We're celebrating LEXICOGRAPHERS, the people who write and compile dictionaries.
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It's up to lexicographers to decide when the borrowing becomes permanent.
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Let's leave "drain the swamp" for future lexicographers and historians to ponder.
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This was how his rambling word salad went down with the nation's lexicographers.
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Lexicographers still struggle, largely in vain, to dispel this myth about their role.
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It constantly confounds prejudices (including the lexicographers' own) and refuses to be pinned down.
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What is clear is just how often lexicographers must make hard calls about unclear facts.
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Between 2018 and 2019, usage of "climate strike" increased 100-fold, according to Collins' lexicographers.
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Lexicographers from Johnson's day on must describe the language, grounding their definitions in real living English.
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Everyday language, as early lexicographers most likely found, is an imperfect medium to transfer this precision.
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We appreciate their enthusiasm, but there is a specific process that lexicographers follow to add words to the dictionary.
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But lexicographers don't like to regard themselves as letting the trusty words in and keeping the bad guys out.
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The linguists and lexicographers vote on words based on their predominance in headlines and widespread use throughout the country.
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Social media has been revolutionary in changing the access lexicographers have to the evolution of how words are used.
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" ***Lexicographers argue that "cute" is a crude mistranslation of the even cruder Nordic phrase " Ged rootentoota vow hibm oply gook!
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"It's just a staff of lexicographers surveying the evidence and proposing words that meet the criteria for entry," Brewster says.
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According to Craig Leyland, a new words editor at the OED, modern lexicographers do not make such decisions without careful consideration.
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It might surprise dictionary-owners to know that most lexicographers do not think of their subject in this way at all.
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For years, we mild-mannered lexicographers have been posting online about the most common lookup of the moment on our website.
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It is broadcast live on ESPN, like an Olympic event, with color commentary by lexicographers and up-close-and-personal interviews with the contestants.
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Both seasoned lexicographers, they realized that Americans were coining new words, using old ones in new ways and preserving usages the British had dropped.
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Lexicographers for Collins create an annual list of new and notable words that reflect ever-changing culture and the preoccupations of those who experience it.
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As virtually all modern lexicographers acknowledge, dictionaries are there to register actual usage, not to tell the mass of people that they are deploying a word incorrectly.
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Language moves much faster than lexicographers do, but the lexicographer's myopic attention to detail is what keeps dictionary definitions from becoming an Orwellian organ of the state.
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FOR half a century, language experts have fallen into two camps, with most lexicographers and academic linguists on one side, and traditionalist writers and editors on the other.
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"Were we to ignore certain words on the grounds that they are offensive, we would be negligent in our duty as lexicographers," Ms. Brewster said in her email.
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Collins lexicographers pinpoint the origin of the term "climate strike" to demonstrations surrounding the same conference in France in 2015, when world leaders adopted the Paris climate accord.
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Those who get the mulligrubs thinking about great old words dying can pungle up for a subscription to DARE, helping those lexicographers keep adding words to the online edition.
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According to Solomon, lexicographers use language corpora—large collections of written material—to analyze how language is used in practice and determine what should be included in a dictionary.
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It's a term whose usage increased by a whopping 21-fold between 2800 and 23, according to Collins' lexicographers, and since 22 has been employed four times as much.
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Command Z WASHINGTON — What happens when 334 linguists, lexicographers, grammarians and etymologists gather in a stuffy lecture hall on a Friday night to debate the lexical trends of the year?
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Lexicographers, aware that people still look to them for guidance on what is a "real" word and what isn't, whether or not they like this role, can still be conservative.
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Story at a glance Each year, lexicographers at Collins Dictionary track the use of 9.5 billion words for ten "new and notable" words and phrases that signify shifts in culture.
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Just as lexicographers formalize this behavior every day by adding and deleting words from dictionaries, medical professionals simply need to do this work with analytical judgment, not for but alongside patients.
