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234 Sentences With "mammary glands"

How to use mammary glands in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "mammary glands" and check conjugation/comparative form for "mammary glands". Mastering all the usages of "mammary glands" from sentence examples published by news publications.

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I can't go around walking exposing my genitals like they can the mammary glands.
As in, they've got ovaries, mammary glands, Fallopian tubes, uteri, rectouterine pouches, cervices, and, last but not least, vaginas.
But her initial studies of mice proved disappointing—their left and right mammary glands didn't seem to differ at all.
It has enormous ears, a bushy tail, mammary glands between its legs and white hairs that bristle when it's agitated.
The most common carrier is a rodent of the Mastomys species, 4 to 7 inches long and with 24 mammary glands.
Years later, after her recovery, Ramsdell decided to leave the heart behind and to start looking for asymmetry in the mammary glands of mammals.
Dr. Delaney's team identified it as a malignant tumor and diagnosed adenocarcinoma, a type of cancer that develops from the body's mucus-secreting glands, like the salivary glands or mammary glands.
So much so that a group of ad men subliminally decided to use them as inspiration for what we now know as the "double arches," which are a pair of mammary glands.
While about 80 percent of breast cancer are diagnosed in the invasive state, about 20 percent are non-invasive, just confined to the ducts of the mammary glands, so-called ductal carcinoma in situ.
When a baby latches onto the nipple, the nerves send impulses to the brain that trigger the release of the prolactin hormone in your pituitary gland, which tells your mammary glands to produce breast milk.
Though the spiders aren't using mammary glands to produce the fluid, and hence are "lactating" in name only, the findings should prompt scientists to reconsider what they know about nursing and how it evolved, the researchers said.
The study doesn't pinpoint which of the chemicals caused the damage, but makes some suggestions: Some aromatic amines, chemicals also found in tobacco smoke and industrial byproducts, disrupt the endocrine system, and some dyes have been found to induce tumors in rats' mammary glands.
The variety of flavors that you eat during pregnancy go into your blood and then into the amniotic fluid, which the baby is constantly drinking, in utero, and the flavors that you eat while nursing cross from the blood vessels that supply the mammary glands into the breast milk.
When a baby is finding it difficult to breast-feed, as McKeever's newborn did, syringe feeding is an alternate method to make sure that the baby gets colostrum, the concentrated milk that is produced in a mother's mammary glands during pregnancy and is expressed in the earliest days of breast-feeding.
The presence of two pairs mammary glands in the groin area and the absence of mammary glands in the pectoral area is a key feature for this species.
This type of tissue can be observed in sweat glands, mammary glands, circumanal glands, and salivary glands. They protect areas such as the ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands.
Females have enlarged breasts due to functional mammary glands, which develop from puberty onward due to the effects of estrogen. Mammary glands do not contain muscle tissue. The shape of female breasts is affected by age, genetic factors, and body weight.
American Journal of Obstetrician Gynecology, 142, 735-738. In the second half of pregnancy, progesterone and prolactin prepare the mammary glands for lactation.Atwood, C. et al (2000). Progesterone induces side- branching of the ductal epithelium in the mammary glands of peripubertal mice.
Adult female and male with clean-shaven pubic regions. A distinguishing characteristic of the class Mammalia is the presence of mammary glands. The mammary glands are modified sweat glands that produce milk, which is used to feed the young for some time after birth. Only mammals produce milk.
What counts as a synapomorphy for one clade may well be a primitive character or plesiomorphy at a less inclusive or nested clade. For example, the presence of mammary glands is a synapomorphy for mammals in relation to tetrapods but is a symplesiomorphy for mammals in relation to one another—rodents and primates, for example. So the concept can be understood as well in terms of "a character newer than" (autapomorphy) and "a character older than" (plesiomorphy) the apomorphy: mammary glands are evolutionarily newer than vertebral column, so mammary glands are an autapomorphy if vertebral column is an apomorphy, but if mammary glands are the apomorphy being considered then vertebral column is a plesiomorphy.
Specialized sweat glands, including the ceruminous glands, mammary glands, ciliary glands of the eyelids, and sweat glands of the nasal vestibulum, are modified apocrine glands. Ceruminous glands are near the ear canals, and produce cerumen (earwax) that mixes with the oil secreted from sebaceous glands. Mammary glands use apocrine secretion to produce milk.
250x250px Mammary glands are arranged in breasts of the primates to produce milk for feeding offspring. They are enlarged and modified sweat glands. In the embryological development, mammary glands firstly appear after six weeks of pregnancy in the form of ectodermal ridges. The ectodermal ridge grows thicker and compresses to form mesoderm.
The females have four pairs of mammary glands. The snout is pointed, the ears are rounded and the long slender tail is hairless.
Progesterone prepares the uterus for pregnancy, and the mammary glands for lactation. Progesterone functions with estrogen by promoting menstrual cycle changes in the endometrium.
The hallux (big toe) bears a nail rather than a claw, a unique characteristic of this genus. The female has three pairs of mammary glands.
Casein kinase activity associated with the endoplasmic reticulum of mammary glands was first characterized in 1974, and its activity was shown to not depend on cyclic AMP.
During mouse embryonic development, Tbx3 is expressed in the inner cell mass of the blastocyst, in the extraembryonic mesoderm during gastrulation, and in the developing heart, limbs, musculoskeletal structures, mammary glands, nervous system, skin, eye, liver, pancreas, lungs and genitalia. Tbx3 null embryos show defects in, among other structures, the heart, mammary glands and limbs and they die in utero by embryonic day E16.5, most likely due to yolk sac and heart defects. These observations together with numerous other studies have illustrated that Tbx3 plays crucial roles in the development of the heart, mammary glands, limbs and lungs. TBX3 has been implicated in the regulation of Wnt target genes by tissue-specific crosstalk with the protein BCL9 .
Most primates have two mammary glands, but the number and positions vary between species within strepsirrhines. Lorises have two pairs, while others, like the ring-tailed lemur, have one pair on the chest (pectoral). The aye-aye also has two mammary glands, but they are located near the groin (inguinal). In females, the clitoris is sometimes enlarged and pendulous, resembling the male penis, which can make sex identification difficult for human observers.
Prolactin has a wide variety of effects. It stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk (lactation): increased serum concentrations of prolactin during pregnancy cause enlargement of the mammary glands and prepare for milk production, which normally starts when levels of progesterone fall by the end of pregnancy and a suckling stimulus is present. Prolactin plays an important role in maternal behavior. In general, dopamine inhibits prolactin but this process has feedback mechanisms.
Knockout mice of the PR have been found to have severely impaired lobuloalveolar development of the mammary glands as well as delayed but otherwise normal mammary ductal development at puberty.
Then the infant turns towards the mammary glands and after suckling it stretches either one or both of its wings repeatedly. Apparently mothers spend most of the night inside the cave.
It is known that this species is dependent on maternal care for the first couple of weeks after birth. Female forest dormice have eight mammary glands."The Dormouse Hollow." Dryomys. Web.
The mammary glands of mammals are specialized to produce milk, the primary source of nutrition for newborns. The monotremes branched early from other mammals and do not have the nipples seen in most mammals, but they do have mammary glands. The young lick the milk from a mammary patch on the mother's belly. Compared to placental mammals, the milk of marsupials changes greatly in both production rate and in nutrient composition, due to the underdeveloped young.
Udder of a cow An udder is an organ formed of two or four mammary glands of dairy animals ruminants such as cattle, goats, and sheep. A mammary gland is equivalent to the breast in primates. The udder is a single mass hanging beneath the animal, consisting of pairs of mammary glands with protruding teats. In cattle, there are normally two pairs, in sheep, goats and deer, there is one pair, and in some animals, there are many pairs.
Like other placental mammals, cetaceans give birth to well- developed calves and nurse them with milk from their mammary glands. When suckling, the mother actively splashes milk into the mouth of the calf, using the muscles of her mammary glands, as the calf has no lips. This milk usually has a high fat content, ranging from 16 to 46%, causing the calf to increase rapidly in size and weight. In many small cetaceans, suckling lasts for about four months.
The TRPV6 protein is expressed in epithelial tissues such as the intestine, kidney, placenta, epididymis, and exocrine glands such as pancreas, prostate and salivary, sweat, and mammary glands. TRPV6 protein expression in humans has been demonstrated in the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon, pancreas, mammary glands, ovary, thyroid, and prostate by immunohistochemistry approaches. TRPV6 expression mainly confines on the apical membrane of epithelial cells. In the intestine, the protein is expressed on the brush- border membrane of enterocyte.
Radioactivity is also seen from uptake by the liver, and excretion and accumulation in the bladder. Extra-thyroidal iodine exists in several other organs, including the mammary glands, eyes, gastric mucosa, cervix, cerebrospinal fluid, arterial walls, ovary and salivary glands . In the cells of these tissues the iodide ion (I−) enters directly by the sodium-iodide symporter (NIS). Different tissue responses for iodine and iodide occur in the mammary glands and the thyroid gland of rats.
Baby tapirs of all types have striped- and-spotted coats for camouflage. Females have a single pair of mammary glands,Gorog, A. (2001). Tapirus terrestris, Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved June 19, 2006.
Males play an active role in lactation and feeding the young. They have mammary glands that are the same size as those of the female and exceed 8% of their overall body mass.
1824-1832 The PRLR has been found to be essential for lobuloalveolar maturation of the mammary glands during pregnancy, as evidenced by the fact that PRLR knockout mice show severely impaired development of lobuloalveolar structures.
Mammary glands are most obvious in humans, as the female human body stores large amounts of fatty tissue near the nipples, resulting in prominent breasts. Mammary glands are present in all mammals, although they are seldom used by the males of the species. Most mammalian females have two copies of the X chromosome as opposed to males which have only one X and one smaller Y chromosome; some mammals, such as the platypus, have different combinations.Adrian T. Sumner, Chromosomes: Organization and Function (2008), pp.
The EGFR is essential for ductal development of the mammary glands, and agonists of the EGFR such as amphiregulin, TGF-α, and heregulin induce both ductal and lobuloalveolar development even in the absence of estrogen and progesterone.
In animals with udders, the mammary glands develop on the milk line near the groin, and mammary glands that develop on the chest (such as in humans and apes) are generally referred to as breasts. Udder care and hygiene in cows is important in milking, aiding uninterrupted and untainted milk production, and preventing mastitis. Products exist to soothe the chapped skin of the udder. This helps prevent bacterial infection, and reduces irritation during milking by the cups, and so the cow is less likely to kick the cups off.
PTHrP acts as an endocrine, autocrine, paracrine, and intracrine hormone. It regulates endochondral bone development by maintaining the endochondral growth plate at a constant width. It also regulates epithelial–mesenchymal interactions during the formation of the mammary glands.
There are short hairs on the lower sides of the interdigital webs. The four-lobed plantar pads are longer than wide. The claws are short, almost erect, and in some individuals even absent. Females have four mammary glands.
Terminal end buds (TEBs) are highly proliferative structures at the ends of elongating lactiferous ducts which are involved in development of the mammary glands. TEBs are responsible for the formation of the mammary ductal tree during female puberty.
Zumpt I. F. 1970. "The ground squirrel", African Wild Life 24:115-121. The belly and groin area of the females each have two pairs of mammary glands. The glans penis of the males are large with a prominent baculum.
