. Sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl−) ions are reabsorbed by active transport. The predominant mechanism of active transport in this segment is through the Na+/K+/Cl− co- transporter NKCC2 as well as the sodium/hydrogen exchanger NHE3.

The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilises and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Wallerian degeneration is named after Augustus Volney Waller. Waller experimented on frogs in 1850, by severing their glossopharyngeal and hypoglossal nerves. He then observed the distal nerves from the site of injury, which were separated from their cell bodies in the brain stem. Waller described the disintegration of myelin, which he referred to as "medulla", into separate particles of various sizes.

The final parts are defined as the pons, cerebellum and medulla. Cells that form the boundaries of the rhombomere bulges proliferate much faster than those in the middle. It is very difficult for cells to cross from one rhombomere to another, so cells tend to stay within one rhombomere. Each rhombomere eventually gives rise to one or more vestibular neuron types.

Fly eyes are composed of many individual ommatidia that possess their own lenses and photoreceptors. The dendritic arbor of the H1 neuron covers the anterior surface of the lobula plate, where it receives retinotopic input from interneurons of the medulla lobula. To respond to image motion, the H1 neuron sends action potentials of varying frequency to the contralateral lobula plate.

In contrast, pseudobulbar palsy is a clinical syndrome similar to bulbar palsy but in which the damage is located in upper motor neurons of the corticobulbar tracts in the mid-pons (i.e., in the cranial nerves IX-XII), that is the nerve cells coming down from the cerebral cortex innervating the motor nuclei in the medulla. This is usually caused by stroke.

On a lichen, the cortex is the "skin", or outer layer of thallus tissue that covers the undifferentiated cells of the medulla. Fruticose lichens have one cortex encircling the branches, even flattened, leaf-like forms; foliose lichens have different upper and lower cortices; crustose, placodioid and squamulose lichens have an upper cortex but no lower cortex; and leprose lichens lack any cortex.

Pholcodine is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and freely crosses the blood–brain barrier. It acts primarily on the central nervous system (CNS), causing depression of the cough reflex, partly by a direct effect on the cough centre in the medulla. It is metabolized in the liver and its action may be prolonged in individuals with hepatic insufficiency (i.e. liver problems).

Adrenal gland disorders (or diseases) are conditions that interfere with the normal functioning of the adrenal glands. Adrenal disorders may cause hyperfunction or hypofunction, and may be congenital or acquired. The adrenal gland produces hormones that affects growth, development and stress, and also helps to regulate kidney function. There are two parts of the adrenal glands, the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.

The innermost cortical layer, the zona reticularis, lies directly adjacent to the medulla. It produces androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenedione (the precursor to testosterone) in humans. Its small cells form irregular cords and clusters, separated by capillaries and connective tissue. The cells contain relatively small quantities of cytoplasm and lipid droplets, and sometimes display brown lipofuscin pigment.

The ovary is differentiated into a central part, the medulla of ovary, covered by a surface layer, the germinal epithelium. The immature ova originate from cells from the dorsal endoderm of the yolk sac. Once they have reached the gonadal ridge they are called oogonia. Development proceeds and the oogonia become fully surrounded by a layer of connective tissue cells (pre-granulosa cells).

Emerging from the anterolateral sulci are the CN XII (hypoglossal nerve) rootlets. Lateral to these rootlets and the anterolateral sulci are the olives. The olives are swellings in the medulla containing underlying inferior nucleary nuclei (containing various nuclei and afferent fibers). Lateral (and dorsal) to the olives are the rootlets for CN IX (glossopharyngeal), CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory nerve).

Medulla spinalis - Substantia grisea Rexed lamina The Rexed laminae comprise a system of ten layers of grey matter (I–X), identified in the early 1950s by Bror Rexed to label portions of the grey columns of the spinal cord. Similar to Brodmann areas, they are defined by their cellular structure rather than by their location, but the location still remains reasonably consistent.

The autoimmune regulator (AIRE) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the AIRE gene. It is a 13kb gene on chromosome 21q22.3 that has 545 amino acids. AIRE is a transcription factor expressed in the medulla (inner part) of the thymus. It is part of the mechanism which eliminates self-reactive T cells that would cause autoimmune disease.

Codium arabicum, commonly known as green sea cushion, is a species of seaweed in the Codiaceae family. The seaweed has a dorsiventral and applanate thallus that typically grows to a width of . The dark green thallus forms an amorphous and somewhat convoluted mass that has a spongy texture which. The mass is made up of a central medulla and cortex.

The cortex of the hair shaft is located between the hair cuticle and medulla and is the thickest hair layer. It also contains most of the hair's pigment, giving the hair its color. The pigment in the cortex is melanin, which is also found in skin. The distribution of this pigment varies from animal to animal and person to person.

Another student was Nathaniel Eaton, later of Harvard College.Francis J. Bremer, Tom Webster, Puritans and Puritanism in Europe and America: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia (2006), p. 83. He prepared his Medulla Theologiae (The Marrow of Theology), a manual of Calvinistic doctrine, for his students. Ames was much influenced in terms of method by Ramism, and opposed the residual teaching of Aristotle.

The pathogenesis of scrapie involves the lymphatic system. Once the agent is absorbed through the intestines, misfolded prions first appear and accumulate in the lymph nodes, especially in Peyer's patches at the small intestine.Tarmen viktig for skrapesyke - forskning.no Eventually, the infection invades the brain, often through the spinal cord or the medulla oblongata by creeping up the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, respectively.

VMAT1 is found in both large dense-core vesicles (LDCVs) as well as in small synaptic vesicles (SSVs). This was discovered via studying rat adrenal medulla cells (PC12 cells). LDCVs are 70-200 nm in size and exist throughout the neuron (soma, dendrites, etc.). SSVs are much smaller (usually about 40 nm) and typically exist as clusters in the presynaptic cleft.

Researchers have tried to develop methods to measure PrPSc, but no methods for use in materials such as blood have been accepted fully. The traditional method of diagnosis relies on histopathological examination of the medulla oblongata of the brain, and other tissues, post mortem. Immunohistochemistry can be used to demonstrate prion protein accumulation.Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy reviewed and published by WikiVet.

The outer exciple layer is a plectenchyma with very thick cell walls. Ascospores measure 10.5–21 by 6.5–13 µm. The conidia are bifusiform (resembling two adjacent spindles), and are 6 by 1 µm long. Classes of secondary chemicals found in the medulla include orcinol depsides (gyrophoric acid), and beta‐orcinol depsidones (such as protocetraric, salazinic, norstictic, and stictic acids).

The diencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon constitute the brain stem of the embryo. It continues to flex at the mesencephalon. The rhombencephalon folds posteriorly, which causes its alar plate to flare and form the fourth ventricle of the brain. The pons and the cerebellum form in the upper part of the rhombencephalon, whilst the medulla oblongata forms in the lower part.

Given the wide area that the many serotonergic neurons innervate, these pathways are implicated in many functions, as listed above. The caudal serotonergic nuclei heavily innervate the spinal cord, medulla and cerebellum. In general, manipulation of the caudal nuclei(e.g. pharmacological, lesion, receptor knockout) that results in decreased activity decreases movement, while manipulations to increase activity cause an increase in motor activity.

Damage to the defecation centre within the medulla oblongata of the brain can lead to bowel dysfunction. A stroke or acquired brain injury may lead to damage to this centre in the brain. Damage to the defecation centre can lead to a loss of coordination between rectal and anal contractions and also a loss of awareness of the need to defecate.

The upper cortex is paraplectenchymatous (a cell arrangement where the hyphae are oriented in all directions), and measures 10–16 mm thick. The epicortex does not have pores, unlike the related genus Melanelixia. Cell walls contain the α-glucan compound isolichenan. The medulla is white and has a smooth and flat lower surface that is coloured pale brown to black.

The hypoglossal nucleus bulges into the floor, creating the hypoglossal trigone, located slightly superiorly to the inferior fovea, within the median eminance. The dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve, within the medulla oblongata, comprises cells that are spindle shaped, also creating a bulge—the vagal trigone—in the region of the floor which overlies them; this is the region inferior of the inferior fovea.

Those hormones that stimulate emotions include testosterone produced by the Leydig cells, adrenaline and norepinephrine, both produced by the adrenal medulla. Testosterone is for motivation while adrenaline is for the increase on one's heart rate and norepinephrine is for the regulation of emotions. Sociologist Bro. Clifford Sorita, defines kilig as an initial attraction; either having a crush or infatuating over someone.

Swallowing involves the coordinated contraction of more than 25 pairs of muscles in the oropharynx, larynx and esophagus, which are active during an oropharyngeal phase, followed by the primary esophageal peristalsis. Swallowing depends on a CPG located in the medulla oblongata, which involves several brain stem motor nuclei and two main groups of interneurons: a dorsal swallowing group (DSG) in the nucleus tractus solitarii and a ventral swallowing group (VSG) located in the ventrolateral medulla above the nucleus ambiguus. Neurons in the DSG are responsible for the generation of the swallowing pattern, while those in the VSG distribute the commands to the various motoneuronal pools. As in other CPGs, the functioning of the central network can be modulated by peripheral and central inputs, so that the swallowing pattern is adapted to the size of the bolus.

The pons and medulla are major structures found there. A new region of the brain developed in mammals about 250 million years after the appearance of the hindbrain. This region is known as the paleomammalian brain, the major parts of which are the hippocampi and amygdalas, often referred to as the limbic system. The limbic system deals with more complex functions including emotional, sexual and fighting behaviors.

The anterior median fissure contains a fold of pia mater, and extends along the length of the medulla oblongata. It ends at the lower border of the pons in a small triangular area, termed the foramen cecum. On either side of this fissure are raised areas termed the medullary pyramids. The pyramids house the pyramidal tracts–the corticospinal and the corticobulbar tracts of the nervous system.

It lacks a medulla that is separate from the photobiont layer. It is a cyanolichen with the photobiont cyanobacterium being Syctonema (or Syctonema-like). The lower surface is paler than upper surface, and has numerous rhizoidal hyphae attaching it to the substrate. The fruiting structures (ascomata) are apothecias immersed in the thallus with red to red-brown urn shaped (urceolate) to flat or slightly convex discs.

Adrenergic cell group C3 is a group of cells that label for Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT), the enzyme that converts norepinephrine to epinephrine (adrenalin); thus, they are regarded as 'putative adrenergic cells'. They are found in the dorsal midline of the rostral medulla in conjunction with the noradrenergic cell group A3. Seen in rodents, group C3 is not detectable in most other species, including primates.

Autonomic innervation of the heart The wave of depolarization in a normal sinus rhythm shows a stable resting HR. Following parasympathetic stimulation, HR slows. Following sympathetic stimulation, HR increases. The normal sinus rhythm of the heart rate is generated by the SA node. It is also influenced by central factors through sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves of the two paired cardiovascular centres of the medulla oblongata.

Dogs are usually used to spot the animals during hunting, then the prey is shot with a bow and poisonous arrow. The poison comes from a local leaf which has been mashed and mixed with water. Women and children gather wild yams and other wild food and fruits. The main food they eat is sago, a type of flour from ground palm medulla, which is usually grilled.

Mouse kidney: (a) MALDI spectra from the tissue. (b) H&E; stained tissue. N-glycans at m/z = 1996.7 (c) is located in the cortex and medulla while m/z = 2158.7 (d) is in the cortex, (e) An overlay image of these two masses, (f) untreated control tissue. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization can be used as a mass spectrometry imaging technique for relatively large molecules.

V1 receptors (V1Rs) are found in high density on vascular smooth muscle and cause vasoconstriction by an increase in intracellular calcium via the phosphatidyl–inositol- bisphosphate cascade. Cardiac myocytes also possess V1R. Additionally V1R are located in brain, testis, superior cervical ganglion, liver, blood vessels, and renal medulla. V1R is present on platelets, which upon stimulation induces an increase in intracellular calcium, facilitating thrombosis.

Lesions on the roots caused by the larval feeding provide ideal sites for the establishment of root rot-causing fungi, once the larvae depart the root system for pupation. Areas on the roots with past feeding damage were found to have Armillaria sp. flourishing in the lesions. In rarer cases, the pathogen Perenniporia medulla-panis was also found attacking the roots at the damaged locations.

It is made up of a lateral and anterior tract. The corticospinal tract is involved in voluntary movement. The majority of fibres of the corticospinal tract cross over in the medulla oblongata, resulting in muscles being controlled by the opposite side of the brain. The corticospinal tract contains the axons of the pyramidal cells, the largest of which are the Betz cells, located in the cerebral cortex.

This generally occurs in the anterior grey column. Nerve axons of the lateral corticospinal tract that did not cross over in the medulla oblongata do so at the level of the spinal cord they terminate in. These tracts contain more than 1 million axons and the majority of the axons are myelinated. The corticospinal tracts myelinate largely during the first and second years after birth.

Hamburg 30.32 (2002): 125-155. This species is characteristic by the occurrence of usnic acid in its cortex, and salazinic acid in its medulla and laminal isidia. In this it resembles Hypotrachyna microblasta, but the latter has wider laciniae and larger apothecia, and is laterally overlapping. Its epithet angustissima is derived from the Latin angusti, meaning "narrow", due to this species' very narrow laciniae.

In general, Parmelia have a dark lower side with rhizines ('rootlets') which attach the lichen to its substrate. The upper side may be several colours - grey, yellow, brown - and may have reproductive organs on it. These may be apothecia (spore producing bodies), isidia or soralia (both vegetative structures). In between these two layers is the medulla which contains the algal component of the lichen.

The corticobulbar (or corticonuclear) tract is a two-neuron white matter motor pathway connecting the motor cortex in the cerebral cortex to the medullary pyramids, which are part of the brainstem's medulla oblongata (also called "bulbar") region, and are primarily involved in carrying the motor function of the non-oculomotor cranial nerves. The corticobulbar tract is one of the pyramidal tracts, the other being the corticospinal tract.

A treatise suggests the "coynage of Mundick and sinder Tinne" instead of the copper then current. Also proposed is the conversion "of 100,000 sturdie vagabonds and idle beggars" into "laborious and industrious tradesmen in the fishing craft". The book consists of 114 pages, followed by about forty unpaged, which contain an epilogue, several statistical notes, and a Medulla or abstract of the topics discussed.

Lateral medullary syndrome is a neurological disorder causing a range of symptoms due to ischemia in the lateral part of the medulla oblongata in the brainstem. The ischemia is a result of a blockage most commonly in the vertebral artery or the posterior inferior cerebellar artery. Lateral medullary syndrome is also called Wallenberg's syndrome, posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA) syndrome and vertebral artery syndrome.

The three major arteries of the cerebellum: the SCA, AICA, and PICA. (Posterior inferior cerebellar artery is PICA.) Human brainstem blood supply description. PICA is #12. It is the clinical manifestation resulting from occlusion of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA) or one of its branches or of the vertebral artery, in which the lateral part of the medulla oblongata infarcts, resulting in a typical pattern.

The adrenal cortex produces mineralocorticoids, which regulate salt and water balance within the body, glucocorticoids (including cortisol) which have a wide number of roles within the body, and androgens, hormones with testosterone-like function.Adrenal Glands, Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library. The adrenal medulla produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Disorders of the adrenal gland may affect the production of one or more of these hormones.

After the first year of life the amount of T cells produced begins to fall. Fat and connective tissue fills a part of the thymic volume. During involution, the thymus decreases in size and activity. Fat cells are present at birth, but increase in size and number markedly after puberty, invading the gland from the walls between the lobules first, then into the cortex and medulla.

CNH is most commonly associated with the central nervous system, and the majority of CNH cases have been associated with infiltrative tumors in the pons. Some cases involve the medulla and other regions of the brain. Primarily, researchers believe that the tumors infiltrate the pontine respiratory centers and central chemoreceptors. CNH has not been found to be associated with any other of the body’s systems.

The name is from H.E. Hasse, who wrote the 1913 "Lichen Flora of Southern California". It is classified by the fungus as being in the Lecidea genus of the Lecideaceae fungus family.Lichen Flora of the Greater Sonoran Desert Region. Vol 2, Nash, T.H., Ryan, B.D., Gries, C., Bugartz, F., (eds.) 2001, Lichen spot tests are negative on both the cortex and medulla (K-, C-, KC-, P-).

The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol. They are found above the kidneys. Each gland has an outer cortex which produces steroid hormones and an inner medulla. The adrenal cortex itself is divided into three zones: the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularis.

The production of steroid hormones is called steroidogenesis, and involves a number of reactions and processes that take place in cortical cells. The medulla produces the catecholamines, which function to produce a rapid response throughout the body in stress situations. A number of endocrine diseases involve dysfunctions of the adrenal gland. Overproduction of cortisol leads to Cushing's syndrome, whereas insufficient production is associated with Addison's disease.

In the cytosol, noradrenaline is converted to epinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) and stored in granules. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex stimulate the synthesis of catecholamines by increasing the levels of tyrosine hydroxylase and PNMT. Catecholamine release is stimulated by the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Splanchnic nerves of the sympathetic nervous system innervate the medulla of the adrenal gland.

Its pustulae are found as marginal and submarginal, its coralloid being isidioid, at times exhibiting granular soredia apically. Its medulla is white, while its underside possesses a rugose and veined light brown center, as well as a rugose, veined and papillate margin. Its rhizinae are simple, measuring between long, being coloured brown and being few in number. Apothecia and pycnidia are absent in Canoparmelia albomaculata.

The superior olivary complex is generally located in the pons, but in humans extends from the rostral medulla to the mid-pons and receives projections predominantly from the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) via the trapezoid body, although the posteroventral nucleus projects to the SOC via the intermediate acoustic stria. The SOC is the first major site of convergence of auditory information from the left and right ears.

They set and maintain the rate of respiration. Most of the neurons are located in the nucleus of the solitary tract. Other important neurons are found in the adjacent areas including the reticular substance of the medulla. The solitary nucleus is the end-point for sensory information arriving from the pontine respiratory group, and from two cranial nerves – the vagus nerve, and the glossopharyngeal nerve.

For example, an infant does not have to learn how to breathe and yet it is a complicated action that involves a coordinated rhythm from the medulla. The first CPG was discovered by removing neurons from a locust. It was observed that the group of neurons was still firing as if the locust was in flight. In 1994, evidence of CPG's in humans was found.

NFAT5 is also implicated in cytokine production. It has been shown that when NFAT5 is inhibited in renal and immune cells, these cells become significantly more susceptible to osmotic stress. NFAT5 deficient mice were found to suffer from massive cell loss in the renal medulla. Additionally, mice expressing a dominant-negative form of NFAT5 in their eyes exhibited decreased viability under hypertonic extracellular environment.

England In the same year, Luigi Galvani described the role of electricity in nerves of dissected frogs. In 1808, Franz Joseph Gall studied and published work on phrenology. Phrenology was the faulty science of looking at head shape to determine different aspects of personality and brain function. In 1811, studied respiration in animal dissection and lesions and found the center of respiration in the medulla oblongata.

It opens chemical or ligand-gated sodium and calcium ion channels, allowing an influx of positively charged ions. Norepinephrine binds to the beta–1 receptor. High blood pressure medications are used to block these receptors and so reduce the heart rate. Autonomic Innervation of the Heart - Cardioaccelerator and cardioinhibitory areas are components of the paired cardiac centers located in the medulla oblongata of the brain.

The name ‘enterochromaffin’ comes from the Greek word “enteron” (ἔντερον), in relation to intestines, and “chromaffin” as a grouping of the words chromium and affinity, as they can be visualised by staining with chromium salts. Similarly named, Chromaffin cells (of the adrenal medulla) share this characteristic and are histologically similar to EC cells. Their embryological origins, however, are quite different, nor do they possess similar functions.

In poor health, he obtained no ministerial charge till 1705, when he was called to Troqueer, Kirkcudbrightshire on 21 June, and ordained there on 20 September 1708 he was promoted to be professor of divinity in the University of Glasgow, succeeding James Wodrow, father of Robert Wodrow. He lectured in Latin, using Marck's Medulla as his main text-book. He was never convicted of heresy.

Progressive bulbar palsy, a form of motor neuron disease, is associated with combined lesions of the hypoglossal nucleus and nucleus ambiguus with wasting (atrophy) of the motor nerves of the pons and medulla. This may cause difficulty with tongue movements, speech, chewing and swallowing caused by dysfunction of several cranial nerve nuclei. Motor neuron disease is the most common disease affecting the hypoglossal nerve.

Myelochroa is a genus of foliose lichens in the family Parmeliaceae. They are commonly known as axil-bristle lichens. It was created in 1987 to contain species formerly placed in genus Parmelina that had a yellow-orange medulla due to the presence of secalonic acids. Characteristics of the genus include tightly attached thalli with narrow lobes, cilia on the axils, and a rhizinate black lower surface.

The upper surface of the thallus is grey, or blue-grey, sometimes with a yellow tinge; this yellowish colour, if present, is more likely to be under the apothecia or close to the algal layer. The medulla is yellow-orange. The lower thallus surface is black and covered with mostly unbranched rhizines. The apothecia are lecanorine, with a reddish-brown cup that lacks perforations.

FDC 101 Cricket: Dawn of a New World. Issued 1 March 2007. A little piece of art and history from Bletchley Park Post Office, Milton Keynes MK3 6EB, UK. In a 2012 exhibition entitled Independence, at Medulla Art Gallery, Port of Spain, she applied her art to interrogate Trinidad and Tobago's 50th anniversary of independence from Great Britain:Marsha Pearce. "Art Breeds Possibility: Wendy’Nanan’s New Works".

From the thalamus the NOT receives inhibitory projections from GABA-producing neurons in the ipsilateral lateral geniculate nucleus and bilateral intergeniculate leaflets. The ipsilateral superficial suprachiasmatic nucleus and the medial, dorsal, and lateral terminal nuclei in the midbrain project onto the NOT. Fibers also project to the NOT from the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi in the medulla, the contralateral NOT, and from various cortical regions.

The only reported mutation in the PET117 gene was a homozygous nonsense mutation (c. 172 C>T) in two sister patients. Both were diagnosed with Complex IV deficiency and had lesions in their medulla oblongata, along with lactic acidosis. Symptoms in the older sister included abnormal motor development, regression in speech and motor skills after age ten, bradykinesia, hypokinesia, and pyramidal signs with positive Babinski response.

A lesion on either the left or right side would affect both the anterior and posterior routes on that side because of their close physical proximity to one another. So, a lesion on the left side would inhibit muscle innervation from both the left posterior and anterior routes, thus paralyzing the whole left side of the face (Bell’s palsy). With this type of lesion, the bilateral and contralateral inputs of the posterior and anterior routes, respectively, become irrelevant because the lesion is below the level of the medulla and the facial motor nucleus. Whereas at a level above the medulla a lesion occurring in one hemisphere would mean that the other hemisphere could still sufficiently innervate the posterior facial motor nucleus, a lesion affecting a lower motor neuron would eliminate innervation altogether because the nerves no longer have a means to receive compensatory contralateral input at a downstream decussation.

Dolasetron (trade name Anzemet) is a serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist used to treat nausea and vomiting following chemotherapy. Its main effect is to reduce the activity of the vagus nerve, which is a nerve that activates the vomiting center in the medulla oblongata. It does not have much antiemetic effect when symptoms are due to motion sickness. This drug does not have any effect on dopamine receptors or muscarinic receptors.

Pre-pro U-II in both humans and rats are primarily expressed in the motorneurons of the brainstem and spinal cord although it is also found in small amounts in other parts of the brain as well including the frontal lobe and the medulla oblongata. In humans U-II mRNA is also found in other peripheral tissues such as the heart, kidneys, adrenal gland, placenta, spleen, and thymus.

Granisetron is a serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist used as an antiemetic to treat nausea and vomiting following chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Its main effect is to reduce the activity of the vagus nerve, which is a nerve that activates the vomiting center in the medulla oblongata. It does not have much effect on vomiting due to motion sickness. This drug does not have any effect on dopamine receptors or muscarinic receptors.

Although the left and right hemispheres are broadly similar in shape and function, some functions are associated with one side, such as language in the left and visual-spatial ability in the right. The hemispheres are connected by commissural nerve tracts, the largest being the corpus callosum. The cerebrum is connected by the brainstem to the spinal cord. The brainstem consists of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata.

The center has numerous crowded and deformed apothecia with rims of thallus-like tissue (lecanorine). With dark reddish or grayish brown to black discs. Lichen spot tests on the thallus and apothecia are C-, and KC-, with tests on the cortex K+ red, P+ orange, or K-, P- and on the medulla K+ red, and P+ orange. It produces norstictic acid, constictic acid, or salazinic acid as secondary metabolites.

CB1 receptors are found primarily in the brain, more specifically in the basal ganglia and in the limbic system, including the hippocampus and the striatum. They are also found in the cerebellum and in both male and female reproductive systems. CB1 receptors are absent in the medulla oblongata, the part of the brain stem responsible for respiratory and cardiovascular functions. CB1 is also found in the human anterior eye and retina.

The efferent portion is carried by the vagus nerve from the cardiovascular center of the medulla to the heart, of which increased stimulation leads to decreased output of the sinoatrial node. This reflex is especially sensitive in neonates and children, particularly during strabismus correction surgery. However, this reflex may also occur with adults. Bradycardia, junctional rhythm and asystole, all of which may be life- threatening, can be induced through this reflex.

The lobes consists of several small, irregularly arranged, lobules, each centred on a branch of the ureter. Birds have small glomeruli, but about twice as many nephrons as similarly sized mammals. The human kidney is fairly typical of that of mammals. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney, in comparison with that of other vertebrates, include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids and a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla.

The thallus of Cladonia amaurocraea comprises tall (15–100 mm high) and slender podetia that are irregularly or dichotomously branched. These podetia have a smooth, yellowish-green surface that is often mottled with patches of green and white. They either form a pointy tip, or a narrow cup that is either closed or has a narrow opening. The cortex contains usnic acid, while the medulla has barbatic acid.

The colour of the lichen thallus is light greenish-grey, and lacks maculae (paler spots free of photobiont). The lobes comprising the thallus surface are 1–3 cm wide and have scattered cilia on the margin, which can be relatively long – up to 5 mm. The lower surface (the prothallus) is black, rarely with white blotches, and relatively free of rhizines. The cortex contains atranorin, while the medulla contains alectoronic acid.

The medulla is white, well defined, and often peppered with calcium oxalate crystals. Ascomata are not well defined, being cushions of soft white mycelium immersed in the medullary tissue, hence the name from the Greek “krypto” = “to conceal” and “theke” = “a container or sheath”. There are about 45 described species in the genus according to one source, and 75 species according to another. The genus is in the family Arthoniaceae.

The "cortical collecting ducts" receive filtrate from multiple initial collecting tubules and descend into the renal medulla to form medullary collecting ducts. It participates in the regulation of water and electrolytes, including sodium, and chloride. The CNT is sensitive to both isoprotenerol (more so than the cortical collecting ducts) and antidiuretic hormone (less so than the cortical collecting ducts), the latter largely determining its function in water reabsorption.

"Medullary collecting ducts" are divided into outer and inner segments, the latter reaching more deeply into the medulla. The variable reabsorption of water and, depending on fluid balances and hormonal influences, the reabsorption or secretion of sodium, potassium, hydrogen and bicarbonate ion continues here. Urea passively transports out of duct here and creates 500mOsm gradient. The outer segment of the medullary collecting duct follows the cortical collecting duct.

From the mesoderm surrounding the neural tube and notochord, the skull, vertebral column, and the membranes of the brain and medulla spinalis are developed. A postembryonic vestige of the notochord is found in the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs. Isolated notochordal remnants may escape their lineage-specific destination in the nucleus pulposus and instead attach to the outer surfaces of the vertebral bodies, from which notochordal cells largely regress.

Crustose lichens on a wall Growth of crustose lichen on a tree trunk Crustose lichens form a crust that strongly adheres to the substrate (soil, rock, tree bark, etc.), making separation from the substrate impossible without destruction. The basic structure of crustose lichens consists of a cortex layer, an algal layer, and a medulla. The upper cortex layer is differentiated and is usually pigmented. The algal layer lies beneath the cortex.

Phyllophora traillii is a small alga no more than 35 mm long. It grows from a small holdfast and a short stipe up to 3 mm long which spreads to a small flat blade which is oblong or with parallel sides. It branches once or twice. The fronds are formed with a compact medulla of large cells with a cortex of small cells in 2 or 3 layers.

The alpha-3 beta-4 nicotinic receptor, also known as the α3β4 receptor and the ganglion-type nicotinic receptor,Pharmacology, (Rang, Dale, Ritter & Moore, , 5th ed., Churchill Livingstone 2003) p. 138. is a type of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, consisting of α3 and β4 subunits. It is located in the autonomic ganglia and adrenal medulla, where activation yields post- and/or presynaptic excitation, mainly by increased Na+ and K+ permeability.

DC-SIGNR6 is a pseudogene. The genes labeled "DC-SIGN" in the human and mouse are thus not unique orthologues, although they resemble each other functionally and by being expressed on dendritic cells. Other members of the mouse CD209 gene group are differentially expressed on different cell types. For example, DC-SIGNR1 is expressed largely on macrophages in the marginal zones of the spleen and in the medulla of lymph nodes.

Nausea and vomiting are largely determined by activity in the area postrema in the medulla of the brainstem, in a region known as the chemoreceptor trigger zone. This area contains a large population of type D2 dopamine receptors. Consequently, drugs that activate D2 receptors have a high potential to cause nausea. This group includes some medications that are administered for Parkinson's disease, as well as other dopamine agonists such as apomorphine.

Bulbothrix meizospora has a greenish-grey thallus measuring wide. The thallus comprises small, tightly attached (adnate) and irregularly branched lobes that are 2–4 mm wide. Reproductive structures such as pustules, soredia, and isidia are absent from the thallus. The medulla is white, while the lower thallus surface is dull, black, wrinkled, and papillate (covered with small protuberances), with a dark brown margin that measures 0.1–3 mm wide.

The reticular nucleus of the thalamus, for example, is a thin layer of inhibitory neurons that surrounds the thalamus. Some of the major anatomical components of the brain are organized as clusters of interconnected nuclei. Notable among these are the thalamus and hypothalamus, each of which contains several dozen distinguishable substructures. The medulla and pons also contain numerous small nuclei with a wide variety of sensory, motor, and regulatory functions.

NET is responsible for the Na +/Cl − -dependent reuptake of extracellular norepinephrine (NE). NET can also reuptake extracellular DA. Within the CNS, NET is localized to the dendrites and axons found in both the hippocampus and cortex. Peripherally, NET can be found in sympathetic peripheral neurons, the adrenal medulla, the lung, the placenta, and the vas deferens. Regulation of NET has been linked to MAPKs, insulin, PKC, and angiotensin II.

Like other crustose lichens, their cross section is generally divided into three layers, the cortex, photobiont layer, and medulla, and generally without a lower cortex as in foliose lichens. The cortex itself is usually differentiated, with three layers including a syncortex (sometimes absent), epinecral layer (sometimes absent, and eucortex, which is where the pigment is located in the upper parts. The photobiont of Acarospora are algae in the genus Trebouxia.

The reduction in circulating norepinephrine by clonidine was used in the past as an investigatory test for phaeochromocytoma, which is a catecholamine-synthesizing tumour, usually found in the adrenal medulla. In a clonidine suppression test plasma catecholamine levels are measured before and 3 hours after a 0.3 mg oral test dose has been given to the patient. A positive test occurs if there is no decrease in plasma levels.

Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is a hormone and medication. Adrenaline is normally produced by both the adrenal glands and a small number of neurons in the medulla oblongata, where it acts as a neurotransmitter involved in regulating visceral functions (e.g., respiration). It plays an important role in the fight-or-flight response by increasing blood flow to muscles, output of the heart, pupil dilation response and blood sugar level.

This is most often done in response to stress. The sympathetic nervous system, acting via splanchnic nerves to the adrenal medulla, stimulates the release of adrenaline. Acetylcholine released by preganglionic sympathetic fibers of these nerves acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, causing cell depolarization and an influx of calcium through voltage-gated calcium channels. Calcium triggers the exocytosis of chromaffin granules and, thus, the release of adrenaline (and noradrenaline) into the bloodstream.

On the superior surface of cerebellum, the vermis protrudes above the level of the hemispheres, but on the inferior surface it is sunk almost out of sight in the bottom of a deep depression between them; this depression is called the vallecula of the cerebellum, and lodges the posterior part of the medulla oblongata and the inferior vermis, which consists of the tuber vermis, pyramid, uvula and nodule.

The medulla is composed of cylindrical filaments that are branched into tips forming clavate utricles which form the cortex. It is found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Along the east coast of Africa, most Asian coastlines, Australia and New Zealand, South America on the Chilean coast and many islands in the Pacific. In Western Australia is found along the coast in the Kimberley, Pilbara and Gascoyne regions of Western Australia.

One way people compare them is by the size, shape, and color of the roots. The more orange the flesh of a sweet potato root is, the more nutritious carotene it has. (Humans metabolize carotene into vitamin A.) The skin of a sweet potato root is a different color than the flesh. The biological word for the outer skin is epidermis; the flesh is called the pith or medulla.

The Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex project into the deep cerebellar nuclei and inhibit the excitatory output system via GABAergic synapses. The fastigial nucleus receives its input from Purkinje cells in the vermis. Most of its efferent connections travel via the inferior cerebellar peduncle to the vestibular nuclei, which are located at the junction of the pons and the medulla oblongata. The fastigial nucleus sends excitatory projections beyond the cerebellum.

The heart rate is rhythmically generated by the sinoatrial node. It is also influenced by central factors through sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. Nervous influence over the heart rate is centralized within the two paired cardiovascular centres of the medulla oblongata. The cardioaccelerator regions stimulate activity via sympathetic stimulation of the cardioaccelerator nerves, and the cardioinhibitory centers decrease heart activity via parasympathetic stimulation as one component of the vagus nerve.