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When the first editions of the Oxford English Dictionary were compiled, lexicographers had to painstakingly scan individual texts by hand to find the first recorded usage of every word in the dictionary.
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There are lots of exceptions to the rules we've listed, but in general, state departments of transportation, postal departments, city planners, and lexicographers have carved out a certain order to our road types.
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" We might wish to have Kory Stamper's job, but her caveats include (and we almost chose this for an acrostic passage): "Lexicographers must face the Escher-esque logic of English and its speakers.
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The term, which refers to people leaving work or school as a way to demand action on climate change, was used 100 times more often in 2019 compared to last year, Collins' lexicographers found.
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Stymied and discouraged, I emailed Jonathon Green, one of the world's leading slang lexicographers and the author of Green's Slang Dictionary, a three-volume compendium of over 10.3 million slang words and phrases that costs $625 new on Amazon.
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Lexicographers researched and published dictionaries and thesauruses, and the printing presses — under pressure from capitalism's dictates — created rich shelves of books filled with the stories and myths of peoples who just a few decades ago didn't "exist" in the mind's eye.
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The company also laid out its methodology for writing example sentences in a blog post on January 26: Lexicographers use software to analyse examples of a word in order to determine the most typical manner in which it is used.
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But the rush to blame elites has nearly everyone in the crosshairs: Sketch Engine, a digital tool for lexicographers, finds among the common modifiers for elite not just obvious ones like "ruling", "wealthy", "monied", but also "secular", "cultural", "educated", "metropolitan" and "bureaucratic".
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Sixteen full-time staffers and some visiting lexicographers work in offices and a library, which contains editions of all the surviving Latin texts from before A.D. 600, and about 10 million yellowing paper slips, arranged in stacks of boxes reaching to the ceiling.
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But what if lexicographers did us the favor of not only anointing words but annually retiring a few that have been embraced too exuberantly and look a little shabby for it — a little dazed to find themselves miles from their original meanings.
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If you want to know how often, for example, "between you and I" occurs in comparison with "between you and me" in print sources or current books, that information is now available to us, whereas previous lexicographers and usage writers simply had to guess.
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Contests serendipity by Aidan Ostapko, one of our winning student-made videos At a moment when dictionaries are becoming social media powerhouses, and lexicographers "word-nerd celebrities," we're pleased to say that nearly 900 teenagers from around the world participated in our latest 15-Second Vocabulary Video Contest.
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The two schools of thought, known as "prescriptivism" (which sets down how the language should be) and "descriptivism" (which tells how it is), have often been at daggers drawn: English teachers and some usage-book writers on one side, and academic linguists, lexicographers and other usage-book writers on the other.
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1556) and Pagninius (d. 1541), as lexicographers; Daniel Bomberg (d. 1549), as a printer of Hebrew books. Arius Montanus (d.
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Etymologists and lexicographers have disputed and considered theories of the origins of the phrase, but most find no theory satisfactory.
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Shvedova is widely known in Russia as one of the prominent lexicographers, co-author and editor of the explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (Ozhegov).
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Her role as a result was thus expanded to that of a co-presenter alongside Whiteley.Independent.co.uk on viewer dissatisfaction with Vorderman's expanded role—Retrieved 20 June 2006. The programme frequently rotated between various lexicographers, including Richard Samson and Alison Heard, for each series, until in 2003 the role was permanently give to Susie Dent after her debut on Countdown in 1992.The Countdown Page on lexicographers.
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A good bilingual law dictionary needs to take the users' expected language and professional competences into account. The lexicographers therefore must consider the following aspects: dictionary user research, dictionary typology, structure, and presentation of the relevant information. When making a law dictionary, the lexicographers attempt to present the information in such a way that the user is not burdened with excessive lexicographic information costs.
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Words of disputed or less certain origin are in the "Dravidian languages" list. Where lexicographers generally agree on a source language, the words are listed by language.