CD133 is expressed in hematopoietic stem cells, endothelial progenitor cells, glioblastoma, neuronal and glial stem cells, various pediatric brain tumors, as well as adult kidney, mammary glands, trachea, salivary glands, uterus, placenta, digestive tract, testes, and some other cell types.
Estrogens can be used to suppress and cease lactation and breast engorgement in postpartum women who do not wish to breastfeed. They do this by directly decreasing the sensitivity of the alveoli of the mammary glands to the lactogenic hormone prolactin.
The hind feet are narrow and the slender tail is clad with short hairs, and often has a white tip. There are three pairs of mammary glands. The chief differences between the two species lies in the morphology of the skull.
2-Tolidine is toxic and possibly carcinogenic. It is listed as an IARC Group 2B carcinogen, meaning it is "possibly carcinogenic to humans". Animal studies have shown that animals exposed to tolidine developed tumors in the liver, kidney, and mammary glands.
Living mammal species can be identified by the presence in females of mammary glands which produce milk. Other features are required when classifying fossils, since mammary glands and other soft-tissue features are not visible in fossils. Paleontologists therefore use the ossicles as distinguishing bony features shared by all living mammals (including monotremes), but is not present in any of the early Triassic therapsids ("mammal-like reptiles"). left Early amniotes had a jaw joint composed of the articular (a small bone at the back of the lower jaw) and the quadrate (a small bone at the back of the upper jaw).
The vulva is the external opening of the vagina, and consists of the clitoris and two labia. It lies ventral to the rectum. The mare has two mammary glands, which are smaller in maiden mares. They have two ducts each, which open externally.
However, it would not have possessed mammary glands, and would have fed its young, as birds do, on regurgitated food. He speculated that its language would have sounded somewhat like bird song.Naish, D. (2006). Dinosauroids Revisited Darren Naish: Tetrapod Zoology, April 23, 2011.
Sir Astley Paston Cooper, 1st Baronet (23 August 176812 February 1841) was an English surgeon and anatomist, who made historical contributions to otology, vascular surgery, the anatomy and pathology of the mammary glands and testicles, and the pathology and surgery of hernia.
Breeding receptivity in the yellow-bellied sheath-tailed bat begins in August when the right uterine horn increases in diameter, achieving maximum size in November. A single offspring is produced between December and March, with mammary glands regressing by the end of May.
LPL is attached to the luminal surface of endothelial cells in capillaries by the protein glycosylphosphatidylinositol HDL-binding protein 1 (GPIHBP1) and by heparan sulfated peptidoglycans. It is most widely distributed in adipose, heart, and skeletal muscle tissue, as well as in lactating mammary glands.
During pregnancy until after birth, mammary glands grow steadily to a size required for optimal milk production. At the end of breastfeeding, the number of cells in the mammary gland becomes reduced until approximately the same number is reached as before the start of pregnancy.
Microarray and EST data indicates that the DHRS7B gene is highly expressed in the testes, thyroid, kidneys, and adipose tissues. There is moderate expression in the brain, pancreas, mammary glands, and ovaries. Finally, there is little expression in spleen, thymus, tonsils, bone marrow, and bladder.
54 no. 1 106-113 Staphylococcus caprae was first described in 1983 by Devisee et al. based on a strain isolated from some goat milk. It can sometimes cause mastitis in the goats, and it is considered a commensal organism for the goats’ skin and mammary glands.
A human baby is nearly helpless and the growing child requires high levels of parental care for many years. One important type of early parental care is lactation, feeding the baby milk from the mother's mammary glands in her breasts.Sexual Reproduction in Humans. 2006. John W. Kimball.
It is located in mitochondria of several tissues in the body, with most abundance in the kidney and prostate. It may be found at lower levels in macrophages, lactating mammary glands, and brain. The second isozyme may be found in the absence of other urea cycle enzymes.
Spayed female dogs are less likely to develop cancer, affecting mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs. However, neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs, and prostate cancer in males, and osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, obesity, and diabetes mellitus in either sex.
In mice, Pinc is expressed in the developing embryo and in the mammary glands of adults. Its expression in the mammary gland is induced by pregnancy and drops during lactation. It may have a role in cell survival and in the regulation of cell cycle progression.
The mammary glands and genitals of pinnipeds can retract into the body. Pinnipeds range in size from the and Baikal seal to the and southern elephant seal. Overall, they tend to be larger than other carnivorans; the southern elephant seal is the largest carnivoran.Berta, A. "Pinnipedia, overview", pp.
The underparts are paler than the back fur. The majority of species have long, soft fur, but the woolly and lesser woolly horseshoe bats (R. luctus and R. beddomei) are unusual in their very long, woolly fur. Like most bats, horseshoe bats have two mammary glands on their chests.
This occurs in around 10% of cases. The mammary glands are also controlled by the pituitary gland, so lactation can also be affected. The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus. In 10% of cases, alterations in the chemical signals from the hypothalamus can easily seriously affect the ovaries.
Prolactin, a major hormone of the HPP axis. The hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis (HPP axis), also known as the hypothalamic–pituitary–mammary axis or hypothalamic–pituitary–breast axis, is a hypothalamic–pituitary axis which includes the secretion of prolactin (PRL; luteotropin) from the lactotrophs of the pituitary gland into the circulation and the subsequent action of prolactin on tissues such as, particularly, the mammary glands or breasts. It is involved in lobuloalveolar maturation of the mammary glands during pregnancy and the induction and maintenance of lactation following parturition. Hormones that control the secretion of prolactin from the pituitary gland include dopamine ("prolactin-inhibiting factor", or "PIF"), estradiol, progesterone, thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP).
The expression levels of TTC39A found throughout the human body There are 17 splice variants for TTC39A. TTC39A is a highly expressed protein in the human body. The highest levels of expression are located in mammary glands and testis. The lowest levels of expression are found in the immune system.
Lagomorphs are similar to other mammals in that they all have hair, four limbs (i.e., they are tetrapods), and mammary glands and are endotherms. Lagomorphs possess a moderately fused postorbital process to the cranium, unlike other small mammals. They differ in that they have a mixture of "primitive" and "advanced" physical traits.
These include lacrimal, parotid, submaxillary, sublingual, preputial and mammary glands. In some species, such as cats and pigs, Mups appear not to be expressed in urine at all and are mainly found in saliva. Sometimes the term urinary Mups (uMups) is used to distinguish those Mups expressed in urine from those in other tissues.
In human lactation, glucose is changed into galactose via hexoneogenesis to enable the mammary glands to secrete lactose. However, most lactose in breast milk is synthesized from galactose taken up from the blood, and only 35±6% is made from galactose from de novo synthesis. Glycerol also contributes some to the mammary galactose production.
Russell speculated that it would have required a navel, as a placenta aids the development of a large brain case. However, it would not have possessed mammary glands and would have fed its young, as birds do, on regurgitated food. He speculated that its language would have sounded somewhat like bird song.Naish, D. (2006).
When the cheek pouches become full, they extend back to the shoulder blades, which restrict movement. Campbell's dwarf hamster is prone to genetic abnormalities in the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids. They can develop tumours of the mammary glands, lungs, uterus, and ovaries. Tumours can also develop if the animal is exposed to chemical carcinogens.
The pituitary gland grows by about one-third as a result of hyperplasia of the lactrotrophs in response to the high plasma estrogen. Prolactin, which is produced by the lactrotrophs increases progressively throughout pregnancy. Prolactin mediates a change in the structure of the breast mammary glands from ductal to lobular-alveolar and stimulates milk production.
Russell speculated that it would have required a navel, as a placenta aids the development of a large brain case. However, it would not have possessed mammary glands, and would have fed its young, as some birds do, on regurgitated food. He speculated that its language would have sounded somewhat like bird song.Naish, D. (2006).
Elizabeth Macfarlane Sloan was born in Glasgow, the daughter of Elizabeth Macfarlane and Samuel Sloan. Her father was a physician. She attended Queen Margaret College, Glasgow, where she was awarded an MB and ChB in 1901. In 1919 she obtained her medical degree from Glasgow with a thesis titled "Breast-Feeding: Faradisation of the Mammary Glands".
In addition, the mammary glands have more autonomy allowing them to supply separate milks to young at different development stages. Lactose is the main sugar in placental mammal milk while monotreme and marsupial milk is dominated by oligosaccharides. Weaning is the process in which a mammal becomes less dependent on their mother's milk and more on solid food.
Irish Independent. 3 March 2009. bisningsPeter Bird, Northamptonshire ACRE 'Village Voices' oral history recordings, Northamptonshire ACRE and Northamptonshire County Archives or first milk) is the first form of milk produced by the mammary glands of mammals (including humans) immediately following delivery of the newborn. Most species will begin to generate colostrum just prior to giving birth.
N-acetyllactosamine synthase falls under the category of beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase, a type-II membrane protein found in the Golgi. Alpha-lactalbumin is a Ca2+ binding protein specific to mammary glands. Beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase consists of the catalytic component and alpha- lactalbumin consists of the regulatory component of lactose synthase. Alpha- lactalbumin promotes glucose binding to beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase.
This causes the cells at the edge of the yolk to be cytoplasmically continuous with the egg's cytoplasm. This allows the yolk, which contains the embryo, to exchange waste and nutrients with the cytoplasm. The newly hatched young are vulnerable, blind, and hairless, and are fed by the mother's milk. Although possessing mammary glands, the platypus lacks teats.
Gums contain galactose in form of galacturonic acid. This sugar is part of lactose, which is milk sugar, so consumption of gums in early mammals or their precursors might be a cause for development of mammary glands in mammals along with maternal instincts to feed their offspring and increased body lipids in females of early mammals.
Pinc (pregnancy induced noncoding RNA) is a long non-coding RNA. It was originally identified in the mammary glands of oestrogen and progesterone- treated rats. Pinc may be a mammal-specific gene. It is conserved in a number of mammalian genomes (human, mouse, rat, chimpanzee, dog, cow and opossum), but not in fugu, zebrafish or xenopus genomes.
Nude mice have a spontaneous deletion in the FOXN1 gene. (Humans with mutations in FOXN1 also are athymic and immune deficient.) Mice with a targeted deletion in the FOXN1 ("knockout" mice) also show the "nude" phenotype. Since nude females have underdeveloped mammary glands and are unable to effectively nurse their young, nude males are bred with heterozygous females.
The female will develop mammary glands, lactate, and build nests in the pseudopregnant state. Pseudopregnancy in mice is somewhat common in laboratory mice because it is often induced for the purpose of implanting embryos into a surrogate dam, but is uncommon in wild mice because most wild males are fertile and will genuinely impregnate the female.
Normal breast tissue does not express H19 RNA, except during puberty and pregnancy in the mammary glands. However, in breast cancer, 72.5% of the breast adenocarcinomas studied by Adriaenssens et al. displayed increased H19 expression when compared to normal breast tissue. Of the tissues with upregulated H19, 92.2% are stromal cells and only 2.9% are epithelial cells.
Side effects of osaterone acetate include diminished sperm quality (for up to 6 weeks post-treatment), transient elevation of liver enzymes (caution should be observed with known liver disease), vomiting, diarrhea, polyuria/polydipsia, lethargy, and hyperplasia of the mammary glands. It can also decrease cortisol levels, interfere with adrenocorticotropic hormone response, induce or exacerbate adrenal insufficiency, and exacerbate diabetes mellitus.