Trunk neural crest gives rise two populations of cells. One group of cells fated to become melanocytes migrates dorsolaterally into the ectoderm towards the ventral midline. A second group of cells migrates ventrolaterally through the anterior portion of each sclerotome. The cells that stay in the sclerotome form the dorsal root ganglia, whereas those that continue more ventrally form the sympathetic ganglia, adrenal medulla, and the nerves surrounding the aorta.

Parmotrema albinatum is a species of lichen in the family Parmeliaceae that is found in Hawaii. It was originally described in 2001 as Rimelia albinata. Later phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the genus Rimelia was synonymous with Parmotrema, so this species was transferred to that genus. The lichen is characterized by the sorediate and short-lacinulate (containing glands) thallus with salazinic acid in the medulla and traces of lobaric acid.

The DLF ascending tract has its origins in nuclei of the reticular formation. These fibers synapse onto the hypothalamus and carry visceral information to the brain. Brainstem afferents in DLF include fibers coming from the parabrachial area, which conveys taste & general visceral sensation to the hypothalamus from the nucleus of the tractus solitarius in the medulla. Afferents distribute to the posterior nucleus and periventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus.

It differs from Hypogymnia in its compact medulla, larger spores and different cortical structure. Hypogymnia is classified in the Parmeliaceae. The family Hypogymniaceae has been proposed in the past to contain the genus and other similar hypogymnioid lichens, but this taxonomic arrangement has not been widely accepted by other taxonomists. For example, Krog argued that no critical characters had been suggested that could be used as a defining familial characteristic.

Melanohalea is a genus of foliose lichens in the family Parmeliaceae. It contains 30 mostly Northern Hemisphere species that grow on bark or on wood. The genus is characterized by the presence of pseudocyphellae, usually on warts or on the tips of isidia, a non-pored epicortex, and a medulla containing depsidones or lacking secondary compounds. Melanohalea was circumscribed in 2004 as a segregate of the morphologically similar genus Melanelia.

The development of the gonads is part of the prenatal development of the reproductive system and ultimately forms the testes in males and the ovaries in females. The gonads initially develop from the mesothelial layer of the peritoneum. The ovary is differentiated into a central part, the medulla, covered by a surface layer, the germinal epithelium. The immature ova originate from cells from the dorsal endoderm of the yolk sac.

In 1944 Paul Wilcox described triggering of epileptic seizure by electrical stimulation of another area of the cerebral cortex. The chemoreceptor trigger zone is an area of the medulla oblongata in which many types of chemical stimulation can provoke nausea and vomiting. This area was first identified and named in 1951 by Herbert L. Borison and Kenneth R. Brizzee. Parts of cells, rather than parts of the body, can also behave as trigger zones.

It is caused by an underlying collection of gray matter known as the spinal trigeminal nucleus. The gray matter of this nucleus is covered by a layer of nerve fibers that form the spinal tract of the trigeminal nerve. The base of the medulla is defined by the commissural fibers, crossing over from the ipsilateral side in the spinal cord to the contralateral side in the brain stem; below this is the spinal cord.

The cisterna magna (or cerebellomedullaris cistern) is one of three principal openings in the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid and pia mater layers of the meninges surrounding the brain. The openings are collectively referred to as the subarachnoid cisterns. The cisterna magna is located between the cerebellum and the dorsal surface of the medulla oblongata. Cerebrospinal fluid produced in the fourth ventricle drains into the cisterna magna via the lateral apertures and median aperture.

The brainstem lies beneath the cerebrum and consists of the midbrain, pons and medulla. It lies in the back part of the skull, resting on the part of the base known as the clivus, and ends at the foramen magnum, a large opening in the occipital bone. The brainstem continues below this as the spinal cord, protected by the vertebral column. Ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge directly from the brainstem.

Also in the medulla, the ventral respiratory group influences breathing out during exertion. In the pons the pneumotaxic centre influences the duration of each breath, and the apneustic centre seems to have an influence on inhalation. The respiratory centres directly senses blood carbon dioxide and pH. Information about blood oxygen, carbon dioxide and pH levels are also sensed on the walls of arteries in the peripheral chemoreceptors of the aortic and carotid bodies.

Since these drugs may cause paralysis of the diaphragm, mechanical ventilation should be at hand to provide respiration. In addition, these drugs may exhibit cardiovascular effects, since they are not fully selective for the nicotinic receptor and hence may have effects on muscarinic receptors. If nicotinic receptors of the autonomic ganglia or adrenal medulla are blocked, these drugs may cause autonomic symptoms. Also, neuromuscular blockers may facilitate histamine release, which causes hypotension, flushing, and tachycardia.

Removal of Wnt7b activity leads to a failure of medullary development while other aspects of kidney development including ureteric branching, development of the renal cortex, and nephrogenesis are unaffected. The absence of renal medulla also affects the plane of epithelial cell division along with little proliferative growth of the loop of Henle. Wnt7b null allele will result in fatality due to the diminution of placental function leading to the failure to initiate organogenesis.

The stubble quail has many evolutionary adaptations that enable it to live very dry conditions. These include low daily water requirements, high tolerance of saline water and the ability to produce highly concentrated waste products. Highly concentrated urine is achieved by the large medulla in the kidney which is present in the stubble quail. If the birds have access to green foliage as well as grain, the stubble quail can survive without drinking any water.

As stated previously, FFA1 has an affinity for long chain fatty acids. Such fatty acids are also present in the brain, where FFA1 has also been found in high abundance. FFA1 receptors are present over the entire brain, but in highest numbers in the medulla oblongata and the substantia nigra. Recent studies have also observed that FFA1 was present in the olfactory bulb, striatum, hippocampus, midbrain, hypothalamus, cerebellum, cerebral cortex and in the spinal cord.

The diencephalon is the region of the embryonic vertebrate neural tube that gives rise to anterior forebrain structures including the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior portion of the pituitary gland, and the pineal gland. The diencephalon encloses a cavity called the third ventricle. The thalamus serves as a relay centre for sensory and motor impulses between the spinal cord and medulla oblongata, and the cerebrum. It recognizes sensory impulses of heat, cold, pain, pressure etc.

Osmundea pinnatifida is a small marine alga which grows in tufts with branches to a length of 8 cm from a discoid holdfast which produces of stolons for further support. The fronds are flattened with a medulla of thick cells covered by a cortex of 2 layers. The branches are alternate, flattened and branching in one plane from the sides one or two times. The axes show a small terminal groove at the apex.

In the lymphatic system a lymph node is a secondary lymphoid organ. A lymph node is enclosed in a fibrous capsule and is made up of an outer cortex and an inner medulla. Lymph nodes become inflamed or enlarged in various diseases, which may range from trivial throat infections to life-threatening cancers. The condition of lymph nodes is very important in cancer staging, which decides the treatment to be used and determines the prognosis.

Vallecula is an anatomic term for a crevice, depression, or furrow in something. Vallecula at eMedicine Dictionary There are a variety of valleculae in the human body, including one between the hemispheres of the brain, on the inferior surface of the cerebellum, in which the medulla oblongata is located (vallecula of cerebellum). Other common valleculae are: in the nail matrix, and in the throat. Used alone, the term "vallecula" usually refers to the epiglottic vallecula.

They are neuroendocrine cells, the former with primary endocrine functions and the latter with primary chemoreceptor functions. Chromaffin paraganglia (also called chromaffin bodies) are connected with the ganglia of the sympathetic trunk and the ganglia of the celiac, renal, adrenal, aortic and hypogastric plexuses. They are concentrated near the adrenal glands and essentially function the same way as the adrenal medulla. They are sometimes found in connection with the ganglia of other sympathetic plexuses.

PYY is found in L cells in the mucosa of gastrointestinal tract, especially in ileum and colon. Also, a small amount of PYY, about 1-10%, is found in the esophagus, stomach, duodenum and jejunum. PYY concentration in the circulation increases postprandially (after food ingestion) and decreases by fasting. In addition, PYY is produced by a discrete population of neurons in the brainstem, specifically localized to the gigantocellular reticular nucleus of the medulla oblongata.

During the depression phase, the inspiratory burst changes from an augmenting bell-shaped burst to a decrementing burst, a primary feature of gasping. Neuronal discharge patterns are altered during the depressed synaptic inhibition, contributing to the reformation of the network. Many of the respiratory neurons in the ventrolateral medulla inactivate before phrenic and/or hypoglossal (XII) cessation. These neurons are inconsistent in their response with rhythmic bursts and become either de- or hyperpolarized.

In these editions, the sections on murder and especially on regicide were much amplified, and in connection with Damiens' attempt on the life of Louis XV the book was severely handled by the parlement of Paris. At Toulouse in 1757, though the offending sections were repudiated by the heads of the Jesuit colleges, the Medulla was publicly burned, and the episode undoubtedly led the way to the duc de Choiseul's attack on the Jesuits.

This causes the magnesium and calcium ions to be repelled from luminal side to interstitial side, promoting their absorption. The difference in voltage in both sides are set up by potassium recycling through renal outer medullary potassium channel. By inhibiting the potassium recycling, the voltage gradient is abolished and magnesium and calcium reabsorption are inhibited. By disrupting the reabsorption of these ions, loop diuretics prevent the generation of a hypertonic renal medulla.

Sometimes, these two naming conventions coexist. For example, the name "pyramidal tract" has been mainly supplanted by lateral corticospinal tract in most texts. Note that the "old" name was primarily descriptive, evoking the pyramids of antiquity, from the appearance of this neural pathway in the medulla oblongata. The "new" name is based primarily on its origin (in the primary motor cortex, Brodmann area 4) and termination (onto the alpha motor neurons of the spinal cord).

As of 2017 little was understood about exactly how vagal nerve stimulation modulates mood and seizure control. The vagus is the tenth cranial nerve and arises from the medulla; it carries both afferent and efferent fibers. The afferent vagal fibers connect to the nucleus of the solitary tract which in turn projects connections to other locations in the central nervous system. Proposed mechanisms include an anti- inflammatory effect, as well as changes in monoamines.

Acytelation of the N-terminus of β-endorphin, however, inactivates the neuropeptide, preventing it from binding to its receptor. The opioid receptors are distributed throughout the central nervous system and within the peripheral tissue of neural and non-neural origin. They are also located in high concentrations in the Periaqueductal gray, Locus coeruleus, and the Rostral ventromedial medulla. β-Endorphin function is said to be divided into two main categories: local function and global function.

He believed that visual information entered the body through the eye, then continued by sending nerve impulses through the optic nerve, and eventually reaching the soul. Da Vinci subscribed to the ancient notion that the soul was housed in the brain. He did research on the role of the spinal cord in humans by studying frogs. He noted that as soon as the frogs medulla of the spine is broken, the frog would die.

Mathematisch–naturwissenschaftliche Classe, Wien, 1868, 58 Band, II. Abtheilung: 909-937. is a reflex triggered to prevent the over-inflation of the lung. Pulmonary stretch receptors present on the wall of bronchi and bronchioles of the airways respond to excessive stretching of the lung during large inspirations. Once activated, they send action potentials through large myelinated fibers of the vagus nerve to the inspiratory area in the medulla and apneustic center of the pons.

Lamina I is also known as the marginal nucleus of spinal cord. The majority of posterior column projection neurons are located in lamina I, however most neurons in this layer are interneurons. The main areas these neurons innervate are the caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM), the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), the lateral parabrachial area (LPb), the periaqueductal grey matter (PAG), and certain regions in the thalamus. The CVLM receives nociceptive and cardiovascular responses.

The two respiratory areas – the pneumotaxic center and the apneustic center make up the pontine respiratory group that provide antagonistic control signals to the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) located in the medulla. Increased input from the pneumotaxic center decreases the duration and increases the frequency of bursts of activity in the DRG, producing shorter and more frequent inhalations. The apneustic center delays the end of a burst in the DRG, extending periods of inhalation.

The chorda tympani nerve (from the facial nerve via the submandibular ganglion) is secretomotor and provides parasympathetic supply to the sublingual glands. The path of the nerve is as follows: junction between pons and medulla, through internal acoustic meatus and facial canal to chorda tympani, through middle ear cavity, out petrotympanic fissure to join the lingual nerve, travels with lingual nerve to synapse at the submandibular ganglion, then postganglionic fibers travels to the sublingual gland.

Three principle subarachnoid cisternae consisting of the pons, medulla oblongata, and the cerebellum. A cross-section diagram of the area of the brain typically affected by tumors in the condition CNH. Symptoms of CNH have been observed to vary according to the progression of CNH. The initial symptoms of CNH include a low arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, a high or normal arterial partial pressure of oxygen, high arterial pH, and tachypnea.

In all cases, the facial pit is innervated by the trigeminal nerve. In crotalines, information from the pit organ is relayed to the nucleus reticularus caloris in the medulla via the lateral descending trigeminal tract. From there, it is relayed to the contralateral optic tectum. In boas and pythons, information from the labial pit is sent directly to the contralateral optic tectum via the lateral descending trigeminal tract, bypassing the nucleus reticularus caloris.

The pyramids end at the pontine medulla junction, noted most obviously by the large basal pons. From this junction, CN VI (abducens nerve), CN VII (facial nerve) and CN VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve) emerge. At the level of the midpons, CN V (the trigeminal nerve) emerges. Cranial nerve III (the oculomotor nerve) emerges ventrally from the midbrain, while the CN IV (the trochlear nerve) emerges out from the dorsal aspect of the midbrain.

Degenerative Lumbosacral Stenosis, in short DLSS, commonly known as “Cauda Equina Syndrome” in veterinary medicine, is a pathologic degeneration in the lumbosacral disk in canines; affecting the articulation, nerve progression, tissue and joint connections of the disk. This degeneration causes compressions in soft tissues and nerve root locations in the ultimate caudal area of the medulla, causing neuropathic pain in the lumbar vertebrae. It is analogous to Cauda equina syndrome in humans.

Knuckledust, King Prawn, Stampin' Ground, Cynical Smile, Dog Toffee, Speedurchin, Jnr. Loaded, Deadbolt, Lozt Prophetz, Medulla Nocte, Epitome, Snub, T.B.A.C, Sick on the Bus, Evil Knevil, Touchdown, 3rd Stone, Diatribe, Spin Pit, Singuia, Suffering, Fatal Reality, Cachorro, Method of Murder, Dust to Dust, Needlebliss, Animated Sand Castles, H Breed. :note: this was an early appearance by the band Lostprophets before they changed the spelling of their name to how they are known today.

King Prawn, Raging Speedhorn, Medulla Nocte, Capdown, Miocene, Brutal Deluxe, Sanctum, Vacant Stare, Kane, BDF, PDHM, Latch, Anal Beard, Redhed, Lowlife, Vicious Rumours, Lightyear, Captain Everything, 7 Air, Sikth, Dash-k, A-Ko, Ja Crew, Cowpuncher, Inner Rage, Descent, Systemised, Razor Wire, Solace Denied. :Note: Lostprophets (now spelling their name as they are known today) were booked for the festival but did not make it after their van broke down on the way.

In humans, there are chromaffin cells in the adrenal glands (medulla) that get stimulated through the sympathetic nervous system during a stress response. These cells release the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine (NE). Epinephrine and NE bind to receptors of target organs and instigate the fight or flight response. As an example, epinephrine increases heart rate and causes blood vessels to dilate in muscles and blood vessels to constrict in the skin and gut.

The olivary body is located on the anterior surface of the medulla lateral to the pyramid, from which it is separated by the antero-lateral sulcus and the fibers of the hypoglossal nerve. Behind (dorsally), it is separated from the postero-lateral sulcus by the ventral spinocerebellar fasciculus. In the depression between the upper end of the olive and the pons lies the vestibulocochlear nerve. In humans, it measures about 1.25 cm.

The Clivus The abducens nerve leaves the brainstem at the junction of the pons and the medulla, medial to the facial nerve. It runs upwards and forwards from this position to reach the eye. The nerve enters the subarachnoid space when it emerges from the brainstem. It runs upward between the pons and the clivus, and then pierces the dura mater to run between the dura and the skull through Dorello's canal.

Subsequent work addressed several technical problems in assessing cell differentiation. For these experiments, Reddick used White Plymouth Rock chicken embryos. One of the questions she addressed was whether nerve cells in the post-otic chick medulla became syncytial during development. To try to get single developing nerve cells with long processes visible in one plane of focus under the microscope, Reddick used a “smear” technique of flattening tissue before fixing and staining it.

Moxonidine is a selective agonist at the imidazoline receptor subtype 1 (I1). This receptor subtype is found in both the rostral ventro-lateral pressor and ventromedial depressor areas of the medulla oblongata. Moxonidine therefore causes a decrease in sympathetic nervous system activity and, therefore, a decrease in blood pressure. Compared to the older central-acting antihypertensives, moxonidine binds with much greater affinity to the imidazoline I1-receptor than to the α2-receptor.

Protein expression has been found in the endocrine and nervous system, along with the eye, breast, colon, liver, ovary, and 55 other tissues. Gene expression is found to be about 1.1 times the average. The highest expression is found in the brain and spinal cord, followed by the spleen. There are six areas in the brain where GPATCH11 is expressed above average including the olfactory areas, hippocampus, midbrain, pons, medulla, and cerebellum.

Parmotrema zollingeri has a leathery thallus made of flat to concave lobes that are roughly laminate (divided into deep narrow irregular segments). Its spores measure 18–25 by 7–10 μm, while its conidia are more or less lageniform in shape (dilated below and tapering to a slender neck). The major secondary compounds in the medulla are fumarprotocetraric acid and succinoprotocetraric acid, while protocetraric acid is present in minor or trace amounts.

Bowler and Janet Marsh in the Flora of the Greater Sonoran DesertBowler, P. and J. Marsh. 2004. Niebla. ‘Lichen Flora of the Greater Sonoran Desert 2’: 368–380. did not provide a description for Niebla josecuervoi, but instead stated “see Niebla homalea for a description” with further reference to their discussion where it was concluded that only two species can be recognized—by the medulla reaction to para- phenylenediamine, depsidones (pd+), depsides (pd-).

Melanelixia is a genus of foliose lichens in the family Parmeliaceae. It contains 15 Northern Hemisphere species that grow on bark or on wood. The genus is characterized by a pored or fenestrate epicortex (a thin homogeneous polysaccharide layer on the surface of the cortex), and the production of lecanoric acid as the primary chemical constituent of the medulla. Melanelixia was circumscribed in 2004 as a segregate of the related genus Melanelia.

Examination of the hair in this syndrome may be useful. Under light microscopy, these hairs exhibit bigger and irregular melanin granules, distributed mainly near the medulla. Under polarized light microscopy, the hairs appear monotonously white.Valente NY, Machado MC, Boggio P, Alves AC, Bergonse FN, Casella E, Vasconcelos DM, Grumach AS, de Oliveira ZN (2006) Polarized light microscopy of hair shafts aids in the differential diagnosis of Chédiak-Higashi and Griscelli-Prunieras syndromes.

The ovary is thus formed mainly from the genital ridge and partly from the mesonephros. Later the mass is differentiated into a central part, the medulla of ovary, covered by a surface layer, the germinal epithelium. Between the cells of the germinal epithelium a number of larger cells, the immature ova, are found. The immature ova, in turn, are carried into the stroma beneath by bud-like ingrowths (genital cords of the germinal epithelium).

The NOT has efferent projections to the zona incerta of the subthalamus, several nuclei of the pons, medulla, intralaminar nuclei, midbrain, and dorsal and ventral thalamic nuclei. Its bilateral inhibitory projections to the accessory optic system include connections to the lateral and medial terminal nuclei. Projections to the subthalamus are target toward the lateral geniculate nucleus and pulvinar. The NOT projects bilaterally to the superior colliculus, although the ipsilateral connections appear to be more dominant.

Micrograph with numerous rabies virions (small dark-grey rod-like particles) and Negri bodies, larger pathognomonic cellular inclusion bodies of rabies infection. Description: This micrograph depicts the histopathologic changes associated with rabies encephalitis prepared using an H&E; stain. Note the Negri bodies, which are cellular inclusion bodies found most frequently in the pyramidal cells of Ammon's horn, and the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. They are also found in the cells of the medulla and various other ganglia.

The nasal opening for the North American species is square, unlike that of the European race, which is triangular. The foramen magnum is triangular in the North American beaver, and rounded in the European. The anal glands of the North American beaver are smaller and thick- walled with a small internal volume compared to that of the European species. Finally, the guard hairs of the North American beaver have a shorter hollow medulla at their tips.

The posterior part of the medulla between the posterior median sulcus and the posterolateral sulcus contains tracts that enter it from the posterior funiculus of the spinal cord. These are the gracile fasciculus, lying medially next to the midline, and the cuneate fasciculus, lying laterally. These fasciculi end in rounded elevations known as the gracile and the cuneate tubercles. They are caused by masses of gray matter known as the gracile nucleus and the cuneate nucleus.

In the lymphatic system a lymph node is a secondary lymphoid organ. Lymph nodes contain lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, and are primarily made up of B cells and T cells. B cells are mainly found in the outer cortex where they are clustered together as follicular B cells in lymphoid follicles, and T cells and dendritic cells are mainly found in the paracortex. There are fewer cells in the medulla than the cortex.

The experiment has been called "the first indirect demonstration of the role of the adrenal medulla as an endocrine organ actually a more sophisticated demonstration of the adrenal medullary function than the classic study of Oliver and Schäfer". While this may be true, Jacobj did not envisage a chemical signal secreted into the blood to influence distant organs, in other words a hormone, but nerves running from the adrenals to the gut, "Hemmungsbahnen für die Darmbewegung".

In emergency medicine, this occurrence is widely known as a "catecholamine dump". Extremely high levels of catecholamine can also be caused by neuroendocrine tumors in the adrenal medulla, a treatable condition known as pheochromocytoma. High levels of catecholamines can also be caused by monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) deficiency, known as Brunner syndrome. As MAO-A is one of the enzymes responsible for degradation of these neurotransmitters, its deficiency increases the bioavailability of these neurotransmitters considerably.

In mammals, an elegant rete mirabile in the efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary glomeruli is important in maintaining the hypertonicity of the renal medulla. It is the hypertonicity of this zone, resorbing water osmotically from the renal collecting ducts as they exit the kidney, that makes possible the excretion of a hypertonic urine and maximum conservation of body water. Vascular retia mirabilia are also found in the limbs of a range of mammals. These reduce the temperature in the extremities.

Although dynorphins are found widely distributed in the CNS, they have the highest concentrations in the hypothalamus, medulla, pons, midbrain, and spinal cord. Dynorphins are stored in large (80-120 nm diameter) dense-core vesicles that are considerably larger than vesicles storing neurotransmitters. These large dense-core vesicles differ from small synaptic vesicles in that a more intense and prolonged stimulus is needed to cause the large vesicles to release their contents into the synaptic cleft.

All afferent touch/vibration info ascends the spinal cord via the posterior (dorsal) column-medial lemniscus pathway via gracilis (T7 and below) or cuneatus (T6 and above). Cuneatus sends signals to the cochlear nucleus indirectly via spinal grey matter, this info is used in determining if a perceived sound is just villi noise/irritation. All fibers cross (left becomes right) in the medulla. A somatosensory pathway will typically have three neurons:Saladin KS. Anatomy and Physiology 3rd edd. 2004.

The PICA branches off the lateral portion of the vertebral arteries just inferior to their junction with the basilar artery. Before reaching the inferior surface of the cerebellum, the PICA sends branches into the medulla, supplying blood to several cranial nerve nuclei. In the cerebellum, the PICA supplies blood to the posterior inferior portion of the cerebellum, the inferior cerebellar peduncle, the nucleus ambiguus, the vagus motor nucleus, the spinal trigeminal nucleus, the solitary nucleus, and the vestibulocochlear nuclei.

The sensory decussation or decussation of the lemnisci is a decussation or crossover of axons from the gracile nucleus and cuneate nucleus, which are responsible for fine touch, proprioception and two-point discrimination of the body. The fibres of this decussation are called the internal arcuate fibres and are found at the superior aspect of the closed medulla superior to the motor decussation. It is part of the second neuron in the posterior column–medial lemniscus pathway.

Historically, there have been a variety of terms used for the disorder, including pseudobulbar affect, pathological laughter and crying, emotional lability, emotionalism, emotional dysregulation, or more recently, involuntary emotional expression disorder. The term pseudobulbar (pseudo- + bulbar) came from the idea that the symptoms seemed similar to those caused by a bulbar lesion (that is, a lesion in the medulla oblongata). Terms such as forced crying, involuntary crying, pathological emotionality, and emotional incontinence have also been used, although less frequently.

Further local responses to stretch, carbon dioxide, pH, and oxygen also influence arteriolar tone. Generally, norepinephrine and epinephrine (hormones produced by sympathetic nerves and the adrenal gland medulla) are vasoconstrictive acting on alpha 1-adrenergic receptors. However, the arterioles of skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and pulmonary circulation vasodilate in response to these hormones when they act on beta-adrenergic receptors. Generally, stretch and high oxygen tension increase tone, and carbon dioxide and low pH promote vasodilation.

The spino-olivary tract (historically Helweg's tract) is located in the anterior funiculus of the spinal cord and provides transmission of unconscious proprioception and is involved in balance. This tract carries proprioception information from muscles and tendons as well as cutaneous impulses to the olivary bodies. The olivary bodies known also as the olives, are located in the medulla oblongata in the brainstem. Other tracts that carry proprioception are the DSCT, cuneocerebellar tract, and the VSCT.

Medúlla received acclaim from music critics. The album holds a rating of 84 out of 100 at Metacritic. The Guardian newspaper's David Peschek gave it five stars out of five and heralded it as "brave and unique". Dominique Leone from Pitchfork commented that Medulla was "an interesting record", while saying Björk had "found a way to bathe her immediately distinctive melodies and vocal nuances in solutions that cause me to reevaluate her voice and her craft".

The branch for the second intercostal space usually joins with one from the highest aortic intercostal artery. This branch is not constant, but is more commonly found on the right side; when absent, its place is supplied by an intercostal branch from the aorta. Each intercostal gives off a posterior branch which goes to the posterior vertebral muscles, and sends a small spinal branch through the corresponding intervertebral foramen to the medulla spinalis and its membranes.

Cyphellae (singular: cyphella) are holes or crater-like pits found on the lower cortex of lichens of the genus Sticta. They look like smooth, whitish craters that open into the medulla layer and are lined with round, thin walled cells. Cyphellae are distinguished from pseudocyphellae by their larger size and by the presence of these specialized cells that surround the opening, which are absent in pseudocyphellae. The interior of the pore is typically white in color.

The region of the lymph node called the paracortex immediately surrounds the medulla. Unlike the cortex, which has mostly immature T cells, or thymocytes, the paracortex has a mixture of immature and mature T cells. Lymphocytes enter the lymph nodes through specialised high endothelial venules found in the paracortex. A lymph follicle is a dense collection of lymphocytes, the number, size, and configuration of which change in accordance with the functional state of the lymph node.

Chromaffin cells are derived from the embryonic neural crest and, as such, are simply modified neurons. In particular, they are modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons of the autonomic nervous system that have lost their axons and dendrites, receiving innervation from corresponding preganglionic fibers. The cells form clusters around fenestrated capillaries where they release norepinephrine and epinephrine into the blood. As a cluster of neuron cell bodies, the adrenal medulla is considered a ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system.

The pyramidal tracts are named because they pass through the pyramids of the medulla oblongata. The corticospinal fibers when descending from the internal capsule to the brain stem, converge to a point from multiple directions giving the impression of an inverted pyramid. Involvement of the pyramidal tract at any level leads to pyramidal signs. The myelination of the pyramidal fibres is incomplete at birth and gradually progresses in cranio-caudal direction and thereby progressively gaining functionality.

Renal pyramids (or malpighian pyramids or Malpighi's pyramids named after Marcello Malpighi, a seventeenth-century anatomist) are cone- shaped tissues of the kidney. In humans, the renal medulla is made up of 10 to 18 of these conical subdivisions. The broad base of each pyramid faces the renal cortex, and its apex, or papilla, points internally towards the pelvis. The pyramids appear striped because they are formed by straight parallel segments of nephrons' Loops of Henle and collecting ducts.

Some of the lobes have simple (unbranched) black rhizines on the margins, while others have a rhizine-free border. The apothecia are cup-shaped, measuring 1–6 mm in diameter with a smooth margin and a brown disc. Ascospores are ellipsoid to ovoid in shape, and typically measure 12–14 by 8–10 μm. Secondary compounds produced by Bulbothrix meizospora include atranorin and chloratranorin in the cortex, and consalazinic acid and salazinic acid in the medulla.

Lakeland Highlands neighbors Medulla, and together the two communities make up much of what is known as south (unincorporated) Lakeland. The area is addressed to Lakeland, with zip codes 33807, and 33813. Its schools include, George W. Jenkins Senior High School (named after the founder of Publix Supermarkets, based in Lakeland), Scott Lake Elementary, Lakeland Highlands Middle School and Valleyview Elementary. This area has been experiencing high growth for over two decades with new subdivisions being developed every year.

While testing dopamine analogues at Hoffman-LaRoche, he was surprised by the toxicity of 6-hydroxydopamine on sympathetic nerves and investigated its mechanisms of action. Its selective effect on dopaminergic neurons has made it a useful tool in animal models of Parkinson's disease. This line of research had an unexpected payoff. While working with Axelrod at NIMH, Thoenen discovered that repeated stimulation of the adrenal medulla led to increased levels of the monoamine synthesis enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase.

Other nuclei are involved in balance, taste, hearing, and control of muscles of the face and neck. The next structure rostral to the medulla is the pons, which lies on the ventral anterior side of the brainstem. Nuclei in the pons include pontine nuclei which work with the cerebellum and transmit information between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex. In the dorsal posterior pons lie nuclei that are involved in the functions of breathing, sleep, and taste.

59: 437–453. and in its net-like organization of the hyphae in the medulla. Besides the controversy of whether Niebla polymorpha is a synonym of Vermilacinia polymorpha, the geographical occurrences of the species itself (V. polymorpha) are also subject to interpretation since many specimens were identified by many different authorities as referenced in this article, and that specimens were not always cited to substantiate the range of the species indicated at the time of publication.

Jouvet demonstrated that the generation of REM sleep depends on an intact pontine tegmentum and that REM atonia is due to an inhibition of motor centres in the medulla oblongata. Cats with lesions around the locus coeruleus have less restricted muscle movement during REM sleep, and show a variety of complex behaviours including motor patterns suggesting that they are dreaming of attack, defence and exploration. Jouvet's research led to the identification of REM sleep behavior disorder.

The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from mesoderm, whereas the medulla is derived from the neural crest, which is of ectodermal origin. The adrenal glands in a newborn baby are much larger as a proportion of the body size than in an adult. For example, at age three months the glands are four times the size of the kidneys. The size of the glands decreases relatively after birth, mainly because of shrinkage of the cortex.

Similar to other local anesthetics, benzonatate is a potent voltage-gated sodium channel inhibitor. After absorption and circulation to the respiratory tract, benzonatate acts as a local anesthetic, decreasing the sensitivity of vagal afferent fibers and stretch receptors in the bronchi, alveoli, and pleura in the lower airway and lung. This dampens their activity and reduces the cough reflex. Benzonatate also has central antitussive activity on the cough center in central nervous system at the level of the medulla.

PAC1 is a membrane-associated protein and shares significant homology with members of the G-protein coupled class B glucagon/secretin receptor family. This receptor mediates diverse biological actions of adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide 1 and is positively coupled to adenylate cyclase. Alternative splicing of two exons of this gene generates four major splice variants, but their full-length nature has not been determined. PAC1 is expressed in the adrenal medulla, pancreatic acini, uterus, myenteric plexus and brain.

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in multiple complex biological processes including aggression, pain, sleep, appetite, anxiety, depression, migraine, and vomiting. In humans the effects of excess serotonin were first noted in 1960 in patients receiving a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) and tryptophan. The syndrome is caused by increased serotonin in the central nervous system. It was originally suspected that agonism of 5-HT1A receptors in central grey nuclei and the medulla was responsible for the development of the syndrome.

NKCC2 is specifically found in cells of the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle and the macula densa in nephrons, the basic functional units of the kidney. Within these cells, NKCC2 resides in the apical membrane abutting the nephron's lumen, which is the hollow space containing urine. It thus serves both in sodium absorption and in tubuloglomerular feedback. The thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle begins at the deeper portion of the renal outer medulla.

The medial lemniscus, also known as Reil's band or Reil's ribbon, is a large ascending bundle of heavily myelinated axons that decussate in the brainstem, specifically in the medulla oblongata. The medial lemniscus is formed by the crossings of the internal arcuate fibers. The internal arcuate fibers are composed of axons of nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus. The axons of the nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus in the medial lemniscus have cell bodies that lie contralaterally.

Using Ca2+ imaging studies, researchers found two types of pacemaker cells which contained PDF in the accessory medulla, the circadian pacemaker of the cockroach, Rhyparobia maderae. Type 1 cells showed that PDF signaled via elevation of intracellular cAMP levels. In contrast, in type 2 cells PDF transiently raised intracellular Ca2+ levels even after blocking adenylyl cyclase activity. The researchers hypothesized that in type 1 cells PDF-dependent rises in cAMP concentrations block primarily outward K+ currents.

The nucleus paragigantocellularis (nPGi) is a part of the brain, located in the rostral ventral medulla. It is a key brainstem region involved in the expression of cardiovascular and respiratory changes that occur following sympathetic activation. The nPGi is one of two major afferents of the locus coeruleus (LC), and sends collateral projections to the LC and to the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS). Neurons in this region have also been associated with analgesia processes.