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Fragmenta Valesiana is the name given to fragments of Roman text written by Cassius Dio, dispersed throughout various writers, scholastics, grammarians, lexicographers, etc., and collected by Henri de Valois.
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James Thomas Molesworth (1795 – 13 July 1871) was a military officer in the services of the British East India Company, and one of the most prominent lexicographers of the Marathi language.
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44Owen, p. 102 The villagers in Corfe Castle sometimes referred to him as "Sir Abji" and "Indian Prince".Owen, p. 315 Sorabji would often mislead others, especially lexicographers, by giving them incorrect biographical information on himself.
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A familiar example of lexicology at work is that of dictionaries and thesauri. Dictionaries are books, computer programs, or databases that represent lexicographical work and are opened and purposed for public use. As there are many different types of dictionaries, there are many different types of lexicographers. Lexicographers are concerned with the difficulties of defining simple words such as 'the', and how compound or complex words or words with many meanings can be clearly explained They are also concerned with which words should be kept, added, or removed from a dictionary.
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Esperanto lexicographers are individuals or groups, whether enthusiastic amateurs or trained linguists, who have produced single-language or bilingual dictionaries of Esperanto. More than 130 Esperantists, working singly or collectively, have published such dictionaries; several of these authors are listed in the "Esperanto lexicographers" category. In the specific case of Esperanto, most dictionary authors historically were and today still are non- specialists in the field of lexicography. A notable exception is Erich-Dieter Krause, a German professor of Indonesian, who wrote comprehensive dictionaries, both German–Esperanto (2007) and Esperanto-German (1999).
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When lexicographers have thus profiled the intended user group they have a clear picture of what types of data to include in the dictionary so that it can be of the most help to the users. The profile will also help lexicographers presenting the necessary data, such as definitions, in the appropriate language so that, in particular, "foreign" users can benefit from the data. The typical example is where a European continental lawyer consults an English law dictionary. Another important aspect is the scope of coverage of a dictionary.
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One of the manuscripts is the Anglo-Saxon Brussels, Bibliothèque Royale MS 1828-30.[Christine Franzen], 'Introduction', in Ashgate Critical Essays on Early English Lexicographers Volume 1: Old English, ed. by Christine Franzen (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), xv- lxxiii (p. xx).
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Although one "in high dudgeon" is indignant and enraged, and while the image of a dagger held high, ready to plunge into an enemy, has a certain appeal, lexicographers have no real evidence as to the origin of the phrase.
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L'Isle-Jourdain (Gascon : l'Isla de Baish/Bax) ) is a commune in the Gers department in southwestern France. The lexicographers Claude (1854–1924) and Paul Augé (1881–1951) were born in L'isle-Jourdain as was the writer Armand Praviel (1875–1944).
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Reinhard Rudolf Karl Hartmann (born 8 April 1938) is an Austrian and English lexicographer and applied linguist. Until the 1970s, lexicographers worked in relative isolation, and Hartmann is credited with making a major contribution to lexicographyRobert Burchfield (1989) in the Foreword of the Festschrift issued on the occasion of the 15th anniversary of the Exeter University Language Centre and the 5th of the Dictionary Research Centre as well as Hartmann's 50th birthday, Lexicographers and their Works ed. by G. James (Volume 14, Exeter Linguistic Studies, University of Exeter Press) p. vii. and fostering interdisciplinary consultation between reference specialists.
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R. C. Tunnicliffe: Aztec Astrology, 1979. The word means "days of reflection" Spanish lexicographers glossed it as , "wasted days". They were considered to bring ill fortune, and most activities (including even cooking) were avoided if possible during the . This is however, incorrect.
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The concept of lexicographic information costs was first proposed by the Danish scholar and metalexicographer Sandro Nielsen (see below). The concept is relevant to lexicographers when planning and compiling a dictionary; for the users when consulting the dictionary; and for reviewers when evaluating a dictionary.