Instead, they form temporary folds of skin - sometimes called a "pseudo-pouch" around the mammary glands during pregnancy. Young stay in this pseudo-pouch area, nursing for about 7 weeks before being moved to a nest where they stay until they are weaned at about 20 weeks of age. Females live for about 3 years, and generally produce one litter.
Some women use the pencil test to determine if their breasts are sagging. However, some degree of ptosis is normal and natural. Sagging is partly determined by inherited traits like skin elasticity and breast density, which affects the ratio of lightweight fat to heavier mammary glands. Some sagging is due to the aging of the glandular tissues that produce breast firmness.
Breast development, also known as mammogenesis, is a complex biological process in primates that takes place throughout a female's life. It occurs across several phases, including prenatal development, puberty, and pregnancy. At menopause, breast development ceases and the breasts atrophy. Breast development results in prominent and developed structures on the chest known as breasts in primates, which serve primarily as mammary glands.
The chemical compound Bisphenol A found in can linings "...is associated with organizational changes in the prostate, breast, testis, mammary glands, body size, brain structure and chemistry, and behavior of laboratory animals",Vogel, S. (2009). "The Politics of Plastics: The Making and Unmaking of Bisphenol A 'Safety'" . American Journal of Public Health 99 (S3): 559–566. unborn children and adults.
Gunnison's prairie dogs are 12 to 14 inches (30 to 37 centimeters) in length and have tails that measure 1.25 to 2.25 inches (3 to 6 centimeters). This species weighs from 1.5 to 2.5 lbs (0.5 to 1 kg). On average, males are larger in size than females. Gunnison's prairie dogs have 22 teeth, and five pairs of mammary glands.
Adult females additionally have two teat-like projections on their abdomens, called pubic nipples or false nipples, which are not connected to mammary glands. Only a few other bat families have pubic nipples, including Hipposideridae, Craseonycteridae, Megadermatidae, and Rhinopomatidae; they serve as attachment points for their offspring. In a few horseshoe bat species, males have a false nipple in each armpit.
Na+/I− symporter (NIS) – Sodium-Iodide is a type of symporter that is responsible for transferring iodide in the thyroid gland. NIS is primarily found in cells of the thyroid gland and also in the mammary glands. They are located on the basolateral membrane of thyroid follicular cells where 2 Na+ ions and 1 I− ion is coupled to transfer the iodide.
Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) Marsupials have the typical characteristics of mammals—e.g., mammary glands, three middle ear bones, and true hair. There are, however, striking differences as well as a number of anatomical features that separate them from Eutherians. In addition to the front pouch, which contains multiple teats for the sustenance of their young, marsupials have other common structural features.
A few species, such as the beluga whale, lack them. Both the flipper and the fin are for stabilization and steering in the water. The male genitals and mammary glands of females are sunken into the body. The body is wrapped in a thick layer of fat, known as blubber, used for thermal insulation and gives cetaceans their smooth, streamlined body shape.
Litters can range in size from two to six, with a typical litter size of three. The females have only four mammary glands, so larger litters most likely have higher attrition rates. Females have been observed breeding as soon as 12 hours after giving birth, and may be pregnant with one litter while nursing another. Gestation period in captivity is 27–32 days.
The fore feet have five long digits with broad, blunt tips and short, narrow claws that hardly project beyond the tips of the digits. The hind feet are short and broad and have five digits with blunt, calloused tips, the hallux (big toe) being shorter than the others and having a nail rather than a claw. The female has three pairs of mammary glands.
A galactocele (also called lacteal cyst or milk cyst) is a retention cyst containing milk or a milky substance that is usually located in the mammary glands. They can occur in women during or shortly after lactation. They present as a firm mass, often subareolar, and are caused by the obstruction of a lactiferous duct. Clinically, they appear similar to a cyst on examination.
Estrogens and progesterone promote mammary epithelial cell proliferation resulting in the formation of the primary and secondary ductal structure. Progesterone induces formation of tertiary side-branches in the mammary glands during puberty and during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle upon which lobuloalveolar structures form under the influence of prolactin. Prolactin stimulates lactogenesis.Fantl, V., Edwards, P., Steel, J., Vonderhaar, B., & Dickson, C. (1999).
Marbofloxacin can be used both orally and topically. It is particularly used for infections of the skin, respiratory system and mammary glands in dogs and cats, as well as with urinary tract infections. For dogs, a dose ranges from 2.75 - 5.5 mg/kg once a day. The duration of treatment is usually at least five days, longer if there is a concurrent fungal or yeast infection.
Breast engorgement occurs in the mammary glands due to expansion and pressure exerted by the synthesis and storage of breast milk. It is also a main factor in altering the ability of the infant to latch-on. Engorgement changes the shape and curvature of the nipple region by making the breast inflexible, flat, hard, and swollen. The nipples on an engorged breast are flat or inverted.
The number of mammary glands is variable and correlates, as in all mammals, with litter size. Pigs, which have the largest litter size of all even-toed ungulates, have two rows of teats lined from the armpit to the groin area. In most cases, however, even-toed ungulates have only one or two pairs of teats. In some species, these form an udder in the groin region.
OSMR is widely expressed across non-haematopoietic, hepatocytes, mesothelial cells, glial cells and epithelial cell types across various organs and mammary glands. OSM receptor is abundantly expressed on endothelial and stromal/fibroblast cells in the lung of mice.= In vitro expression of OSMR in fetal hepatocytes is upregulated by OSM stimulation. OSMR expression has been shown to be induced by parathyroid hormone in osteoblasts and OSM.
Unlike humans, short-beaked common dolphins have no lips and cannot suck on the teats of its mother. If they did have this ability they would drown. Thus, the female dolphin's mammary glands have a muscle that when contracted, squirts milk so that it can feed its calf. Maximum lifespan is 35 years, but has been estimated at 22 years for the Black Sea population.
The teeth are shed once (milk teeth) during the animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in cetaceans. Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a cochlea in the inner ear. They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete sweat. Some of these glands are specialized as mammary glands, producing milk to feed the young.
Determining pregnancy status can be difficult due to the animal's large abdominal cavity. The female's mammary glands occupy the space between the front legs, which puts the suckling calf within reach of the female's trunk. Elephants have a unique organ, the temporal gland, located in both sides of the head. This organ is associated with sexual behaviour, and males secrete a fluid from it when in musth.
S100A2, also known as CaN19 or S100L was first isolated from bovine lung tissue. However, in human tissue it was discovered several years later, in the mammary epithelial cells. Under normal circumstances it is highly expressed in human lungs, prostate, kidneys, hair follicles and salivary and mammary glands. S100A2 is predominantly found in the nucleus, which is not very common in other S100 proteins.
Immediately after birth, H19 expression is downregulated in all tissues except for skeletal muscle. Studies by Tanos et al. suggest that the accumulation of H19 RNA in skeletal muscle cells is solely due to the stabilization of that RNA in the muscle cells during differentiation. In females, H19 is expressed postnatally during puberty and pregnancy in the mammary glands, and in the uterus during pregnancy.
In animals, fatty acids are formed from carbohydrates predominantly in the liver, adipose tissue, and the mammary glands during lactation. Carbohydrates are converted into pyruvate by glycolysis as the first important step in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids. Pyruvate is then decarboxylated to form acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrion. However, this acetyl CoA needs to be transported into cytosol where the synthesis of fatty acids occurs.
Hand milking Reindeer milking (19th century) Milking is the act of removing milk from the mammary glands of cattle, water buffalo, humans, goats, sheep and more rarely camels, horses and donkeys. Milking may be done by hand or by machine, and requires the animal to be currently or recently pregnant. The milker may refer either to the animal that produces the milk or the person who milks said animal.
Riegel et al. demonstrate that mouse ME cells isolated from normal mammary glands or from mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV)-Neu–induced mammary tumors, can be cultured indefinitely as conditionally reprogrammed cells (CRCs). Cell surface progenitor-associated markers are rapidly induced in normal mouse ME-CRCs relative to ME cells. However, the expression of certain mammary progenitor subpopulations, such as CD49f+ ESA+ CD44+, drops significantly in later passages.
Gestation ends with childbirth, delivery following labor. Labor consists of the muscles of the uterus contracting, the cervix dilating, and the baby passing out the vagina (the female genital organ). Human's babies and children are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care for many years. One important type of parental care is the use of the mammary glands in the female breasts to nurse the baby.
Amazia refers to the absence of one or both mammary glands but the nipples remain present. While athelia refers to the absence of one or both nipples, but the mammary gland remains. Amastia is presumably due to failure of embryologic mammary ridge development, or incomplete involution. People with amastia often suffer from ectodermal defects, which include various syndromes such as cleft palate, isolated pectoral muscle and abnormal formation of upper limb.
Amazia refers to a condition where one or both of the mammary glands is absent (the nipple and areola remain present). This may occur either congenitally or iatrogenically (typically the result of surgical removal and/or radiation therapy). Amazia can be treated with breast implants. Amazia differs from amastia (the complete absence of breast tissue, nipple, and areola), although the two conditions are often (erroneously) thought to be identical.
Raloxifene has antiestrogenic effects in the mammary glands in preclinical studies. In accordance, raloxifene reduces breast density in postmenopausal women, a known risk factor for breast cancer. It does not stimulate the uterus in postmenopausal women, and results in no increase in risk of endometrial thickening, vaginal bleeding, endometrial hyperplasia, or endometrial cancer. At the same time, raloxifene has minimal antiestrogenic effect in the uterus in premenopausal women.
While adult males are slightly larger and more muscular than females, with wider heads and necks, visual sex determination can be difficult. The penis and testes are located internally between the rectum and urinary bladder in males, and females have a single pair of mammary glands near the armpits. The giant anteater has broad ribs. Despite its specific name, tridactyla, meaning three fingers, it has five toes on each foot.
The primary function of the breasts, as mammary glands, is the nourishing of an infant with breast milk. Milk is produced in milk- secreting cells in the alveoli. When the breasts are stimulated by the suckling of her baby, the mother's brain secretes oxytocin. High levels of oxytocin trigger the contraction of muscle cells surrounding the alveoli, causing milk to flow along the ducts that connect the alveoli to the nipple.
In realizing the breast lift, the mastopexic correction takes anatomic and histologic account of the biomechanical, load-bearing properties of the three (3) tissue types (glandular, adipose, skin) that compose and support the breast; among the properties of the soft tissues of the breast is near-incompressibility (Poisson's ratio of ∼0.5). # Rib cage. The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th ribs of the thoracic cage are the structural supports for the mammary glands. # Chest muscles.
Progesterone plays an important role in breast development in women. In conjunction with prolactin, it mediates lobuloalveolar maturation of the mammary glands during pregnancy to allow for milk production and thus lactation and breastfeeding of offspring following parturition (childbirth). Estrogen induces expression of the PR in breast tissue and hence progesterone is dependent on estrogen to mediate lobuloalveolar development. It has been found that is a critical downstream mediator of progesterone-induced lobuloalveolar maturation.
In zoology, male lactation is production of milk (lactation) from a male mammal's mammary glands. It is well-documented in the Dayak fruit bat and the Bismarck masked flying fox. The term male lactation is not used in human medicine. It has been used in popular literature, such as Louise Erdrich's The Antelope Wife, to describe the phenomenon of male galactorrhea, which is a well-documented condition in humans, unrelated to childbirth or nursing.