In 1859 he delivered the Sydenham lecture at the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries in London. Schroeder van der Kolk's best known work is on the pathogenesis of epilepsy. Autopsy studies on the brains of people who had suffered of epilepsy in life showed changes in the medulla oblongata (part of the brainstem), and Schroeder van der Kolk stated that seizures must therefore originate in this area. Several decades later it was discovered that seizures arise from the cerebral cortex.

This gene has been implicated in X linked intellectual disability. Using immunohistochemistry, synaptophysin can be demonstrated in a range of neural and neuroendocrine tissues, including cells of the adrenal medulla and pancreatic islets. As a specific marker for these tissues, it can be used to identify tumours arising from them, such as neuroblastoma, retinoblastoma, phaeochromocytoma, carcinoid, small-cell carcinoma, medulloblastoma and medullary thyroid carcinoma, among others. Diagnostically, it is often used in combination with chromogranin A.

The concentrations and ratio of rods to cones is strongly correlated with whether an animal is diurnal or nocturnal. In humans rods outnumber cones by approximately 20:1, while in nocturnal animals, such as the tawny owl, the ratio is closer to 1000:1. Ganglion Cells reside in the adrenal medulla and retina where they are involved in the sympathetic response. Of the ~1.3 million ganglion cells present in the retina, 1-2% are believed to be photosensitive ganglia.

Citrulline is made from ornithine and carbamoyl phosphate in one of the central reactions in the urea cycle. It is also produced from arginine as a byproduct of the reaction catalyzed by NOS family (NOS; EC 1.14.13.39). It is made from arginine by the enzyme trichohyalin at the inner root sheath and medulla of hair follicles. Arginine is first oxidized into N-hydroxyl-arginine, which is then further oxidized to citrulline concomitant with release of nitric oxide.

The catecholamines, epinephrine and norepinephrine, secreted by the adrenal medulla form one component of the extended fight-or- flight mechanism. The other component is sympathetic stimulation. Epinephrine and norepinephrine have similar effects: binding to the beta-1 adrenergic receptors, and opening sodium and calcium ion chemical- or ligand-gated channels. The rate of depolarization is increased by this additional influx of positively charged ions, so the threshold is reached more quickly and the period of repolarization is shortened.

He has published more than 270 scientific manuscripts, with over 6000 citations. His manuscript titled "Functional imaging of neuroendocrine tumors with combined PET/CT using 68Ga‐DOTATATE (DOTA‐D Phe1,Tyr3‐octreotate) and 18F‐FDG" published in 2008 has been cited more than 300 times alone. He published his first research paper in 1984 titled "123 I meta-iodo-benzyl guanidine: Synthesis and imaging the adrenal medulla and phaeochromocytoma" in the Journal of Nuclear Medicine in Research and Practice.

Usnea trichodea hangs from the branches and twigs of trees and can reach a length of . The main branches are smooth and slender, with a diameter of less than ; they send out side branches at an obtuse angle at intervals. The thallus is divided into articulating sections with raised cracks between; the medulla is dense and white while the axis is reddish-brown. It could be confused with Usnea longissima but the branching structure and reddish axis are distinctive.

Early experiments showed that adrenaline increases twitch, but not tetanic force and rate of force development in muscles. It is questionable whether adrenaline, released from the adrenal medulla into the venous circulation, can reach the muscle quickly enough in order to be able to cause such an effect in the midst of a crisis. It may be that norepinephrine released from sympathetic nerve terminals directly innervating skeletal muscle has more of an effect over the timescale of seconds.

The presbyterian board sent him no students till 1758. Jennings extended the course of study from four years to five, and abandoned the boarding school model. The lectures were given in Wellclose Square, at the residence of Samuel Morton Savage, the tutor in classics and philosophy. Unlike his brother John, Jennings did not attempt lectures on an independent plan. The divinity textbook on which he lectured was the ‘Medulla Theologiæ’ of the Dutch divine, Van Marck.

Decorticate posturing, with elbows, wrists and fingers flexed, and legs extended and rotated inward Brain herniation frequently presents with abnormal posturing, a characteristic positioning of the limbs indicative of severe brain damage. These patients have a lowered level of consciousness, with Glasgow Coma Scores of three to five. One or both pupils may be dilated and fail to constrict in response to light. Vomiting can also occur due to compression of the vomiting center in the medulla oblongata.

In the medulla oblongata, the arcuate nucleus is a group of neurons located on the anterior surface of the medullary pyramids. These nuclei are the extension of the pontine nuclei. They receive fibers from the corticospinal tract and send their axons through the anterior external arcuate fibers and medullary striae to the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle. Arcuate nuclei are capable of chemosensitivity and have a proven role in the respiratory center controlling the breathing rate.

Canoparmelia lichens have grey or rarely yellow-green thalli containing the secondary chemicals atranorin and chloroatranorin, or rarely usnic acid, in the cortex. The thallus is made of more or less rotund lobes that are 3.0–5.0 mm wide and lack cilia; the medulla is white. The underside of the thallus is black or brown with naked brown margins and simple rhizines of the same colour. Canoparmelia produces small ellipsoid ascospores that measure 10–14 by 6–8 μm.

However, some studies have been done which supports the presence of α-neoendorphin immunoreactive fibers throughout the human brainstem. According to a study done by Duque, Ewing, Arturo Mangas, Pablo Salinas, Zaida Díaz-cabiale, José Narváez, and Rafael Coveñas; α-neoendorphin immunoreactive fibers can be found in the caudal part of the solitary nucleus, in the caudal and the gelatinosa parts of the spinal trigeminal nucleus, and only low density was found in the central grey matter of medulla.

Aspirin and other NSAIDs are inhibitors of the cyclooxygenases. In the kidney, this inhibition results in decreased PGE2 concentration causing a reduction in blood flow. Because blood flow to the kidney first reaches the renal cortex (outside) and then the renal medulla (inside), the deeper structures of the kidney are most sensitive to decreased blood flow. Thus the innermost structures of the kidney, known as the renal papillae, are especially dependent on prostaglandin synthesis to maintain adequate blood flow.

With Julius M. Rogoff he studied the functions of the adrenal medulla and cortex, including the epinephrine output and the usefulness of cortex extracts to treat Addison's disease. They discovered that the adrenal cortex was indispensable to the life of higher animals. Stewart published a series of papers on "The liberation of epinephrin from the adrenals" in the Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. Stewart was a member of the Physiology Society, American Physiology Society, American Pharmacology Society.

With constant use of nicotine, tolerance occurs at least partially as a result of the development of new nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain. After several months of nicotine abstinence, the number of receptors go back to normal. Nicotine also stimulates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the adrenal medulla, resulting in increased levels of adrenaline and beta-endorphin. Its physiological effects stem from the stimulation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which are located throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems.

The spinal root of accessory nerve (or part) is firm in texture, and its fibers arise from the motor cells in the lateral part of the anterior column of the gray substance of the medulla spinalis as low as the fifth cervical nerve. Passing through the lateral funiculus of the medulla spinalis, they emerge on its surface and unite to form a single trunk, which ascends between the ligamentum denticulatum and the posterior roots of the spinal nerves; enters the skull through the foramen magnum, and is then directed to the jugular foramen, through which it passes, lying in the same sheath of dura mater as the vagus, but separated from it by a fold of the arachnoid. In the jugular foramen, it receives one or two filaments from the cranial part of the nerve, or else joins it for a short distance and then separates from it again. As it exits from the jugular foramen, it runs backward in front of the internal jugular vein in 66.6% of cases, and behind it in 33% of cases.

Opioid receptors are a type of G protein–coupled receptor (GPCR). These receptors are distributed throughout the central nervous system and within the peripheral tissue of neural and non-neural origin. They are also located in high concentrations in the Periaqueductal gray, Locus coeruleus, and the Rostral ventromedial medulla. The receptors are responsible for analgesia, and consist of an extracellular amino acid N-terminus, seven trans-membrane helical loops, three extracellular loops, three intracellular loops, and an intracellular carboxyl C-terminus.

Apocynin was used to determine whether ionic activation due to proton flux across the membrane of renal medulla cells was coupled to NADPH oxidase production of superoxide. Apocynin was introduced to the cells and completely blocked the production of superoxide, and was a key component in determining that the proton outflow was responsible for the activation of NADPH oxidase. The mechanism of action of apocynin is not understood. In the experimental studies, apocynin is shown to dimerize and form diapocynin.

The virus can also affect the Purkinje cells of the heart, the adrenal medulla, the brain, and the spinal cord. On necropsy the affected organs appear dilated and may include the crop, proventriculus, ventriculus, and small intestine. On histopathological examination the tissues will contain a lymphoplasmacytic infiltration in the peripheral and central nervous tissue. The causative virus is believed to commonly affect the myenteric plexuses which will also lead to the presentation of atrophied smooth muscle within the affected gastrointestinal organs.

The kidneys receive blood from the renal arteries, left and right, which branch directly from the abdominal aorta. Despite their relatively small size, the kidneys receive approximately 20% of the cardiac output. Each renal artery branches into segmental arteries, dividing further into interlobar arteries, which penetrate the renal capsule and extend through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. The interlobar arteries then supply blood to the arcuate arteries that run through the boundary of the cortex and the medulla.

Ventilation of the lungs in mammals occurs via the respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata and the pons of the brainstem. These areas form a series of neural pathways which receive information about the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. This information determines the average rate of ventilation of the alveoli of the lungs, to keep these pressures constant. The respiratory center does so via motor nerves which activate the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration.

The respiratory centres control respiration, by generating motor signals that are passed down the spinal cord, along the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration. This is a mixed nerve that carries sensory information back to the centres. There are four respiratory centres, three with a more clearly defined function, and an apneustic centre with a less clear function. In the medulla a dorsal respiratory group causes the desire to breathe in and receives sensory information directly from the body.

Syringomyelia is a chronic progressive degenerative disorder characterized by a fluid-filled cyst located in the spinal cord. Its symptoms include pain, weakness, numbness, and stiffness in the back, shoulders, arms or legs. Other symptoms include headaches, the inability to feel changes in the temperature, sweating, sexual dysfunction, and loss of bowel and bladder control. It is usually seen in the cervical region but can extend into the medulla oblongata and pons or it can reach downward into the thoracic or lumbar segments.

Epinephrine synthesis and therefore PNMT location has been largely found to be contained in the adrenal medulla or adrenal gland of most species. PNMT has been localized in most adult mammals to the cytoplasm of these medullary cells. Newer studies are also showing PNMT mRNA and protein to be expressed in other regions of the body as well. Certain neural tracts, the retina, and in both atria and ventricles in the hearts are now being elucidated as sites of PNMT expression.

Isosthenuria refers to the excretion of urine whose specific gravity (concentration) is neither greater (more concentrated) nor less (more dilute) than that of protein-free plasma, typically 1.008-1.012. Isosthenuria reflects damage to the kidney's tubules or the renal medulla. A closely related term is hyposthenuria, where the urine has a relatively low specific gravity, though not necessarily equal to that of plasma. Therefore, unlike isosthenuria, this condition is not associated with kidney failure as the kidney tubules have altered the glomerular filtrate.

This did neither occur with the adrenal cortex nor with any other tissue. The adrenal medulla hence contained "une matière spéciale, inconnue jusqu’ici et qui constitue le signe particulier de ces organes" ("a special material, unknown hereforth and which constitutes the particular sign of these organs"). Vulpian even came to the insight that the substance entered "le torrent circulatoire" ("the circulatory torrent"), for blood from the adrenal veins did give the ferric chloride reaction. Members of University College London around 1895.

One study tested the effects of ephaptic coupling by using both neurotransmitter antagonists to block chemical synapses and gap junction blockers to block electrical synapses. It was found that rhythmic electrical discharge associated with fetal neurons in the rat spinal cord and medulla was still sustained. This suggests that connections between the neurons still exist and work to spread signals even without traditional synapses. These findings support a model in which ephaptic coupling works alongside canonical synapses to propagate signals across neuronal networks.

Either way, the primary axon ascends to the lower medulla, where it leaves its fasciculus and synapses with a secondary neuron in one of the dorsal column nuclei: either the nucleus gracilis or the nucleus cuneatus, depending on the pathway it took. At this point, the secondary axon leaves its nucleus and passes anteriorly and medially. The collection of secondary axons that do this are known as internal arcuate fibers. The internal arcuate fibers decussate and continue ascending as the contralateral medial lemniscus.

This pathway initially follows the dorsal spino-cerebellar pathway. It is arranged as follows: proprioceptive receptors of lower limb → peripheral process → dorsal root ganglion → central process → Clarke's column → 2nd order neuron → medulla oblongata (Caudate nucleus) → 3rd order neuron → VPLN of thalamus → 4th order neuron → posterior limb of internal capsule → corona radiata → sensory area of cerebrum. The anterolateral system works somewhat differently. Its primary neurons axons enter the spinal cord and then ascend one to two levels before synapsing in the substantia gelatinosa.

Enkephalin is also considered a neuropeptide, which in the human body performs as an important signaling molecule in the brain. Enkephalins are found in high concentration in the brain as well as in the cells of adrenal medulla. In response to pain, norepinephrine, a hormone that is activated in fight-or-flight response is released along with endorphins. It has been shown that this polypeptide is linked to brain functioning during a stressful response, especially in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex regions.

The algal photobiont (technically a phycobiont, as it is a green algal photosynthetic partner) is from the genus Trentepohlia. Normally, the algae is long and filamentous; when in the lichen state, it is divided into shorter filaments. The alga has a large chloroplast that contains droplets of beta-carotene. The lichen is heteromerous, meaning that the mycobiont and photobiont components are in well-defined layers, with the photobiont in a more or less distinct zone between the upper cortex and the medulla.

The carotid body peripheral chemoreceptors are primarily sensitive to decreases in the partial pressure of oxygen (PO2). This is in contrast to the central chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata that are primarily sensitive to changes in pH and PCO2 (a decrease in pH and an increase in PCO2). The carotid body chemoreceptors are also sensitive to pH and PCO2, but only secondarily. More specifically, the sensitivity of carotid body chemoreceptors to decreased PO2 is greater when pH is decreased and PCO2 is increased.

The fine touch (epicritic) is conducted by fibers of the medial lemniscus. The medial lemniscus is formed by the axons of the neurons of the gracilis and cuneatus nuclei of the medulla oblongata which receive information about light touch, vibration and conscient proprioception from the gracilis and cuneatus fasciculus of the spinal cord. This fasciculus receive the axons of the first order neuron which is located in the dorsal root ganglion that receives afferent fibers from receptors in the skin, muscles and joints.

There are two types of VMATs expressed in humans: VMAT1 and VMAT2. VMAT1 is expressed mainly in large dense-core vesicles (LDCVs) of the peripheral nervous system. VMAT1 may be found in neuroendocrine cells, particularly chromaffin and enterochromaffin granules which are largely found in the medulla of the adrenal glands. VMAT2 favors expression in a variety of monoaminergic cells of the CNS such as the brain, sympathetic nervous system, mast cells, It is also prevalent in β-cells of the pancreas.

Clarke was the first to establish the location of the dorsal nucleus of the spinal cord, calling it "posterior vesicular columns", and described the nucleus intermediolateralis. He also differentiated the medial cuneate nucleus from the lateral cuneate nucleus (also called "Monakow's nucleus" after neuropathologist Constantin von Monakow). Clarke is credited with introducing the histological technique of mounting cleared sections of tissue in balsam media. He published numerous essays on the anatomy and physiology of the medulla oblongata and spinal cord.

A high-level connectome, at the level of brain compartments and interconnecting tracts of neurons, exists for the full fly brain. A version of this is available online. Detailed circuit-level connectomes exist for the lamina and a medulla column, both in the visual system of the fruit fly, and the alpha lobe of the mushroom body. In May of 2017 a paper published in bioRxiv presented an electron microscopy image stack of the whole adult female brain at synaptic resolution.

Without such a concentrated medulla, water has less of an osmotic driving force to leave the collecting duct system, ultimately resulting in increased urine production. Loop diuretics cause a decrease in the renal blood flow by this mechanism. This diuresis leaves less water to be reabsorbed into the blood, resulting in a decrease in blood volume. A secondary effect of loop diuretics is to increase the production of prostaglandins, which results in vasodilation and increased blood supply to the kidney.

The loss or lack of the thymus results in severe immunodeficiency and subsequent high susceptibility to infection. In most species, the thymus consists of lobules divided by septa which are made up of epithelium; it is therefore often considered an epithelial organ. T cells mature from thymocytes, proliferate, and undergo a selection process in the thymic cortex before entering the medulla to interact with epithelial cells. The thymus provides an inductive environment for the development of T cells from hematopoietic progenitor cells.

The inner portion of the node is called the medulla, which is surrounded by the cortex on all sides except for a portion known as the hilum. The hilum presents as a depression on the surface of the lymph node, causing the otherwise spherical lymph node to be bean-shaped or ovoid. The efferent lymph vessel directly emerges from the lymph node at the hilum. The arteries and veins supplying the lymph node with blood enter and exit through the hilum.

This results in a much reduced intensity of the black markings, and less absorption of light which passes through the cloudy layer in the medulla of barbs. As this absorption of light is a necessary part of the process which generates the blue colouration the intensity of blue is also greatly reduced. The Dilute mutation is one of a series of multiple alleles at the same locus, called dil+ in the wild-type. The others are the Clearwing (dilcw) and Greywing (dilgw) mutations.

When there is a decrease in the blood's pH, a decrease in oxygen (pO2), or an increase in carbon dioxide (pCO2), the carotid bodies and the aortic bodies signal the dorsal respiratory group in the medulla oblongata to increase the volume and rate of breathing. The glomus cells have a high metabolic rate and good blood perfusion and thus are sensitive to changes in arterial blood gas tension. Glomus type II cells are sustentacular cells having a similar supportive function to glial cells.

The term enzui is the Japanese word for medulla oblongata and giri means "to chop". Thus, an enzuigiri (often misspelled 'ensuigiri') is any attack that strikes the back of the head. It is usually associated with lighter weight class wrestlers, as well as wrestlers who have a martial arts background or gimmick. It is often used as a counter-move after a kick is blocked and the leg caught, or the initial kick is a feint to set up the real attack.

Disruption of the anterior spinal artery leads to bilateral disruption of the corticospinal tract, causing motor deficits, and bilateral disruption of the spinothalamic tract, causing sensory deficits in the form of pain/temperature sense loss. It is called anterior spinal artery syndrome. This occurs when the disruption of the anterior spinal artery is at the level of the spinal cord. Contrast this with medial medullary syndrome, when the anterior spinal artery is occluded at the level of the medulla oblongata.

The torus semicircularis is a region of the vertebrate midbrain that contributes to auditory perception, studied most often in fish and amphibians. Neurons from the medulla project to the nucleus centralis and the nucleus ventrolateralis in the torus semicircularis, providing afferent auditory and hydrodynamic information. Research suggests that these nuclei interact with each other, suggesting that this area of the brain is bimodally sensitive. In the Gymnotiform fish, which are weakly electric fish, the torus semicircularis was observed to exhibit laminar organization.

GABAA and GABAC receptors are known to be ionotropic, while the GABAB receptor is metabotropic. GABAA receptors mediate fast inhibitory responses in the central nervous system (CNS) and are found on neurons, glial cells, and adrenal medulla cells. It is responsible for inducing Cl− ion influx into cells, thereby reducing the probability that membrane depolarization will occur upon the arrival of a graded potential or an action potential. GABA receptors can also interact with non-endogenous ligands to influence activity.

Polioencephalitis is a viral infection of the brain, causing inflammation within the grey matter of the brain stem. The virus has an affinity for neuronal cell bodies and has been found to affect mostly the midbrain, pons, medulla and cerebellum of most infected patients. The infection can reach up through the thalamus and hypothalamus and possibly reach the cerebral hemispheres. The infection is caused by the poliomyelitis virus which is a single-stranded, positive sense RNA virus surrounded by a non-enveloped capsid.

In the brain, tissues with melanin include the medulla and pigment- bearing neurons within areas of the brainstem, such as the locus coeruleus. It also occurs in the zona reticularis of the adrenal gland. The melanin in the skin is produced by melanocytes, which are found in the basal layer of the epidermis. Although, in general, human beings possess a similar concentration of melanocytes in their skin, the melanocytes in some individuals and ethnic groups produce variable amounts of melanin.

Since lateral medullary syndrome is often caused by a stroke, diagnosis is time dependent. Diagnosis is usually done by assessing vestibular-related symptoms in order to determine where in the medulla that the infarction has occurred. Head Impulsive Nystagmus Test of Skew (HINTS) examination of oculomotor function is often performed, along with computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to assist in stroke detection. Standard stroke assessment must be done to rule out a concussion or other head trauma.

CRH has also been shown to promote neurodegeneration, suggesting that CRH1 antagonists may have neuroprotective effects. PC12 cells are derived from the rat adrenal medulla and are extensively used to study neural differentiation. PC12 cells treated with CRH (1-10 nM) showed increased numbers of apoptotic cells and upregulation of the Fas ligand via p38 activation, demonstrating the pro- apoptotic effects of CRH. Administration of Antalarmin (10 nM) completely blocked the CRH-induced apoptosis response and inhibited Fas ligand expression.

Particular attention is given to the high incidence of cerebral lymphomas associated with adult CNH. Intracerebral B-cell lymphoma represents less than 1% of all primary malignant tumors of the central nervous system. Infiltration of lymphoma cells into the pons and medulla is the most frequently reported cause of CNH, accounting for half of all CNH-inducing brain tumors, despite its considerable rarity. It has been suggested that these lymphomas are capable of diffusely penetrating the midbrain, without significantly destructing the overall structures.

Electric fish communicate with electric signals that possess two main qualities - frequency and waveform. The information in waveform is embedded in the electric organ discharge (EOD) itself, which is determined and fixed by the anatomy and physiology of the electric organ. EOD waveform, in some species, changes with developmental stages. Frequency of EODs and interval duration between them are called sequence of pulse intervals (SPI), which are controlled by the command interneurons in the midbrain and medulla, as stated under electric organs.

Eating and swallowing are complex neuromuscular activities consisting essentially of three phases, an oral, pharyngeal and esophageal phase. Each phase is controlled by a different neurological mechanism. The oral phase, which is entirely voluntary, is mainly controlled by the medial temporal lobes and limbic system of the cerebral cortex with contributions from the motor cortex and other cortical areas. The pharyngeal swallow is started by the oral phase and subsequently is coordinated by the swallowing center on the medulla oblongata and pons.

The actions of aprepitant are said to be entirely central, thus requiring passage of the drug into the central nervous system. However, given that NK1Rs are unprotected by a blood brain barrier in the area postrema just adjacent to neuronal structures in the medulla, and the activity of sendide (the peptide based NK1RA) against cisplatin-induced emesis in the ferret. It is likely that some peripheral exposure contributes to antiemetic effects, even if through vagal terminals in the clinical setting.

The larynx has been implicated in the production of ultrasonic vocalizations. A constriction within a rat’s larynx is thought to be the source of their ultrasonic vocalizations. As well, brain areas such as the medulla oblongata, the cortex, the amygdala, and the dorsal hippocampus, among others, play a role in 22-kHz calls specifically. Many of these brain areas/structures have been implicated in studies involving fear and anxiety, and can be associated with a larger network which deals with aversive emotions.

In neuroanatomy, the dorsal column nuclei are a pair of nuclei in the dorsal columns in the brainstem. The name refers collectively to the cuneate nucleus and gracile nucleus, which are present at the junction between the spinal cord and the medulla oblongata. Both nuclei contain second-order neurons of the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway, which carries fine touch and proprioceptive information from the body to the brain. Each nucleus has an associated nerve tract, the gracile fasciculus and the cuneate fasciculus.

The adrenal medulla is a minor contributor to total circulating catecholamines (L-DOPA is at a higher concentration in the plasma), though it contributes over 90% of circulating adrenaline. Little adrenaline is found in other tissues, mostly in scattered chromaffin cells, and in a small number of neurons which use adrenaline as a neurotransmitter. Following adrenalectomy, adrenaline disappears below the detection limit in the blood stream. Pharmacological doses of adrenaline stimulate α1, α2, β1, β2, and β3 adrenoceptors of the sympathetic nervous system.

Rhizomorphs act as a system of underground absorption and growth structures that invade and decay roots and wood. They can access places where food resources are not available, giving certain advantages to the fungi that produce them in terms of competition. They act as an extension of the fungal body and allow the fungus to infect, disseminate and survive for long periods of time. Rhizomorphs are composed of a medulla and central line which are responsible for water, nutrient, and gas transportation.

Symptoms relate to impaired brain function in areas supplied by the posterior circulation, as seen in posterior circulation strokes. However, symptoms may be far briefer than those seen in stroke. Vertigo is a relatively common symptom that can result from ischemia to the cerebellum, medulla or (rarely) the internal auditory artery which supplies the vestibular system of the inner ear. While vertigo is a common feature of VBI or posterior circulation stroke, VBI only rarely presents with vertigo alone (without other neurological signs).

Chandru (Rahul Madhav) is all set to marry his lover Nidhi Patel (Aavaana). Two days before the wedding, Chandru plays a leisurely cricket match with his best friends Appachan (Saiju Kurup), Seetharaman (Arjun Nandhakumar) and Mani Kantan (Rakendu). While attempting to catch a ball, Chandru falls down and gets hit on the area of the head where the medulla oblongata is located and temporarily loses his memory of the past year. In the process, he even forgets about Nidhi and the impending marriage.

The somatic motor fibers that innervate the laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles are located in the nucleus ambiguus and emerge from the medulla in the cranial root of the accessory nerve. Fibers cross over to and join the vagus nerve in the jugular foramen. Sensory cell bodies are located in the inferior jugular ganglion, and the fibers terminate in the solitary nucleus. Parasympathetic fibers to segments of the trachea and esophagus in the neck originate in the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve.

In developing chick embryos, EC cells have been found in biopsies of developing GIT tissue before the migration of neural crest cells. Whilst EC cells have neuroendocrine properties and are similar chemically and histologically to cells of the adrenal medulla they are not derivatives of the neural crest and do not share a similar cell progenitor. EC cells are believed to be derived from endodermal origins and are descended from the stem cells that form other epithelial cell types of the gastrointestinal lumen.

From the mesenchyme surrounding the neural tube only a single leaflet forms the primitive meninx. In the following phylogenetic and ontogenetic stages, the latter divides into an internal leaflet: the secondary meninx, and into an external one: the dura mater. Finally, in higher vertebrates, even the secondary meninx divides into the arachnoid and the pia. In the same animals, Sterzi demonstrated that, while in the spinal medulla the dura keeps its identity, in the skull it fuses with the periosteum.

Dark Horse - A man in a blond wig and black cloak, who claims to be Hundred Eyes. As an assassin, he favors killing people by shooting them in the back of the medulla oblongata, therefore affecting the dying victim's brain nerves, causing them to be dead with the facial expression of a smile. He uses a firearm, with laser scope. Hundred Eyes rank #1 - A mysterious assassin, no one really knows who he or she is until the climax of the film.

Purkinje cells are found within the Purkinje layer in the cerebellum. Purkinje cells are aligned like dominos stacked one in front of the other. Their large dendritic arbors form nearly two- dimensional layers through which parallel fibers from the deeper-layers pass. These parallel fibers make relatively weaker excitatory (glutamatergic) synapses to spines in the Purkinje cell dendrite, whereas climbing fibers originating from the inferior olivary nucleus in the medulla provide very powerful excitatory input to the proximal dendrites and cell soma.

These reflexes help regulate short-term blood pressure. The solitary nucleus in the medulla oblongata of the brain recognizes changes in the firing rate of action potentials from the baroreceptors, and influences cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance. Baroreceptors can be divided into two categories based on the type of blood vessel in which they are located: high-pressure arterial baroreceptors and low-pressure baroreceptors (also known as cardiopulmonaryLevy, MN; Pappano, AJ. (2007) Cardiovascular Physiology, Mosby Elsevier. 9th edition, pp.172.

MIBG radiolabeled with iodine 131 or 123 concentrates in endocrine tumors, most commonly neuroblastomas, paragangliomas, and pheochromocytomas. It also accumulates in norepinephrine transporters in adrenergic nerves in the heart, lungs, adrenal medulla, salivary glands, liver, and spleen, as well as in tumors that originate in the neural crest. MIBG serves as a whole-body, non-invasive scintigraphic screening for germ-line, somatic, benign, and malignant neoplasms originating from the adrenal glands. It is able to detect both intra and extra-adrenal disease.

The nodule (nodular lobe), or anterior end of the inferior vermis, abuts against the roof of the fourth ventricle, and can only be distinctly seen after the cerebellum has been separated from the medulla oblongata and pons. On either side of the nodule is a thin layer of white substance, named the posterior medullary velum. It is semilunar in form, its convex border being continuous with the white substance of the cerebellum; it extends on either side as far as the flocculus.

Niebla siphonoloba has also been interpreted to belong to a broad species concept of Niebla homalea, one that recognizes only three species in the genus, two by the medulla reaction to para-phenylenediamine, depsidones (pd+, Niebla josecuervoi), depsides (pd-, Niebla homalea) and one by isidia (Niebla isidiaescens),Bowler, P. and J. Marsh. 2004. Niebla. ‘Lichen Flora of the Greater Sonoran Desert 2’: 368–380. based on a narrow genus concept;Spjut R. W. 1995. Vermilacinia (Ramalinaceae, Lecanorales), a new genus of lichens.

The fibres of the spinal accessory nerve originate solely in neurons situated in the upper spinal cord, from where the spinal cord begins at the junction with the medulla oblongata, to the level of about C6. These fibres join together to form rootlets, roots, and finally the spinal accessory nerve itself. The formed nerve enters the skull through the foramen magnum, the large opening at the skull's base. The nerve travels along the inner wall of the skull towards the jugular foramen.

By binding to ganglion type nicotinic receptors in the adrenal medulla, nicotine increases flow of adrenaline (epinephrine), a stimulating hormone and neurotransmitter. By binding to the receptors, it causes cell depolarization and an influx of calcium through voltage-gated calcium channels. Calcium triggers the exocytosis of chromaffin granules and thus the release of epinephrine (and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream. The release of epinephrine (adrenaline) causes an increase in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, as well as higher blood glucose levels.

The vagus nerve is a primary component of the autonomic nervous system. The polyvagal theory focuses on the structure and function of the two efferent branches of the vagus, both of which originate in the medulla. More specifically, each branch is claimed to be associated with a different adaptive behavioural strategy, both of which are inhibitory in nature, being part of the parasympathetic nervous system. The vagal system is claimed to be in opposition to the sympathetic-adrenal system, which is involved in mobilization behaviours.

The dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway contains information about fine touch, vibration and position of joints. The pathway fibers travel up the back part of the spinal cord to the back part of the medulla, where they connect with second-order neurons that immediately send fibers across the midline. These fibers then travel upwards into the ventrobasal complex in the thalamus where they connect with third-order neurons which send fibers up to the sensory cortex. The spinothalamic tract carries information about pain, temperature, and gross touch.

The response to stimulation of chemoreceptors on the heart rate is complicated. Chemoreceptors in the heart or nearby large arteries, as well as chemoreceptors in the lungs, can affect heart rate. Activation of these peripheral chemoreceptors from sensing decreased O2, increased CO2 and a decreased pH is relayed to cardiac centers by the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves to the medulla of the brainstem. This increases the sympathetic nervous stimulation on the heart and a corresponding increase in heart rate and contractility in most cases.

The neurons for voluntary thigh contraction originate near the summit of the medial side of the precentral gyrus (the primary motor area of the brain). These neurons send a nerve signal that is carried by the corticospinal tract down the brainstem and spinal cord. The signal starts with the upper motor neurons carrying the signal from the precentral gyrus down through the internal capsule, through the cerebral peduncle, and into the medulla. In the medullary pyramid, the corticospinal tract decussates and becomes the lateral corticospinal tract.

TSBP1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TSBP1 gene. C6orf10 is an open reading frame on chromosome 6 containing a protein that is ubiquitously expressed at low levels in the adult genome and may play a role during fetal development. C6orf10 has been found to be linked to both neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases in adults. Expression of this gene is highest in the testis but is also seen in other tissue types such as the brain, lens of the eye and the medulla.

The medulla contains plasma cells, as well as macrophages which are present within the medullary sinuses. As part of the reticular network, there are follicular dendritic cells in the B cell follicle and fibroblastic reticular cells in the T cell cortex. The reticular network provides structural support and a surface for adhesion of the dendritic cells, macrophages and lymphocytes. It also allows exchange of material with blood through the high endothelial venules and provides the growth and regulatory factors necessary for activation and maturation of immune cells.

The vasomotor center (VMC) is a portion of the medulla oblongata in the brainstem, that, together with the cardiovascular center and respiratory center, regulates blood pressure and other homeostatic processes. Vasomotor center is a fairly archaic term since this function relies not on a single brain structure ("center") but rather represents a network of interacting neurons. Upon increase in carbon dioxide level at central chemoreceptors, it stimulates the sympathetic system to constrict vessels. This is opposite to carbon dioxide in tissues causing vasodilatation, especially in the brain.

The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue, which extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. It encloses the central canal of the spinal cord, which contains cerebrospinal fluid. The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS). In humans, the spinal cord begins at the occipital bone, passing through the foramen magnum and entering the spinal canal at the beginning of the cervical vertebrae.

The cervical enlargement, stretching from the C5 to T1 vertebrae, is where sensory input comes from and motor output goes to the arms and trunk. The lumbar enlargement, located between L1 and S3, handles sensory input and motor output coming from and going to the legs. The spinal cord is continuous with the caudal portion of the medulla, running from the base of the skull to the body of the first lumbar vertebra. It does not run the full length of the vertebral column in adults.