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Jack Thiessen (born 1931) is a Russian Mennonite teacher, translator, and writer from Manitoba, Canada. Alongside Arnold Dyck and Reuben Epp, he is an important contributor to the development of Mennonite Low German literature as well as one of the language's most prominent lexicographers.
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A homonymic pun may also be polysemic, in which the words must be homonymic and also possess related meanings, a condition that is often subjective. However, lexicographers define polysemes as listed under a single dictionary lemma (a unique numbered meaning) while homonyms are treated in separate lemmata.
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Kida Jun'ichirō wrote a Japanese book (1986) about the Dai Kan-Wa Jiten, and edited another (1994) about lexicographers that discusses Morohashi's contributions (chap. 4) and Ishii's creation of characters (chap. 11). In November 2018, Taishukan released an electronic edition of Dai Kan-Wa Jiten (for Windows PCs).
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The editors began working on a revised edition, but the 1945 Firebombing of Tokyo destroyed their work. After the war, Shinmura and his lexicographers began anew in September 1948. Iwanami Shoten published the first Kōjien in 1955. It included approximately 200,000 headwords, about 40,000 more than the Jien.
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His dictionary Tesoro de las dos lenguas francesa y española (1607) is based on literary texts and was later used by John Minsheu, Lorenzo Franciosini, John Stevens and other lexicographers; Girolamo Vittori expanded this dictionary with trilingual Tesoro from 1609, later plagiarized by Oudin in his Trésor of 1616.
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Until September 2008, Oxford maintained a permanent staff of lexicographers in Canada, led by editor Katherine Barber. With its Canadian dictionary division closed, Oxford has since been outsourcing work on Canadian dictionary products to freelance editors.Canwest News Service, "Oxford closes Canadian dictionary division", October 1, 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-01.
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Writers who create dictionaries are called lexicographers. One of the most famous is Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), whose Dictionary of the English Language was regarded not only as a great personal scholarly achievement but was also dictionary of such pre-eminence, that would have been referred to by such writers as Jane Austen.
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The Oxford English Dictionary, for example, established a reading programme at its foundation which continues to this day. The advent of computerized full-text search databases and techniques means that lexicographers can now make use of corpora of documents to gain a more balanced view of the history of a particular word or phrase, as well as finding new quotation material to fill gaps in the history of some words; some lexicographers have noted, however, that electronic search is not a complete replacement for manual quotation-gathering, among other things because though it can help finding examples of a word already known to exist, full-text search is less good at identifying which words need to be researched in the first place.
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However, some lexicographers, including James Strong and Spiros Zodhiates, disagree. These scholars say that the Hebrew word kashaph, used in Exodus 22:18 and 5 other places in the Tanakh comes from a root meaning "to whisper". Strong therefore concludes that the word means "to whisper a spell, i.e. to incant or practice magic".
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Thirdly, if the lexicographers intend to make a bilingual, maximizing multi-field dictionary they run into problems with the large amount of data that has to be included in the dictionary. Consequently, the best coverage of linguistic and extra-linguistic aspects within the subject field covered by a dictionary will be found in a single-field dictionary.
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The first Lithuanian language dictionary was compiled by Konstantinas Sirvydas and printed in 1629 as a trilingual (Polish–Latin–Lithuanian) dictionary. Five editions of it were printed until 1713, but it was used and copied by other lexicographers until the 19th century."Kazimieras Būga and the Academic Dictionary of Lithuanian", by Antanas Klimas, Lituanus, vol. 27, no.
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In 1662 Richard Plunkett, a Franciscan living in Trim, Co. Meath, finished the first great bilingual dictionary containing the Irish language, his Latin-Irish Dictionary. The manuscript was never published and is now held in Marsh's Library in Dublin. Despite this fact, subsequent lexicographers made copious use of this work.de Bhaldraithe, T. 1987. ‘An Pluincéadach: Ceannródaí Foclóireachta.’ Teangeolas 22: 19-26.