Porpoises are fully aquatic creatures. Females deliver a single calf after a gestation period lasting about a year. Calving takes place entirely under water, with the foetus positioned for tail-first delivery to help prevent drowning. Females have mammary glands, but the shape of a newborn calf's mouth does not allow it to obtain a seal around the nipple— instead of the calf sucking milk, the mother squirts milk into the calf's mouth.
Teats protruding from the udder of a cow Part of a milking device that fits over the teats of a cow. A teat is the projection from the mammary glands of mammals from which milk flows or is ejected for the purpose of feeding young. In many mammals the teat projects from the udder. The number of teats vary by mammalian species and often corresponds to the size of an average litter for that animal.
Mammals are a class of vertebrates that contain mammary glands which secrete milk that nourishes their offspring. This maternal behavior is unique from all other vertebrate classes. The basic maternal care patterns in mammals involve the internal incubation during gestation, the delivery of young, and maternal care until the young are weaned. The way a female mammal cares for their young depends on the level of maturation of the offspring at birth.
In humans, fatty acids are formed from carbohydrates predominantly in the liver and adipose tissue, as well as in the mammary glands during lactation. The pyruvate produced by glycolysis is an important intermediary in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids and cholesterol. This occurs via the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrion. However, this acetyl CoA needs to be transported into cytosol where the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol occurs.
In realizing the breast-reduction corrections, the plastic surgeon takes anatomic and histologic account of the biomechanical, load-bearing properties of the glandular, adipose, and skin tissues that compose and support the breast; among the properties of the soft tissues of the breast is near-incompressibility (Poisson's ratio of ∼0.5). # Rib cage. The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th ribs of the thoracic cage are the structural supports for the mammary glands. # Chest muscles.
When used on males, these drugs can reduce sex drive, compulsive sexual fantasies, and capacity for sexual arousal. Life-threatening side effects are rare, but some users show increases in body fat and reduced bone density, which increase long-term risk of cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. They may also experience gynecomastia (development of larger-than-normal mammary glands in males); full development is less common unless chemical castration is combined with feminizing oestrogen therapy.
Alternatively, A. caninum larvae evading exit from the circulation at the lungs may instead be carried to the mammary glands and transmitted from the mother in her colostrum or milk to her pups; infection then proceeds in an identical manner as infection by ingestion from the environment. Infected mothers have been found to only rarely give prenatal transmission to pups, while the likelihood of causing transmission via the lactational route during nursing is much higher.
He offered the intended victims a ride in his personal car, then brought them to a deserted place and killed them. After the murders, Cheryomukhin cut off their mammary glands and external genitalia from the victims. In those years in the Rostov Oblast, another killer was operating - Andrei Chikatilo. His search involved a whole team of investigators from the Prosecutor's Office of the RSFSR, there was an operation named "Lesopolosa" to catch the killer.
Estradiol is rapidly distributed throughout the body, with a distribution phase of about 6 minutes following intravenous injection. Estradiol is taken up into cells via passive diffusion due to its lipophilicity. Due to binding to the ERs, estradiol is preferentially concentrated in tissues with the highest ER content. In animals, these tissues have included the uterus, vagina, mammary glands, pituitary gland, hypothalamus, other brain regions, adipose tissue, liver, and adrenal glands, among other tissues.
Tumor protein p63 is a member of the p53 family of transcription factors. p63 -/- mice have several developmental defects which include the lack of limbs and other tissues, such as teeth and mammary glands, which develop as a result of interactions between mesenchyme and epithelium. TP63 encodes for two main isoforms by alternative promoters (TAp63 and ΔNp63). ΔNp63 is involved in multiple functions during skin development and in adult stem/progenitor cell regulation.
A glass of milk Cows in a rotary milking parlor Milk is a nutrient-rich liquid food produced in the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source of nutrition for infant mammals (including humans who are breastfed) before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mother's antibodies to its young and can reduce the risk of many diseases. It contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose.
Colostrinin was originally identified by scientists working in Poland in the 1970s. Colostrinin is derived from colostrum, which is present in the pre-milk fluid produced from mammary glands in the first few days after parturition. It is also known as proline-rich polypeptides, since sequence analysis of the peptides present in this mixture reveals an unusually high proportion of this amino acid residue. The amino acid compositions of Colostrinin from ovine, bovine, and human colostrum are very similar.
A basic cladogram of the origin of mammals. Important developments in the transition from reptile to mammal were the evolution of warm-bloodedness, of molar occlusion, of the three-ossicle middle ear, of hair, and of mammary glands. By the end of the Triassic, there were many species that looked like modern mammals and, by the Middle Jurassic, the lineages leading to the three extant mammal groups -- the monotremes, the marsupials, and the placentals -- had diverged.
Netrin has been discovered to play a key role in the development and mature regulation of tissue outside the nervous system. Some of the non-neural tissues implicated include lung, placental, vasculature, pancreas, muscle and mammary gland tissue. Netrin contributes to tissue morphogenesis by controlling developing cell migration and cell adhesion in different organs. In developing mammary glands, the growing tips of the ductal network consist of two layers made up of luminal epithelial cells and cap cells.
Flemming named this degenerative process "chromatolysis" to describe the gradual disintegration of nuclear components. The process he described now fits with the relatively new term, apoptosis, to describe cell death. Around the same time of Flemming's research, chromatolysis was also studied in the lactating mammary glands and in breast cancer cells. From observing the regression of ovarian follicles in mammals, it was argued that a necessary cellular process existed to counterbalance the proliferation of cells by mitosis.
A lactotropic cell (also known as prolactin cell, epsilon acidophil, lactotrope, lactotroph, mammatroph, mammotroph) is a cell in the anterior pituitary which produces prolactin in response to hormonal signals including dopamine which is inhibitory and thyrotropin-releasing hormone which is stimulatory. Other regulators include oxytocin, estrogen and progesterone. Prolactin is involved in the maturation of mammary glands and their secretion of milk in association with oxytocin, estrogen, progesterone, glucocorticoids, and others. Prolactin has numerous other effects in both sexes.
Whereas free steroids like estradiol are lipophilic and can enter cells via passive diffusion, steroid conjugates like E1S are hydrophilic and are unable to do so. Instead, steroid conjugates require active transport via membrane transport proteins to enter cells. Studies in animals and humans have had mixed findings on uptake of exogenously administered E1S in normal and tumorous mammary gland tissue. This is in contrast to substantial uptake of exogenously administered estradiol and estrone by the mammary glands.
The ectoderm forms the skin, nails, hair, cornea, lining of the internal and external ear, nose, sinuses, mouth, anus, teeth, pituitary gland, mammary glands, eyes, and all parts of the nervous system. Approximately 18 days after fertilization, the embryo has divided to form much of the tissue it will need. It is shaped like a pear, where the head region is larger than the tail. The embryo's nervous system is one of the first organic systems to grow.
Myoepithelial cells (sometimes referred to as myoepithelium) are cells usually found in glandular epithelium as a thin layer above the basement membrane but generally beneath the luminal cells. These may be positive for alpha smooth muscle actin and can contract and expel the secretions of exocrine glands. They are found in the sweat glands, mammary glands, lacrimal glands, and salivary glands. Myoepithelial cells in these cases constitute the basal cell layer of an epithelium that harbors the epithelial progenitor.
In some breeding environments portability is also desirable. This is typically achieved through light weight design and emphasis on simple setup and takedown. Commercially available whelping boxes often feature accommodations for accessories such as heat control devices and IP camera attachment. The sides of the box are designed to be high enough to safely contain the puppies, yet low enough to allow the mother to enter and leave comfortably, with consideration given to her protruding mammary glands.
Each cover hair is associated with an arrector pilli muscle, a hair follicle, a ring of sebaceous glands and a sweat gland. Females have cone-shaped, four-chambered mammary glands that are long with a base diameter of . These glands can produce milk with up to 90% water content even if the mother is at risk of dehydration. Camel kidney (longitudinal cut) The heart weighs around ; it has two ventricles with the tip curving to the left.
Newborn males and females can be distinguished on close examination as the anogenital distance in males is about double that of the female. From the age of about 10 days, females have five pairs of mammary glands and nipples; males have no nipples. When sexually mature, the most striking and obvious difference is the presence of testicles on the males. These are large compared to the rest of the body and can be retracted into the body.
In normal tissue, STAT5a mediates effects of prolactin in mammary glands. In breast cancer, STAT5a signaling is important for maintain tumor differentiation and suppressing disease progression. Studies originally showed a correlation between high STAT5a expression and tumor differentiation in mice models, but histopathological analysis of human breast cancer tissue has shown a different trend. It was shown that low nuclear levels of STAT5a was associated with unfavorable clinical outcomes and cancer progression independent of STAT5b expression.
In Gabon, females were recorded to give birth in the long wet season and at the onset of the dry season between September and January. The female usually gives birth after a gestation period of 2–3 months. A litter consists of up to four young that are suckled for around three months. While she has suckling young the female's mammary glands produce an orange-yellow liquid which discolours her abdomen and the young civets' fur.
One area of particular interest in terms of the effects of progesterone in women is breast development. Estrogens are responsible for the development of the ductal and connective tissues of the breasts and the deposition of fat into the breasts during puberty in girls. Conversely, high levels of progesterone, in conjunction with other hormones such as prolactin, are responsible for the lobuloalveolar maturation of the mammary glands during pregnancy. This allows for lactation and breastfeeding after childbirth.
Types of parental care and the amount of resources invested by parents vary considerably across the animal kingdom. The evolution of male-only, female- only, biparental or alloparental care in different groups of animals may be driven by multiple factors. Firstly, different groups may have diverse physiological or evolutionary constraints that may predispose one sex to care more than the other. For example, mammary glands may make female mammals preadapted to exclusively provide nutritional care to young.
The tail measures in the male and in the female. An adult male's hind feet measure , and an average female's hind feet measure . There are four mammary glands: two in the inguinal region and two in the pectoral region, each supplying a pair of nipples. Morphologically, it most closely resembles Botta's pocket gopher; differentiation can be made based on the concavity of the inner surface of the pterygoids, small claws, more uniform fur coloring and exoccipital groove of the camas pocket gopher.
Altered JAK-STAT signalling can also be involved in developing breast cancer. JAK-STAT signalling in mammary glands (located within breasts) can promote cell division and reduce cell apoptosis during pregnancy and puberty, and therefore if excessively activated, cancer can form. High STAT3 activity plays a major role in this process, as it can allow the transcription of genes such as BCL2 and c-Myc, which are involved in cell division. Mutations in JAK2 can lead to leukaemia and lymphoma.
The change in intracellular processes and gene regulation causes a decrease in milk production until all milk production from mammary epithelial cells cease. Concentrations of milk-specific components such as lactose and fat will also decrease as milk production decreases. This stage is followed by a steady state period where the mammary glands remain in a non-lactating state. Preceding parturition, parenchymal tissue within the mammary gland will redevelop, allowing the reconstruction of new udder tissue in preparation for lactation.
Women who experience multiple pregnancies repeatedly stretch the skin envelope during engorgement while lactating. In addition, after the birth of each child, the voluminous milk glands diminish in size, contributing further to sagging. As a woman's breasts grow in size during repeated pregnancies, the Cooper's ligaments that maintain the position of the mammary glands against the chest, are stretched and gradually lose strength. Breast tissue and suspensory ligaments may also be stretched if the woman is overweight or loses and gains weight.