The needle is placed in the midline, passing just under the occipital bone, into the (usually large) cisterna magna (Fig. 23-2). This is technically fairly easy; however, if the needle is advanced too far it can enter the medulla, sometimes causing sudden respiratory arrest and death. The test should therefore be carried out only by experienced physicians (usually neurosurgeons or neuroradiologists). An alternative route that may be used by neurosurgeons and neuroradiologists is lateral to C-1 with penetration through the large C-1 intervertebral hiatus.

The effect of the mutation on the microscopic structure of the feathers was first examined by Dr H Steiner. He found the changes were quite different from those induced by the Cinnamon mutation. The pigment granules are smaller and more numerous than normal in both the cortex and medulla cells of the feather barbsTaylor and Warner (1986), p 14 and are often massed together in "large drops or flakes". The colour is also a more reddish brown-yellow than the pale brown grains of the Cinnamon.

The pre-Bötzinger complex (preBötC) is a cluster of interneurons in the ventral respiratory group of the medulla of the brainstem. This complex has been proven to be essential for the generation of the respiratory rhythm in mammals. The exact mechanism of the rhythm generation and transmission to motor nuclei remains controversial and the topic of much research. Several synthetic compounds have been shown to act on neurons specific to the preBötC, most being selective agonists or antagonists to receptor subtypes on neurons in the vicinity.

Although fruticose lichens are defined as being bushy, they can also exhibit a flattened and strap-like appearance. Highly branched fruticose lichen have a high surface to volume ratio that results in a rapid drying and wetting pattern compared to lichens that have a lower surface to volume ratio. The internal structure of fruticose lichen is composed of a dense outer cortex, a thin algal layer, a medulla and a hollow center or a dense central cord. The structure of fruticose lichens depends also on their mycobionts.

The glomus type I cells of the carotid body are innervated by the sensory neurons found in the inferior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve. The carotid sinus nerve is the branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve which innervates them. Alternatively, the glomus type I cells of the aortic body are innervated by sensory neurons found in the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve. Centrally the axons of neurons which innervate glomus type I cells synapse in the caudal portion of the solitary nucleus in the medulla.

Pyramidal tracts The term pyramidal tracts refers to upper motor neurons that originate in the cerebral cortex and terminate in the spinal cord (corticospinal) or brainstem (corticobulbar). Nerves emerge in the cerebral cortex, pass down and may cross sides in the medulla oblongata, and travel as part of the spinal cord until they synapse with interneurons in the grey column of the spinal cord. There is some variation in terminology. The pyramidal tracts definitively encompass the corticospinal tracts, and many authors also include the corticobulbar tracts.

Netter's, plate 337 The renal medulla is hypertonic to the filtrate in the nephron and aids in the reabsorption of water. Blood is filtered in the glomerulus by solute size. Ions such as sodium, chloride, potassium, and calcium are easily filtered, as is glucose. Proteins are not passed through the glomerular filter because of their large size, and do not appear in the filtrate or urine unless a disease process has affected the glomerular capsule or the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of the nephron.

This condition may not only cause cerebellar damage on a temporary or permanent basis, but can also affect other tissues of the central nervous system, those including the cerebral cortex, spinal cord and the brainstem (made up of the medulla oblongata, midbrain, and pons). Cerebellar degeneration can be attributed to a plethora of hereditary and non-hereditary conditions. More commonly, cerebellar degeneration can also be classified according to conditions that an individual may acquire during their lifetime, including infectious, metabolic, autoimmune, paraneoplastic, nutritional or toxic triggers.

View of the cerebellum from above and behind The cerebellum is located in the posterior cranial fossa. The fourth ventricle, pons and medulla are in front of the cerebellum. It is separated from the overlying cerebrum by a layer of leathery dura mater, the tentorium cerebelli; all of its connections with other parts of the brain travel through the pons. Anatomists classify the cerebellum as part of the metencephalon, which also includes the pons; the metencephalon is the upper part of the rhombencephalon or "hindbrain".

A pathologist or pathology scientist may be present at the biopsy to examine the core(s) of kidney tissue for adequacy under a low power microscope. They will inform the person performing the procedure about how much kidney tissue was obtained, specifically how of biopsy sample is kidney cortex and how much is kidney medulla. In some centres, this role will be performed by the proceduralist with the naked eye. When enough kidney tissue has been obtained, pressure will be applied to the biopsy site.

It is made up of two lobes, each consisting of a central medulla and an outer cortex, surrounded by a capsule. The thymus is made up of immature T cells called thymocytes, as well as lining cells called epithelial cells which help the thymocytes develop. T cells that successfully develop react appropriately with MHC immune receptors of the body (called positive selection,) and not against proteins of the body, (called negative selection). The thymus is largest and most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods.

The arteries supplying the thymus are branches of the internal thoracic, and inferior thyroid arteries, with branches from the superior thyroid artery sometimes seen. The branches reach the thymus and travel with the septa of the capsule into the area between the cortex and medulla, where they enter the thymus itself; or alternatively directly enter the capsule. The veins of the thymus end in the left brachiocephalic vein, internal thoracic vein, and in the inferior thyroid veins. Sometimes the veins end directly in the superior vena cava.

Oser and the Hungarian-Austrian, gynecologist but working in Vienna as a private lecturer Wilhelm Schlesinger (1839-1896) made the innervation of the uterus the subject of their investigations and had 1872 an excitation center in the medulla oblongata after that at the transition of the central nervous system to Spinal cord located.Oser and Schlesinger, Experimental Studies on Uterine Movement, Med. Year 1872, p. 57. They also tried to experimentally determine the triggering of uterine movements when the blood was overloaded with carbon dioxide.

Following these initial disappointing results however, a trial in Mexico demonstrated significant motor benefits in two patients with Parkinson's disease who had undergone the procedure. This publication incited widespread interest in the field and over the next few years hundreds of patients received adrenal medulla transplants. It was only when a registry was set up to consolidate all the data was it revealed that most patients did not benefit from the procedure to any significant extent. Furthermore, postoperative complications such as psychiatric disturbances were realized.

The next course of the infection differs in final and accidental hosts. In ducks, schistosomula are observed in synsacral segments of a spinal cord 3 DPI and 7–8 days latter (10–11 DPI) they reach the brain. In their final localisation (the nasal tissue), they occur 13–14 DPI and laying eggs starts 15 DPI. In mice, the first schistosomula are found in a lumbar spinal cord as early as 2 DPI and medulla oblongata is invaded the day after, but only in some individuals.

The renal circulation supplies the blood to the kidneys via the renal arteries, left and right, which branch directly from the abdominal aorta. Despite their relatively small size, the kidneys receive approximately 20% of the cardiac output. Each renal artery branches into segmental arteries, dividing further into interlobar arteries, which penetrate the renal capsule and extend through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. The interlobar arteries then supply blood to the arcuate arteries that run through the boundary of the cortex and the medulla.

The cuneate fasciculus tract is responsible for the sensation of the pronator quadratus position and movement, deep touch, visceral pain, and vibration. This tract begins in the dorsal nerve root where the signal is transmitted through the dorsal horn and up the posterior column of the spinal cord. It synapses with an interneuron in the gracile nucleus. It then decussates in the medial lemniscus of the medulla, travels through the cuneate nucleus and through the medial lemniscus of the midbrain to synapse in the thalamus.

The renal capsule surrounds the functional tissue of the kidney, and is itself surrounded by a fatty adipose capsule, fascia, and fat. From the inner part of the kidney to outside the kidney, the positioning of the capsule is: # renal medulla # renal cortex # renal capsule # adipose capsule of kidney (or perirenal fat, or perinephric fat) # renal fascia # pararenal fat # peritoneum (anteriorly), and transverse fascia (posteriorly). Sometimes the adipose capsule of the kidney also known as the perirenal fat, is regarded as a part of the renal capsule.

SSTRB receptor has approximately 300 nucleotides between carboxyl terminus and transmembrane segments fewer than the original Somatostatin receptor 2. SST2A receptor is made up of 369 amino acids and 346 amino acids make up the SST2B receptor. Somatostatin receptor 2a and somatostatin receptor 2b were found in the medulla oblongata, mesencephalon, testis, cortex, hypothalamus, hippocampus and pituitary of a rodent, using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Somatostatin receptor 2a is highly evident in the cortex, but the somatostatin receptor 2b is not seen as much.

The plan to use the gastrocnemius in running, jumping, knee and plantar flexing is created in the precentral gyrus in the cerebrum of the brain. Once a plan is produced, the signal is sent to and down an upper motor neuron. The signal is passed through the internal capsule and decussates, or crosses, in the medulla oblongata, specifically in the lateral corticospinal tract. The signal continues down through the anterior horn of the spinal cord where the upper motor neuron synapses with the lower motor neuron.

Benign familial tremor (BFT) is responsive to peripheral β adrenergic blockers and β2-stimulation is known to cause tremor. Patients with BFT were found to have increased plasma adrenaline, but not noradrenaline. Low, or absent, concentrations of adrenaline can be seen in autonomic neuropathy or following adrenalectomy. Failure of the adrenal cortex, as with Addison's disease, can suppress adrenaline secretion as the activity of the synthesing enzyme, phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase, depends on the high concentration of cortisol that drains from the cortex to the medulla.

The final anatomical location of the thymic gland is reached at 6 weeks in the fetus. TECs originate from nonhematopoetic cells that are characterized by negative expression of CD45 and positive expression of EpCAM. Then TECs are divided into two phenotypically and functionally different groups that have distinct location, cytokeratin expression, surface markers, maturation factors, proteases and function in a T cell selection. Cortical TECs (cTECs) are presented in the outer cortex region, in comparison with medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs) located in the inner medulla.

Luciana Canêz and Marcelo Marcelli transferred it to Parmotrema in 2008. Characteristics of Parmotrema aberrans include a greenish-yellow thallus (due to the presence of usnic acid), continuous cilia on the margins, cylindrical isidia with cilia, and the presence of gyrophoric acid in the medulla. Parmotrema xanthinum is quite similar in appearance and morphology, but lacks medullary gyrophoric acid. The lichenicolous fungus Macroskyttea parmotrematis (Helotiales), reported as a new genus and species in 2015, inhabits the thalli of Parmotrema aberrans (as well as P. ultralucens).

Mall inspired Sabin by helping narrow her focus onto two projects well regarded by scientistsParkhurst 1930 and foundational to her future research and consequent legacy. The first project was to produce a three-dimensional model of a newborn baby’s brain stem which became the focus of the textbook, An Atlas of the Medulla and Midbrain (1901). The second project involved the embryological development of the lymphatic system which asserted that the lymphatic system is formed from the embryo’s blood vessels and not other tissues.

Arterial baroreceptors are stretch receptors that are stimulated by distortion of the arterial wall when pressure changes. The baroreceptors can identify the changes in both the average blood pressure or the rate of change in pressure with each arterial pulse. Action potentials triggered in the baroreceptor ending are then directly conducted to the brainstem where central terminations (synapses) transmit this information to neurons within the solitary nucleus which lies in the medulla. Reflex responses from such baroreceptor activity can trigger increases or decreases in the heart rate.

In this photography of an horizontal cutting of the lower part of the blade (under an optic microscope) we can distinguish very well the medulla, the cortex and the meristoderm of F.Spiralis. We can also see, by the disposition of the cells, some speciallization and formation of proto-tissues. Fucus spiralis is a species of seaweed, a brown alga (Heterokontophyta, Phaeophyceae), living on the littoral shore of the Atlantic coasts of Europe and North America. It has the common names of spiral wrack and flat wrack.

The lateral cervical nucleus is a scattered nucleus located dorsally in the lateral funiculus in the first three cervical segments of the spine. The spinocervical and spinothalamic tracts synapse in the lateral cervical nucleus; the spinocervical tract projects ipsilaterally while the spinothalamic tract projects contralaterally. The axons of neurons the lateral cervical nucleus cross the midline, join the medial lemniscus as it forms in the caudal medulla and ascend to the ventral posterolateral nucleus.Nolte, John. Nolte’s The Human Brain E-Book: An Introduction to its Functional Anatomy.

Among investigators there is disagreement regarding the terminology used to describe the type of information carried by the accessory nerve. As the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles are derived from the pharyngeal arches, some investigators believe the spinal accessory nerve that innervates them must carry specific special visceral efferent (SVE) information. This is in line with the observation that the spinal accessory nucleus appears to be continuous with the nucleus ambiguus of the medulla. Others consider the spinal accessory nerve to carry general somatic efferent (GSE) information.

The ascospores, which number eight per ascus, are simple, ellipsoid, colourless, and measure 5–8 by 8–14 μm. The upper cortex contains the lichen acids atranorin, chloroatranorin, and secalonic acid. The medulla contains hopane triterpene compounds such as zeorin and leucotylic acid as well as secalonic acid A. The presence of these triterpenes distinguishes this genus from Parmelina, and its segregate genera, including Parmelinella, and Parmelinopsis. secalonic acid A is a yellow pigment that reacts C+ yellow and K+ yellow with lichen spot tests.

The Inner or Deep Part of an Animal or Plant Structure is an official DVD released by Björk on August 31, 2004. It is a 45-minute film about the making of the Medúlla album. The DVD features clips of the studio performances by Dokaka, Shlomo, Rahzel and Mike Patton that formed the beats for many of the songs on the album. It was originally issued as a bonus feature on the multichannel DVD-A of 'Medulla' and then later reissued by itself as a separate disc.

Clinical research on capsaicin has shown that consumption of the spice during breakfast can increase energy expenditure by 23% immediately after meal ingestion.Kawada, T., Sakabe, S., Watanabe, T., Yamamoto, M. and Iwai, K. (1988) Some pungent principles of spices cause the adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamine in anesthetized rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 188:229–233 Capsaicin, also known as hot pepper, is a primary ingredient in chilli peppers and red hot peppers.Westerterp-Plantenga M.S., Smeets A. and Lejeune M.P. (2005) Sensory and gastrointestinal satiety effects of capsaicin on food intake.

Tigerstedt's work on renin was probably inspired by Brown-Sequard's work examining the effect of organ extracts on physiological function. In 1898 Tigerstedt and Bergman made extracts of rabbit kidney and injected them into rabbits. They observed that even a very small amount of the extract increased blood pressure (probably measured by Ludwig's kymograph). They showed that the substance, which they called 'renin' was present in extract of renal cortex or venous blood from the kidney but not in urine, extract of renal medulla or the arterial blood supplying the kidney.

Autonomic functions of the brain include the regulation, or rhythmic control of the heart rate and rate of breathing, and maintaining homeostasis. Blood pressure and heart rate are influenced by the vasomotor centre of the medulla, which causes arteries and veins to be somewhat constricted at rest. It does this by influencing the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems via the vagus nerve. Information about blood pressure is generated by baroreceptors in aortic bodies in the aortic arch, and passed to the brain along the afferent fibres of the vagus nerve.

The dentatothalamic fibers also cross over and ascend to synapse in the ventral intermediate (VI) and ventral anterior (VA) nuclei of the thalamus. The fastigioreticular fibers enter the reticular formation of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. Afferent pathways include the anterior spinocerebellar and tectocerebellar tracts. The fibers of the anterior spinocerebellar tract originate in Clarke's column of the spinal cord and cross in the anterior white commissure to the lateral funiculus, where they ascend to upper pontine levels before crossing back to enter the cerebellum through the superior peduncle.

The human and the murine GPR84 ORFs both encode proteins of 396 amino acid residues length with 85% identity and are therefore considered as orthologs. The hgpr84 was found by Northern blot analysis as a transcript of about 1.5 kb in brain, heart, muscle, colon, thymus, spleen, kidney, liver, intestine, placenta, lung, and leukocytes. In addition, a 1.2 kb transcript in heart and a strong band at 1.3 kb in muscle were detected. A Northern blot from different brain regions revealed strongest expression of the 1.5 kb transcript in the medulla and the spinal cord.

Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen (O2), such as arousal and turning the head during sleep. A failure of this reflex can be fatal, for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome. Hypercapnia can induce increased cardiac output, an elevation in arterial blood pressure (higher levels of carbon dioxide stimulate aortic and carotid chemoreceptors with afferents -CN IX and X- to medulla oblongata with following chrono- and ino-tropic effects), and a propensity toward cardiac arrhythmias. Hypercapnia may increase pulmonary capillary resistance.

Emetics can be divided into two categories, those which produce their effect by acting on the vomiting centre in the medulla, and those which act directly on the stomach itself. Some emetics, such as ipecac, fall into both categories; they initially act directly on the stomach, while their further and more vigorous effect occurs by stimulation of the medullary centre. Salt water and mustard water, which act directly on the stomach, have been used since ancient times as emetics. Care must be taken with salt, as excessive intake can potentially be harmful.

Detailed circuit-level connectomes exist for the lamina and a medulla column, both in the visual system of the fruit fly, and the alpha lobe of the mushroom body. In May 2017 a paper published in bioRxiv presented an electron microscopy image stack of the whole adult female brain at synaptic resolution. The volume is available for sparse tracing of selected circuits. In 2020, a dense connectome of half the central brain of Drosophila was released, along with a web site that allows queries and exploration of this data.

The Arithmetic of Breasts and other stories is her first book of short fiction, shortlisted for The Digital Book of the year award 2014, by Publishing Next, Goa. Her short stories have appeared in several journals including Far Enough East, Sein und Werden, The Medulla Review, The Nassau Review, Women Writers, Writer's Hub, Bewildering Stories, Cantaraville, Muse India, Marijuana Diaries, The Bangalore Review, Revenge Ink, Nivasini, Unisun, Triangulation, Lame Goat Publications, Annapurna magazine, and Rollick Magazine. Her themes are usually around relationships. She writes realism and paranormal fiction.

GAS1 protein widespread distributed in adult mammalian CNS ( central nervous system). Adult mouse brain has been described expressing GAS1 mRNA, and the experiment of Natanael Zarco et al further corroborated this description. Western blot analysis is the main method which has been used in their practical and plays an significant role in successfully determining the distribution of the protein in the adult central nervous system (CNS). Olfactory bulb, caudate-putamen, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, mesencephalon, medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and cervical spinal cord has been identified as the specific expression parts of GAS1.

Animals with a need for very concentrated urine (such as desert animals) have very long loops of Henle to create a very large osmotic gradient. Animals that have abundant water on the other hand (such as beavers) have very short loops. The vasa recta have a similar loop shape so that the gradient does not dissipate into the plasma. The mechanism of counter current multiplication works together with the vasa recta's counter current exchange to prevent the wash out of salts and maintain a high osmolarity at the inner medulla.

Control of the digestive system is also maintained by ENS, which can be thought of as a digestive brain that can help to regulate motility, secretion and growth. Sensory information from the digestive system can be received, integrated and acted upon by the enteric system alone. When this occurs, the reflex is called a short reflex. Although this may be the case in several situations, the ENS can also work in conjunction with the CNS; vagal afferents from the viscera are received by the medulla, efferents are affected by the vagus nerve.

The vestibulospinal tract is part of the "extrapyramidal system" of the central nervous system. In human anatomy, the extrapyramidal system is a neural network located in the brain that is part of the motor system involved in the coordination of movement. The system is called "extrapyramidal" to distinguish it from the tracts of the motor cortex that reach their targets by traveling through the "pyramids" of the medulla. The pyramidal pathways, such as corticospinal and some corticobulbar tracts, may directly innervate motor neurons of the spinal cord or brainstem.

The medial vestibulospinal tract is a group of descending extrapyramidal motor neurons, or efferent fibers found in the anterior funiculus, a bundle of nerve roots in the spinal cord. The medial vestibulospinal tract originates in the medial vestibular nucleus or Schwalbe's nucleus. The Schwalbe's nucleus extends from the rostral end of the inferior olivary nucleus of the medulla oblongata to the caudal portion of the pons. Medial vestibulospinal fibers join with the ipsilateral and contralateral medial longitudinal fasciculus, and descend in the anterior funiculus of the spinal cord.

As the primary motor axons travel down through the cerebral white matter, they move closer together and form part of the posterior limb of the internal capsule. They continue down into the brainstem, where some of them, after crossing over to the contralateral side, distribute to the cranial nerve motor nuclei. (Note: a few motor fibers synapse with lower motor neurons on the same side of the brainstem). After crossing over to the contralateral side in the medulla oblongata (pyramidal decussation), the axons travel down the spinal cord as the lateral corticospinal tract.

Epithelial reticular cells are the primary cell involved with making sure that no T cells are allowed to survive which could attack the body's own cells. It does this by expressing a very large proportion of its genome, and expressing as many 'self' proteins on its cell membrane as possible. As the T cells migrate from the cortex of the thymus to the medulla, they come into contact with many epithelial reticular cells, and if they recognise self proteins as a pathogen, then the epithelial cells destroy them.

The rate and depth of breathing is automatically controlled by the respiratory centers that receive information from the peripheral and central chemoreceptors. These chemoreceptors continuously monitor the partial pressures of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the arterial blood. The sensors are, firstly, the central chemoreceptors on the surface of the medulla oblongata of the brain stem which are particularly sensitive to pH as well as the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid. The second group of sensors measure the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood.

Secretoneurin is involved in chemotaxis of monocytes and eosinophils (comparable in potency to interleukin 8) and endothelial cells and in regulation of endothelial cell proliferation. Highest secretoneurin levels are found in anterior pituitary, followed by adrenal medulla and posterior pituitary hypothalamus (2- to 6-fold lower levels in other brain regions investigated). Secretoneurin has been shown to have potent angiogenic activity in vivo in mouse cornea model and in vitro in a 3-dimensional gel. Secretoneurin also stimulates dopamine release from the central striatal neurons and basal ganglia.

The system relies on specialized neurons, known as baroreceptors chiefly in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses to monitor changes in blood pressure and relay them to the medulla oblongata. Baroreceptors are stretch receptors and respond to the pressure induced stretching of the blood vessel in which they are found. Baroreflex induced changes in blood pressure are mediated by both branches of the autonomic nervous system: the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves. Baroreceptors are active even at normal blood pressures so that their activity informs the brain about both increases and decreases in blood pressure.

GLD-2 is a common and abundant, but yet quite unknown protein that has already been found in each of the five kingdoms. In the animal kingdom, it has been specially detected in Homo sapiens, Drosophila, Xenopus and Mus musculus. However, there has also been noticed the presence of GLD-2 in Arabidopsis thaliana which belongs in the plants kingdom; Escherichia Coli in monera and Candida albicans in fungi. In human beings it is mostly expressed in the brain and within it, in the cerebellum, hippocampus and medulla.

HSD2 neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract (HSD2=green immunofluorescence; MR=red) HSD2 neurons are a small group of neurons in the brainstem which are uniquely sensitive to the mineralocorticosteroid hormone aldosterone, through expression of HSD11B2. They are located within the caudal medulla oblongata, in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS). HSD2 neurons are activated during a prolonged deficit in body sodium or fluid volume, as occurs after dietary sodium deprivation or during frank hypovolemia. They are also activated by supraphysiologic stimulation of the mineralocorticoid receptor.

ADH binds to principal cells in the collecting duct that translocate aquaporins to the membrane, allowing water to leave the normally impermeable membrane and be reabsorbed into the body by the vasa recta, thus increasing the plasma volume of the body. There are two systems that create a hyperosmotic medulla and thus increase the body plasma volume: Urea recycling and the 'single effect.' Urea is usually excreted as a waste product from the kidneys. However, when plasma blood volume is low and ADH is released the aquaporins that are opened are also permeable to urea.

He was a pioneer in psychiatry and what would be called today psychosomatic medicine. He came to hold, as a major conviction of his professional life, the view that the mind plays a far greater role in health and illness than his contemporaries realized. He had seventy-two professional and scientific medical papers published, a great number of which referred to nervous diseases, such as paralysis agitans, sclerosis of Medulla spinalis, aphasia and others. It can be rightly argued that Dr. Laza Lazarević was the first Serbian neurologist.

The medullary ischemic reflex is a big response to a drop in blood pressure in the brain particularly in the medulla, where the lack of oxygen due to decreased perfusion triggers an autonomic response from the cardiac and vasomotor centers. The cardiac and vasomotor centers respond to the decrease in blood pressure with sympathetic outflow to the heart and blood vessels. This outflow causes increased heart rate and force of contraction, as well as bodywide vasoconstriction. Together these responses increase blood pressure and perfusion rate to the brain, ending the feedback loop.

Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH) is released in response to solute concentration in the blood, decreased blood volume, or blood pressure. Some other inputs come from the brainstem, including from some of the noradrenergic neurons of the nucleus of the solitary tract and the ventrolateral medulla. However, many of the direct inputs to the supraoptic nucleus come from neurons just outside the nucleus (the "perinuclear zone"). Of the afferent inputs to the supraoptic nucleus, most contain either the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA or the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, but these transmitters often co-exist with various peptides.

Neuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input (neurotransmitters released by nerve cells or neurosecretory cells) and, as a consequence of this input, release message molecules (hormones) into the blood. In this way they bring about an integration between the nervous system and the endocrine system, a process known as neuroendocrine integration. An example of a neuroendocrine cell is a cell of the adrenal medulla (innermost part of the adrenal gland), which releases adrenaline to the blood. The adrenal medullary cells are controlled by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.

The facial skeleton is composed of dermal bone and derived from the neural crest cells (also responsible for the development of the neurocranium, teeth and adrenal medulla) or from the sclerotome, which derives from the somite block of the mesoderm. As with the neurocranium, in Chondricthyes and other cartilaginous vertebrates, they are not replaced via endochondral ossification. Variation in craniofacial form between humans is largely due to differing patterns of biological inheritance. Cross-analysis of osteological variables and genome-wide SNPs has identified specific genes that control this craniofacial development.

The spino-olivary tract is a non-specific indirect ascending pathway and is connected to olivary nuclei. The axons enter the spinal cord from the dorsal root ganglia and terminate on unknown second-order neurons in the posterior grey column. The axons from the second-order neurons cross the midline and ascend as the spino-olivary tract in the white matter at the junction of the anterior and lateral columns. The axons end by synapsing on third-order neurons in the inferior olivary nuclei in the medulla oblongata.

Brain directions Brain bulbar region Located within the ventrolateral medulla, the pre-Bötzinger complex contains subnetworks that hold distinct synapses and intrinsic membrane properties. In mammals, the respiratory network system and the nuclei controlling breathing modulation are found along the neuronal axis. The neuronal networks involved in respiratory function are located in the ventral respiratory column (VRC). From rostral to caudal, these networks include the retrotrapezoid nucleus/parafacial respiratory group complex (RTN/pFRG), the Bötzinger complex, the pre-Bötzinger complex (pre-BötC), the rostral ventral respiratory group (rVRG), and the caudal VRG (cVRG).

It was named this because some people with the disease had cysts (small holes) in the middle (medulla) of their kidneys. It has since then been found that these cysts are uncommon and are not found in the majority of the patients with MUC1 mutations. For this reason, this name has been abandoned, scientists (part of the Kidney Dialysis Initiatives and Global Outcomes group) specializing in this disease came together formally and created an official name for this and similar conditions. This condition was designated as Autosomal Dominant Tubulointerstitial Kidney Disease (ADTKD).

The central nervous system of Pseudunela cornuta is euthyneurous and composed of the paired cerebral, rhinophoral, optic, pedal, pleural, buccal and gastro-oesophageal ganglia as well as three distinct ganglia on the visceral nerve cord, plus a presumed osphradial ganglion. All ganglia excluding the buccal and gastro-oesophageal ganglia are situated pre- pharyngeally. The central nervous system is epiathroid; the pleural ganglion is located closer to the cerebral ganglion than to the pedal one. All ganglia consist of an outer cortex containing the nuclei and an inner medulla.

Neuromedin U is mediated by two receptors, peripheral NmUR1 and central nervous system NmUR2. Both receptors are examples of Class A G-protein coupled receptors (or GPCRs) with a distinct distributional pattern. NmUR1 is expressed predominantly in the peripheral nervous system, with highest levels in the gastrointestinal tract, whereas NmUR2 is mostly found in the central nervous system, with greatest expression in the hypothalamus, medulla, and spinal cord. The discovery of set distribution patterns has begun to allow assignation of specific roles of the two receptor subtypes within the body.

All of these sensations travel along the same general pathways towards the brain. One pathwaydorsal column-medial lemniscus pathwaybegins with sensation from the periphery being sent via afferent nerve fiber of the dorsal root ganglion (first order neuron) through the spinal cord to the dorsal column nuclei (second order neuron) in the brainstem. The second order neuron's projection decussates at the medulla through medial lemniscus to the third order neurons in the thalamus. The third order neuron's axon terminates at the primary somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe.

Avian kidneys function in almost the same way as the more extensively studied mammalian kidney, but with a few important adaptations; while much of the anatomy remains unchanged in design, some important modifications have occurred during their evolution. A bird has paired kidneys which are connected to the lower gastrointestinal tract through the ureters. Depending on the bird species, the cortex makes up around 71-80% of the kidney's mass, while the medulla is much smaller at about 5-15% of the mass. Blood vessels and other tubes make up the remaining mass.

Pheochromocytoma is a neoplasm composed of cells similar to the chromaffin cells of the mature adrenal medulla. Pheochromocytomas occur in patients of all ages, and may be sporadic, or associated with a hereditary cancer syndrome, such as multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) types IIA and IIB, neurofibromatosis type I, or von Hippel-Lindau syndrome. Only 10% of adrenal pheochromocytomas are malignant, while the rest are benign tumors. The most clinically important feature of pheochromocytomas is their tendency to produce large amounts of the catecholamine hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine.

Dog and cat showing acute stress responses The fight-or-flight response (also called hyperarousal or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing. More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine.

Nerve fibres in the corticospinal tract originate from pyramidal cells in layer V of the cerebral cortex. Fibres arise from the primary motor cortex (about 30%), supplementary motor area and the premotor cortex (together also about 30%), and the somatosensory cortex, parietal lobe, and cingulate gyrus supplies the rest. The cells have their bodies in the cerebral cortex, and the axons form the bulk of the pyramidal tracts. The nerve axons travel from the cortex through the posterior limb of internal capsule, through the cerebral peduncle and into the brainstem and anterior medulla oblongata.

It is suggested that the selectivity of tectal prey feature detectors, type T5.2, is determined by inhibitory influences of pretectal anti-worm detectors of the type TH3. Pretectal lesions impaired the prey-selectivity. Axons from the feature sensitive/selective neurons of the optic tectum and thalamic-pretectal region then contact motor structures in the medulla oblongata, thus forming a sensorimotor interface. According to Ewert, this sensorimotor interface may serve as the "releaser" which recognizes sensory signals with assemblies of complex feature detectors and executes the corresponding motor responses.

BMP4 is an important component of the biological pathways that involved regulating hair shaft differentiation within the anagen hair follicle. The strongest levels of expressed BMP4 are found within the medulla, hair shaft cells, distal hair matrix, and potential precursors of the cuticle. The two main methods which BMP4 inhibit expression of hair is through restricting growth factor expression in the hair matrix and antagonism between growth and differentiation signaling. Pathways that regulate hair follicle formation and hair growth are key in developing therapeutic methods for hair loss conditions.

Ommaya was well known for his surgical skill and in 1977 he completed a difficult removal of a spinal arterio-venous malformation (AVM) which received attention in the lay press. During the 18-hour operation the patient was placed in total body hypothermia and total circulatory arrest for 45 minutes. The hypothermia was needed to slow metabolism and protect the brain and organs from reduced oxygen supply while Ommaya surgically embolized and removed an AVM which was located near the medulla. Ommaya was the honorary physician to the President of Pakistan.

So understanding these central actions also became the province of neuroendocrinologists, sometimes even when these peptides cropped up in quite different parts of the brain that appeared to serve functions unrelated to endocrine regulation. Neuroendocrine neurons were discovered in the peripheral nervous system, regulating, for instance, digestion. The cells in the adrenal medulla that release adrenaline and noradrenaline proved to have properties between endocrine cells and neurons, and proved to be outstanding model systems for instance for the study of the molecular mechanisms of exocytosis. And these, too, have become, by extension, neuroendocrine systems.

Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input, such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe, and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning. The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the medulla oblongata controls some organ functions including heartbeat and respiration. The brain sends signals through the spinal cord and nerves to regulate activity in the rest of the body. The pineal body, known to regulate sleep patterns in humans, is thought to produce the hormones involved in hibernation and aestivation in amphibians.

At high urine flow rates (greater than 2 ml/min), 40% of the filtered load is reabsorbed, and at flow rates lower than 2 ml/min, reabsorption may increase to 60%. Low flow, as in urinary tract obstruction, allows more time for reabsorption and is often associated with increases in antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which increases the permeability of the terminal collecting tubule to urea. During ADH-induced antidiuresis, urea secretion contributes to the intratubular concentration of urea. The subsequent buildup of urea in the inner medulla is critical to the process of urinary concentration.

Proprioceptive information is taken to the spinal cord via central processes of dorsal root ganglia (first order neurons). These central processes travel through the dorsal horn where they synapse with second order neurons of Clarke's nucleus. Axon fibers from Clarke's Nucleus convey this proprioceptive information in the spinal cord in the peripheral region of the funiculus posterior ipsilaterally. The fibers continue to course through the medulla oblongata of the brainstem, at which point they pass through the inferior cerebellar peduncle and into the cerebellum, where unconscious proprioceptive information is processed.

As little of the medication crosses the blood brain barrier it has less effect on the brain and therefore has reduced occurrence of the centrally mediated effects (such as delusions, somnolence, and inhibition of motor-functions) which hinder the usefulness of some other anticholinergic drugs. Hyoscine butylbromide is still capable of impacting the chemoreceptor trigger zone due to the lack of a well-developed blood-brain-barrier in the medulla oblongata, which potentiates the antiemetic effects that it produces via local action on the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract.