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His date of birth or death is unknown. In addition, his > Polish origin is sometimes called into question. One of the leading 18th- > century music lexicographers, Johann Mattheson, claimed that the composer > was German and his name was often recorded in the German-sounding form of > "Peckel". It is known that he was active in the Republic of Poland from > 1637-1664.
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397, 401. Ancient lexicographers explained the title as meaning "those who feed themselves by manual labour", and, according to Eustathius of Thessalonica, the word was used to describe the Cyclopean wall-builders, while "hands-to-mouth" was one of the three kinds of Cyclopes distinguished by scholia to Aelius Aristides.Storey, p. 401; Scholia to Aelius Aristides 52.10 Dindorf p. 408.
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The Oxford American Dictionary (OAD) is a single-volume dictionary of American English. It was the first dictionary published by the Oxford University Press to be prepared by American lexicographers and editors. The work was based on the Oxford Paperback Dictionary, published in 1979. It is no longer in print and has been superseded by the New Oxford American Dictionary.
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Capito had considerable reputation as a jurist and gathered a school of jurists that became known as the Sabinian school after his pupil and successor Masurius Sabinus.Der kleine Pauly, articles "C. Ateius Capito" and "Sabinus Massurius" Capito's works were read and quoted until the sixth century, although more frequently by lexicographers (especially by Sextus Pompeius Festus and Aulus Gellius) than by jurists.
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The reviews of the Third edition were highly favorable in Britain.Ronald A. Wells, Dictionaries and the Authoritarian Traditions: A Study in English Usage and Lexicongraphy (1973) p. 84 Robert Chapman, a lexicographer, canvassed fellow lexicographers at Funk & Wagnalls, who had used the new edition daily for three years. The consensus held that the Third was a "marvelous achievement, a monument of scholarship and accuracy".
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Alpers (1981) 149-260 This work sought to counter the hyperatticist doctrine favoured by some contemporary lexicographers, who were inspired by the works of the 2nd-century grammarian Phrynichus. Oros' work was influential in the later Byzantine lexicographical tradition. The codex Messinensis graecus 118 contains a fragment of a work on orthography concerning the use of the iota subscript. This is sometimes styled the Lexicon Messanense.
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Dent is the longest-serving member of the show's current on-screen team, having first appeared in 1992; she has made more than 2,500 appearances.The Countdown Page on lexicographers. While she was on maternity leave over the winter of 2007–08, she was replaced as lexicographer by Alison Heard. Dent also works on the spin-off show 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown.
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3rd century BCE), comparable to the Indian Nighantu, is regarded as the first linguistic work in China. Shuowen Jiezi (c. 2nd century BCE), the first Chinese dictionary, classifies Chinese characters by radicals, a practice that would be followed by most subsequent lexicographers. Two more pioneering works produced during the Han Dynasty are Fangyan, the first Chinese work concerning dialects, and Shiming, devoted to etymology.
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158) for Burckhadt's footnote speculating on future rediscoveries. Until the end of the 19th century, all that was known of Menander were fragments quoted by other authors and collected by Augustus Meineke (1855) and Theodor Kock, Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta (1888). These consist of some 1650 verses or parts of verses, in addition to a considerable number of words quoted from Menander by ancient lexicographers.
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The earliest mentions about the Kotivarsha town are found in the Vayu Purana (XXIII,209) and the Brihat Samhita (XI, II). Lexicographers, Hemchandra (the Abhidhanachintamani IV,977) and Purushottama (in his Trikandashesha) have mentioned the city by several names – Uma(Usha?)vana, Banapura, and Shonitapura. Sandhyakara Nandi in his Ramacharita described at length about the temples and the lakes of the city.Roy, Niharranjan (1993).
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In 1903 Liu published the first collection of 1,058 oracle bone rubbings entitled Tieyun Zanggui (鐵雲藏龜,Tie Yun's [i.e., Liu E] Repository of Turtles) that helped launch the study of oracle bone inscriptions as a distinct branch of Chinese epigraphy.Creamer, Thomas B. I. (1992), "Lexicography and the history of the Chinese language", in History, Languages, and Lexicographers, ed. by Ladislav Zgusta, Niemeyer, p. 108.