Of Pandas and People became the focus of a litigation and controversy in Dover, Pennsylvania in 2004 after the Dover Area School Board endorsed it as a reference book. The ensuing court case was dubbed the "Panda Trial" by the media in an allusion to the famous "Monkey Trial" of 1925."Of Behe and mammary glands ." York Daily Record, 20 October 2005 Although the board did not actually purchase the book, 60 copies were donated to the district by an anonymous party.
MMTV codes for the retroviral structural genes and additionally for a superantigen. This stimulates T lymphocytes with a certain type of V beta chain in their T cell receptor, which in turn stimulates B cell proliferation increasing the population of cells that can be infected. During puberty, the virus enters the mammary glands with migrating lymphocytes and infects proliferating mammary gland epithelial cells. As a retrovirus the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) is able to insert its viral genome in the host genome.
In terms of fur, however, desert animals have thick insulating coats that impede the conduction of heat towards the body. The coats are not uniformly distributed, but rather leave sparsely covered patches called "thermal windows" at the axilla, groin, scrotum, and mammary glands. Heat can be dissipated from thermal windows via convection and conduction. Similarly, desert birds have less feathers on the underwing and flank – heat stress induces some birds to raise their wings, increasing the surface area of exposed skin.
Extramammary Paget’s Disease (EMPD), is a rare and slow-growing malignancy which occurs within the epithelium and accounts for 6.5% of all Paget’s disease. The clinical presentation of this disease is similar to the characteristics of mammary Paget’s disease (MPD). However, unlike MPD, which occurs in large lactiferous ducts and then extends into the epidermis, EMPD originates in glandular regions rich in apocrine secretions outside the mammary glands. EMPD incidence is increasing by 3.2% every year, affecting hormonally-targeted tissues such as the vulva and scrotum.
TMEM217 is not ubiquitously expressed. The gene tends to have expression correlated to lymphatic system, vascular/arterial endothelial tissue, and notable expression in the bladder based on expression profiles and microarray analysis. Other tissues that have been shown to express TMEM217 include: connective tissues, the liver, mammary glands, the testis, and the cervix. Co-expression analyses have found that TMEM217 was up-regulated in response to mechanical stretch in dermal fibroblast cells and in response to the resveratrol derivative, DMU-212, in vascular endothelial tissues.
CUBIC (abbreviation for “clear, unobstructed brain imaging cocktails and computational analysis) is a histology method that allows tissues to be transparent (process called “tissue clearing”). As a result it makes investigation of large biological samples with microscopy easier and faster. The method was published in 2014 by Etsuo A. Susaki and Hiroki R. Ueda, primarily for use in neurobiology research of brains from model organisms like rodents or small primates. But in upcoming years there were other works published, using CUBIC method on other tissues like lymph nodes or mammary glands.
Various raw meats Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce. Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which comes from muscle systems or from organs (offal). Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.). In addition, birds and other animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce honey, a reduced nectar from flowers, which is a popular sweetener in many cultures.
Mammary tumor in a dog A mammary tumor is a neoplasm originating in the mammary gland. It is a common finding in older female dogs and cats that are not spayed, but they are found in other animals as well. The mammary glands in dogs and cats are associated with their nipples and extend from the underside of the chest to the groin on both sides of the midline. There are many differences between mammary tumors in animals and breast cancer in humans, including tumor type, malignancy, and treatment options.
Mammals (from Latin mamma "breast") are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), and characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or hair, and three middle ear bones. These characteristics distinguish them from reptiles and birds, from which they diverged in the late Carboniferous, approximately 300 million years ago. Around 6,400 extant species of mammals have been described. The largest orders are the rodents, bats and Eulipotyphla (hedgehogs, moles, shrews, and others).
The primary transmission route is the litter box that is shared by both infected and uninfected cats, where a well-timed use by two cats can transfer the parasite from the feces of one cat to the paws of another where they later become ingested during the act of grooming. In cats, Tritrichomonas foetus is able to live several days in wet stool. Mutual grooming may also transfer the parasite. There is no evidence that T. foetus is sexually transmitted or infects the reproductive tract or mammary glands of cats.
Using the EST abundance profile through Unigene, NBEAL1 expression was discovered based on both body sites and health states. NBEAL1 shows expression in the brain, embryonic tissue, eye, intestine, kidney, liver, lung, mammary glands, ovaries, pancreas, pharynx, placenta, prostate, skin, stomach, testis, thyroid, and trachea. Based on transcripts per million, expression is highest in the stomach at 62 transcripts per million, with pancreas and trachea being next with their transcripts per million being 37 and 38, respectively. The lowest transcripts per million in the brain, eye, placenta and testis, all at 4 per million.
For example, shoveling and double-shoveling of upper first incisors and the presence of hypoconulids of lower second molars have been found to be linked to the ectodysplasin A receptor gene (EDAR). EDAR is a functional genomic region and has a range of pleiotropic effects on ectodermally derived structures, such as hair, mammary glands, and teeth, and is most likely under positive selection in Asian populations. It is possible that dental variants linked to EDAR are not direct targets of positive selection but rather 'hitchhiking' when selection acts on another phenotype.
Female characteristics vary between different species with some species containing more well defined female characteristics, such as the presence of pronounced mammary glands. There is no single genetic mechanism behind sex differences in different species and the existence of two sexes seems to have evolved multiple times independently in different evolutionary lineages. The word female comes from the Latin femella, the diminutive form of femina, meaning "woman";Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary - fēmella, ae, f. dim. femina Retrieved 2019-11-24 it is not etymologically related to the word male.
In their The Japanese Film: Art and Industry, Anderson and Richie described Maeda as "a star who consisted almost entirely of mammary glands." Shintoho took advantage of Maeda's popularity to cast her in more roles in which she could display her famous figure. Other film studios reportedly engaged in a nationwide search to discover their own buxom models to compete with Maeda. Later in 1956, she was given the starring role in , a melodramatic thriller set on an isolated island about a woman seeking revenge for her dead lover.
Each adult breast consists of 15 to 20 milk-producing mammary glands, irregularly shaped lobes that include alveolar glands and a lactiferous duct leading to the nipple. The lobes are separated by dense connective tissues that support the glands and attach them to the tissues on the underlying pectoral muscles. Other connective tissue, which forms dense strands called suspensory ligaments, extends inward from the skin of the breast to the pectoral tissue to support the weight of the breast. Heredity and the quantity of fatty tissue determine the size of the breasts.
EIS can be experimentally induced in animals via knockout of the ER. In these so-called ERKO mice, different ERs can be disabled allowing to study the role of these receptors. ERKO mice show development of the respective female or male reproductive systems, and male and female αERKO mice are infertile, βERKO males are fertile while females are subfertile, male and female double αERKO and βERKO mice are infertile. The uterus and mammary glands are hypoplastic and do not respond to exogenous stimulation by estrogens. Males are infertile with atrophy in the testes.
A mammary ridge, or crest, usually stops growing at eight weeks and its length is regressed starting at the caudal end and extending cranially, so that what remains is a round, ectodermic placode where the axilla develops. When shortening of the mammary crest is complete, the structure remains prominent in the areas where the mammary glands eventually form. The mammary lines begin to shorten and ectodermal cells begin to divide and grow into the mesenchymal cell layer. A basement membrane separating the expanding ectodermal crest structure and the underlying mesoderm usually remains.
Being mammals, they have mammary glands used for nursing calves; they are weaned around 11 months of age. This milk contains high amounts of fat which is meant to hasten the development of blubber; it contains so much fat, it has the consistency of toothpaste. Females deliver a single calf, with gestation lasting about a year, dependency until one to two years, and maturity around seven to 10 years, all varying between the species. This mode of reproduction produces few offspring, but increases the survival probability of each one.
The pelycosaur scutes probably were nonoverlapping dermal structures with a horny overlay, like those found in modern crocodiles and turtles. These differed in structure from the scales of lizards and snakes, which are an epidermal feature (like mammalian hair or avian feathers). Recently, skin impressions from the genus Ascendonanus suggest that at least varanopsids developed scales similar to those of squamates. It is currently unknown exactly when mammalian characteristics such as body hair and mammary glands first appeared, as the fossils only rarely provide direct evidence for soft tissues.
The major tissues affected by progestogens include the uterus, vagina, cervix, breasts, testes, and brain. The main biological role of progestogens in the body is in the female reproductive system, and the male reproductive system, with involvement in regulation of the menstrual cycle, maintenance of pregnancy, and preparation of the mammary glands for lactation and breastfeeding following parturition in women; in men progesterone affects spermiogenesis, sperm capacitation, and testosterone synthesis. Progestogens also have effects in other parts of the body. Unlike estrogens, progestogens have little or no role in feminization.
Their ears are normally longer than they are wide, with a long and lance-shaped tragus, hence their English and zoological names (in Greek, myotis and myosotis mean "mouse-ear"). The species within this genus vary in size from very large to very small for vesper bats, with a single pair of mammary glands. Mouse-eared bats are generally insectivores. M. vivesi, and several members of the trawling bat ecomorph Leuconoe, have relatively large feet with long toes, and take small fish from the water surface (they also take insects).
Figure 3: The domain structures of ERα and ERβ, including some of the known phosphorylation sites involved in ligand-independent regulation. SERM act on the estrogen receptor (ER), which is an intracellular, ligand-dependent transcriptional activator and belongs to the nuclear receptor family. Two different subtypes of ER have been identified, ERα and ERβ. ERα is considered the main medium where estrogen signals are transduced at the transcriptional level and is the predominant ER in the female reproductive tract and mammary glands while ERβ is primarily in vascular endothelial cells, bone, and male prostate tissue.
A study found full lobuloalveolar maturation of the mammary glands on histological examination in transgender women treated with an estrogen and high-dose cyproterone acetate. However, lobuloalveolar development reversed with discontinuation of cyproterone acetate, indicating that continued progestogen exposure is necessary to maintain the tissue. In terms of the effects of progestogens on sex drive, one study assessed the use of dydrogesterone to improve sexual desire in transgender women and found no benefit. Another study likewise found that oral progesterone did not improve sexual function in cisgender women.
Being mammals, they have mammary glands used for nursing calves; they are weaned off at about 11 months of age. This milk contains high amounts of fat which is meant to hasten the development of blubber; it contains so much fat that it has the consistency of toothpaste. Females deliver a single calf with gestation lasting about a year, dependency until one to two years, and maturity around seven to ten years, all varying between the species. This mode of reproduction produces few offspring, but increases the survival probability of each one.
In mammals, transketolase connects the pentose phosphate pathway to glycolysis, feeding excess sugar phosphates into the main carbohydrate metabolic pathways. Its presence is necessary for the production of NADPH, especially in tissues actively engaged in biosyntheses, such as fatty acid synthesis by the liver and mammary glands, and for steroid synthesis by the liver and adrenal glands. Thiamine diphosphate is an essential cofactor, along with calcium. Transketolase is abundantly expressed in the mammalian cornea by the stromal keratocytes and epithelial cells and is reputed to be one of the corneal crystallins.