Like mammalian kidneys, the avian kidney contains a medullary region and a cortical region. Peripherally located around the cortical region, the collecting ducts gather into cone-like ducts, medullary cones, which converge into the ureters. There are two types of nephrons in the kidney: nephrons that are located in the cortex and do not contain the loop of Henle are called loopless nephrons, the other type is called looped or mammalian nephrons. Looped nephrons contain the loop of Henle that continue down into the medulla then enter the distal tubule drain towards the ureter.

The genus Vermilacinia was distinguished from Niebla by the absence of longitudinal organization of hyphal cells within the medulla into chondroid strands, and by the secondary metabolites (lichen substances) primarily terpenes that include the triterpene zeorin, the diterpenes (-)-16 α-hydroxykaurane, an unidentified triterpene, referred to as T3, and the aliphatic depside, bourgeanic acid. None of these lichen substances are present in Niebla. Peter Bowler with coauthor Janet Marsh in the Lichen Flora of the Greater Sonoran DesertBowler, P. and J. Marsh. 2004. "Niebla". 'Lichen Flora of the Greater Sonoran Desert 2': 368–380.

The first-order neurons are sensory neurons located in the dorsal root ganglia, that send their afferent fibers through the two dorsal columns – the gracile fasciculus, or gracile tract, and the cuneate fasciculus, or cuneate tract. The first-order axons make contact with second- order neurons of the dorsal column nuclei (the gracile nucleus and the cuneate nucleus) in the lower medulla. The second-order neurons send their axons to the thalamus. The third-order neurons are in the ventral nuclear group in the thalamus and fibres from these ascend to the postcentral gyrus.

Negative selection can occur at the double positive stage in the cortex. However the repertoire of peptides in the cortex is limited to those expressed by epithelial cells, and double positive cells are poor at undergoing negative selection. Therefore, the most important site for negative selection is the medulla, once cells are at the single positive stage. In order to remove thymocytes reactive to peripheral organs, the transcription factors Aire and Fezf2 drive the expression of multiple peripheral antigens, such as insulin, resulting in deletion of cells specific for those antigens.

Cell 163, 975 - 987 This allows single positive thymocytes to be exposed to a more complex set of self- antigens than is present in the cortex, and therefore more efficiently deletes those T cells which are autoreactive. Single positive thymocytes remain in the medulla for 1–2 weeks, surveying self-antigens to test for autoreactivity. During this time they undergo final maturational changes, and then exit the thymus using S1P and CCR7. Upon entry to the peripheral bloodstream, the cells are considered mature T cells, and not thymocytes.

The modern rediscovery of CSF is credited to Emanuel Swedenborg. In a manuscript written between 1741 and 1744, unpublished in his lifetime, Swedenborg referred to CSF as "spirituous lymph" secreted from the roof of the fourth ventricle down to the medulla oblongata and spinal cord. This manuscript was eventually published in translation in 1887. Albrecht von Haller, a Swiss physician and physiologist, made note in his 1747 book on physiology that the "water" in the brain was secreted into the ventricles and absorbed in the veins, and when secreted in excess, could lead to hydrocephalus.

The thickness of the aorta requires an extensive network of tiny blood vessels called vasa vasorum, which feed the tunica externa and tunica media outer layers of the aorta. The aortic arch contains baroreceptors and chemoreceptors that relay information concerning blood pressure and blood pH and carbon dioxide levels to the medulla oblongata of the brain. This information is processed by the brain and the autonomic nervous system mediates the homeostatic responses. Within the tunica media, smooth muscle and the extracellular matrix are quantitatively the largest components of the aortic vascular wall.

The lateral corticospinal tract is responsible for the motor pathway of the pronator quadratus. This tract begins in the precentral gyrus of the motor cortex where a signal is transmitted from the upper motor nerve through the progression tracts of the internal capsule and through the cerebral peduncles of the midbrain. It decussates in the medulla and travels down the lateral corticospinal tract in the lateral column of the spinal cord. It then decussates in the spinal cord and synapses at the anterior horn to the lower motor neurons of the skeletal muscles.

Primarily referred to in the United States as epinephrine and norepinephrine, adrenaline and noradrenaline are catecholamines, water-soluble compounds that have a structure made of a catechol group and an amine group. The adrenal glands are responsible for most of the adrenaline that circulates in the body, but only for a small amount of circulating noradrenaline. These hormones are released by the adrenal medulla, which contains a dense network of blood vessels. Adrenaline and noradrenaline act at adrenoreceptors throughout the body, with effects that include an increase in blood pressure and heart rate.

The area postrema is located in the caudal medulla oblongata near the junction of the brainstem and the spinal cord. In humans and in most other mammals that have been studied, it consists of swellings on either wall of the fourth ventricle. In rodents and lagomorphs, however, the area postrema forms a midline structure dorsal to the obex. When viewed histologically for its capillary distribution and morphology, the area postrema has numerous subregions separated according to capillary permeability, rates of blood flow, and duration of blood transit through respective capillary beds.

3D Medical Animation Still Shot Showing Different Parts of Mid-Brain The brainstem (or brain stem) is the posterior part of the brain, continuous with the spinal cord. In the human brain the brainstem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain is continuous with the thalamus of the diencephalon through the tentorial notch, and sometimes the diencephalon is included in the brainstem. The brainstem is a very small component of the brain, making up only around 2.6 percent of its total weight.

Parts of the brainstem are responsible for passive emotional coping strategies that are characterized by disengagement or withdrawal from the external environment (quiescence, immobility, hyporeactivity), similar to what is seen in blunted affect. Individuals with schizophrenia with blunted affect show activation of the brainstem during fMRI scans, particularly the right medulla and the left pons, when shown "sad" film excerpts. The bilateral midbrain is also activated in individuals with schizophrenia diagnosed with blunted affect. Activation of the midbrain is thought to be related to autonomic responses associated with perceptual processing of emotional stimuli.

The gracile nucleus is medial to the cuneate nucleus; its neurons receive afferent input from dorsal root ganglia sensory neurons subserving the lower trunk and limbs. The gracile nucleus and gracile fasciculus carry epicritic, kinesthetic, and conscious proprioceptive information from the lower part of the body (below the level of T6 in the spinal cord). Because of the large population of neurons in the gracile nucleus they give rise to a raised area called the gracile tubercle on the posterior side of the closed medulla at the floor of the fourth ventricle.

The fibers of the vestibular nerve enter the medulla oblongata on the medial side of those of the cochlear, and pass between the inferior peduncle and the spinal tract of the trigeminal nerve. They then divide into ascending and descending fibers. The latter end by arborizing around the cells of the medial nucleus, which is situated in the area acustica of the rhomboid fossa. The ascending fibers either end in the same manner or in the lateral nucleus, which is situated lateral to the area acustica and farther from the ventricular floor.

Sympathetic nerve receptors are classified as adrenergic, based on their responsiveness to adrenaline. The term "adrenergic" is often misinterpreted in that the main sympathetic neurotransmitter is noradrenaline, rather than adrenaline, as discovered by Ulf von Euler in 1946. Adrenaline does have a β2 adrenoceptor-mediated effect on metabolism and the airway, there being no direct neural connection from the sympathetic ganglia to the airway. The concept of the adrenal medulla and the sympathetic nervous system being involved in the flight, fight and fright response was originally proposed by Cannon.

Increased adrenaline secretion is observed in pheochromocytoma, hypoglycemia, myocardial infarction and to a lesser degree in essential tremor (also known as benign, familial or idiopathic tremor). A general increase in sympathetic neural activity is usually accompanied by increased adrenaline secretion, but there is selectivity during hypoxia and hypoglycaemia, when the ratio of adrenaline to noradrenaline is considerably increased. Therefore, there must be some autonomy of the adrenal medulla from the rest of the sympathetic system. Myocardial infarction is associated with high levels of circulating adrenaline and noradrenaline, particularly in cardiogenic shock.

An adrenaline junkie is somebody who engages in sensation-seeking behavior through "the pursuit of novel and intense experiences without regard for physical, social, legal or financial risk". Such activities include extreme and risky sports, substance abuse, unsafe sex, and crime. The term relates to the increase in circulating levels of adrenaline during physiological stress. Such an increase in the circulating concentration of adrenaline is secondary to activation of the sympathetic nerves innervating the adrenal medulla, as it is rapid and not present in animals where the adrenal gland has been removed.

Although Niebla arenaria was described in 1996, it had been known earlier as a chemical variant of Niebla pulchribarbara that was distinguished from Niebla homalea by containing depsidones instead of depsides, and from Niebla josecuervoi by the lack of central basal attachment point and without apothecia.Rundel P., P. A. Bowler and T. W. Mulroy. 1972. A fog-induced lichen community in northwestern Baja California, with two new species of Desmazieria The Bryologist 75: 501–508. These two groups of lichen substances could be separated by the medulla reaction to para-phenylenediamine, depsidones (pd+), depsides (pd-).

The three subspecies of Callicebus personatus are products of clinical differentiation (when certain portions of the population are cut off from the parental stock due to an ecological barrier such as a river and are thus completely genetically isolated from one another). Distinctions between each of the Callicebus subspecies are based on coat color. The evolution of these coat colors is termed metachromism. The pigments are produced by melanocytes which deposit the pigments into the medulla of growing hair so that the hair grows with the color of that distinct pigment.

The loop of Henle is a U-shaped tube that extends from the proximal tubule. It consists of a descending limb and an ascending limb. It begins in the cortex, receiving filtrate from the proximal convoluted tubule, extends into the medulla as the descending limb, and then returns to the cortex as the ascending limb to empty into the distal convoluted tubule. The primary role of the loop of Henle is to enable an organism to produce concentrated urine, not by increasing the tubular concentration, but by rendering the interstitial fluid hypertonic.

Mouse kidney: (a) MALDI spectra from the tissue. (b) H&E; stained tissue. N-glycans at m/z = 1996.7 (c) is located in the cortex and medulla while m/z = 2158.7 (d) is in the cortex, (e) An overlay image of these two masses, (f) untreated control tissue. MALDI mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) is the use of matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization as a mass spectrometry imaging technique in which the sample, often a thin tissue section, is moved in two dimensions while the mass spectrum is recorded.

He also demonstrated the continuity of all meninges with the envelopes of nerves and with the filum terminale. The second group of studies, “Vessels of the Spinal Medulla” (1900–1904) and of the Brainstem (1913) started with a communication read by the young Sterzi at the 14th Congress of the German Anatomical Society in 1900. It includes a paper of 370 pages written in German for the journal Anatomische Hefte (Sterzi, 1904), dealing with the comparative anatomy and embryology of these vessels from the cyclostomes (petromyzontes) to man.

Intraparenchymal bleeds within the medulla oblongata are almost always fatal, because they cause damage to cranial nerve X, the vagus nerve, which plays an important role in blood circulation and breathing. This kind of hemorrhage can also occur in the cortex or subcortical areas, usually in the frontal or temporal lobes when due to head injury, and sometimes in the cerebellum.Graham DI and Gennareli TA. Chapter 5, "Pathology of Brain Damage After Head Injury" Cooper P and Golfinos G. 2000. Head Injury, 4th Ed. Morgan Hill, New York.

In the medulla, at the dorsal column, nuclei of the first-order neuron synapse with the second- order neuron, which then decussates (crosses over to the other side of the central nervous system) into the medial lemniscus. The second-order neuron then carries the information to the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus and then the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe. Immediately, the posterior parietal lobe synthesizes the information into a recognizable pattern. The coded information is then sent to the prefrontal cortex to devise a motor response to the stimulation.

Climbing fibers are the name given to a series of neuronal projections from the inferior olivary nucleus located in the medulla oblongata. Image of Parallel fiber These axons pass through the pons and enter the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle where they form synapses with the deep cerebellar nuclei and Purkinje cells. Each climbing fiber will form synapses with 1-10 Purkinje cells. Early in development, Purkinje cells are innervated by multiple climbing fibers, but as the cerebellum matures, these inputs gradually become eliminated resulting in a single climbing fiber input per Purkinje cell.

The cupula, and the stereocilia within, are moved by a certain amount depending on the movement of the surrounding water. Afferent nerve fibers are excited or inhibited depending on whether the hair cells they arise from are deflected in the preferred or opposite direction. Lateral line receptors form somatotopic maps within the brain informing the fish of amplitude and direction of flow at different points along the body. These maps are located in the medial octavolateral nucleus (MON) of the medulla and in higher areas such as the torus semicircularis.

In fact, when herniation is visible on a CT scan, the prognosis for a meaningful recovery of neurological function is poor. The patient may become paralyzed on the same side as the lesion causing the pressure, or damage to parts of the brain caused by herniation may cause paralysis on the side opposite the lesion. Damage to the midbrain, which contains the reticular activating network which regulates consciousness, will result in coma. Damage to the cardio-respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata will cause respiratory arrest and (secondarily) cardiac arrest.

From the anterior portion of the medulla oblongata, the glossopharyngeal nerve passes laterally across or below the flocculus, and leaves the skull through the central part of the jugular foramen. From the superior and inferior ganglia in jugular foramen, it has its own sheath of dura mater. The inferior ganglion on the inferior surface of petrous part of temporal is related with a triangular depression into which the aqueduct of cochlea opens. On the inferior side, the glossopharyngeal nerve is lateral and anterior to the vagus nerve and accessory nerve.

The hypoglossal nerve is derived from the first pair of occipital somites, collections of mesoderm that form next to the main axis of an embryo during development. The musculature it supplies develop as the hypoglossal cord from the myotomes of the first four pairs of occipital somites. The nerve is first visible as a series of roots in the fourth week of development, which have formed a single nerve and link to the tongue by the fifth week. The hypoglossal nucleus is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic medulla oblongata.

The spinal trigeminal nucleus represents pain-temperature sensation from the face. Pain-temperature fibers from peripheral nociceptors are carried in cranial nerves V, VII, IX and X. On entering the brainstem, sensory fibers are grouped and sent to the spinal trigeminal nucleus. This bundle of incoming fibers can be identified in cross-sections of the pons and medulla as the spinal tract of the trigeminal nucleus, which parallels the spinal trigeminal nucleus. The spinal tract of V is analogous to, and continuous with, Lissauer's tract in the spinal cord.

The bat's kidneys have a mean renal index of 5.55. This means that the bat's inner medulla, the part of the kidney that collects waste, is very large compared to the overall size of the organ, so that the animal can remove much of the waste out the water it drinks. The bats have a predicted mean maximum urine concentration of 3,921 mosmol/kg, which means the urine they produce is very concentrated. From this, scientists have tentatively come to the conclusion that this species' kidneys offer valuable water conservation.

A male typically inherits an X chromosome from ovum and a Y chromosome from spermatozoon. The presence of the sex-determining-region of the Y chromosome, or SRY gene, determines the embryo being a male. Internal and external male genitalia development from bipotential gonad in embryo. SRY gene encodes testis-determining SRY factor (TDF) protein that promotes expression of several other genes such as SRY-box 9 (SOX-9) gene and steroidogenic factor-1 (SF1) gene, causing differentiation of the medulla of bipotential gonad into testis by week six.

Glucose, a necessary source of energy for cells, can undergo an increase in production due to elevated secretion of epinephrine in the body. The mechanism lies in epinephrine being secreted by the adrenal medulla and activating glycogenolysis (the break down of glycogen into glucose, or promoting gluconeogenesis (glucose formation). While epinephrine has a greater effect in glucose production, norepinephrine can also increase glucose levels but at high concentrations. It has even been found that norepinephrine may play a role in enhancing the uptake of glucose in skeletal muscle and adipose tissues.

The chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ) is an area of the medulla oblongata that receives inputs from blood-borne drugs or hormones, and communicates with other structures in the vomiting center to initiate vomiting. The CTZ is located within the area postrema, which is on the floor of the fourth ventricle and is outside of the blood–brain barrier. It is also part of the vomiting center itself. The neurotransmitters implicated in the control of nausea and vomiting include acetylcholine, dopamine, histamine (H1 receptor), substance P (NK-1 receptor), and serotonin (5-HT3 receptor).

Since the CTZ is located in the area postrema, a sensory circumventricular organ, it does not have a blood–brain barrier. This means that large polar molecules, such as emetic toxins, can diffuse through to and reach the CTZ quite easily. This is because the medulla oblongata is located in the area of the brain, the most inferior portion, which does not have a robust and highly developed blood-brain barrier. Without this barrier, emetic drugs and toxins are free to interact with a receptor (biochemistry), or multiple receptors located in the CTZ.

Occlusion of blood vessels that supply the nerves or their nuclei, an ischemic stroke, may cause specific signs and symptoms relating to the damaged area. If there is a stroke of the midbrain, pons or medulla, various cranial nerves may be damaged, resulting in dysfunction and symptoms of a number of different syndromes. Thrombosis, such as a cavernous sinus thrombosis, refers to a clot (thrombus) affecting the venous drainage from the cavernous sinus, affects the optic (II), oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), opthalamic branch of the trigeminal nerve (V1) and the abducens nerve (VI).

The reticular formation is a set of interconnected nuclei that are located throughout the brainstem. It is not anatomically well defined, because it includes neurons located in different parts of the brain. The neurons of the reticular formation make up a complex set of networks in the core of the brainstem that extend from the upper part of the midbrain to the lower part of the medulla oblongata. The reticular formation includes ascending pathways to the cortex in the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and descending pathways to the spinal cord via the reticulospinal tracts.

The anterior median fissure of the spinal cord has an average depth of about 3 mm, but this is increased in the lower part of the spinal cord. It contains a double fold of pia mater, and its floor is formed by a transverse band of white substance, the anterior white commissure, which is perforated by blood vessels on their way to or from the central part of the medulla spinalis. The anterior median fissure provides a groove in which the anterior spinal artery sits. From here, it provides the anterior part of the spinal cord.

The apex of the posterior grey column, one of the three grey columns of the spinal cord, is capped by a V-shaped or crescentic mass of translucent, gelatinous neuroglia, termed the substantia gelatinosa of Rolando (or SGR) (or gelatinous substance of posterior horn of spinal cord), which contains both neuroglia cells, and small nerve cells. The gelatinous appearance is due to a very low concentration of myelinated fibers. It extends the entire length of the spinal cord and into the medulla oblongata where it becomes the spinal nucleus of the trigeminal nerve. It is named after Luigi Rolando.

Cerebellar vermis has three main parts: vestibulocerebellum (eye movements regulated by the integration of visual info provided by the superior colliculus and balance info), spinocerebellum [integrates visual, auditory, proprioceptive, and balance info to act out body and limb movements. Trigeminal and dorsal column (of spinal cord) proprioceptive input, midbrain, thalamus, reticular formation and vestibular nuclei (medulla) outputs], and cerebrocerebellum (plans, times, and initiates movement after evaluating sensory input from, primarily, motor cortex areas, via pons and cerebellar dentate nucleus. It outputs to thalamus, motor cortex areas, and red nucleus).Chen, S.H. Annabel, and John E. Desmond.

Bilirubin, a waste product derived from blood cells, is passed through bile and urine with the help of enzymes excreted by the liver. The passing of bilirubin via bile through the intestinal tract gives mammalian feces a distinctive brown coloration. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids, and of a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla, which is due to the presence of elongated loops of Henle. Only the mammalian kidney has a bean shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed reniculate kidneys of pinnipeds, cetaceans and bears.

Blood from the cerebellum and midbrain drains into the great cerebral vein. Blood from the medulla and pons of the brainstem have a variable pattern of drainage, either into the spinal veins or into adjacent cerebral veins. The blood in the deep part of the brain drains, through a venous plexus into the cavernous sinus at the front, and the superior and inferior petrosal sinuses at the sides, and the inferior sagittal sinus at the back. Blood drains from the outer brain into the large superior sagittal sinus, which rests in the midline on top of the brain.

The hands and mouth have a much larger area dedicated to them than other body parts, allowing finer movement; this has been visualised in a motor homunculus. Impulses generated from the motor cortex travel along the corticospinal tract along the front of the medulla and cross over (decussate) at the medullary pyramids. These then travel down the spinal cord, with most connecting to interneurons, in turn connecting to lower motor neurons within the grey matter that then transmit the impulse to move to muscles themselves. The cerebellum and basal ganglia, play a role in fine, complex and coordinated muscle movements.

It receives information from the caudal solitary tract and transmits signals mainly to the medial hypothalamus but also to the lateral hypothalamus and many of the nuclei targeted by the medial parabrachial nucleus. The subparabrachial nucleus, also known as the Kölliker-Fuse nucleus and diffuse reticular nucleus, is one of the three parabrachial nuclei between the midbrain and the pons. The subparabrachial nucleus regulates the breathing rate. It receives signals from the caudal, cardio-respiratory part of the solitary nucleus and sends signals to the lower medulla oblongata, the spinal cord, the amygdala and the lateral hypothalamus.

In 1663 in his Disputationem Medicarum, Franciscus Sylvius under his own name described the lateral fissure: "Particularly noticeable is the deep fissure or hiatus which begins at the roots of the eyes (oculorum radices) [...] it runs posteriorly above the temples as far as the roots of the brain stem (medulla radices). [...] It divides the cerebrum into an upper, larger part and a lower, smaller part". The Sylvian fissure and the Sylvian aqueduct are named after him. The mineral sylvite was also named for Sylvius.. His book Opera Medica, published posthumously in 1679, recognizes scrofula and phthisis as forms of tuberculosis.

Vomiting is caused when impulses from the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CRTZ) in the brain are sent to the vomiting center in the medulla. Motion sickness specifically occurs when signals to the CRTZ originate from the inner ear: motion is sensed by the fluid of the semicircular canals, which causes overstimulation. The signal travels to the brain's vestibular nuclei, then to the CRTZ, and finally to the vomiting center. Maropitant has a similar structure to substance P, the key neurotransmitter in causing vomiting, which allows it to act as an antagonist and bind to the substance P receptor neurokinin 1 (NK1).

Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) reside in the medulla of the bone (bone marrow) and have the unique ability to give rise to all of the different mature blood cell types and tissues. HSCs are self-renewing cells: when they differentiate, at least some of their daughter cells remain as HSCs, so the pool of stem cells is not depleted.This phenomenon is called asymmetric division. The other daughters of HSCs (myeloid and lymphoid progenitor cells) can follow any of the other differentiation pathways that lead to the production of one or more specific types of blood cell, but cannot renew themselves.

This artery splits into an internal and external branch, of which the latter extends dorsally and divides into five branches that supply the general cheek region. The branch that extends dorsally to the ear is known as the auricular branch. As for innervation of this structure, the associated nerve branches were all found to originate from the facial (CN VII of XII) nerve which initiates at the medulla and passes into the facial canal via the stylomastoid foramen. The primary aforementioned muscle, the masseter, is supplied by two large neural branches known as the temporalis and zygomatic nerves.

Yellow pseudocyphellea on the underside of a species of Pseudocyphellaria in Patagonia Pseudocyphellae (singular pseudocyphella) are structures in lichens that appear as tiny pores on the outer surface of the lichen. They are caused when there is a break in the cortex of the lichen, and the medullary hyphae extend to the surface. Pseudocyphellae are the same colour as the medulla of the lichen, which is generally white, but can be yellow in some species of Pseudocyphellaria and in Bryoria fremontii. The presence/absence, abundance, colour, and shape of pseudocyphellae can all be diagnostic features used to identify different species.

The combination of intracerebral hemorrhage and raised intracranial pressure (if present) leads to a "sympathetic surge", i.e. over-activation of the sympathetic system. This is thought to occur through two mechanisms, a direct effect on the medulla that leads to activation of the descending sympathetic nervous system and a local release of inflammatory mediators that circulate to the peripheral circulation where they activate the sympathetic system. As a consequence of the sympathetic surge there is a sudden increase in blood pressure; mediated by increased contractility of the ventricle and increased vasoconstriction leading to increased systemic vascular resistance.

The neocortex ratio of a species is the ratio of the size of the neocortex to the rest of the brain. A high neocortex ratio is thought to correlate with a number of social variables such as group size and the complexity of social mating behaviors. (See Dunbar's number) Humans have a large neocortex as a percentage of total brain matter when compared with other mammals. For example, there is only a 30:1 ratio of neocortical gray matter to the size of the medulla in the brainstem of chimpanzees, while the ratio is 60:1 in humans.

Lee showed that fatty acids were the preferred substrate of the rabbit's kidney cortex at normothermic temperatures, and glucose the preferred substrate for the medullary cells which normally metabolise anaerobically. Abodeely showed that both fatty acids and glucose could be utilised by the outer medulla of the rabbit's kidney but that glucose was used preferentially. At hypothermia the metabolic needs of the kidney are much reduced but measurable consumption of glucose, fatty acids and ketone bodies occurs. Horsburgh showed that lipid is utilised by hypothermic kidneys, with palmitate consumption being 0-15% of normal in the rat kidney cortex at 15 °C.

Foxp3+ Treg generation in the thymus is delayed by several days compared to Teff cells and does not reach adult levels in either the thymus or periphery until around three weeks post-partum. Treg cells require CD28 co-stimulation and B7.2 expression is largely restricted to the medulla, the development of which seems to parallel the development of Foxp3+ cells. It has been suggested that the two are linked, but no definitive link between the processes has yet been shown. TGF-β is not required for Treg functionality, in the thymus, as thymic Tregs from TGF-β insensitive TGFβRII-DN mice are functional.

Under most conditions, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2), or concentration of carbon dioxide, controls the respiratory rate. The peripheral chemoreceptors that detect changes in the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are located in the arterial aortic bodies and the carotid bodies. Central chemoreceptors are primarily sensitive to changes in the pH in the blood, (resulting from changes in the levels of carbon dioxide) and they are located on the medulla oblongata near to the medullar respiratory groups of the respiratory center. Information from the peripheral chemoreceptors is conveyed along nerves to the respiratory groups of the respiratory center.

The PVN receives afferent inputs from many brain regions and different parts of the body, by hormonal control. Among these, inputs from neurons in structures adjacent to the anterior wall of the third ventricle (the "AV3V region") carry information about the electrolyte composition of the blood, and about circulating concentrations of such hormones as angiotensin and relaxin, to regulate the magnocellular neurons. Inputs from the brainstem (the nucleus of the solitary tract) and the ventrolateral medulla carry information from the heart and stomach. Inputs from the hippocampus to the CRH neurones are important regulators of stress responses.

Heterotrimeric G-protein Gαo2 decreases VMAT1 activity in pancreatic and adrenal medulla cells, and activates heterotrimeric G-proteins inhibit VMAT2 activity in the brain, regardless of whether localised on small clear-core or large-dense-core vesicles. Activated heterotrimeric G-protein Gαq downregulates VMAT2 mediated serotonin transport in blood platelets, but this is not the case in the brain where Gαq inhibits VMAT2 activity completely. Although the exact signalling pathway for G-protein mediated regulation of VMATs is not known, it has recently been described that implicated G-proteins act directly on the VMATs themselves.Remin, R., Schuldiner, S., 2003.

Sickle cell nephropathy is a type of nephropathy associated with sickle cell disease which causes kidney complications as a result of sickling of red blood cells in the small blood vessels. The hypertonic and relatively hypoxic environment of the renal medulla, coupled with the slow blood flow in the vasa recta, favors sickling of red blood cells, with resultant local infarction (papillary necrosis). Functional tubule defects in patients with sickle cell disease are likely the result of partial ischemic injury to the renal tubules. Also the sickle cell disease in young patients is characterized by renal hyperperfusion, glomerular hypertrophy, and glomerular hyperfiltration.

Papillary infarcts, demonstrable radiographically in 50% of patients with sickle trait, lead to an increased risk of bacterial infection in the scarred kidney tissues and functional tubule abnormalities. The presence of visible blood in the urine without pain occurs with a higher frequency in sickle trait than in sickle cell disease and likely results from infarctive episodes in the renal medulla. Functional tubule abnormalities such as nephrogenic diabetes insipidus result from marked reduction in vasa recta blood flow, combined with ischemic tubule injury. This concentrating defect places these patients at increased risk of dehydration and, hence, sickling crises.

The onset of an acute stress response is associated with specific physiological actions in the sympathetic nervous system, both directly and indirectly through the release of adrenaline and, to a lesser extent, noradrenaline from the medulla of the adrenal glands. These catecholamine hormones facilitate immediate physical reactions by triggering increases in heart rate and breathing, constricting blood vessels. An abundance of catecholamines at neuroreceptor sites facilitates reliance on spontaneous or intuitive behaviours often related to combat or escape. Normally, when a person is in a serene, non-stimulated state, the firing of neurons in the locus ceruleus is minimal.

Concentrations of 3-6 μg/mL produced contractions of the isolated guinea pig ileum which were inhibited by pre-treatment with atropine, hexamethonium, tubocurarine or cocaine, but were not affected by the presence of pyribenzamine or chlorpheniramine. Summarizing the results of these and other observations, the authors concluded that: candicine was primarily a stimulant of autonomic ganglia; it liberated catecholamines from the adrenal medulla; it showed muscarine-like and sympathomimetic effects in some assays, and it was a neuromuscular blocker of the depolarizing type. In many of these respects, candicine resembled nicotine and dimethylphenylpiperazinium (DMPP).T. Deguchi et al. (1963).

The set point temperature of the body will remain elevated until PGE2 is no longer present. PGE2 acts on neurons in the preoptic area (POA) through the prostaglandin E receptor 3 (EP3). EP3-expressing neurons in the POA innervate the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH), the rostral raphe pallidus nucleus in the medulla oblongata (rRPa), and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus . Fever signals sent to the DMH and rRPa lead to stimulation of the sympathetic output system, which evokes non-shivering thermogenesis to produce body heat and skin vasoconstriction to decrease heat loss from the body surface.

" Hollis's "sound and orthodox principles" initially meant Congregationalist or Calvinist. The chair's first occupant, Edward Wigglesworth (1732–1794), had to swear allegiance to the Medulla Theologiae, a Calvinist theological manual by William Ames. The chair was first unoccupied, briefly, from 1803 to 1805, when the Puritans at Harvard ceded power to the Unitarians; in 1805, Unitarian Henry Ware assumed the post. Proponents of the Unitarian faction pointed out that it would be impossible to find a man orthodox enough for the 1720s in the early nineteenth century; "orthodox" they interpreted as following "the general sentiment of the country.

Lowy, in 1951, described a key to the species of Auricularia that emphasized the internal structure of the fruit body, while de-emphasizing traditional characteristics such as color, shape and size, which he considered to be too variable and dependent upon such factors as the age of the specimen, exposure to light, or availability of moisture. The characteristics he emphasized were the presence or absence, width and morphology of the medulla (the part composed mainly or entirely of longitudinal hyphae), and the length of the abhymenial hairs, features that are currently used in defining species in this genus.

Absent adrenal gland is a rare condition where the adrenal gland is absent at birth. It should not be confused with adrenal insufficiency or congenital adrenal hyperplasia, where the gland is present but may not be functioning adequately. Due to the absence of adrenal cortex, the condition causes extreme symptoms of adrenal insufficiency at birth due to very low levels of aldosterone and cortisol. The adrenal medulla can be normally present, poorly formed, or absent, however even so the effects of circulatory catecholamine deficiency are generally mild (due to sympathetic nervous system compensation), except in episodes of hypoglycemia.

Coughing is a mechanism of the body that is essential to normal physiological function of clearing the throat which involves a reflex of the afferent sensory limb, central processing centre of the brain and the efferent limb. In conjunction to the components of the body that are involved, sensory receptors are also used. These receptors include rapidly adapting receptors which respond to mechanical stimuli, slowly adapting receptors and nociceptors which respond to chemical stimuli such as hormones in the body. To start the reflex, the afferent impulses are transmitted to the medulla of the brain this involves the stimulus which is then interpreted.

Vagovagal reflex refers to gastrointestinal tract reflex circuits where afferent and efferent fibers of the vagus nerve coordinate responses to gut stimuli via the dorsal vagal complex in the brain. The vagovagal reflex controls contraction of the gastrointestinal muscle layers in response to distension of the tract by food. This reflex also allows for the accommodation of large amounts of food in the gastrointestinal tracts. The vagus nerve, composed of both sensory afferents and parasympathetic efferents, carries signals from stretch receptors, osmoreceptors, and chemoreceptors to dorsal vagal complex where the signal may be further transmitted to autonomic centers in the medulla.

According to Gerald Casale on the Devo website: > It was designed according to ancient ziggurat mound proportions used in > votive worship. Like the mounds it collects energy and recirculates it. In > this case the Dome collects the Orgone energy that escapes from the crown of > the human head and pushes it back into the Medulla Oblongata for increased > mental energy. It's very important that you use the foam insert...or better > yet, get a plastic hardhat liner, adjust it to your head size and affix it > with duct tape or Super Glue to the inside of the Dome.

Dissection of human embryo The cephalic end of the neural groove exhibits several dilatations that, when the tube is closed, assume the form of the three primary brain vesicles, and correspond, respectively, to the future forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon), and hindbrain (rhombencephalon) (Fig. 18). The walls of the vesicles are developed into the nervous tissue and neuroglia of the brain, and their cavities are modified to form its ventricles. The remainder of the tube forms the spinal cord (medulla spinalis); from its ectodermal wall the nervous and neuroglial elements of the spinal cord are developed, while the cavity persists as the central canal.

Counter current multiplier diagram The loop of Henle is supplied by blood in a series of straight capillaries descending from the cortical efferent arterioles. These capillaries (called the vasa recta; recta is from the Latin for "straight") also have a countercurrent multiplier mechanism that prevents washout of solutes from the medulla, thereby maintaining the medullary concentration. As water is osmotically driven from the descending limb into the interstitium, it readily enters the capillaries. The low bloodflow through the vasa recta allows time for osmotic equilibration, and can be altered by changing the resistance of the vessels' efferent arterioles.