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In recent years, dictionaries with a more academic focus have tried to bring together etymological studies in an attempt to provide definitive guides to slang while avoiding problems arising from folk etymology and false etymology. The study of slang is now taken seriously by academics, especially lexicographers like the late Eric Partridge, devoting their energies to the field and publishing on it, including producing slang dictionaries.
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The precise methodologies employed by most of them remain unknown to us. They had no hesitancy, however, in borrowing from dictionaries that already existed. This point has been skillfully shown with no little humour in many articles written by one of the great lexicographers of the 20th century, Tomás de Bhaldraithe. In general their research and use of pre-existing sources greatly increased the value and scope of their work.
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It was also published in a compact version. Cihai was consulted in the writing of The First Series of Standardized Forms of Words with Non-standardized Variant Forms. The 2009 fifth edition Cihai contains more than 127,200 entries, arranged by pinyin, with over 22 million characters total. Chen Zhili replaced Xia Zhengnong as chief editor, and lexicographers deleted about 7,000 entries for outdated terms and added almost 10,000 for neologisms.
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Accessed March 11, 2011. and over 50,000 new words, such as ecosystem and yuppie. Chapman also edited Harper Collins' New Dictionary of American Slang (1986), the Thesaurus of American Slang (1989), and Roget A to Z (1994). Barbara Ann Kipfer, who edited the sixth edition of Roget's Thesaurus, noted that Chapman was one of the first lexicographers to regularly use computer databases to study words as used in the popular press.
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The Hermeneumata survive in nine manuscripts, mostly from the Middle Ages,[Christine Franzen], 'Introduction', in Ashgate Critical Essays on Early English Lexicographers Volume 1: Old English, ed. by Christine Franzen (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), xv-lxxiii (p. xx). one of which attributes the work to Dositheus Magister. For this reason, they are often known as the Hermeneumata Pseudodositheana, although there is not sufficient evidence to attribute them to Dositheus.
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The Society has never had more than a few hundred active members. With so few scholars advancing the enterprise, the developments in the field came slowly. Members of the organization include "linguists, lexicographers, etymologists, grammarians, historians, researchers, writers, authors, editors, professors, university students, and independent scholars." Its activities include a mailing list, which deals chiefly with American English but also carries some discussion of other issues of linguistic interest.
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Scottish Language Dictionaries (SLD) is Scotland's lexicographical body for the Scots Language. SLD is responsible for the major Scots dictionaries, the Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue and the Scottish National Dictionary. Since 2004, all 22 volumes of these major texts have been available, free, via the internet, as the Dictionary of the Scots Language. The organisation was formed in 2002 and continues the work of several generations of Scottish lexicographers.
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This included Holiday Campaigns in the Lake District for Liverpool WSPU organiser Alice Davies, which she took part in with the Australian suffragette Vida Goldstein. She also involved herself as a reader for the Oxford English Dictionary, and this, too is reflected in her fiction: The Scholar’s Daughter (1906) is set among lexicographers. Harraden spent several summer holidays lodging at The Green Dragon inn at Little Stretton, Shropshire, walking and writing.
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Falls Mountain gorge on the Housatonic River, site of a seventeenth-century Paugussett fishing village/site. While the history of the Paugusset people began long before the European encounter, the early written records are European accounts. Their language, called Quiripi by lexicographers, was one of numerous Eastern Algonquian tongues in the coastal areas of the Atlantic. In addition to the Paugussett, Quiripi-speaking tribes included the Quinnipiack, Wampano, Unkechaug, Naugatuck, Mattabesic, and Schaghticoke.
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It has been estimated that, before the Second World War, there were approximately 11 million Yiddish-speakers in Europe and the two principal destinations for immigration, the United States and South America. YIVO linguists, philologists, lexicographers and grammarians studied the Yiddish language. Specialists considered Lithuanian Yiddish, spoken in Wilno, to be the most literary dialect of Yiddish. Members of YIVO (particularly Shalit) viewed Judaism foremost as a culture—rather than a religion.