Breast development in puberty is measured with the five-stage Tanner Scale The morphological structure of the human breast is identical in males and females until puberty. For pubescent girls in thelarche (the breast-development stage), the female sex hormones (principally estrogens) in conjunction with growth hormone promote the sprouting, growth, and development of the breasts. During this time, the mammary glands grow in size and volume and begin resting on the chest. These development stages of secondary sex characteristics (breasts, pubic hair, etc.) are illustrated in the five-stage Tanner Scale.
All three isoforms of the deiodinases are selenium-containing enzymes; thus dietary selenium is essential for T3 production. Iodine accounts for 65% of the molecular weight of T4 and 59% of T3. Fifteen to 20 mg of iodine is concentrated in thyroid tissue and hormones, but 70% of all iodine in the body is found in other tissues, including mammary glands, eyes, gastric mucosa, fetal thymus, cerebro-spinal fluid and choroid plexus, arterial walls, the cervix, and salivary glands. In the cells of those tissues, iodide enters directly by sodium-iodide symporter (NIS).
Reproductive system of a bovine female Ox testes On farms it is very common to use artificial insemination (AI), a medically assisted reproduction technique consisting of the artificial deposition of semen in the female's genital tract. It is used in cases where the spermatozoa can not reach the fallopian tubes or simply by choice of the owner of the animal. It consists of transferring, to the uterine cavity, spermatozoa previously collected and processed, with the selection of morphologically more normal and mobile spermatozoa. A cow's udder contains two pairs of mammary glands, (commonly referred to as teats) creating four "quarters".
Profile of a typical ruffed lemur overbite Ruffed lemurs are the largest extant members of the family Lemuridae, with an average head-body length between and a total length from , while ranging in weight from . The thick, furry tail is longer than the body, averaging in length and is used primarily for balance while moving through the trees. Ruffed lemurs exhibit neither sexual dimorphism nor sexual dichromatism, and females have three pairs of mammary glands. Foot of a ruffed lemur, showing the toilet-claw on the second toe Ruffed lemurs are characterized by their long, canine-like muzzle, which includes a significant overbite.
Conversely, the progesterone-like effects of amphenone B on the mammary glands were found to persist even in adrenalectomized and ovariectomized animals. Amphenone B was tested in humans in the mid-1950s as a potential treatment for cortisol-dependent conditions such as Cushing's syndrome and adrenocortical carcinoma. In healthy subjects and patients with adrenocortical carcinoma, the drug was found to be effective in decreasing circulating levels of corticosteroids including cortisol, corticosterone, and aldosterone, as well as in decreasing circulating levels of androgens and estrogens. Moreover, due to reduced aldosterone secretion, it caused marked diuresis and increased urinary sodium excretion.
Consequently, there is profound overdosage of progestogenic effect (and by extension progestogenic side effects) when CPA is used as an antiandrogen at high doses. For this reason, it has been said that CPA cannot be considered an ideal antiandrogen. Through its action as a progestogen, CPA has been found to significantly increase prolactin secretion and to induce extensive lobuloalveolar development of the mammary glands of female rhesus macaques. In accordance, a study found that CPA, in all cases, induced full lobuloalveolar development of the breasts in transgender women treated with the medication in combination with estrogen for a prolonged period of time.
Cats sometimes repeatedly tread their front paws on humans or soft objects with a kneading action. This is instinctive to kittens and adults, and is presumably derived from the action used to stimulate milk let-down by the mother during nursing. Kittens "knead" the breast while suckling, using the forelimbs one at a time in an alternating pattern to push against the mammary glands to stimulate lactation in the mother. Kneading may also have an origin going back to cats' wild ancestors who had to tread down grass or foliage to make a temporary nest in which to rest.
Experiments have shown that exposure to ionizing irradiation of pubertal mammary glands results in an increase in the ratio of mammary stem cells in the gland. This is important because stem cells are thought to be key targets for cancer initiation by ionizing radiation because they have the greatest long-term proliferative potential and mutagenic events persist in multiple daughter cells. Additionally, epidemiology data show that children exposed to ionizing radiation have a substantially greater breast cancer risk than adults. These experiments thus prompted questions about the underlying mechanism for the increase in mammary stem cells following radiation.
The model was then used to test the three different mechanisms to determine which one led to simulation results that matched in vivo experiments the best. Surprisingly, radiation-induced cell inactivation by death did not contribute to increased stem cell frequency independently of the dose delivered in the model. Instead the model revealed that the combination of increased self-renewal and cell proliferation during puberty led to stem cell enrichment. In contrast epithelial-mesenchymal transition in the model was shown to increase stem cell frequency not only in pubertal mammary glands but also in adult glands.
The remainder of the LDLs is removed by the liver. Adipose tissue and lactating mammary glands also take up glucose from the blood for conversion into triglycerides. This occurs in the same way as it does in the liver, except that these tissues do not release the triglycerides thus produced as VLDL into the blood. Adipose tissue cells store the triglycerides in their fat droplets, ultimately to release them again as free fatty acids and glycerol into the blood (as described above), when the plasma concentration of insulin is low, and that of glucagon and/or epinephrine is high.
Also, the media published a rumor that Dmitry Baksheev allegedly confessed to a murder committed in 2012, and Natalia - to 30 murders. However, the Investigative Committee stated several times that they had no such data on a series of murders for cannibalism by a married couple and that in the Baksheev case there was only one murder. Finally, it was also rumored that during the search of the Baksheevs' apartment, 19 pieces of human skin, 7 body parts, photos of eerie dishes, canned food with human meat, including mammary glands, and even cooking recipes for humans were seized.
The membrane at the rear is, however, supported by a calcar at the ankle. The teeth and short robust jaw allow the consumption of a wide variety of animals, either the flesh and bones of other vertebrate species or hard shells of larger invertebrates. A pregnant bat possesses two sets of teats, one pair beneath the armpits provide milk from the mammary glands and another pair at the pubic area. The pubic teats do not have a lactational function, rather they act as purchase points for the new-born to be carried in flight by the mother.
Mastitis, a potentially fatal inflammatory infection of the mammary glands, is a common health problem in dairy cows in the United States and causes great economic losses for the dairy industry each year due to reduced milk production in cows with mastitis. While the influence of contagious gram-positive bacteria (e.g. Staphylococcus and Streptococcus) – which used to be the primary cause for mastitis in dairy cows – has been significantly reduced in recent years, environmental pathogens such as coliform bacteria (e.g. E. coli) and noncontagious Streptococcus now play a larger role in the infection of dairy cows.
Colostrum is a form of milk produced by the mammary glands of mammals (including humans) in late pregnancy. Colostrum also contains multiple immune modulating molecules, including high antibody levels. Based on studies noting an overlap in the observed in vitro effects between a molecule contained in colostrum called colostrinin and the dialyzable leukocyte extract mentioned above, a hypothesis formed that the two were the same. There has been no recent research investigations comparing the two entities and thus there is no verifiable evidence that either colostrum or egg whites do or do not contain the cellular product that shares the name transfer factor.
Ulnar–mammary syndrome or Schinzel syndrome is a cutaneous condition characterized by nipple and breast hypoplasia or aplasia.Schinzel Syndrome Features of UMS can be mild to severe and can vary significantly from person to person, even within the same family. The main features of UMS include upper limb defects (including abnormal or incomplete development of the fingers and forearm), underdevelopment of the apocrine and mammary glands (leading to absent breast development and the inability to produce breast milk), and various genital abnormalities. Other signs and symptoms may include hormonal deficiencies, delayed puberty (particularly in males), dental problems and obesity.
Fig.2: DPP-4 cleaves two amino acids from the N-terminal end of peptides, such as GLP-1.DPP-4 is attached to the plasma membrane of the endothelium of almost every organ in the body. Tissues which strongly express DPP-4 include the exocrine pancreas, sweat glands, salivary and mammary glands, thymus, lymph nodes, biliary tract, kidney, liver, placenta, uterus, prostate, skin, and the capillary bed of the gut mucosa (where most GLP-1 is inactivated locally). It is also present, in soluble form, in body fluids, such as blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid.
Calcitriol synthesis Calcitriol is produced in the cells of the proximal tubule of the nephron in the kidneys by the action of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-hydroxylase, a mitochondrial oxygenase and an enzyme which catalyzes the hydroxylation of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (calcifediol) in the 1-alpha position. The activity of this enzyme is stimulated by PTH. This is an important control point in Ca2+ homeostasis. Additional effects on the production of calcitriol include an increase by prolactin, a hormone which stimulates lactogenesis (the formation of milk in mammary glands), a process which requires large amounts of calcium.
Progesterone levels during female puberty do not normally increase importantly until near the end of puberty in cisgender girls, a point by which most breast development has already been completed. In addition, concern has been expressed that premature exposure to progestogens during the process of breast development is unphysiological and might compromise final breast growth outcome, although this notion presently remains theoretical. Though the role of progestogens in pubertal breast development is uncertain, progesterone is essential for lobuloalveolar maturation of the mammary glands during pregnancy. Hence, progestogens are required for any transgender woman who wishes to lactate or breastfeed.
The genus Apomys, of which the Luzon montane forest mouse is a member, can be identified by its small size, long tail, elongate, narrow hind feet, the presence of four abdominal mammary glands, and a large number of skull characteristics. The Luzon montane forest mouse is a large, thickset species with a tail that is about the same length as the body. The soft, thick dorsal fur is dark brown, while the ventral side of the body is a cream white. The hind feet are partly brown in colour on the dorsal side, but otherwise white.
Proteins that are capable of enhancing the identification of labeled cells or a specific population in unlabelled cells are encoded by the reporter transgenes. After harvesting all the ten mouse mammary glands from the transgenic mice, single cell suspension is usually made and transplanted either in tail vein of non transgenic recipient mice or in cleared fat pad of non-transgenic mice repopulating the mammary fat pad. These cells are then followed in the blood stream, lungs, bone marrow and liver to look for the favorable site of metastasis.these transgenic cells can be traced according to their special features of either fluorescence or induced by placing the recipients on doxycycline food.
Though to a far lesser extent than estrogen, which is the major mediator of mammary ductal development (via the ERα), progesterone may be involved in ductal development of the mammary glands to some extent as well. PR knockout mice or mice treated with the PR antagonist mifepristone show delayed although otherwise normal mammary ductal development at puberty. In addition, mice modified to have overexpression of PRA display ductal hyperplasia, and progesterone induces ductal growth in the mouse mammary gland. Progesterone mediates ductal development mainly via induction of the expression of amphiregulin, the same growth factor that estrogen primarily induces the expression of to mediate ductal development.
In India, mammals comprise 410 species, 186 genera, 45 families and 13 orders of which nearly 89 species are listed as threatened in the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN 2006). This includes two species that are locally extinct from India viz. Acinonyx jubatus and Rhinoceros sondaicus. The mammals are the class of vertebrate animals characterized by the presence of mammary glands, which in females produce milk for the nourishment of young; the presence of hair or fur; specialized teeth; the presence of a neocortex region in the brain; and endothermic or "warm-blooded" bodies.
Female ruffed lemurs have three pairs of mammary glands for feeding their large litters Ruffed lemurs are the only known primates to build arboreal nests, used exclusively for birth and for the first week or two of life. Starting three weeks prior to birth, females begin constructing the nest from twigs, branches, leaves, and vines, locating it within her core area and above ground. The nests have only one apparent entry point, and are shallow and dish-shaped. During the first couple of weeks, the mother is mostly solitary and does not travel far from the nest, spending as much as 70–90% of her time with the newborns (in captivity).