20-HETE-synthesizng enzymes are widely distributed to liver, kidney, brain, lung, intestine and blood vessels. In most vascular systems, 20-HETE synthesizing activity is limited to vascular smooth muscle of small blood vessels with little or no such activity in the vessel's endothelial cells or in large blood vessels. However, both the smooth muscle and endothelial cells obtained from mouse brain microvasculature, produce 20-HETE in culture. 20-HETE is produced by human neutrophils and platelets and by the ascending tubule cells in the medulla as well the pre-glomerular arterioles and certain other localized areas of the rabbit kidney.

Studies have suggested that glucose, together with epinephrine from the adrenal medulla have an effect on memory. Although high doses of epinephrine have been proven to impair memory, moderate doses of epinephrine actually enhance memory.(Gold, 2013) This leads to questioning the role that epinephrine has played on the evolution of the genus Homo as well as epinephrine's crucial role during fits of rage. The crucial role that astrocytes play in the formation of muscle memory may also shed light on the beneficial impact of meditation and deep breathing as a method of managing and controlling one's rage.

Wallenberg's first patient in 1885 was a 38-year-old male suffering from symptoms of vertigo, hypoesthesia, loss of pain and temperature sensitivity, paralysis of multiple locations, ataxia and more. His background in neuroanatomy helped him in correctly locating the patient's lesion to the lateral medulla and connected it to a blockage of the ipsilateral posterior inferior cerebral artery. After the death of his patient in 1899, he was able to prove his findings after a postmortem examination. He continued his work with many patients and by 1922 he had reported his 15th patient with clinicopathological correlations.

In 1997, Dan began teaching in the Molecular and Cell Biology Department of the University of California, Berkeley, and later became the Paul Licht Distinguished Professor. She is also a Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) Investigator. Her research projects include neural circuits controlling sleep and the function of the prefrontal cortex. In a 2015 research paper published in Nature, Dan and her team found that activation of GABAergic neurons in the medulla oblongata brain region of sleeping mice causes them to enter REM sleep or the dream state, whereas the same activation in mice when they are awake causes them to eat more.

Perihypoglossal nuclei (nuclei perihypoglossales), called also perihypoglossal complex or perihypoglossal nuclear complex or satellite nuclei is a group of neurons in the floor of the fourth ventricle, in close proximity to the nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve in the gray substance of the medulla oblongata, all of which contain cells with characteristics suggestive of reticular connections. The complex includes three nuclei: the intercalated nucleus, the nucleus prepositus, and the sublingual nucleus. The nucleus prepositus is the largest of the three. Perihypoglossal nuclei receive afferents from the cerebral cortex, vestibular nuclei, accessory oculomotor nuclei, and paramedian pontine reticular formation.

The role of electricity in nerves was first observed in dissected frogs by Luigi Galvani, Lucia Galeazzi Galvani and Giovanni Aldini in the second half of the 18th century. In 1811, César Julien Jean Legallois for the first time define a specific function in a brain region. He studied respiration in animal dissection and lesions, and found the center of respiration in the medulla oblongata. Between 1811 and 1824, Charles Bell and François Magendie discovered through dissection and vivisection that the ventral roots in spine transmit motor impulses and the posterior roots receive sensory input (Bell- Magendie law).

Medullary bone tissue (endosteally derived, ephemeral, mineralization located inside the medulla of the long bones in gravid female birds) has been reported in at least one Allosaurus specimen, a shin bone from the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry. Today, this bone tissue is only formed in female birds that are laying eggs, as it is used to supply calcium to shells. Its presence in the Allosaurus individual has been used to establish sex and show it had reached reproductive age. However, other studies have called into question some cases of medullary bone in dinosaurs, including this Allosaurus individual.

Jakob Wimpfeling and his students debating with Thomas Murner, Defensio Germaniae Jacobi Wympfelingii, 1502 Wimpfeling's literary career began with a few publications in which he urged the more frequent holding of synods, the veneration of the Blessed Virgin, and an improvement of the discipline of the clergy. The Elegantiarum medulla (1493) is an extract from Lorenzo Valla's books on the elegance of the Latin language. In the Isidoneus germanicus (1496) he presented his pedagogical ideals, and opposed scholasticism. The teaching of grammar should lead to the reading of heathen writers who were not immoral and especially of the Christian writers.

The onset of CNH in all patients regardless of age can be a precursor to ensuing deterioration in patients with infiltrative tumors of the brainstem and medulla. These patients experience prolonged series of CNH before succumbing to the associated deterioration of medullary cardiovascular center, which ultimately results in death. In addition to clinical consequences of a positive CNH diagnosis, sustained hyperventilation also has a marked effect on daily life activities, and may significantly impede a patient’s ability to eat or talk. The persistent hypocarbia, alkalotic pH, and resultant electrolyte disequilibrium may also alter a patient’s mood or mental state.

With the two fragments of the jaws found, only 14 teeth in total were reported with five in the posterior fragment and nine in the anterior one. The basioccipital region is defined as typically archosaurian, with a rounded condyle, a rather elongated surface above it for the medulla oblongata, and an extended ventral plate. These basioccipital characteristics are seen in extinct archosaurians such as primitive theropod dinosaurs as well as seen in crocodylians. It can be seen that the skull would have been relatively large which was compared to carnosaurian dinosaurs, which too had fairly large skulls.

The cuneate fasciculus is triangular on transverse section, and lies between the gracile fasciculus and the posterior column, its base corresponding with the surface of the spinal cord. Its fibers, larger than those of the gracile fasciculus, are mostly derived from the same source, viz., the posterior nerve roots. Some ascend for only a short distance in the tract, and, entering the gray matter, come into close relationship with the cells of the dorsal nucleus, while others can be traced as far as the medulla oblongata, where they end in the gracile nucleus and cuneate nucleus.

Histology of the thymus showing the cortex and medulla Minute structure of thymus. The ability of T cells to recognize foreign antigens is mediated by the T cell receptor (TCR), which is a surface protein able to recognize short protein sequences (peptides) that are presented on MHC. The purpose of thymocyte development is to produce mature T cells with a diverse array of functional T cell receptors, through the process of TCR gene rearrangement. Unlike most genes, which have a stable sequence in each cell which expresses them, the T cell receptor is made up of a series of alternative gene fragments.

Among the best known Roman Stoics were philosopher Seneca and the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Seneca, a wealthy Roman patrician, is often criticized by some modern commentators/historians for failing to adequately live by his own precepts. The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, on the other hand, can be best thought of as the philosophical reflections of an emperor divided between his philosophical aspirations and the duty he felt to defend the Roman Empire from its external enemies through his various military campaigns. According to Polybius, Roman institutions were the backbone of the empire but Goldman Law is the medulla.

There is speculation of several mechanisms by which the brain cells could be lost. One mechanism consists of an abnormal accumulation of the protein alpha- synuclein bound to ubiquitin in the damaged cells. This insoluble protein accumulates inside neurones forming inclusions called Lewy bodies. According to the Braak staging, a classification of the disease based on pathological findings proposed by Heiko Braak, Lewy bodies first appear in the olfactory bulb, medulla oblongata and pontine tegmentum; individuals at this stage may be asymptomatic or may have early non-motor symptoms (such as loss of sense of smell, or some sleep or automatic dysfunction).

In birds, reptiles, and monotremes, the egg is relatively large, filling the follicle, and distorting the shape of the ovary at maturity. Amphibians and reptiles have no ovarian medulla; the central part of the ovary is a hollow, lymph-filled space. The ovary of teleosts is also often hollow, but in this case, the eggs are shed into the cavity, which opens into the oviduct. Certain nematodes of the genus Philometra are parasitic in the ovary of marine fishes and can be spectacular, with females as long as 40 cm, coiled in the ovary of a fish half this length.

It winds backward around the upper part of the medulla oblongata, passing between the origins of the vagus nerve and the accessory nerve, over the inferior cerebellar peduncle to the undersurface of the cerebellum, where it divides into two branches. The medial branch continues backward to the notch between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum; while the lateral supplies the under surface of the cerebellum, as far as its lateral border, where it anastomoses with the anterior inferior cerebellar and the superior cerebellar branches of the basilar artery. Branches from this artery supply the choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle.

Substances secreted include urea, creatinine, potassium, hydrogen, and uric acid. Some of the hormones which signal the tubules to alter the reabsorption or secretion rate, and thereby maintain homeostasis, include (along with the substance affected) antidiuretic hormone (water), aldosterone (sodium, potassium), parathyroid hormone (calcium, phosphate), atrial natriuretic peptide (sodium) and brain natriuretic peptide (sodium). A countercurrent system in the renal medulla provides the mechanism for generating a hypertonic interstitium, which allows the recovery of solute-free water from within the nephron and returning it to the venous vasculature when appropriate. Some diseases of the nephron predominantly affect either the glomeruli or the tubules.

Rudolf Virchow: the first to describe an abdominal tumor in a child as a "glioma" In 1864 German physician Rudolf Virchow was the first to describe an abdominal tumor in a child as a "glioma". The characteristics of tumors from the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla were then noted in 1891 by German pathologist Felix Marchand. In 1901 the distinctive presentation of stage 4S in infants (liver but no bone metastases) was described by William Pepper. In 1910 James Homer Wright understood the tumor to originate from primitive neural cells, and named it neuroblastoma.

Marmorerpeton is an extinct genus of prehistoric stem-salamanders that lived in Europe during the Middle Jurassic. > They are among the earliest-known salamanders, and are probably older than Karaurus. The genus appears to have been neotenic, based on a few morphological characters and on the presence of calcified cartilage in the medulla of its humerus (see thumbnail). The size of its osteocytic lacunae suggests that it had a fairly large genome (C-value of about 36.7 pg, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 30.2 to 44.2 pg), though not as large as that of obligatorily neotenic extant urodeles.

The accessory cuneate nucleus is located lateral to the cuneate nucleus in the medulla oblongata at the level of the sensory decussation (the crossing fibers of the posterior column/medial lemniscus tract). It receives sensory input about position and movement (proprioception) from the upper limb by way of cervical spinal nerves and transmits that information to the cerebellum. These fibers are called cuneocerebellar (cuneate nucleus → cerebellum) fibers. In this function, the accessory cuneate nucleus is the upper extremity equivalent of Clarke's column, also called the nucleus thoracicus, which is the source of spinocerebellar connections for proprioception from the lower limb.

Heat loss is accomplished through thermal polypnea (panting), that is an increase in respiratory rate. It has been seen that the medulla, hypothalamus and mid-brain are involved in the control of panting, as well through the Hering-Breuer reflex that uses stretch receptors in the lungs, and the vagus nerve. This effect of the panting is accelerated by a process called gular fluttering; rapid flapping of membranes in the throat which is synchronized with the movements of the thorax. Both of these mechanisms promote evaporative heat loss, which allows for the bird to push out warm air and water from the body.

Central apnea is characterized by insufficient responsiveness from respiratory centers such as the medulla, which results in poor coordination of the body systems that are necessary for breathing. Respiratory muscles and nerves to lose the ability to effectively receive and process signals from the brain causing respiratory efforts to cease. Central apnea is quite common and can be found in healthy, full-term infants for short periods of time before breathing patterns in the infant stabilize. In premature infants, central apnea is attributed to an underdeveloped respiratory system which results in decreased response to higher carbon dioxide levels and difficulty breathing.

The central axons on primary sensory neurons in the taste system in the cranial nerve ganglia connect to lateral and rostral regions of the nucleus of the solitary tract which is located in the medulla and is also known as the gustatory nucleus. The most pronounced gustatory nucleus is the rostral cap of the nucleus solitarius which is located at the ponto-medullary junction. Afferent taste fibers from the facial and from the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves are sent to the nucleus solitarius. The gustatory system then sends information to the thalamus which ultimately sends information to the cerebral cortex.

This is explained by the anatomy of the brainstem. In the medulla, the ascending spinothalamic tract (which carries pain-temperature information from the opposite side of the body) is adjacent to the ascending spinal tract of the trigeminal nerve (which carries pain-temperature information from the same side of the face). A stroke which cuts off the blood supply to this area (for example, a clot in the posterior inferior cerebellar artery) destroys both tracts simultaneously. The result is a loss of pain-temperature (but not touch-position) sensation in a "checkerboard" pattern (ipsilateral face, contralateral body), facilitating diagnosis.

The vomiting center of the brain refers to the groups of loosely organized neurons in the medulla that include the CTZ within the area postrema and the nucleus tractus solitarii. One of the ways the chemoreceptor trigger zone implements its effects on the vomiting center is by activation of the opioid mu receptors and delta receptors. The activation of these opioid receptors in the CTZ are especially important for patients who take opioid based pain medications on a regular basis. However, opioids do not play a role in communication to the vomiting center of the brain, they only induce communication.

It consists of descending fibers that arise from cells in the motor area of the ipsilateral cerebral hemisphere. The impulse travels from these upper motor neurons (located in the pre-central gyrus of the brain) through the anterior column. In contrast to the fibers for the lateral corticospinal tract, the fibers for the anterior corticospinal tract do not decussate at the level of the medulla oblongata, although they do cross over in the spinal level they innervate. They then synapse at the anterior horn with the lower motor neuron which then synapses with the target muscle at the motor end plate.

Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) reside in the medulla of the bone (bone marrow) and have the unique ability to give rise to all of the different mature blood cell types and tissues. HSCs are self-renewing cells: when they differentiate, at least some of their daughter cells remain as HSCs, so the pool of stem cells is not depleted. This phenomenon is called asymmetric division. The other daughters of HSCs (myeloid and lymphoid progenitor cells) can follow any of the other differentiation pathways that lead to the production of one or more specific types of blood cell, but cannot renew themselves.

This acts on the kidneys to inhibit the secretion of renin and aldosterone causing the release of sodium, and accompanying water into the urine, thereby reducing the blood volume. This information is then conveyed, via afferent nerve fibers, to the solitary nucleus in the medulla oblongata. From here motor nerves belonging to the autonomic nervous system are stimulated to influence the activity of chiefly the heart and the smallest diameter arteries, called arterioles. The arterioles are the main resistance vessels in the arterial tree, and small changes in diameter cause large changes in the resistance to flow through them.

The reticulospinal tracts provide a pathway by which the hypothalamus can control sympathetic thoracolumbar outflow and parasympathetic sacral outflow. Two major descending systems carrying signals from the brainstem and cerebellum to the spinal cord can trigger automatic postural response for balance and orientation: vestibulospinal tracts from the vestibular nuclei and reticulospinal tracts from the pons and medulla. Lesions of these tracts result in profound ataxia and postural instability. Physical or vascular damage to the brainstem disconnecting the red nucleus (midbrain) and the vestibular nuclei (pons) may cause decerebrate rigidity, which has the neurological sign of increased muscle tone and hyperactive stretch reflexes.

Photomicrograph of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve (DmX) in a transverse section along the upper medulla shown to be affected by the abnormally deposited alpha synuclein as part of intraneuronal Lewy bodies found (extreme right): DmX is one of the earliest sites affected by synuclein deposition in Parkinson's disease. A Lewy body is composed of the protein alpha-synuclein associated with other proteins, such as ubiquitin, neurofilament protein, and alpha B crystallin. Tau proteins may also be present, and Lewy bodies may occasionally be surrounded by neurofibrillary tangles. Lewy bodies and neurofibrillary tangles can occasionally exist in the same neuron, particularly in the amygdala.

The location of motor neurons in the anterior grey column of the spinal column The anterior grey column, directed forward, is broad and of a rounded or quadrangular shape. Its posterior part is termed the base, and its anterior part the head, but these are not differentiated from each other by any well-defined constriction. It is separated from the surface of the medulla spinalis by a layer of white substance which is traversed by the bundles of the anterior nerve roots. In the thoracic region, the postero-lateral part of the anterior column projects laterally as a triangular field, which is named the lateral grey column.

T cell precursors extravasate from the bloodstream in cortico-medullary junction and they first migrate to the thymic cortex, where they undergo construction of TCRs and subsequently a process called T cell positive selection which is mediated by mTEC-related cells: cortical thymic epithelial cells (cTECs). This process verifies, whether newly generated TCRs are functional. About 90% of T cells displays badly rearranged TCRs, they can´t reach the positive selection and they die by neglect in the cortex. The rest starts to express CCR7, which is a receptor for mTEC-generated chemokine CCL21, and migrate after concentration gradient to the thymic medulla to encounter mTECs.

This cessation of breathing is due to the underdevelopment of the body's respiratory control center, the medulla oblongata in premature infants. Ample research also suggests that caffeine significantly reduces the occurrence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia, which is a chronic lung disorder defined by the need for supplemental oxygen after a postmenstrual age of 36 weeks. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia is common in infants with low birth weight (<2500g) and very low birth weight (<1500g) who received mechanical ventilator machines to help manage respiratory distress syndrome. Currently, there is no treatment for bronchopulmonary dysplasia, as it is generally considered that the risks of treatment outweigh the necessity for using a mechanical ventilator.

The anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AICA) is one of three pairs of arteries that supplies blood to the cerebellum. It arises from the basilar artery on each side at the level of the junction between the medulla oblongata and the pons in the brainstem. It has a variable course, passing backward to be distributed to the anterior part of the undersurface of the cerebellum, anastomosing with both the posterior inferior cerebellar (PICA) branch of the vertebral artery and the superior cerebellar artery. It also gives off the internal auditory or labyrinthine artery in most cases; however, the labyrinthine artery can less commonly emerge as a branch of the basilar artery.

Glutamate, one of the most common neurochemicals in the brain, is an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in many aspects of brain function, including learning and memory. Based upon animal models, exercise appears to normalize the excessive levels of glutamate neurotransmission into the nucleus accumbens that occurs in drug addiction. A review of the effects of exercise on neurocardiac function in preclinical models noted that exercise-induced neuroplasticity of the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) has an inhibitory effect on glutamatergic neurotransmission in this region, in turn reducing sympathetic activity; the review hypothesized that this neuroplasticity in the RVLM is a mechanism by which regular exercise prevents inactivity-related cardiovascular disease.

The earlobe, as a body part built of epithelium and connective tissue, might appear to be derived from dermatome. But this is not the case, as in the surrounding tissue there are no somites and thus no dermatome. In this area, the dermis is derived from cells of mesenchymal cells: the mesenchyme is derived from the sclerotome and splanchnopleura located in the nearby regions of the torso. The earlobe as a body part arises and develops in the vicinity of auricular follicle, as a result of cascade induction: # The first-level inductor is the central segment of Archenteron's roof, which induces the production of the Medulla oblongata (part of the Hindbrain).

It involved the spinal cord, medulla oblongata and the basal ganglia, and had the ability to reflect sensory impressions into the motor nervous system by definite laws unique to itself, and also independent of consciousness. Prochaska demonstrated that reflex worked without a brain, but could not work without a spinal cord, and summarized that voluntary behavior was a brain function, while reflex was spinal-based. One of Prochaska's better-known writings is Dissertation on the Functions of the Nervous System, a work that was later combined with John Augustus Unzer's The Principles of Physiology as one publication, being translated and edited by English physiologist Thomas Laycock (1812–1876).

Even more impressive, however, was the response to ″strong mental emotion″: ″The cure of asthma by violent emotion is more sudden and complete than by any other remedy whatever; indeed, I know few things more striking and curious in the whole history of therapeutics. ... The cure ... takes no time; it is instantaneous, the intensest paroxysm ceases on the instant.″ ″Cure″ due to release of adrenaline from the adrenals is the retrospective interpretation. At the same time that Salter unwittingly made use of the adrenal medulla, the French physician Alfred Vulpian found that there was something unique about it: material scraped from it coloured green when ferric chloride was added.

Membranes play a twofold role for catecholamines: catecholamines must pass through membranes and deliver their chemical message at membrane receptors. Catecholamines are synthesized inside cells and sequestered in intracellular vesicles. This was first shown by Blaschko and Arnold Welch (1908–2003) in Oxford and by Hillarp and his group in Lund for the adrenal medulla and later for sympathetic nerves and the brain. In addition the vesicles contained adenosine triphosphate (ATP), with a molar noradrenaline:ATP ratio in sympathetic nerve vesicles of 5.2:1 as determined by Hans-Joachim Schümann (1919–1998) and Horst Grobecker (born 1934) in Peter Holtz′ group at the Goethe University Frankfurt.

The acid and semi- digested fats in the duodenum trigger the enterogastric reflex – the duodenum sends inhibitory signals to the stomach by way of the enteric nervous system, and sends signals to the medulla that (1) inhibit the vagal nuclei, thus reducing vagal stimulation of the stomach, and (2) stimulate sympathetic neurons, which send inhibitory signals to the stomach. Chyme also stimulates duodenal enteroendocrine cells to release secretin and cholecystokinin. They primarily stimulate the pancreas and gall bladder, but also suppress gastric secretion and motility. The effect of this is that gastrin secretion declines and the pyloric sphincter contracts tightly to limit the admission of more chyme into the duodenum.

That being so, proper caution must be exercised in accepting a diagnosis of its permanent loss before all cerebral blood flow has permanently ceased. The ability to breathe spontaneously depends upon functioning elements in the medulla – the 'respiratory centre'. In the UK, establishing a neurological diagnosis of death involves challenging this centre with the strong stimulus offered by an unusually high concentration of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood, but it is not challenged by the more powerful drive stimulus provided by anoxia – although the effect of that ultimate stimulus is sometimes seen after final disconnection of the ventilator in the form of agonal gasps.

Baroreceptors are present in the atria of the heart and vena cavae, but the most sensitive baroreceptors are in the carotid sinuses and aortic arch. While the carotid sinus baroreceptor axons travel within the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), the aortic arch baroreceptor axons travel within the vagus nerve (CN X). Baroreceptor activity travels along these nerves directly into the central nervous system to contact neurons within the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) in the brainstem. Baroreceptor information flows from these NTS neurons to both parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons within the brainstem. The NTS neurons send excitatory fibers (glutamatergic) to the caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM), activating the CVLM.

In the renal system, peritubular capillaries are tiny blood vessels, supplied by the efferent arteriole, that travel alongside nephrons allowing reabsorption and secretion between blood and the inner lumen of the nephron. Peritubular capillaries surround the cortical parts of the proximal and distal tubules, while the vasa recta go into the medulla to approach the loop of Henle. About one-fifth of the blood plasma is filtered as the blood passes through the glomerular capillaries; four-fifths continues into the peritubular capillaries. Ions and minerals that need to be saved in the body are reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries through active transport, secondary active transport, or transcytosis.

In his classic early 20th century work on psychotropic drugs Phantastica, German pharmacologist Louis Lewin recounts the curious and tragic case - seemingly unique in the literature - of an individual who became addicted (in a manner far more often associated with opiates) to a Gelsemium preparation: > during a severe attack of rheumatism a man took a large quantity of an > alcoholic tincture of Gelsemium sempervirens a plant which is liable to act > on the brain and the medulla oblongata. Noticing an appreciable result he > continued to take it, and finally became a slave to the drug. He gradually > augmented the quantity, and reached 30 gr. of the tincture in one dose.

Besides Robinson's own mention of his employment there, no official record of it exists. In 1603, Robinson published his first book, Medulla Musicke, of which no copy survived. It was even suggested (Ward JM, see "Literature"), that it was never published at all, although Robinson seems to be referring to it in the first pages of his second book: Right courteous Gentlemen, and gentle Readers, your fauourable acceptance of my first fruits from idlenesse, hath eccited mee further to congratulate your Musicall endeauours. [...] From: "The Schoole of Musicke", 1603 Also in 1603, Robinson brought out his second book, The Schoole of Musicke, a tutor for lute and other instruments.

Heart rate is determined by the medulla oblongata and part of the pons, two organs located inferior to the hypothalamus on the brain stem. Heart rate is important for basal metabolic rate and resting metabolic rate because it drives the blood supply, stimulating the Krebs cycle. During exercise that achieves the anaerobic threshold, it is possible to deliver substrates that are desired for optimal energy utilization. The anaerobic threshold is defined as the energy utilization level of heart rate exertion that occurs without oxygen during a standardized test with a specific protocol for accuracy of measurement, such as the Bruce Treadmill protocol (see metabolic equivalent of task).

The median aperture (also known as the medial aperture, and foramen of Magendie) drains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the fourth ventricle into the cisterna magna. The two other openings of the fourth ventricle are the lateral apertures (also called the foramina of Luschka), one on the left and one on the right, which drain cerebrospinal fluid into the cerebellopontine angle cistern. The median foramen on axial images is posterior to the pons and anterior to the caudal cerebellum. It is surrounded by the obex and gracile tubercles of the medulla, tela choroidea of the fourth ventricle and its choroid plexus, which is attached to the cerebellar vermis.

This hypothesis, however, has also been a cause for concern as studies have shown that people with left hemispheric damage exhibit prosodic deficiencies associated with the right hemisphere as defined by the functional lateralization hypothesis and vice versa. It has also been found that damage to the medulla, cerebellum, and basal ganglia may cause dysprosody. These conclusions have led scientists to believe that prosodic organization in the brain is extremely complex and cannot be attributed to hemispheric divisions alone. Although not well understood yet, studies to identify prosodic organization in the brain continue, primarily through the examination of damaged brain areas in patients suffering from dysprosody and their resulting vocal deficiencies.

The production of dopamine sulfate is thought to be a mechanism for detoxifying dopamine that is ingested as food or produced by the digestive process—levels in the plasma typically rise more than fifty-fold after a meal. Dopamine sulfate has no known biological functions and is excreted in urine. The relatively small quantity of unconjugated dopamine in the bloodstream may be produced by the sympathetic nervous system, the digestive system, or possibly other organs. It may act on dopamine receptors in peripheral tissues, or be metabolized, or be converted to norepinephrine by the enzyme dopamine beta hydroxylase, which is released into the bloodstream by the adrenal medulla.

Cytokines, such as interleukin-1 can be synthesized and released by neurons. Bartfai's group showed interleukin-1, then called the endogenous pyrogen, is released from the adrenal medulla and brain and demonstrated that the endogenous pyrogen can control body temperature by acting at receptors and hyperpolarizing hypothalamic gabaergic interneurons that control thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue, and thus core body temperature and the fever response., Bartfai has published two books with Graham Lees, Ph.D., on drug discovery and development: "Drug Discovery: from bedside to Wall Street" and "The Future of Drug Discovery: who decides which diseases to treat?", which are both also published in Japanese and Mandarin.

Crocosmia corm with the tunic partly stripped to show its origin at the nodes on the corm cortex Crocosmia corm anatomy, showing tunic, cortex of storage tissue, central medulla, and emergence of a new corm from a bud near the top. Crocosmia corm with stolons emerging through the tunic. The stolons originate at the axillary buds of the corm scales, and generally produce new corms at their tips A corm consists of one or more internodes with at least one growing point, generally with protective leaves modified into skins or tunics. The tunic of a corm forms from dead petiole sheaths—remnants of leaves produced in previous years.

Arnold was the author of 120 articles in the fields of histology and pathological anatomy.Julius Arnold @ Who Named It With Austrian pathologist, Hans Chiari, his name is lent to a condition known as Arnold–Chiari malformation, a disorder that takes place when the cerebellar tonsils and the medulla oblongata protrude through the foramen magnum into the spinal canal, without displacing the lower brain stem.Arnold-Chiari malformation @ Who Named It Arnold described his pathological findings associated with the disorder from an infant who died shortly after delivery. He published his account of the disorder in an 1894 paper titled "Myelocyste, Transposition von Gewebskeimen und Sympodie".

The human genome includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal adult adrenal glands. Only some 250 genes are more specifically expressed in the adrenal glands compared to other organs and tissues. The adrenal-gland-specific genes with the highest level of expression include members of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes. Corresponding proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the adrenal gland, such as CYP11A1, HSD3B2 and FDX1 involved in steroid hormone synthesis and expressed in cortical cell layers, and PNMT and DBH involved in noradrenaline and adrenaline synthesis and expressed in the medulla.

The anterior external arcuate fibers (ventral external arcuate fibers) vary as to their prominence: in some cases they form an almost continuous layer covering the medullary pyramids and olivary body, while in other cases they are barely visible on the surface. Most of them reach the surface by way of the anterior median fissure, and arch backward over the pyramid. Reinforced by others which emerge between the pyramid and olive, they pass backward over the olive and lateral district of the medulla oblongata, and enter the inferior peduncle. As the fibers arch across the pyramid, they enclose a small nucleus which lies in front of and medial to the pyramid.

2) Chromaffin cells (or pheochromocytes): These cells will migrate to the area adjacent to the sympathetic ganglia (hence the name paraganglia) and to the adrenal medulla where they will be the most abundant type of cells. The largest extra-adrenal cluster of chromaffin cells in mammals is the organ of Zuckerkandl. Tumors arising from these cell are called paragangliomas or pheochromocytomas. These terms can be used interchangeably but usually paraganglioma refer to a tumor originating from chromaffin cells outside the adrenal gland, which can also be called extra-adrenal pheochromocytoma, whereas pheochromocytoma typically refer to a tumor originating from the chromaffin cells within the adrenal gland.

The name Kriváň, first recorded as Kriwan in 1639, is derived from the root kriv- meaning "bent" or "crooked". It reflects the angled appearance of its shape when viewed from the west and south, characterized in the work from 1639 as an "oxtail" (cauda bubula in the Latin original).David Frölich, Medulla Geographiae Practicae, Peregrinantium inprimis usui, deinde Historiarum & rerum hoc tempore bellicosissimo gestarum... 1639; referenced in several works including: Ivan Bohuš, Alojz Lutonský and Ján Olejník, Kriváň. 1968. The Slovak name is used in other languages including in Polish, rather than its potential Polonized version (Krzywań), except occasionally in Podhale in the immediate vicinity of the Tatras.

The development of extraction methods and enzyme-isotope derivate radio-enzymatic assays (REA) transformed the analysis down to a sensitivity of 1 pg for adrenaline. Early REA plasma assays indicated that adrenaline and total catecholamines rise late in exercise, mostly when anaerobic metabolism commences. During exercise, the adrenaline blood concentration rises partially from the increased secretion of the adrenal medulla and partly from the decreased metabolism of adrenaline due to reduced blood flow to the liver. Infusion of adrenaline to reproduce exercise circulating concentrations of adrenaline in subjects at rest has little haemodynamic effect, other than a small β2-mediated fall in diastolic blood pressure.

This process is an important component of central tolerance and serves to prevent the formation of self-reactive T cells that are capable of inducing autoimmune diseases in the host. β-selection is the first checkpoint, where the T cells that are able to form a functional pre-TCR with an invariant alpha chain and a functional beta chain are allowed to continue development in the thymus. Next, positive selection checks that T cells have successfully rearranged their TCRα locus and are capable of recognizing peptide-MHC complexes with appropriate affinity. Negative selection in the medulla then obliterates T cells that bind too strongly to self-antigens expressed on MHC molecules.

Of all the different brain regions, the cerebral cortex shows the largest evolutionary variation and has evolved most recently. In contrast to the highly conserved circuitry of the medulla oblongata, for example, which serves critical functions such as regulation of heart and respiration rates, many areas of the cerebral cortex are not strictly necessary for survival. Thus, the evolution of the cerebral cortex has seen the advent and modification of new functional areas—particularly association areas that do not directly receive input from outside the cortex. A key theory of cortical evolution is embodied in the radial unit hypothesis and related protomap hypothesis, first proposed by Rakic.

Niebla cornea was recognized as a result of conducting a taxonomic revision of the genus, starting in 1986. For many years it had been included under a very broad species concept, Niebla homalea, which has since been distinguished by its narrower regularly twisted branches. Niebla cornea has also been confused with Vermilacinia laevigata, which has a different terpenoid chemistry, a different type of cortex, and lacks chondroid stands in the medulla. The epithet was also chosen to further contrast its distinction from that of N. eburnea that was first recognized in May 1985 as being different from N. homalea while collecting a sample for anti-HIV screening in northern Baja California.

He also penned Psychiatrie für Ärzte und Studirende, a textbook that was published in four editions between 1894 and 1911. In his writings, Ziehen is credited with introducing the terms "affective psychosis" and "psychopathic constitution".BioMed Experts Theodor Ziehen as child and adolescent psychiatrist Along with neurologist Hermann Oppenheim, the "Ziehen- Oppenheim syndrome" is named, a condition defined as genetic torsion dystonia (spasms) due to a lesion of the basal ganglia. Ziehen-Oppenheim syndrome @ Who Named It As an anatomist, Ziehen published a series of extensive descriptions of the human spinal cord, medulla oblongata, pons and cerebellum in Karl von Bardeleben's handbook of human anatomy (Handbuch der Anatomie des Menschen).

The brain regions of sharks and humans The central nervous system (CNS) of fish contains a spinal cord, medulla oblongata, and the brain, divided into telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon and cerebellum. In fish, similar to other vertebrates, nociception travels from the peripheral nerves along the spinal nerves and is relayed through the spinal cord to the thalamus. The thalamus is connected to the telencephalon by multiple connections through the grey matter pallium, which has been demonstrated to receive nerve relays for noxious and mechanical stimuli. The major tracts that convey pain information from the periphery to the brain are the spinothalamic tract (body) and the trigeminal tract (head).

After neurons carrying proprioceptive or fine touch information synapse at the gracile and cuneate nuclei, axons from secondary neurons decussate at the level of the medulla and travel up the brainstem as the medial lemniscus on the contralateral (opposite) side. It is part of the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway, which transmits touch, vibration sense, as well as the pathway for proprioception. The medial lemniscus carries axons from most of the body and synapses in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus, at the level of the mamillary bodies. Sensory axons transmitting information from the head and neck via the trigeminal nerve synapse at the ventral posteromedial nucleus of the thalamus.