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Examples of such mechanisms are phonetic matching, semanticized phonetic matching and phono-semantic matching. Zuckermann concludes that language planners, for example members of the Academy of the Hebrew Language, employ the very same techniques used in folk etymology by laymen, as well as by religious leaders. He urges lexicographers and etymologists to recognize the widespread phenomena of camouflaged borrowing and multisourced neologization and not to force one source on multi-parental lexical items.
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As a noun, the word GIF is found in the newer editions of many dictionaries. In 2012, the American wing of the Oxford University Press recognized GIF as a verb as well, meaning "to create a GIF file", as in "GIFing was perfect medium for sharing scenes from the Summer Olympics". The press's lexicographers voted it their word of the year, saying that GIFs have evolved into "a tool with serious applications including research and journalism".
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The indigenous characters were recorded as culit by the early 17th and 18th century Spanish lexicographers (Benavente, 1699 and Bergaño, 1732). This served as inspiration for the name "Kulitan" which was recently coined to refer to the modern writing system. The ordinary folks simply called them Súlat Kapampángan to distinguish them from the Latin script. Kulitan is made up of Indûng Súlat, or the "progenitor" (literally "mother") characters, and the Anak Súlat, or the "offspring" (literally "child") characters.
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Combined with the earlier naming of Walter William Skeat, editor of the Etymological English Dictionary, the board could claim it had the three top English language dictionaries from both the United States and United Kingdom on its side."President Surprised Even Simple Spellers; Prof. Brander Matthews Didn't Expect Executive Aid. Lexicographers In Line Editors of Leading Dictionaries Here and in England Favor the Proposed Reform", The New York Times, August 28, 1906. Accessed August 28, 2008.
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The (1066) Leipian 類篇 is a Chinese dictionary compiled by Song dynasty (960-1279) lexicographers under the supervision of chancellor Sima Guang. It contains 31,319 character head entries, more than twice as many as the 12,158 in the (c. 543) Yupian, and included many new characters created during the Tang (618-907) and Song dynasties. Leipian entries are arranged by a 544-radical system adapted from the 540 radicals of the classic (121) Shuowen Jiezi.
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According to the Manual of Specialized Lexicographies, a specialized dictionary, also referred to as a technical dictionary, is a dictionary that focuses upon a specific subject field. Following the description in The Bilingual LSP Dictionary, lexicographers categorize specialized dictionaries into three types: A multi-field dictionary broadly covers several subject fields (e.g. a business dictionary), a single-field dictionary narrowly covers one particular subject field (e.g. law), and a sub-field dictionary covers a more specialized field (e.g.
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Vases in use are sometimes depicted in paintings on vases, which can help scholars interpret written descriptions. Much of our written information about Greek pots comes from such late writers as Athenaios and Pollux and other lexicographers who described vases unknown to them, and their accounts are often contradictory or confused. With those caveats, the names of Greek vases are fairly well settled, even if such names are a matter of convention rather than historical fact.
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John Simpson was the first chief editor of the OED3. He retired in 2013 and was replaced by Michael Proffitt, who is the eighth chief editor of the dictionary. The production of the new edition exploits computer technology, particularly since the June 2005 inauguration of the "Perfect All-Singing All- Dancing Editorial and Notation Application", or "Pasadena". With this XML- based system, lexicographers can spend less effort on presentation issues such as the numbering of definitions.
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A recent Bible encyclopedia speaks of the "consensus of scholarly opinion" that the baptismal practice of John the Baptist and the apostles was by immersion."Lexicographers universally agree that the primary meaning of baptizo G966 is 'to dip' or 'to immerse", and there is a similar consensus of scholarly opinion that both the baptism of John and of the apostles was by immersion", Jewett, "Baptism", in Murray (ed.), "Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, volume 1, p.