Aliens versus Predator: Chained to Life and Death Though female Predators are occasionally referred to in Steve and Stephani Perry's novel series, one does not make an appearance until the comic book limited series Aliens vs Predator: Deadliest of Species. The female's design contradicts the descriptions given in the Perry novel series, as it superficially shows little distinction from males. The Darkhorse/TopCow crossover MindHunter, which pits the Witchblade, The Darkness, Aliens, and Predator franchises against each other, depicts a female Predator in a manner closer to the Perry description. It is very tall, has feminine hips, mammary glands, and a very muscular build, with different armor than the males.
This latter prediction, however, contradicted the in vivo data; irradiation of adult mammary glands did not lead to increased stem cell frequency. These simulations therefore suggested self-renewal as the primary mechanism behind pubertal stem cell increase. To further evaluate self-renewal as the mechanism, a second agent-based model was created to simulate the growth dynamics of human mammary epithelial cells (containing stem/progenitor and differentiated cell subpopulations) in vitro after irradiation. By comparing the simulation results with data from the in vitro experiments, the second agent-based model further confirmed that cells must extensively proliferate to observe a self-renewal dependent increase in stem/progenitor cell numbers after irradiation.
After qualifying as a physician Bennett obtained employment as a ship's surgeon, and visited Sydney, New South Wales, in 1829. ln 1832 his friend Richard Owen was engaged in examining the structure and relations of the mammary glands of the Ornithorhyncus, and Bennett became so interested that on leaving England shortly afterwards for Australia he determined while in that country to find a solution of the question. In May 1832 Bennett left Plymouth on a voyage which terminated almost exactly two years later. An account of this appeared in 1834 in two volumes under the title Wanderings in New South Wales, Batavia, Pedir Coast, Singapore and China.
The function of ACC is to regulate the metabolism of fatty acids. When the enzyme is active, the product, malonyl-CoA, is produced which is a building block for new fatty acids and can inhibit the transfer of the fatty acyl group from acyl CoA to carnitine with carnitine acyltransferase, which inhibits the beta-oxidation of fatty acids in the mitochondria. In mammals, two main isoforms of ACC are expressed, ACC1 and ACC2, which differ in both tissue distribution and function. ACC1 is found in the cytoplasm of all cells but is enriched in lipogenic tissue, such as adipose tissue and lactating mammary glands, where fatty acid synthesis is important.
In humans, fatty acids are formed from carbohydrates predominantly in the liver and adipose tissue, as well as in the mammary glands during lactation. The cells of the central nervous system probably also make most of the fatty acids needed for the phospholipids of their extensive membranes from glucose, as blood-born fatty acids cannot cross the blood brain barrier to reach these cells. However, how the essential fatty acids, which mammals cannot synthesize themselves, but are nevertheless important components of cell membranes (and other functions described above) reach them is unknown. The pyruvate produced by glycolysis is an important intermediary in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids and cholesterol.
However, despite being reptilian, the females also possesses hair and mammary glands to nurture their newborn, just like a human being. The Skrulls later developed the ability to render themselves undetectable when using their shapeshifting abilities, even from telepaths and those with superior senses. Reed Richards discovered a method to use technology to negate this ability and reveal a disguised Skrull's true form. Courtesy of their advanced technology, the Skrulls have also been able to augment their abilities in certain warriors, such as the Super-Skrull and War Skrulls—an elite group who with special encoding are able to emulate the powers as well as appearance of their templates.
This maternal recognition of pregnancy will cause persistence of the corpus luteum and the development of characteristics and behaviors necessary to care for offspring. Limited research suggests that progesterone secretion is similar in pregnant and non-pregnant female dogs, so veterinary researchers hypothesize that they may not require molecular factors from the embryo for maternal recognition of pregnancy, and instead the corpus luteum persists regardless of pregnancy. Since the corpus luteum is not degraded, it will cause the development of maternal characteristics in the absence of pregnancy. Pseudopregnant dogs will develop their mammary glands, lactate, and build nests to varying degrees depending on breed.
The mammary glands of the females do not store significant quantities of milk as most other mammals do, since the infant sloth remains attached to the nipple at all times, and consumes the milk as soon as it is generated. The young begin to take solid food as early as four days after birth, initially licking particles of food from their mother's mouths. This process apparently allows them to quickly identify edible leaves, and young sloths typically have the same preferences for leaf types as their mothers. In the wild, the lifespan of adult brown-throated three-toed sloths is typically between 30 and 40 years.
No clinical study has assessed the use of progesterone in transgender women, and only a couple of studies have compared the use of progestins (specifically cyproterone acetate and medroxyprogesterone acetate) versus the use of no progestogen in transgender women. These studies, albeit limited in the quality of their findings, reported no benefit of progestogens on breast development in transgender women. This has also been the case in limited clinical experience. These reports are in accordance with the normal and even above-average breast development in women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome, who lack progesterone and have no lobuloalveolar development of the mammary glands on histological examination.
Hair has its origins in the common ancestor of mammals, the synapsids, about 300 million years ago. It is currently unknown at what stage the synapsids acquired mammalian characteristics such as body hair and mammary glands, as the fossils only rarely provide direct evidence for soft tissues. Skin impression of the belly and lower tail of a pelycosaur, possibly Haptodus shows the basal synapsid stock bore transverse rows of rectangular scutes, similar to those of a modern crocodile. An exceptionally well-preserved skull of Estemmenosuchus, a therapsid from the Upper Permian, shows smooth, hairless skin with what appears to be glandular depressions,Kardong, K.V. (2002): Vertebrates: Comparative anatomy, function, evolution.
Expression of the PRLR protein is found within cells of the mammary glands in accordance with its role in lactation, but also is the subject of attention for its diverse and emerging roles by its expression in adipose tissue, pancreatic islet cell proliferation, and immune responses. The PRLR is a cytokine receptor and second messenger cascades include the JAK-STAT pathway, JAK-RUSH pathway, Ras-Raf-MAPK, and PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. Disruption of PRLR signaling pathways have been linked to tumorigenesis and breast cancer development.Z. Nouhi, N. Chughtai, S. Hartley, E. Cocolakis, J.J. Lebrun, S. Ali Defining the role of prolactin as an invasion suppressor hormone in breast cancer cells Cancer Res, 66 (2006), pp.
Monotreme eggs are retained for some time within the mother and receive nutrients directly from her, and they generally hatch within 10 days after laying, much shorter than the incubation period of sauropsid eggs. Newborn monotremes, called "puggles", are larval and fetus- like, much like newborn marsupials (and perhaps all non-placental mammals), and like them have relatively well-developed forelimbs that enable them to crawl around. In fact, because monotremes lack nipples, their puggles crawl about more frequently than marsupial joeys in search of milk; this difference raises questions about the supposed developmental restrictions on marsupial forelimbs. Monotremes lactate from their mammary glands via openings in their skin, rather than through nipples.
An apocrine sweat gland (; from Greek apo– "away" and krinein "to separate") is composed of a coiled secretory portion located at the junction of the dermis and subcutaneous fat, from which a straight portion inserts and secretes into the infundibular portion of the hair follicle. In humans, apocrine sweat glands are found only in certain locations of the body: the axillae (armpits), areola and nipples of the breast, ear canal, eyelids, wings of the nostril, perianal region, and some parts of the external genitalia. Modified apocrine glands include the ciliary glands in the eyelids; the ceruminous glands, which produce ear wax; and the mammary glands, which produce milk. The rest of the body is covered by eccrine sweat glands.
At very low levels the FDA has long considered BPA in food to be safe, but this has been challenged over the years as more information is discovered regarding the effects of the chemical. Rats exposed prenatally to environmentally relevant doses of BPA show an increased number of intraductal hyperplasias (precancerious lesions) in mammary glands that appear during adulthood, while high doses induce the development of carcinomas in breast tissue. Animals exposed to BPA during fetal life develop palpable tumors, and all studies show an increased susceptibility to mammary gland neoplasia that manifests during adulthood. Exposure of mouse dams to environmentally relevant levels of BPA during organogenesis results in considerable alterations in the mammary gland.
A microscopy image of a sample of human breast milk The human milk microbiota, also known as human milk probiotics (HMP), refers to the microbiota (community of microorganisms) residing in the human mammary glands and breast milk. Human breast milk has been traditionally assumed to be sterile, but more recently both microbial culture and culture-independent techniques have confirmed that human milk contains diverse communities of bacteria which are distinct from other microbial communities inhabiting the human body. The human milk microbiota which could be source of commensal, mutualistic, and potentially probiotic bacteria to the infant gut microbiota. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines "probiotics" as "living organisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host".
Graphic depicting the human skin microbiota, with relative prevalences of various classes of bacteria The human microbiome is the aggregate of all microbiota that reside on or within human tissues and biofluids along with the corresponding anatomical sites in which they reside, including the skin, mammary glands, placenta, seminal fluid, uterus, ovarian follicles, lung, saliva, oral mucosa, conjunctiva, biliary tract, and gastrointestinal tract. Types of human microbiota include bacteria, archaea, fungi, protists and viruses. Though micro-animals can also live on the human body, they are typically excluded from this definition. In the context of genomics, the term human microbiome is sometimes used to refer to the collective genomes of resident microorganisms; however, the term human metagenome has the same meaning.
The syndrome appears to be due to mutations in the gene tetratricopeptide repeat domain 37 (TTC37) which encodes the protein Thespin or the SKIV2L gene. This gene is expressed is in the adrenal gland, amniotic fluid, bladder, blood, bone, bone marrow, brain, cervix, connective tissue, ear, epididymis, eye, heart, intestine, kidney, liver, lung, lymph nodes, mammary glands, mouth, muscle, nerve, oesophagus, ovary, pancreas, pharynx, placenta, prostate, pituitary gland, salivary gland, testis, thyroid, tonsil, thymus, trachea, skin, uterus, spleen, spinal cord, stomach and vascular tissue. It is also expressed in ascites and various embryonic tissues. It is expressed at high level in the intestine, lung, lymph nodes, pituitary and vascular tissues. This gene is also known as KIAA0372, MGC32587 and TPR repeat protein 37.
Steller's sea cow may have exhibited parental care, and the young were kept at the front of the herd for protection against predators. Steller reported that as a female was being captured, a group of other sea cows attacked the hunting boat by ramming and rocking it, and after the hunt, her mate followed the boat to shore, even after the captured animal had died. Mating season occurred in early spring and gestation took a little over a year, with calves likely delivered in autumn, as Steller observed a greater number of calves in autumn than at any other time of the year. Since female sea cows had only one set of mammary glands, they likely had one calf at a time.
The luminal cells secrete netrin 1, which binds to the receptor neogenin (a homologue of DCC) on the cap cells. This allows for adhesion between the two cell layers, which is necessary for the proper morphogenesis of the terminal end buds (TEBs) in the mammary glands. Loss of the gene coding for either netrin 1 or neogenin leads to the improper formation of the (TEBs), suggesting that rather than acting as a guidance molecule as in neuronal systems, netrin 1 serves as an adhesive in mammary tissue. During the morphogenesis of the embryonic lung, epithelial cells express netrin 1 and netrin 4. These netrins surround endoderm buds in the basement membrane, preventing distal tip cells from expressing DCC and UNC5B.