On renal ultrasonography, a solid renal mass appears in the US exam with internal echoes, without the well-defined, smooth walls seen in cysts, often with Doppler signal, and is frequently malignant or has a high malignant potential. The most common malignant renal parenchymal tumor is renal cell carcinoma (RCC), which accounts for 86% of the malignancies in the kidney. RCCs are typically isoechoic and peripherally located in the parenchyma, but can be both hypo- and hyper-echoic and are found centrally in medulla or sinus. The lesions can be multifocal and have cystic elements due to necrosis, calcifications and be multifocal (Figure 8 and Figure 9).

Examples of healed fractures in prehistoric human bones, suggesting setting and splinting have been found in the archeological record. Among some treatments used by the Aztecs, according to Spanish texts during the conquest of Mexico, was the reduction of fractured bones: "...the broken bone had to be splinted, extended and adjusted, and if this was not sufficient an incision was made at the end of the bone, and a branch of fir was inserted into the cavity of the medulla..."Lucena SM. America 1492 Retrato de un Continente hace quinientos años. Anaya Editores Milano 1990 Modern medicine developed a technique similar to this in the 20th century known as medullary fixation.

The gustatory cortex consists of two primary structures: the anterior insula, located on the insular lobe, and the frontal operculum, located on the frontal lobe. Similarly to the olfactory cortex, the gustatory pathway operates through both peripheral and central mechanisms. Peripheral taste receptors, located on the tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and esophagus, transmit the received signal to primary sensory axons, where the signal is projected to the nucleus of the solitary tract in the medulla, or the gustatory nucleus of the solitary tract complex. The signal is then transmitted to the thalamus, which in turn projects the signal to several regions of the neocortex, including the gustatory cortex.

Contrary to previous reports the spinal meninges, both in the adult lower vertebrates and in the early developmental stages of the more advanced vertebrates, are very simple. From the mesenchyme surrounding the neural tube only a single leaflet forms the primitive meninx. In the following phylo- and ontogenetic stages, the latter divides into an internal leaflet: the secondary meninx, and into an external one: the dura mater. Finally, in higher vertebrates, even the secondary meninx divides into the arachnoid and the pia. In the same animals, Sterzi demonstrated that, while in the spinal medulla the dura keeps its identity, in the skull it fuses with the periosteum (Sterzi, 1902).

Ectomesenchyme (also known as mesectoderm):Kalcheim, C. and Le Douarin, N. M. (1998). The Neural Crest (2nd ed.). Cambridge, U. K.: Cambridge University Press. odontoblasts, dental papillae, the chondrocranium (nasal capsule, Meckel's cartilage, scleral ossicles, quadrate, articular, hyoid and columella), tracheal and laryngeal cartilage, the dermatocranium (membranous bones), dorsal fins and the turtle plastron (lower vertebrates), pericytes and smooth muscle of branchial arteries and veins, tendons of ocular and masticatory muscles, connective tissue of head and neck glands (pituitary, salivary, lachrymal, thymus, thyroid) dermis and adipose tissue of calvaria, ventral neck and face Endocrine cells: chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla, glomus cells type I/II.

Double negative (DN) T cells, as a progenitors with CD44 and CD25 expression but lack of CD4 and CD8 coreceptor expression, are proliferated and differentiated to the double positive (DP) stages. These CD4+ and CD8+ double positive T lymphocytes already express completely recombined TCRs that are tested for recognizing self and non-self molecules by MHCI and MHCII presentation of self antigens on the cTEC. Thymocytes that make adequate interaction with MHC complex, are survived and diverted to either CD4+ or CD8+ single positive (SP) T lymphocytes. These single positive cells migrate out of the cortex to the medulla, where the process continues as a negative selection.

The pre-Bötzinger complex (preBötC) is located in ventrolateral medulla and is proposed to generate the rhythm underlying inspiratory efforts in mammals. Since the frequency that the lungs need to operate at can vary according to metabolic demand, preBötC activity is modulated over a wide range of frequencies and is able to entrain the respiratory system to meet metabolic demand. While pacemaker neurons do not necessarily require intrinsically bursting neurons the preBötC contains a heterogeneous population of both regular spiking and intrinsically bursting neurons. Intrinsically bursting neurons are thought to make the preBötC oscillations more robust to changing frequencies and the regularity of inspiratory efforts.

The exact pathologic mechanism for RCN is unclear, however the onset of small vessel pathology is likely an important aspect in the cause of this condition. In general the renal cortex is under greater oxygen tension and more prone to ischemic injury, especially at the level of the proximal collecting tubule, leading to its preferential damage in a sudden drop in perfusion. Rapidly corrected acute renal ischemia leads to acute tubular necrosis, from which complete recovery is possible, while more prolonged ischemia may lead to RCN. Pathologically, the cortex of the kidney is grossly atrophied with relative preservation of the gross structure of the medulla.

The glossopharyngeal fibers travel just anterior to the cranial nerves X and XI, which also exit the skull via the jugular foramen. Extra-cranial course and final innervation Upon exiting the skull the branchial motor fibers descend deep to the temporal styloid process and wrap around the posterior border of the stylopharyngeus muscle before innervating it. Voluntary control of the stylopharyngeus muscle Signals for the voluntary movement of stylopharyngeus muscle originate in the pre- motor and motor cortex (in association with other cortical areas) and pass via the corticobulbar tract in the genu of the internal capsule to synapse bilaterally on the ambiguus nuclei in the medulla.

The hypoglossal nerve is the twelfth cranial nerve, and innervates all the extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the tongue, except for the palatoglossus which is innervated by the vagus nerve. It is a nerve with a solely motor function. The nerve arises from the hypoglossal nucleus in the medulla as a number of small rootlets, passes through the hypoglossal canal and down through the neck, and eventually passes up again over the tongue muscles it supplies into the tongue. The nerve is involved in controlling tongue movements required for speech and swallowing, including sticking out the tongue and moving it from side to side.

Niebla lobulata is distinguished by a thallus divided into mostly strap-shaped branches from a basal holdfast, the branches not more than 20 in number, wide spreading above a short tapered and narrow base, occasionally dividing into similar branches, the branch margins often wavy (undulate), and/or lobed, or lacerated, the whole thallus not more than 7 cm high. The species (N. lobulata) also recognized by containing sekikaic acid (with triterpenes), and by a relatively thin cortex, (0-)35–75(-100) µm thick, eroding near base, covering a fistulose medulla (solid on Guadalupe Island), which seems related to the contorted appearance of the branches. The species (N.

Niebla limicola is distinguished by a hemispherical thallus lying loose on soil without a central holdfast (terricolous), divided into variously shaped branches, partly narrow in length and prismatic in cross section, and partly flattened and dilated from which short acicular bifurcating branchlets arise, the thallus up to 10 cm high and 15 cm across. The species (N. limicola) also recognized by containing salazinic acid (without triterpenes), and by a relatively thin cortex, (0-)45–75 µm thick, appearing to erode on dilated parts of branches; the thinner cortex evidently related to the contorted appearance of the branches in addition to the medulla being partly hollow (fistulose). The species (N.

In the superior region of the pons is the locus coeruleus, which due to its concentration of noradrenaline has a sky blue appearance, visible (in a colour closer to teal) through the floor of the ventricle, superiorly to the superior fovea. The internal part of the facial nerve bulges into the ventricle, forming the facial colliculus, in the process of looping around the abducens nucleus within the inferior region of the Pons. The medulla oblongata is located behind the inferior portion of the floor (and continues caudally of the ventricle). Medullary striae emerge via the median sulcus and run transversely across the floor to become part of the inferior cerebellar peduncle.

Glucocorticoids also are in effect during times of stress for the sympathoadrenal system, but provide an inhibitory function for the protection of the body from its own immune system. The glucocorticoids work to inhibit reactions produced from the immune system during times of stress that could cause damage within the body. Glucocorticoids work to inhibit the uptake of catecholamines, like norepinephrine and epinephrine, by the nerves. The increase in activity of synthesis of norepinephrine and epinephrine within the medulla is done from glucocorticoids through the increase in reaction rate of certain enzymes, such as: tyrosine hydroxylase, aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase, dopamine-β- hydroxylase, and phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase.

The respiratory center Changes in the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and plasma pH are sent to the respiratory center, in the brainstem where they are regulated. The partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood is monitored by the peripheral chemoreceptors (PNS) in the carotid artery and aortic arch. A change in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is detected as altered pH in the cerebrospinal fluid by central chemoreceptors (CNS) in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. Information from these sets of sensors is sent to the respiratory center which activates the effector organs – the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration.

The cause is the red nucleus, via the rubrospinal tract, counteracting the extensor motorneuron's excitation from the lateral vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts. Because the rubrospinal tract only extends to the cervical spinal cord, it mostly acts on the arms by exciting the flexor muscles and inhibiting the extensors, rather than the legs. Damage to the medulla below the vestibular nuclei may cause flaccid paralysis, hypotonia, loss of respiratory drive, and quadriplegia. There are no reflexes resembling early stages of spinal shock because of complete loss of activity in the motorneurons, as there is no longer any tonic activity arising from the lateral vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts.

The sign suggests a lesion or compression of the upper cervical spinal cord or lower brainstem—usually dorsal columns of the cervical cord or caudal medulla. Although often considered a classic finding in multiple sclerosis, it can be caused by a number of conditions, including transverse myelitis, Behçet disease, osteogenesis imperfecta, trauma, radiation myelopathy, vitamin B12 deficiency (subacute combined degeneration), compression of the spinal cord in the neck from any cause such as cervical spondylosis, disc herniation, tumor, and Arnold–Chiari malformation. Lhermitte's sign may also appear during or following high-dose chemotherapy. Irradiation of the cervical spine may also evoke it as an early delayed radiation injury, which occurs within 4 months of radiation therapy.

Even if the edges peel up from the substrate and appear flat and leaf-like, they lack a lower cortex, unlike foliose lichens. Filamentous, byssoid, leprose, gelatinous, and other lichens do not have a cortex, which is called being ecorticate. Schematic cross section of foliose lichen: a) The cortex is the outer layer of tightly woven fungus filaments (hyphae) b) This photobiont layer has photosynthesizing green algae c) Loosely packed hyphae in the medulla d) A tightly woven lower cortex e) Anchoring hyphae called rhizines where the fungus attaches to the substrate. Fruticose, foliose, crustose, and squamulose lichens generally have up to three different types of tissue, differentiated by having different densities of fungal filaments.

This pathway is particularly important when the head is moving slowly because here position signals dominate over velocity signals. David A. Robinson discovered that the eye muscles require this dual velocity- position drive, and also proposed that it must arise in the brain by mathematically integrating the velocity signal and then sending the resulting position signal to the motoneurons. Robinson was correct: the 'neural integrator' for horizontal eye position was found in the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi in the medulla, and the neural integrator for vertical and torsional eye positions was found in the interstitial nucleus of Cajal in the midbrain. The same neural integrators also generate eye position for other conjugate eye movements such as saccades and smooth pursuit.

On its lower surface, about 1 cm. in front of the foramen magnum, is the pharyngeal tubercle which gives attachment to the fibrous raphe of the pharynx. On either side of the middle line the longus capitis and rectus capitis anterior are inserted, and immediately in front of the foramen magnum the anterior atlantooccipital membrane is attached. The upper surface, which constitutes the lower half of the clivus, presents a broad, shallow groove which inclines upward and forward from the foramen magnum; it supports the medulla oblongata, and near the margin of the foramen magnum gives attachment to the tectorial membrane On the lateral margins of this surface are faint grooves for the inferior petrosal sinuses.

Catecholamines are produced mainly by the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla and the postganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system. Dopamine, which acts as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, is largely produced in neuronal cell bodies in two areas of the brainstem: the ventral tegmental area and the substantia nigra, the latter of which contains neuromelanin-pigmented neurons. The similarly neuromelanin- pigmented cell bodies of the locus coeruleus produce norepinephrine. Epinephrine is produced in small groups of neurons in the human brain which express its synthesizing enzyme, phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase; these neurons project from a nucleus that is adjacent (ventrolateral) to the area postrema and from a nucleus in the dorsal region of the solitary tract.

In vertebrates, the cerebellar vermis develops between two bilaterally symmetrical formations located dorsal to the upper end of the medulla oblongata, or rhombencephalon. This is the region of termination for the fibers of the vestibular nerve and lateral line nerves; thus, these are the oldest afferent paths to the cerebellum and cerebellar vermis. In bony fish, or teleosts, it has been proposed that the cerebellar auricles, which receive a large amount of input from the vestibulolateral line system, constitute the vestibulocerebellum and are homologues of the flocculonodular lobe of higher vertebrates along with the corpus cerebelli, which receives spinocerebellar and tectocerebellar fibers. The labyrinth and the lateral line organs of lampreys have structural and functional similarity.

The cells of the dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve are spindle-shaped, like those of the posterior column of the spinal cord, and the nucleus is usually considered as representing the base of the posterior column. It measures about 2 cm. in length, and in the lower, closed part of the medulla oblongata is situated behind the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus; whereas in the upper, open part it lies lateral to that nucleus, and corresponds to an eminence, named the vagal trigone (ala cinerea, not to be confused with tuberculum cinereum nor tuber cinereum), in the rhomboid fossa. The vagal trigone is separated from the area postrema by a narrow strip of thickened ependyma – the funiculus separans.

The activated CVLM then sends inhibitory fibers (GABAergic) to the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM), thus inhibiting the RVLM. The RVLM is the primary regulator of the sympathetic nervous system, sending excitatory fibers (glutamatergic) to the sympathetic preganglionic neurons located in the intermediolateral nucleus of the spinal cord. Hence, when the baroreceptors are activated (by an increased blood pressure), the NTS activates the CVLM, which in turn inhibits the RVLM, thus decreasing the activity of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, leading to a relative decrease in blood pressure. Likewise, low blood pressure activates baroreceptors less and causes an increase in sympathetic tone via "disinhibition" (less inhibition, hence activation) of the RVLM.

All T cells derive from progenitor cells in the bone marrow, which become committed to their lineage in the thymus. All T cells begin as CD4-CD8-TCR- cells at the DN (double-negative) stage, where an individual cell will rearrange its T cell receptor genes to form a unique, functional molecule, which they, in turn, test against cells in the thymic cortex for a minimal level of interaction with self-MHC. If they receive these signals, they proliferate and express both CD4 and CD8, becoming double-positive cells. The selection of Tregs occurs on radio-resistant hematopoietically-derived MHC class II-expressing cells in the medulla or Hassal's corpuscles in the thymus.

High concentration of IL-1β caused by inflamation decrease de novo developement of Treg cells in thymus. The presence of recirculating Treg cells in the thymus with high IL1R2 expression during inflammatory conditions helps to uptake IL1β and reduce its concentration in the medulla microenvironment, thus they are helping to the development of de novo Treg cells. High concentration of IL-1β caused by inflamation decrease de novo developement of Treg cells in thymus. Binding of IL-1β to IL1R2 on the surface of Treg cells does not cause any signal transduction because there is no present Intracelluar (TIR) Toll interleukin-1 receptor domain, which is normally present in innate immune cells.

PHOX2B, a transcription factor involved in the development of neurons, can be associated with this condition. (The article misspells PHOX2B as "Thox2b".) This homeobox gene is important for the normal development of the autonomic nervous system. The disease used to be classified as a "neurocristopathy", or disease of the neural crest because part of the autonomic nervous system (such as sympathetic ganglia) derives from the neural crest. However, this denomination is no longer favored because essential neurons of the autonomic nervous system, including those that underlie the defining symptom of the disease (respiratory arrests), are derived from the neural tube (the medulla), not from the neural crest, although such mixed embryological origins are also true for most other neurocristopathies.

Ventilatory rate (respiratory minute volume) is tightly controlled and determined primarily by blood levels of carbon dioxide as determined by metabolic rate. Blood levels of oxygen become important in hypoxia. These levels are sensed by central chemoreceptors on the surface of the medulla oblongata for increased pH (indirectly from the increase in CSF of carbon dioxide), and the peripheral chemoreceptors in the arterial blood for oxygen and carbon dioxide. Afferent neurons from the peripheral chemoreceptors are via the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) and the vagus nerve (CN X). Levels of CO2 rise in the blood when the metabolic use of O2, and the production of CO2 is increased during, for example, exercise.

The medullary cavity (medulla, innermost part) is the central cavity of bone shafts where red bone marrow and/or yellow bone marrow (adipose tissue) is stored; hence, the medullary cavity is also known as the marrow cavity. Located in the main shaft of a long bone (diaphysis) (consisting mostly of compact bone), the medullary cavity has walls composed of spongy bone (cancellous bone) and is lined with a thin, vascular membrane (endosteum). However, the medullary cavity is the area inside any bone (long, flat, etc.) that holds the bone marrow. This area is involved in the formation of red blood cells and white blood cells, and the calcium supply for bird eggshells.

Parallel to the avian posterior vocal pathway mentioned above is the motor cortico-brainstem pathway. Within this pathway, the face motor cortex projects to the nucleus ambiguous of the medulla, which then projects to the muscles of the larynx. Humans also have a vocal pathway that is analogous to the avian anterior pathway. This pathway is a cortico- basal ganglia-thalamic-cortico loop which begins at a strip of the premotor cortex, called the cortical strip, which is responsible for speech learning and syntax production. The cortical strip includes spans across five brain regions: the anterior insula, Broca’s area, the anterior dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, the anterior pre-supplementary motor area, and the anterior cingulate cortex.

Worried, Fry tells her that he needs to find out something, leaves, and, using his own micro-droid, enters his own body. Fry confronts the worm leader and engages him in a sword fight after asking the worms to leave so he can learn if Leela loves him or just what they have made of him; he eventually coerces the worms into leaving by threatening to kill himself by destroying the medulla oblongata. With the worms gone, Fry returns to Leela's apartment and explains to her about the worms, and his decision to dispose of them. His awkward attempts at being romantic end when he mentions his previous relationship with Amy, and Leela kicks him out of her apartment.

Lewis rats (see Laboratory rat models) that had one kidney removed and then fed a high salt diet are hypertensive. Kidney medullary interstitial infusion of an inhibitor of 20-HETE production reduced the formation of 20-HETE in the outer medulla of the infused kidney, had no effect on the production of 20-HETE in the cortex of the infused kidney, and produced a mean arterial pressure rise from 115 at baseline to 142 mm of mercury; this study indicates that the hypertensive versus hypotensive effects of 20-HETE depend not only on the organ of its production but also, with respect to the kidney, the site within the organ where it is produced.

The term "ataxia" is sometimes used in a broader sense to indicate lack of coordination in some physiological process. Examples include optic ataxia (lack of coordination between visual inputs and hand movements, resulting in inability to reach and grab objects) and ataxic respiration (lack of coordination in respiratory movements, usually due to dysfunction of the respiratory centres in the medulla oblongata). Optic ataxia may be caused by lesions to the posterior parietal cortex, which is responsible for combining and expressing positional information and relating it to movement. Outputs of the posterior parietal cortex include the spinal cord, brain stem motor pathways, pre-motor and pre- frontal cortex, basal ganglia and the cerebellum.

Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company. The pathway receives information from sensory receptors throughout the body, and carries this in nerve tracts in the white matter of the dorsal columns of the spinal cord to the medulla, where it is continued in the medial lemniscus, on to the thalamus and relayed from there through the internal capsule and transmitted to the somatosensory cortex. The name dorsal-column medial lemniscus comes from the two structures that carry the sensory information: the dorsal columns of the spinal cord, and the medial lemniscus in the brainstem. There are three groupings of neurons that are involved in the pathway: first-order neurons, second-order neurons, and third-order neurons.

Axons from the upper body enter at or above T6 and travel up the posterior column on the outside of the gracile fasciculus in a more lateral section called the cuneate fasciculus. These fasciculi are in an area known as the posterior funiculus that lies between the posterolateral and the posterior median sulcus. They are separated by a partition of glial cells which places them on either side of the posterior intermediate sulcus. The column reaches the junction between the spinal cord and the medulla oblongata, where lower body axons in the gracile fasciculus connect (synapse) with neurons in the gracile nucleus, and upper body axons in the cuneate fasciculus synapse with neurons in the cuneate nucleus.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine) Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine) Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla are innervated by the splanchnic nerve and secrete adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenaline (norepinephrine), some dopamine, enkephalin and enkephalin-containing peptides, and a few other hormones into the blood stream. The secreted adrenaline and noradrenaline play an important role in the sympathetic nervous system response, commonly called the fight-or-flight response. The enkephalins and enkephalin-containing peptides are related to, but distinct from endogenous peptides named endorphins (which are secreted from the pituitary); all of these peptides bind to opioid receptors and produce analgesic (and other) responses. The hormones are secreted from chromaffin granules; this is where the enzyme dopamine β-hydroxylase catalyses the conversion of dopamine to noradrenaline.

The occurrence of pycnidia appears associated with the rugose cortical condition. Apothecia occasionally develop terminally on a branch, usually few in number, or often apothecia apparently fail to fully develop, and aggregates of aborted apothecia then form near apex on short narrow lobes off the main branch. Vermilacinia reptilioderma is similar to V. cedrosensis, with which it often occurs, but differs by its thicker persistent rugose cortex, 45–75 µm thick. Vermilacinia cedrosensis has a pale yellow green cortex, appearing pitted and also white due to the cortex eroding or thinning out (instead of becoming thicker) towards apex, from 0–60 µm thick; the white medulla often exposed; V. cedrosensis also lacks the T1 and T2 compounds.

Like other methylated xanthine derivatives, aminophylline is both a # competitive nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor which raises intracellular cAMP, activates PKA, inhibits TNF-alpha and leukotriene synthesis, and reduces inflammation and innate immunity and # nonselective adenosine receptor antagonist. Aminophylline causes bronchodilation, diuresis†, central nervous system and cardiac stimulation, and gastric acid secretion by blocking phosphodiesterase which increases tissue concentrations of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) which in turn promotes catecholamine stimulation of lipolysis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis, and induces release of epinephrine from adrenal medulla cells. †Note that diuresis is caused by an increase in cAMP which acts in the CNS to inhibit the release of antidiuretic hormone (arginine-vasopressin). Adenosine is an endogenous extracellular messenger that can regulate myocardial oxygen needs.

The exact location and functionality of the cough center has remained somewhat elusive: while Johannes Peter Müller observed in 1838 that the medulla coordinates the cough reflex, investigating it has been slow because the usual anaesthetics for experimental animals were morphine or opiates, drugs which strongly inhibit cough. In addition, the center likely overlaps with the respiratory rhythm generator networks.J.G. Widdicombe, Neurophysiology of the Cough Reflex, Eur Respir J, 1995, 8, 1193–1202 It is hence not so much a specific area, but a function within the respiration and reflex networks of the brainstem. Cough receptors project to relay neurones in the solitary nucleus, which project to other parts of the respiratory networks.

Regardless, Lewy bodies are widely recognized as a pathological marker of Parkinson's disease. Lewy bodies first appear in the olfactory bulb, medulla oblongata, and pontine tegmentum; patients at this stage are asymptomatic. As the disease progresses, Lewy bodies develop in the substantia nigra, areas of the midbrain and basal forebrain, and in the neocortex. This mechanism is substantiated by the facts that α-synuclein lacks toxicity when unable to form aggregates; that heat-shock proteins, which assist in refolding proteins susceptible to aggregation, beneficially affect PD when overexpressed; and that reagents which neutralize aggregated species protect neurons in cellular models of α-synuclein overexpression. Alpha- synuclein appears to be a key link between reduced DNA repair and Parkinson’s disease.

Human hair close-up Care of the hair and care of the scalp skin may appear separate, but are actually intertwined because hair grows from beneath the skin. The living parts of hair (hair follicle, hair root, root sheath and sebaceous gland) are beneath the skin, while the actual hair shaft which emerges (the cuticle which covers the cortex and medulla) has no living processes. Damage or changes made to the visible hair shaft cannot be repaired by a biological process, though much can be done to manage hair and ensure that the cuticle remains intact. Scalp skin, just like any other skin on the body, must be kept healthy to ensure a healthy body and healthy hair production.

The cortex is the primary tissue of stems and roots. In stems the cortex is between the epidermis layer and the phloem, in roots the inner layer is not phloem but the pericycle. Tree cross section diagram From the outside to the inside of a mature woody stem, the layers include: # Bark ## Periderm ### Cork (phellem or suber), includes the rhytidome ### Cork cambium (phellogen) ### Phelloderm ## Cortex ## Phloem # Vascular cambium # Wood (xylem) ## Sapwood (alburnum) ## Heartwood (duramen) # Pith (medulla) Tecpán, Guatemala. In young stems, which lack what is commonly called bark, the tissues are, from the outside to the inside: # Epidermis, which may be replaced by periderm # Cortex # Primary and secondary phloem # Vascular cambium # Secondary and primary xylem.

The normal function of the sympathoadrenal system is to help the body regulate responses to environmental stimuli. These stimuli travel through the sympathetic nervous system by means of preganglionic nerve fibers that emerge from the thoracic spinal chord. Electrical impulses carried by the sympathetic nervous system are converted to a chemical response in the adrenal gland. Chromaffin cells contained in the adrenal medulla act as postganglionic nerve fibers that release this chemical response into the blood as circulating messenger. The sympathoadrenal system can activate and discharge chemical messengers as a single unit to activate an organism's “fight or flight” response. This “sympathoadrenal discharge” causes an increase in heart rate, cardiac output, blood pressure, and glucose levels.

The dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve (or posterior nucleus of vagus nerve or dorsal vagal nucleus or nucleus dorsalis nervi vagi or nucleus posterior nervi vagi) is a cranial nerve nucleus for the vagus nerve in the medulla that lies ventral to the floor of the fourth ventricle. It mostly serves parasympathetic vagal functions in the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, and other thoracic and abdominal vagal innervations. The cell bodies for the preganglionic parasympathetic vagal neurons that innervate the heart reside in the nucleus ambiguus. Additional cell bodies are found in the nucleus ambiguus, which give rise to the branchial efferent motor fibers of the vagus nerve (CN X) terminating in the laryngeal, pharyngeal muscles, and musculus uvulae.

Grossly, all cranial nerves have a nucleus. With the exception of the olfactory nerve (I) and optic nerve (II), all the nuclei are present in the brainstem. The midbrain of the brainstem has the nuclei of the oculomotor nerve (III) and trochlear nerve (IV); the pons has the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve (V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII) and vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII); and the medulla has the nuclei of the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI) and hypoglossal nerve (XII). The olfactory nerve (I) emerges from the olfactory bulb, and depending slightly on division the optic nerve (II) is considered to emerge from the lateral geniculate nuclei.

With the exception of the olfactory nerve (I) and optic nerve (II), the cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem. The oculomotor nerve (III) and trochlear nerve (IV) emerge from the midbrain, the trigeminal (V), abducens (VI), facial (VII) and vestibulocochlea (VIII) from the pons, and the glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X), accessory (XI) and hypoglossal (XII) emerge from the medulla. The olfactory nerve (I) and optic nerve (II) emerge separately. The olfactory nerves emerge from the olfactory bulbs on either side of the crista galli, a bony projection below the frontal lobe, and the optic nerves (II) emerge from the lateral colliculus, swellings on either side of the temporal lobes of the brain.

The myenteric plexus (or Auerbach's plexus) provides motor innervation to both layers of the muscular layer of the gut, having both parasympathetic and sympathetic input (although present ganglion cell bodies belong to parasympathetic innervation, fibers from sympathetic innervation also reach the plexus), whereas the submucous plexus has only parasympathetic fibers and provides secretomotor innervation to the mucosa nearest the lumen of the gut. It arises from cells in the vagal trigone also known as the nucleus ala cinerea, the parasympathetic nucleus of origin for the tenth cranial nerve (vagus nerve), located in the medulla oblongata. The fibers are carried by both the anterior and posterior vagal nerves. The myenteric plexus is the major nerve supply to the gastrointestinal tract and controls GI tract motility.

In 2008, Südhof moved to Stanford University and is currently the Avram Goldstein Professor in the School of Medicine as well as a Professor of Molecular & Cellular Physiology, Psychiatry, and Neurology. Thomas C. Südhof laid the foundations for his scientific career studying the synapse early while studying the mechanisms of neurotransmitter dependent hormone release from neuroendocrine cells for his doctoral thesis at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry. Südhof described the structure and function of chromaffin cells which are responsible for the release of epinephrine, norepinephrine and endorphins from the medulla of the adrenal gland. Innervated by sympathetic nervous system, chromaffin cells are important in the initiation of the fight-or-flight response of animals when exposed to threatening stimuli.

Serotonergic cell groups refer to collections of neurons in the central nervous system that have been demonstrated by histochemical fluorescence to contain the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine). Since they are for the most part localized to classical brainstem nuclei, particularly the raphe nuclei, they are more often referred to by the names of those nuclei than by the B1-9 nomenclature. These cells appear to be common across most mammals and have two main regions in which they develop; one forms in the mesencephlon and the rostral pons (find articles/links) and the other in the medulla oblongata and the caudal pons.R. Nieuwenhuys, J. Voogd, C. Van Huijzen, The human central nervous system: a synopsis and atlas (Springer Science & Business Media, 2007).

Because the black markings in the budgerigar are due mainly to melanin pigment in the cortex it is these areas that are most affected by the Clearwing mutation, while the intensity of the blue colouration, which is dependent on pigmentation in the medulla, is affected very little. So the Clearwing mutation exerts a selective effect, not on the wing feathers per se, but on cortical pigmentation. In this respect it is the opposite of the several Clearbody budgerigar mutations, which seem to selectively suppress medullary pigmentation while leaving cortical pigmentation unaffected. The Clearwing is an autosomal mutation of the dil locus given the symbol dilcw, and so is a member of the multiple allelic series which also includes the Dilute (dild) and Greywing (dilgw) mutations.

Success in positive selection allows the thymocyte to undergo a number of maturational changes during the transition to a single positive T cell. The single positive T cells upregulate the chemokine receptor CCR7, causing migration from the cortex to the medulla. At this stage the key maturation process involves negative selection, the elimination of autoreactive thymocytes. The key disadvantage in a gene rearrangement process for T cell receptors is that by random chance, some arrangements of gene fragments will create a T cell receptor capable of binding self-peptides presented on MHC class I or MHC class II. If T cells bearing these T cell receptors were to enter the periphery, they would be capable of activating an immune response against self, resulting in autoimmunity.

Additionally, the larynx is pulled up with the pharynx under the tongue by stylopharyngeus (IX), salpingopharyngeus (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X), palatopharyngeus (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X) and inferior constrictor (pharyngeal plexus—IX, X). This phase is passively controlled reflexively and involves cranial nerves V, X (vagus), XI (accessory) and XII (hypoglossal). The respiratory center of the medulla is directly inhibited by the swallowing center for the very brief time that it takes to swallow. This means that it is briefly impossible to breathe during this phase of swallowing and the moment where breathing is prevented is known as deglutition apnea. 10) Hyoid elevation The hyoid is elevated by digastric (V & VII) and stylohyoid (VII), lifting the pharynx and larynx up even further.

For instance, blood vessels in skin, gastrointestinal system, kidney and brain respond to norepinephrine and epinephrine (from sympathetic stimulation or the adrenal medulla) by producing vasoconstriction (this response is mediated through alpha-1 adrenergic receptors). However, blood vessels within skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle respond to these catecholamines producing vasodilation because they possess beta-adrenergic receptors. So there is a difference in the distribution of the various adrenergic receptors that explains the difference in why blood vessels from different areas respond to the same agent norepinephrine/epinephrine differently as well as differences due to varying amounts of these catecholamines that are released and sensitivities of various receptors to concentrations. Generally, arterial smooth muscle responds to carbon dioxide by producing vasodilation, and responds to oxygen by producing vasoconstriction.

Human embryos develop similarly for the first six weeks, regardless of genetic sex (46,XX or 46,XY karyotype); the only way to tell the difference between 46,XX or 46,XY embryos during this time period is to look for Barr bodies or a Y chromosome. The gonads begin as bulges of tissue called the genital ridges at the back of the abdominal cavity, near the midline. By the fifth week, the genital ridges differentiate into an outer cortex and an inner medulla, and are called indifferent gonads. By the sixth week, the indifferent gonads begin to differentiate according to genetic sex. If the karyotype is 46,XY, testes develop due to the influence of the Y chromosome’s SRY gene.

Some of the axons of the cells of the lateral nucleus, and possibly also of the medial nucleus, are continued upward through the inferior peduncle to the roof nuclei of the opposite side of the cerebellum, to which also other fibers of the vestibular root are prolonged without interruption in the nuclei of the medulla oblongata. A second set of fibers from the medial and lateral nuclei end partly in the tegmentum, while the remainder ascend in the medial longitudinal fasciculus to arborize around the cells of the nuclei of the oculomotor nerve. Fibers from the lateral vestibular nucleus also pass via the vestibulospinal tract, to anterior horn cells at many levels in the spinal cord, in order to co-ordinate head and trunk movements.

Infusion of adrenaline well within the physiological range suppresses human airway hyper-reactivity sufficiently to antagonize the constrictor effects of inhaled histamine. A link between the sympathetic nervous system and the lungs was shown in 1887 when Grossman showed that stimulation of cardiac accelerator nerves reversed muscarine-induced airway constriction. In experiments in the dog, where the sympathetic chain was cut at the level of the diaphragm, Jackson showed that there was no direct sympathetic innervation to the lung, but that bronchoconstriction was reversed by release of adrenaline from the adrenal medulla. An increased incidence of asthma has not been reported for adrenalectomized patients; those with a predisposition to asthma will have some protection from airway hyper-reactivity from their corticosteroid replacement therapy.