Desmond Morris, The Naked Ape: A Zoologist's Study of the Human Animal, page 70, McGraw-Hill, 1967, Evolutionary psychologist David M. Buss explains that female humans evolved to have permanently enlarged mammary glands, unlike all other 222 primates. Functional anatomist Owen Lovejoy ("The origin of man", 1981) suggests, partly based on speculations by Morris, that prominent breasts among female Australopithecines helped attract males and cement the pair-bond necessary for further physical and cultural evolution toward modern humanity.Kathy Dettwyler and Patricia Stuart-Macadam (ed.), Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives, page 179, Taylor & Francis, 2017, Evolutionary psychologists theorize humans' permanently enlarged breasts, in contrast to other primates' breasts—which only become enlarged during ovulation—allowed females to "solicit male attention and investment even when they are not really fertile".
In 2007, the U.S. federal government invited experts to Chapel Hill, North Carolina to perform a scientific assessment of literature on BPA. Thirty-eight experts in fields involved with bisphenol A gathered in Chapel Hill, North Carolina to review several hundred studies on BPA, many conducted by members of the group. At the end of the meeting, the group issued the Chapel Hill Consensus Statement, which stated "BPA at concentrations found in the human body is associated with organizational changes in the prostate, breast, testis, mammary glands, body size, brain structure and chemistry, and behavior of laboratory animals." The Chapel Hill Consensus Statement stated that average BPA levels in people were above those that cause harm to many animals in laboratory experiments.
Excessive fat in the crest of the neck, and areas of the shoulder and flank, are suggestive of EMS EMS horses tend to become obese very easily, depositing fat in the crest, shoulders, loin, above the eyes, around the tail head, and the mammary glands or prepuce, even when the rest of the body appears to be in normal condition. Some horses may have regional adiposity, and others may even appear normal weight, so obesity is not a definitive clinical sign of a horse with EMS. Horses will be insulin resistant (IR), and may have hyperinsulinemia, have abnormal blood glucose, or abnormal insulin responses to glucose. IR predisposes the animal to laminitis, and horses with EMS may have had previous episodes in their history.
"John Holmes obituary", The Guardian. Clive Hamilton regarded it as "perhaps the most memorable and unnerving book cover ever created".. Likening the torso to "some fibreglass cast on an industrial production line", Christine Wallace wrote that Holmes' first version was a faceless, breastless, naked woman, "unmistakably Germaine ... hair fashionably afro-frizzed, waist- deep in a pile of stylised breasts, presumably amputated in the creation of a 'female eunuch' based on an assumed equivalence of testicles and mammary glands". The book was reissued in 2001 by Farrar, Straus & Giroux at the instigation of Jennifer Baumgardner, a leading third-wave feminist and editor of the publisher's Feminist Classics series. According to Justyna Wlodarczyk, Greer emerged as "the third wave's favorite second-wave feminist".
If secondary breast development occurs before the age of 7 or 8 years, the individual may be experiencing either premature thelarche or precocious puberty. Pubertal changes, including breast development, are assessed using the Tanner Scale (Sexual Maturity Rating Scale) where stage 1 represents the lack of breast development, stage 2 is the breast budding or thelarche stage, stages 3 and 4 are continual breast growth and areolar development, and finally, stage 5 signifies completion of development. This system does not use breast size, but instead examines the shape of breasts, nipples, and areolae to determine the progression of growth. The growth and accumulation of adipose tissue in the breasts are induced by estrogen, while the development of mammary glands and areolae are caused by progesterone; both estrogen and progesterone are produced by ovaries.
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD or G6PDH) () is a cytosolic enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction : D-glucose 6-phosphate + NADP+ \+ H2O 6-phospho-D-glucono-1,5-lactone + NADPH + H+ This enzyme participates in the pentose phosphate pathway (see image), a metabolic pathway that supplies reducing energy to cells (such as erythrocytes) by maintaining the level of the co-enzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). The NADPH in turn maintains the level of glutathione in these cells that helps protect the red blood cells against oxidative damage from compounds like hydrogen peroxide. Of greater quantitative importance is the production of NADPH for tissues involved in biosynthesis of fatty acids or isoprenoids, such as the liver, mammary glands, adipose tissue, and the adrenal glands. G6PD reduces NADP+ to NADPH while oxidizing glucose-6-phosphate.
Charles Darwin recognized that mammary glands seemed to have developed specifically from cutaneous glands, and hypothesized that they evolved from glands in brood pouches of fish, where they would provide nourishment for eggs. The latter aspect of his hypothesis has not been confirmed; however, more recently the same mechanism has been postulated for early synapsids. As all mammals lactate, lactation must have evolved before the last common ancestor of all mammals, which places it at a minimum in the Middle or Late Triassic when monotremes diverged from therians. O. T. Oftedal has argued that therapsids evolved a proto-lacteal fluid in order to keep eggs moist, an adaption necessitated due to diapsids parchment shelled eggs which are more vulnerable to evaporation and dehydration than the mineralized eggs produced by some sauropsids.
Instead of jumping to the conclusion that a whale is a fish because it has fins and lives in the water (spontaneous concept based on superficial observation), they can learn to apply taxonomic principles of biology to see that below the "surface," whales share the criteria of the class "mammals" (air-breathing vertebrates with hair, mammary glands, etc.). Learning scientific concepts has the effect of restructuring children's way of thinking about the world, and leads to what Piaget called "formal-logical thought" (Inhelder & Piaget 1958). This includes the essential developmental ability to solve problems using abstract, theoretical information that goes beyond mere personal experience (Karpov 2003). For an overview of different types of instruction and their outcomes, from the point of view of neo-Vygotskians, see Arievitch & Stetsenko (2002).
Mammary glands discharge the fat (as cream fat droplets) into the milk that they produce under the influence of the anterior pituitary hormone prolactin. All cells in the body need to manufacture and maintain their membranes and the membranes of their organelles. Whether they rely for this entirely on free fatty acids absorbed from the blood, or are able to synthesize their own fatty acids from the blood glucose, is not known. The cells of the central nervous system will almost certainly have the capability of manufacturing their own fatty acids, as these molecules cannot reach them through the blood brain barrier, while, on the other hand, no cell in the body can manufacture the required essential fatty acids which have to be obtained from the diet and delivered to each cell via the blood.
Like other mammals, monotremes are endothermic with a high metabolic rate (though not as high as other mammals; see below); have hair on their bodies; produce milk through mammary glands to feed their young; have a single bone in their lower jaw; and have three middle-ear bones. In common with reptiles and marsupials, monotremes lack the connective structure (corpus callosum) which in placental mammals is the primary communication route between the right and left brain hemispheres. The anterior commissure does provide an alternate communication route between the two hemispheres, though, and in monotremes and marsupials it carries all the commissural fibers arising from the neocortex, whereas in placental mammals the anterior commissure carries only some of these fibers. Platypus Long-beaked echidna Diagram of a Monotreme Egg.
Ethandrostate, also known as ethinylandrostenediol 3β-cyclohexanepropionate, is a synthetic steroidal estrogen and ester of ethinylandrostenediol (17α-ethynyl-5-androstenediol) which was developed and studied in people with certain cancers like breast cancer and prostate cancer in the 1950s but was never marketed. Although far less potent by weight than estradiol or estrone, ethandrostate produces estrogenic effects in the vagina, uterus, and mammary glands as well as antigonadotropic and secondary antiandrogenic effects like testicular and prostate atrophy in both animals and humans. Ethandrostate was assessed in humans as an aqueous suspension by intramuscular injection at doses of 100 to 200 mg/day or 100 mg three times per week and by mouth at a dose of 25 mg four times per day. It shows much greater antigonadotropic potency relative to general estrogenic potency in animals when compared with other estrogens.
Moreover, suppression of PGE2 in breast tissue is relevant because, via activation of prostaglandin EP receptors, PGE2 potently induces amphiregulin expression in breast tissue, and activation of the EGFR by amphiregulin increases COX-2 expression in breast tissue, in turn resulting in more PGE2, and thus, a self-perpetuating, synergistic cycle of growth amplification due to COX-2 appears to potentially be present in normal breast tissue. Accordingly, overexpression of COX-2 in mammary gland tissue produces mammary gland hyperplasia as well as precocious mammary gland development in female mice, mirroring the phenotype of VDR knockout mice, and demonstrating a strong stimulatory effect of COX-2, which is downregulated by VDR activation, on the growth of the mammary glands. Also in accordance, COX-2 activity in the breasts has been found to be positively associated with breast volume in women.
Furylfuramide (also known as AF-2) is a synthetic nitrofuran derivative which was widely used as a food preservative in Japan since at least 1965, but withdrawn from the market in 1974 when it was observed to be mutagenic to bacteria in vitro and thus suspected of carcinogenicity. This was confirmed later when animal testing found it to cause benign and malignant tumors in the mammary glands, stomachs, esophagi, and lungs of rodents of both sexes, although insufficient evidence exists in human exposure. This successful use of bacterial mutagenicity as a screen for carcinogenicity confirmed the use of this methodology as a rapid and efficient test, in comparison to animal testing alone, and led to its further development. The availability of such simpler tests in turn gave rise to greater government oversight and testing of compounds to which the public would be exposed.
Western pygmy possums can breed throughout the year, although they do so more commonly in the spring, and give birth to litters of four to six young. The mother often carries more than six embryos at a time in her womb, but because she has only six teats, and marsupial young remain attached to an individual teat for much of their early lives, six is the maximum number she is able to rear. Unusually, however, the mother may give birth just two days after weaning a previous litter, with her teats dramatically changing in size to accommodate the smaller young, and the mammary glands reverting to production of colostrum. The young are still blind when they leave the pouch at around 25 days of age; they initially remain within the nest, and are fully weaned at around 50 days.
However, in most endemic areas, adult women are the most severely affected by anemia, mainly because they have much higher physiological needs for iron (menstruation, repeated pregnancy).An interesting consequence of this in the case of Ancylostoma duodenale infection is translactational transmission of infection: the skin-invasive larvae of this species do not all immediately pass through the lungs and on into the gut, but spread around the body via the circulation, to become dormant inside muscle fibers. In a pregnant woman, after childbirth some or all of these larvae are stimulated to re-enter the circulation (presumably by sudden hormonal changes), then to pass into the mammary glands, so that the newborn baby can receive a large dose of infective larvae through its mother's milk. This accounts for otherwise inexplicable cases of very heavy, even fatal, hookworm infections in children a month or so of age, in places such as China, India and northern Australia.
The latter may have been the primitive form of egg care in synapsids rather than simply burying the eggs, and the constraint on the parent's mobility would have been solved by having the eggs "parked" in nests during foraging or other activities and periodically be hydrated, allowing higher clutch sizes than could fit inside a pouch (or pouches) at once, and large eggs, which would be cumbersome to carry in a pouch, would be easier to care for. The basis of Oftedal's speculation is the fact that many species of anurans can carry eggs or tadpoles attached to the skin, or embedded within cutaneous "pouches" and how most salamanders curl around their eggs to keep them moist, both groups also having glandular skin. The glands involved in this mechanism would later evolve into true mammary glands with multiple modes of secretion in association with hair follicles. Comparative analyses of the evolutionary origin of milk constituents support a scenario in which the secretions from these glands evolved into a complex, nutrient-rich milk long before true mammals arose (with some of the constituents possibly predating the split between the synapsid and sauropsid lines).

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