The development of rhizomorphs begins with a submerged thallus that produces mycelium (hyphae biomass) that when deprived of nutrients and exposed to increasing oxygen, morphogenesis occurs giving rise to pseudo or microsclerotia (survival structures of some fungi), which precede rhizomorph development. Concentrations of oxygen play an important role in the production of rhizomorphs. When there is a high concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere, soil moisture, temperature and pH, rhizomorph production increases. Rhizomorphs contain four differentiated types of tissues #The outer layers are a compact growing point that make up the mucilage #The melanized wall that serves as protection against colonization by another microorganisms (bacteria or fungi) #The medulla that serves for conduction of water and dissolves nutrients #The central line used as an air conducting channel.

Only some parts of the brain were preserved; the cerebellar and celebral expansions were best preserved, whereas the olfactory lobes and medulla oblongata were missing or nearly so. The neural tissues seemed to be very tightly packed, indicating an EC closer to five (with hadrosaurs having even higher ECs), nearly matching that of the most intelligent non-avian theropods. Though it was noted this was in-line with their complex behaviour, as had been noted by Hopson, it was cautioned the dense packing may have been an artifact of preservation, and the original lower estimates were considered more accurate. Some of the complex behaviours ascribed can be seen to some extent in modern crocodilians, who fall near the original numbers.

The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain). At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the myelencephalon (which will contain the medulla oblongata).

Paul D. MacLean, as part of his triune brain theory, hypothesized that the limbic system is older than other parts of the forebrain, and that it developed to manage circuitry attributed to the fight or flight first identified by Hans Selye in his report of the General Adaptation Syndrome in 1936. It may be considered a part of survival adaptation in reptiles as well as mammals (including humans). MacLean postulated that the human brain has evolved three components, that evolved successively, with more recent components developing at the top/front. These components are, respectively: # The archipallium or primitive ("reptilian") brain, comprising the structures of the brain stem – medulla, pons, cerebellum, mesencephalon, the oldest basal nuclei – the globus pallidus and the olfactory bulbs.

Sterzi wrote the following textbooks: “Il Sistema nervoso centrale dei vertebrati” (The vertebrate central nervous system), 1907-1912; and “Anatomia del sistema nervoso centrale dell'uomo” (Anatomy of the human central nervous system), 1914-1915. Following the publication of the first book, John Black Johnston (1908), one of Sterzi's illustrious American contemporaries, wrote in a review published in The Anatomical Record: “Sterzi's work promises to be the most extensive work in any language dealing with the central nervous system of vertebrates.” “Meninges of the Spinal Medulla and of the Brain” (1899–1902) is a series of seven articles that represents the progression of his thesis and that includes a monograph on medullary meninges. Sterzi illustrates the comparative anatomy of meninges from the amphioxus to man.

As the embryo develops, the anterior part of the neural tube forms three primary brain vesicles, which become the primary anatomical regions of the brain: the forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon), and hindbrain (rhombencephalon). These simple, early vesicles enlarge and further divide into the five secondary brain vesicles – the telencephalon (future cerebral cortex and basal ganglia), diencephalon (future thalamus and hypothalamus), mesencephalon (future colliculi), metencephalon (future pons and cerebellum), and myelencephalon (future medulla). The CSF-filled central chamber is continuous from the telencephalon to the spinal cord, and constitutes the developing ventricular system of the CNS. Because the neural tube gives rise to the brain and spinal cord any mutations at this stage in development can lead to fatal deformities like anencephaly or lifelong disabilities like spina bifida.

In the neck, the accessory nerve crosses the internal jugular vein around the level of the posterior belly of digastric muscle, in front of the vein in about 80% of people, and behind it in about 20%, and in one reported case, piercing the vein. Traditionally, the accessory nerve is described as having a small cranial component that descends from the medulla and briefly connects with the spinal accessory component before branching off of the nerve to join the vagus nerve. A study, published in 2007, of twelve subjects suggests that in the majority of individuals, this cranial component does not make any distinct connection to the spinal component; the roots of these distinct components were separated by a fibrous sheath in all but one subject.

Corticotropin-releasing factors travel to the pituitary gland, where they activate the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The release of the adrenocorticotropic hormone is determined by the release of the corticotropin- releasing factor as the interruption of the corticotropin-releasing factor causes a weakening of the adrenocorticotropic hormone response. Adrenocorticotropic hormones bind to ACTH receptors on the cells within the adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex, causing a signal cascade within the adrenomedullary cell, ultimately releasing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine causes the excitation of the nerves that innervate the skeletal muscles along with the muscles surrounding certain bodily systems such as the cardiovascular system and respiratory system, causing an increase in force production by the skeletal muscles along with accelerated heart rate and breathing rate, respectively.

Cortical thymic epithelial cells (cTECs) form unique parenchyma cell population of the thymus which critically contribute to the development of T cells. Thymus tissue is compartmentalized into cortex and medulla and each of these two compartments comprises its specific thymic epithelial cell subset. cTECs reside in the outer part- cortex, which mostly serves as a developmental site for T cells. Precursors of T cells originate in the bone marrow from which they migrate via bloodstream into thymic cortex, where they encounter stromal cells including cTECs, which form the microenvironment crucial for proliferation and development of T cells by expression of DLL4 (delta-like notch ligand 4), cytokines IL-7, TGFβ or stem cell factor and chemokines CCL25, CXCL12 or CCRL1 etc.

The sensory feedback from the pectoralis major follows the reverse path, returning via first-order neurons to the spinal nerves at C5, C6, C8, and T1 through the posterior rami. After the synapse in the posterior horn of the spinal cord, sensory information concerning movement of the muscle, proprioception, and pressure then travels through a second-order neuron in the dorsal column medial lemniscus tract to the medulla. There, the fibers decussate to form the medial lemniscus which carries the sensory information the rest of the way to the thalamus, the "gateway to the cortex". The thalamus diverts some sensory information to the cerebellum and the basal nuclei to complete the motor feedback loop while some sensory information ascends directly to the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe of the brain via third-order neurons.

An opioid epidemic is the overuse or misuse of addictive opioid drugs with significant medical, social and economic consequences, including overdose deaths. Opioids are a diverse class of moderately strong painkillers, including oxycodone (commonly sold under the trade names OxyContin and Percocet), hydrocodone (Vicodin, Norco) and a very strong painkiller, fentanyl, which is synthesized to resemble other opiates such as opium-derived morphine and heroin. The potency and availability of these substances, despite their high risk of addiction and overdose, have made them popular both as medical treatments and as recreational drugs. Due to their sedative effects on the part of the brain which regulates breathing, the respiratory center of the medulla oblongata, opioids in high doses present the potential for respiratory depression and may cause respiratory failure and death.

These secondary neurons are situated in the posterior horn, specifically in the Rexed laminae regions I, IV, V and VI. Region II is primarily composed of Golgi II interneurons, which are primarily for the modulation of pain, and largely project to secondary neurons in regions I and V. Secondary neurons from regions I and V decussate across the anterior white commissure and ascend in the (now contralateral) lateral spinothalamic tract. These fibers will ascend through the brainstem, including the medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain, as the spinal lemniscus until synapsing in the ventroposteriorlateral (VPL) nucleus of the thalamus. The third order neurons in the thalamus will then project through the internal capsule and corona radiata to various regions of the cortex, primarily the main somatosensory cortex, Brodmann areas 3, 1, and 2.

Peripheral chemoreceptors were identified as necessary to breathing regulation much sooner than their mechanisms for acquiring information from the bloodstream were beginning to be understood. Both carotid and aortic bodies are composed of type I and type II cells and are believed to transduce signals from blood chemicals in the same way, though post-transduction signal communication may differ. Chemosensory transduction in these receptors is still an active area of research, and not all studies agree, but there is growing support for a transduction mechanism dependent upon mitochondrial consumption of oxygen affecting the AMPK enzyme. Transferring the signal to the medulla requires that neurotransmitter be released from the vesicles in the type I cells, and as with many other neural cells, this is triggered by an influx of calcium into the cell after membrane depolarization.

Fibres from the ventral motor cortex travel with the corticospinal tract through the internal capsule, but terminate in a number of locations in the midbrain (cortico-mesencephalic tract), pons (Corticopontine tract), and medulla oblongata (cortico-bulbar tract). The upper motor neurons of the corticobulbar tract synapse with interneurons or directly with the lower motor neurons located in the motor cranial nerve nuclei, namely oculomotor, trochlear, motor nucleus of the trigeminal nerve, abducens, facial nerve and accessory and in the nucleus ambiguus to the hypoglossal, vagus and accessory nerves. These nuclei are supplied by nerves from both sides of the brain, with the exception of the parts of the facial nerve that control muscles of the lower face. These muscles are only innervated by nerves from the contralateral (opposite) side of the cortex.

Ogniska w wyższych piętrach mostu Varola. Polska Gazeta Lekarska 15, 335-338 (1925) As cited in Moltrecht (2004) amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,Frey Ł, Orzechowski K. Zmiany anatomiczne w chorobie Charcota. Neurologia Polska 8, 3-4, 196-219 (1925) As cited in Moltrecht (2004)Frey Ł, Orzechowski K. Zmiany anatomiczne w chorobie Charcota. Księga Pamiątkowa XII Zjazdu Lek Przyr 2, 145 (1925-1926) As cited in Moltrecht (2004) Charcot joints, aneurysms of the plexus of the medulla,Frey Ł. Przypadek tętniaka splotowatego rdzenia. Neurologia Polska 9, 1-2, 21-30 (1926) As cited in Moltrecht (2004)Frey Ł. Rdzeń i preparaty drobnowidzowe z przypadku tętniaka splotowatego rdzenia. Polska Gazeta Lekarska 22, 431 (1927) As cited in Moltrecht (2004) cysts of brain ventricles,Frey Ł. Pokaz mózgu z torbielą III komory.

Dopamine is synthesized in a restricted set of cell types, mainly neurons and cells in the medulla of the adrenal glands. The primary and minor metabolic pathways respectively are: :Primary: L-Phenylalanine → L-Tyrosine → L-DOPA → Dopamine :Minor: L-Phenylalanine → L-Tyrosine → p-Tyramine → Dopamine :Minor: L-Phenylalanine → m-Tyrosine → m-Tyramine → Dopamine Reaction diagram Reaction diagram The direct precursor of dopamine, L-DOPA, can be synthesized indirectly from the essential amino acid phenylalanine or directly from the non-essential amino acid tyrosine. These amino acids are found in nearly every protein and so are readily available in food, with tyrosine being the most common. Although dopamine is also found in many types of food, it is incapable of crossing the blood–brain barrier that surrounds and protects the brain.

ALS is a motor neuron disease, also spelled "motor neurone disease", which is a group of neurological disorders that selectively affect motor neurons, the cells that control voluntary muscles of the body. Motor neuron diseases include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), primary lateral sclerosis (PLS), progressive muscular atrophy (PMA), progressive bulbar palsy, pseudobulbar palsy, and monomelic amyotrophy (MMA). ALS itself can be classified in a few different ways: by how fast the disease progresses (slow vs fast progressors), by whether it is inherited or sporadic, and by where it starts. In about 25% of cases, muscles in the face, mouth, and throat are affected first because motor neurons in the part of the brain stem called the medulla oblongata (formerly called the "bulb") start to die first along with lower motor neurons.

Purkinje cells also receive input from the inferior olivary nucleus on the contralateral side of the brainstem via climbing fibers. Although the inferior olive lies in the medulla oblongata and receives input from the spinal cord, brainstem and cerebral cortex, its output goes entirely to the cerebellum. A climbing fiber gives off collaterals to the deep cerebellar nuclei before entering the cerebellar cortex, where it splits into about 10 terminal branches, each of which gives input to a single Purkinje cell. In striking contrast to the 100,000-plus inputs from parallel fibers, each Purkinje cell receives input from exactly one climbing fiber; but this single fiber "climbs" the dendrites of the Purkinje cell, winding around them and making a total of up to 300 synapses as it goes.

Sensory information from the upper half of the body is received at the cervical level of the spinal cord and carried in the cuneate tract, and information from the lower body is received at the lumbar level and carried in the gracile tract. The gracile tract is medial to the more lateral cuneate tract. The axons of second-order neurons of the gracile and cuneate nuclei are known as the internal arcuate fibers and when they cross over the midline, at the sensory decussation in the medulla, they form the medial lemniscus which connects with thalamus; the axons synapse on neurons in the ventral nuclear group which then send axons to the postcentral gyrus in the parietal lobe. All of the axons in the DCML pathway are rapidly conducting, large, myelinated fibers.

These connections collectively are involved with emotional responses. The brainstem regions that the central nucleus connects to are responsible for controlling “expression of innate behaviors and associated physiological responses.” The central nucleus also has three subnuclei: lateral, capsular, and medial. It is the medial subnucleus that forms connections with “response control regions.” Most of the projection neurons in the central nucleus are inhibitory. The nucleus basalis also connects the central nucleus of the amygdala to the cortex through cholinergic projections that “are thought to arouse the cortex.” Lesion experiments show that the central nucleus of the amygdala connects with the startle circuit via the caudal part of the amygdalofugal pathway. This is the part of the pathway that projects directly to the parts of the pons, medulla, and perhaps the spinal cord.

Following heart failure, the body increases sympathetic activity to the adrenal medulla as the compensatory mechanism to increase heart rate and cardiac output. This increased sympathetic activity leads to chronically increased synthesis and secretion of catecholamines from the adrenal chromaffin cells. This chronic increase of epinephrine and norepinephrine secretion causes desensitization of the chromaffin cells to catecholamines resulting in a decrease in production and presence of α2 adrenergic receptors on their cell membrane. This desensitization and downregulation of α2 adrenergic receptors is caused by the upregulation of the enzyme Adrenal G protein coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) which effectively eliminates the normal autocrine-type negative feedback that normally prevents the cells from over producing the catecholamines and replaces it with a positive feedback loop in which increased secretion further elicits more secretion.

Together the latter is known as the peripheral chemoreceptors which are situated in the aortic and carotid bodies. Information from all of these chemoreceptors is conveyed to the respiratory centers in the pons and medulla oblongata, which responds to deviations in the partial pressures of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the arterial blood from normal by adjusting the rate and depth of breathing, in such a way as to restore partial pressure of carbon dioxide back to 5.3 kPa (40 mm Hg), the pH to 7.4 and, to a lesser extent, the partial pressure of oxygen to 13 kPa (100 mm Hg). For instance, exercise increases the production of carbon dioxide by the active muscles. This carbon dioxide diffuses into the venous blood and ultimately raises the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood.

Amidorphin is an endogenous, C-terminally amidated, opioid peptide generated as a cleavage product of proenkephalin A in some mammalian species; in humans and most other species, the peptide is 1 residue longer and is not amidated. Amidorphin is widely distributed in the mammalian brain, with particularly high concentrations found in the striatum, and outside of the brain in adrenal medulla and posterior pituitary. The 26-residue peptide named amidorphin is found in several species including bovine (Bos taurus), sheep (Ovis aries), and pig (Sus scrofa). Humans and commonly studied lab animals (mice, rats) produce a 27-residue peptide that does not have an amidated C-terminal residue; this is due to the absence of a Gly in the precursor sequence and replacement with Ala, which is not a substrate for the amidating enzyme (Peptidyl-glycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase).

In the human brainstem, the solitary nucleus (SN) (nucleus of the solitary tract, nucleus solitarius, nucleus tractus solitarii) is a series of purely sensory nuclei (clusters of nerve cell bodies) forming a vertical column of grey matter embedded in the medulla oblongata. Through the center of the SN runs the solitary tract, a white bundle of nerve fibers, including fibers from the facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves, that innervate the SN. The SN projects to, among other regions, the reticular formation, parasympathetic preganglionic neurons, hypothalamus and thalamus, forming circuits that contribute to autonomic regulation. Cells along the length of the SN are arranged roughly in accordance with function; for instance, cells involved in taste are located In the rostrum part, while those receiving information from cardio-respiratory and gastrointestinal processes are found in the caudal part.

Denton argues that, if self-awareness and intentionality are intrinsic to consciousness, the primordial emotions such as thirst, hunger and pain (that involve feeling the self and intentionality) are the likely precursors to consciousness; that a kind of non-reflective consciousness evolved along with these feelings and before the emergence of cognition. This opposes the view put by Edelman and others that consciousness emerged after the development of cognitive processes such as the ability to create a scene from diverse sensory inputs. Denton distinguishes between primordial emotions, "imperious states of arousal and compelling intentions to act" (p. 7) driven by activation of interoceptors and involving ancient, lower brain regions such as the medulla, midbrain and hypothalamus, and "classic" emotions, such as anger, fear and love, driven by distance receptors (vision, hearing, olfaction) and mediated by higher, more recently evolved brain regions.

The cranial root fibers arise from the cells of the nucleus ambiguus and emerge as four or five delicate rootlets from the side of the medulla oblongata, below the roots of the vagus. It runs lateralward to the jugular foramen, where it may interchange fibers with the spinal portion or even become united to it for a short distance; here it is also connected by one or two filaments with the jugular ganglion of the vagus. It then passes through the jugular foramen, separates from the spinal portion and is continued over the surface of the ganglion nodosum of the vagus, to the surface of which it is adherent, and is distributed principally to the pharyngeal and superior laryngeal branches of the vagus. Through the pharyngeal branch it probably supplies the Musculus uvulæ and Levator veli palatini.

On this > supposition the name which was intended to please the queen gave her great > offence, so that the publication had to be delayed. This accounts for the > presence of two madrigals, by Pilkington and Bateson respectively, in which > the burden of the words runs "In Heaven lives Oriana", instead of the ending > common to all the rest of the compositions, "Long live fair Oriana". The > contribution of Michael East (probably the printer's son) arrived too late > to be inserted in any other place than immediately after the dedication, and > Bateson's When Oriana walked to take the air was too late to be printed at > all in the collection. It was placed in the first set of madrigals by this > composer, which was published by East later on in 1603, together with > Weelkes's second set, and Medulla Musicke by Byrd and Ferrabosco.

Essential part of T cell development forms process called VDJ recombination, mediated by RAG recombinases, that stochastically changes DNA sequences of T cell receptors (TCR) and endows them with diverse recognition specificity. Thanks to this process, T cells can recognize vast repertoire of pathogens, but also self-peptides or even their TCRs don´t respond to any surrounding signals. Major role of thymic epithelial cells is to test, whether TCRs are "functional" and on the other hand "harmless" to our body. While cTECs control the functionality of TCRs during the process called positive selection, Medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs) that home in the inner part of the thymus- medulla, present on their MHC molecules self- peptides, generated mostly by protein Autoimmune regulator, to eliminate T cells with self-reactive TCRs via processes of central tolerance e.g.

The parabrachial nuclei receive visceral afferent information from a variety of sources in the brainstem, including much input from the solitary nucleus, which brings taste information and information about the remainder of the body. The external, dorsal, internal and superior lateral subnuclei also receive input from the spinal and trigeminal dorsal horn, mainly concerned with pain and other visceral sensations. Outputs from the parabrachial nucleus originate from specific subnuclei and target forebrain sites involved in autonomic regulation, including the lateral hypothalamic area, ventromedial, dorsomedial, and arcuate hypothalamic nuclei, the median and lateral preoptic nuclei, the substantia innominate, the ventroposterior parvicellular and intralaminar thalamic nuclei, the central nucleus of the amygdala, and the insular and infralimbic cortex. The subparabrachialnucleus and lateral crescent send efferents to the nucleus of the solitary tract, ventrolateral medulla, and spinal cord, where they target many respiratory and autonomic cell groups.

Like the olfactory system, the taste system is defined by its specialized peripheral receptors and central pathways that relay and process taste information. Peripheral taste receptors are found on the upper surface of the tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and the upper part of the esophagus. Taste cells synapse with primary sensory axons that run in the chorda tympani and greater superficial petrosal branches of the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII), the lingual branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX), and the superior laryngeal branch of the vagus nerve (Cranial nerve X) to innervate the taste buds in the tongue, palate, epiglottis, and esophagus respectively. The central axons of these primary sensory neurons in the respective cranial nerve ganglia project to rostral and lateral regions of the nucleus of the solitary tract in the medulla, which is also known as the gustatory nucleus of the solitary tract complex.

Among his teachers was Neophytos Doukas, prominent figure of the modern Greek Enlightenment. At 1807 Doukas published an epigram composed by Arsache about the work, Breviarium historiae Romanae, of historian Eutropius. He then went to the University of Halle and studied Medicine. Arsache composed a treatise under the title Έκθεσις συνοπτική της Ιατρικής ιστορίας (Coincise Report of the History of Medicine) in Ancient Greek, which was published at the Greek periodical Hermes o Logios, in Vienna. At 1807 he published his thesis De Piscium Celebro et Medulla Spinali in Latin. In 1814 he moved to Bucharest, Romania. In the Cabinet of Barbu Catargiu (22 January to 24 June 1862), he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs and following Catargiu's assassination on 20 June, Arsache briefly served as interim Prime Minister of Romania. He became one of the major benefactors of the newly established Greek state.

The sensory arm is composed of primary visceral sensory neurons found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), in cranial sensory ganglia: the geniculate, petrosal and nodose ganglia, appended respectively to cranial nerves VII, IX and X. These sensory neurons monitor the levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen and sugar in the blood, arterial pressure and the chemical composition of the stomach and gut content. They also convey the sense of taste and smell, which, unlike most functions of the ANS, is a conscious perception. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide are in fact directly sensed by the carotid body, a small collection of chemosensors at the bifurcation of the carotid artery, innervated by the petrosal (IXth) ganglion. Primary sensory neurons project (synapse) onto “second order” visceral sensory neurons located in the medulla oblongata, forming the nucleus of the solitary tract (nTS), that integrates all visceral information.

Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1, is a rare genetic autoimmune syndrome that results from a genetic defect of the thymus tissues. Specifically, the disease results from defects in the autoimmune regulator (AIRE) gene, which stimulates expression of self antigens in the epithelial cells within the medulla of the thymus. Because of defects in this condition, self antigens are not expressed, resulting in T cells that are not conditioned to tolerate tissues of the body, and may treat them as foreign, stimulating an immune response and resulting in autoimmunity. People with APECED develop an autoimmune disease that affects multiple endocrine tissues, with the commonly affected organs being hypothyroidism of the thyroid gland, Addison's disease of the adrenal glands, and candida infection of body surfaces including the inner lining of the mouth and of the nails due to dysfunction of TH17 cells, and symptoms often beginning in childhood.

Studies have found that regular meditation practice increases the protein BDNF in the brain and improves cellular health, reduces the rate of aging within cells, and a reduction of grey matter decay in the brain making it possible for higher neuroplasticity over longer periods of time. Meditation has been linked to higher levels of cognitive flexibility and a greater ability to recognize cognitive evaluations and functions. Recent studies suggest that meditation can increase the amount of gray matter in the medulla oblongata located in the brain stem leading to decreased arousal when dealing with unpleasant situations and higher levels of activity in the higher cortical regions of the brain and insula. Meditation has shown to increase activity in anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and enhance communication from the anterior cingulate cortex to the rest of the brain resulting in a better ability to evaluate and resolve cognitive tasks.

English anatomist Thomas Willis in 1664 first described the accessory nerve, choosing to use "accessory" (described in Latin as nervus accessorius) meaning in association with the vagus nerve. In 1848, Jones Quain described the nerve as the "spinal nerve accessory to the vagus", recognizing that while a minor component of the nerve joins with the larger vagus nerve, the majority of accessory nerve fibres originate in the spinal cord. In 1893 it was recognised that the heretofore named nerve fibres "accessory" to the vagus originated from the same nucleus in the medulla oblongata, and it came to pass that these fibres were increasingly viewed as part of the vagus nerve itself. Consequently, the term "accessory nerve" was and is increasingly used to denote only fibres from the spinal cord; the fact that only the spinal portion could be tested clinically lent weight to this opinion.

It is concave in front, convex behind, broader and thicker in the middle than at the ends, and firmly attached on either side to a small tubercle on the medial surface of the lateral mass of the atlas.Gray's anatomy, 1918 As it crosses the odontoid process, a small fasciculus (crus superius) is prolonged upward, and another (crus inferius) downward, from the superficial or posterior fibers of the ligament. The former is attached to the basilar part of the occipital bone, in close relation with the membrana tectoria; the latter is fixed to the posterior surface of the body of the axis; hence, the whole ligament is named the cruciate ligament of the atlas. The transverse ligament divides the ring of the atlas into two unequal parts: of these, the posterior and larger serves for the transmission of the medulla spinalis and its membranes and the accessory nerves; the anterior and smaller contains the odontoid process.

The spinal trigeminal nucleus is a nucleus in the medulla that receives information about deep/crude touch, pain, and temperature from the ipsilateral face. In addition to the trigeminal nerve (CN V), the facial (CN VII), glossopharyngeal (CN IX), and vagus nerves (CN X) also convey pain information from their areas to the spinal trigeminal nucleus.Brainstem Nuclei Thus the spinal trigeminal nucleus receives input from cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X. The spinal nucleus is composed of three subnuclei: subnucleus oralis (pars oralis), subnucleus caudalis (pars caudalis), and subnucleus interpolaris (pars interpolaris). The subnucleus oralis is associated with the transmission of discriminative (fine) tactile sense from the orofacial region, and is continuous with the principal sensory nucleus of V. The subnucleus interpolaris is also associated with the transmission of tactile sense, as well as dental pain, whereas the subnucleus caudalis is associated with the transmission of nociception and thermal sensations from the head.

Rocket Robin Hood leads his "Merry Men"—including the strong, dimwitted and likeable Little John; consummate overeater Friar Tuck (who designs all of the Merry Men's weaponry); his two- fisted, red-headed cousin Will Scarlet; Robin's plucky girlfriend Maid Marian; his sharp-witted right-hand man Alan-a-Dale; scrawny and feisty camp cook Giles (a reformed crook and Gabby Hayes-type); and other characters from the classic story of Robin Hood. They live in "the astonishing year 3000" on New Sherwood Forest Asteroid and are determined to foil the despotic plans of Prince John and his bumbling lackey, the Sheriff of N.O.T.T. (National Outer- space Terrestrial Territories) and other villains such as Dr. Medulla, Manta, Nocturne and the Warlord of Saturn. Rocket Robin Hood and his people fly in spaceships and use weapons such as "electro-quarterstaffs". Each 22-minute episode is divided into three segments, with cliffhangers between the first and second part and the second and third part.

Niebla fimbriata is recognized by the thallus divided into subterete branches from a central attachment point, reaching a height of 6 cm while spreading out as much as 10 cm across; the branches seem to bend backwards as they grow, producing a fringe of narrow branchlets along both margins of a primary branch, all pointing in the same direction—upwards, the whole branch with its branchlets resembling the lobster body on its back with the legs pointing up, but branchlets may also fall off, leaving the margins of the primary branch to appear with rudimentary crinkled branchlets. Black dot-like pycnidia are scattered and immersed along the margins and cortical ridges, or they may be conspicuous and abundant in some thalli. The cortex is rather thick in covering a partially hollow medulla (“subfistulose”), 100–150(-200) µm thick, olive green in color with smooth, reticulate or honeycomb-like areas. Apothecia are born on the narrow branchlets.

This component of CN IX carries general sensory information (pain, temperature, and touch) from the skin of the external ear, internal surface of the tympanic membrane, the walls of the upper pharynx, and the posterior one-third of the tongue, anterior surface of the epiglottis, vallecula. ;Peripheral course :Sensory fibers from the skin of the external ear initially travel with the auricular branch of CN X, while those from the middle ear travel in the tympanic nerve as discussed above (CN IX visceral motor section). General sensory information from the upper pharynx and posterior one-third of the tongue travel via the pharyngeal branches of CN IX. These peripheral processes have their cell body in either the superior or inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion. ;Central course :The central processes of the general sensory neurons exit the glossopharyngeal ganglia and pass through the jugular foramen to enter the brainstem at the level of the medulla.

Upon leaving the medulla oblongata between the olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle, the vagus nerve extends through the jugular foramen, then passes into the carotid sheath between the internal carotid artery and the internal jugular vein down to the neck, chest, and abdomen, where it contributes to the innervation of the viscera, reaching all the way to the colon. Besides giving some output to various organs, the vagus nerve comprises between 80% and 90% of afferent nerves mostly conveying sensory information about the state of the body's organs to the central nervous system. The right and left vagus nerves descend from the cranial vault through the jugular foramina, penetrating the carotid sheath between the internal and external carotid arteries, then passing posterolateral to the common carotid artery. The cell bodies of visceral afferent fibers of the vagus nerve are located bilaterally in the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve (nodose ganglia).

There was observed, that some Foxp3+ Treg cells are recirculating back to thymus, where they have developed. This Tregs were mainly present in thymic medula, which is the main site of Treg cells differentiation. The presence of this cells in thymus or addition into fetal thymic tissue culture suppress developement of new Treg cells by 34-60%,but Tconv cells are not affected. That means, that recirculating Tregs to thymus inhibited just de novo developement of Treg cells. Molecular mechanism of this process works due to the ability of Tregs to adsorb IL-2 from the microenvironments, thus being able to induce apoptosis of other T cells which need IL-2 as main growth factor.recirculating T reg cells in thymus express high amount of high affinity IL-2 receptor α chain (CD25) encoded by Il2ra gene which gather IL-2 from thymic medulla, and decrease its concentration. New generated Foxp3+ Treg cells in thymus have not so high amout of Il2ra expression. IL-2 is a cytokine necessary for the development of Treg cells in the thymus.

Vermilacinia cephalota is classified in the subgenus Cylindricaria in which it is distinguished from related species by the thallus divided into tubular inflated or somewhat compressed fan-shaped branches that arise from a central point of attachment and produce soredia, powdery masses of green alga and white fungal cells that erupt through the cortex, which in V. cephalota form pincushion-like heads (capitate) called soralia (soralium singular) because of their regular shape. The cortex is relatively thin, 10–60 µm thick, and the soralia often have a bluish tint. Additionally, the cortex of a specimen of Vermilacinia cephalota—that is kept in a herbarium—gradually deteriorates, cracking irregularly; the hyphae and crystalline deposits within the medulla then seem to flow out through the cracks like a stuffed animal toy losing its cotton after being torn. This chemical change or efflorescence of the dried thallus eventually makes it difficult to distinguish the original shape of a soralium. This has been attributed to the diterpene (-)-16 α-hydroxykaurane, G., J. Santesson & C. W. Wachtmeister. 1965. Studies on the chemistry of lichens. 20.

Fourth ventricle location shown in red (E), pons (B); the floor of the ventricle is to the right, the roof to the left The fourth ventricle has a roof at its upper (posterior) surface and a floor at its lower (anterior) surface, and side walls formed by the cerebellar peduncles (nerve bundles joining the structure on the posterior side of the ventricle to the structures on the anterior side). The caudal tip of the fourth ventricle - where it becomes the central canal - is known as the obex; the obex is also a marker for the level of the foramen magnum of the skull and therefore is a marker for the imaginary dividing line between the medulla and spinal cord The superior portion of the roof (i.e. of the posterior edge) is a thin lamina - the superior medullary velum - connecting the left and right superior cerebellar peduncles together. The inferior portion of the roof - the inferior medullary velum - has a tricorn cross section, directed caudally and laterally, and is formed by the Cerebellum directly.

This is very tightly controlled by the monitoring of the arterial blood gases (which accurately reflect composition of the alveolar air) by the aortic and carotid bodies, as well as by the blood gas and pH sensor on the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata in the brain. There are also oxygen and carbon dioxide sensors in the lungs, but they primarily determine the diameters of the bronchioles and pulmonary capillaries, and are therefore responsible for directing the flow of air and blood to different parts of the lungs. It is only as a result of accurately maintaining the composition of the 3 liters of alveolar air that with each breath some carbon dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere and some oxygen is taken up from the outside air. If more carbon dioxide than usual has been lost by a short period of hyperventilation, respiration will be slowed down or halted until the alveolar partial pressure of carbon dioxide has returned to 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg). It is therefore strictly speaking untrue that the primary function of the respiratory system is to rid the body of carbon dioxide “waste”.

It implies that the planes of the brain are not necessarily the same as those of the body. However, the situation is more complex, since comparative embryology shows that the length axis of the neural tube (the primordium of the brain) has three internal bending points, namely two ventral bendings at the cervical and cephalic flexures (cervical flexure roughly between the medulla oblongata and the spinal cord, and cephalic flexure between the diencephalon and the midbrain), and a dorsal (pontine or rhombic flexure) at the midst of the hindbrain, behind the cerebellum. The latter flexure mainly appears in mammals and sauropsids (reptiles and birds), whereas the other two, and principally the cephalic flexure, appear in all vertebrates (the sum of the cervical and cephalic ventral flexures is the cause of the 90 degree angle mentioned above in humans between body axis and brain axis). This more realistic concept of the longitudinal structure of vertebrate brains implies that any section plane, except the sagittal plane, will intersect variably different parts of the same brain as the section series proceeds across it (relativity of actual sections with regard to topological morphological status in the ideal unbent neural tube).

As calculated by the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation, in order to maintain a normal pH of 7.4 in the blood (whereby the pKa of carbonic acid is 6.1 at physiological temperature), a 20:1 bicarbonate to carbonic acid must constantly be maintained; this homeostasis is mainly mediated by pH sensors in the medulla oblongata of the brain and probably in the kidneys, linked via negative feedback loops to effectors in the respiratory and renal systems. In the blood of most animals, the bicarbonate buffer system is coupled to the lungs via respiratory compensation, the process by which the rate and/or depth of breathing changes to compensate for changes in the blood concentration of CO2. By Le Chatelier's principle, the release of CO2 from the lungs pushes the reaction above to the left, causing carbonic anhydrase to form CO2 until all excess acid is removed. Bicarbonate concentration is also further regulated by renal compensation, the process by which the kidneys regulate the concentration of bicarbonate ions by secreting H+ ions into the urine while, at the same time, reabsorbing HCO ions into the blood plasma, or vice versa, depending on whether the plasma pH is falling or rising, respectively.