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The official chart of the IPA, revised in 2020 The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin script. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association in the late 19th century as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language.International Phonetic Association (IPA), Handbook. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign language students and teachers, linguists, speech- language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators and translators.
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Though most Esperanto dictionary compilers have been men, notable female Esperanto lexicographers include Adriana J. Middelkoop, who wrote Dutch–Esperanto and Esperanto–Dutch dictionaries (1971) and Ilona Koutny, chief editor of a Hungarian–Esperanto dictionary, 1996). Because compiling a dictionary demands great linguistic expertise and may be the labour of many years, most dictionary writers were only able to accomplish the feat in their elder years; however, the Austrian Eugen Wüster wrote the core of his encyclopedic Esperanto–German dictionary, published in 1923, as an early-20s university student. The German Eckhard Bick, having emigrated to Denmark, published his Danish dictionary at 32. The professions of Esperanto lexicographers vary widely; one may find teachers (Atanas D. Atanasov, Paul Bennemann, Émile Grosjean-Maupin, Boris Kolker, etc.), theologians like Jan Filip, literary professionals such as Gaston Waringhien, translators (Fernando de Diego) or journalists (Joseph Rhodes, Razen Manandhar), but also many technicians and engineers (Rüdiger Eichholz, Ottó Haszpra, etc.) Both André Albault and L.L. Zamenhof were ophthalmologists, while Montagu C. Butler was a musician.
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The Dicionário Houaiss da Língua Portuguesa (Houaiss Dictionary of the Portuguese Language) is a major reference dictionary for the Portuguese language, edited by Brazilian writer Antônio Houaiss. The dictionary was composed by a team of two hundred lexicographers from several countries. The project started in 1986 and was finished in 2000, one year after Houaiss's death. The book claims to be the most complete Portuguese dictionary to date, with around 228,500 entries, 376,500 senses, 415,500 synonyms, 26,400 antonyms, and 57,000 historical words.
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Paltašić is known to have printed the famous Greek and Roman works (by Cicero, Diodorus Siculus, Virgil, Terence, Ovid, Sextus Propertius, Juvenal, Tibullus, Catullus and others) as well as the works of humanist writers, historiographers and lexicographers. On top of this he also printed books concerning religion, such as the Bible in Italian. Paltašić's works currently remain all over Europe. In Southeastern Europe, there remain 41 of his works, out of which 38 are kept in Croatia, with three in Montenegro.
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Secondly, if the lexicographers intend to make a bilingual, maximizing single-field dictionary they will not run into the same problems with the space available for presenting the large amount of data that has to be included in the dictionary, cf. a multi-field dictionary. Consequently, the best coverage of linguistic and extra-linguistic aspects within the subject field covered by a dictionary will be found in a single-field dictionary. However, even more extensive coverage is possible in a sub-field dictionary.
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Word meaning is in principle infinitely variable and context sensitive. It does not divide up easily into distinct or discrete sub-meanings. Lexicographers frequently discover in corpora loose and overlapping word meanings, and standard or conventional meanings extended, modulated, and exploited in a bewildering variety of ways. The art of lexicography is to generalize from the corpus to definitions that evoke and explain the full range of meaning of a word, making it seem like words are well-behaved semantically.
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However, it is not at all clear if these same meaning distinctions are applicable in computational applications, as the decisions of lexicographers are usually driven by other considerations. In 2009, a task – named lexical substitution – was proposed as a possible solution to the sense discreteness problem. The task consists of providing a substitute for a word in context that preserves the meaning of the original word (potentially, substitutes can be chosen from the full lexicon of the target language, thus overcoming discreteness).
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The first reference to "coffee" in the English language is in the form chaoua, dated to 1598. In English and other European languages, coffee derives from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, via the Italian caffè. The Turkish word, in turn, was borrowed from the Arabic: قهوة, qahwah. Arab lexicographers maintain that qahwah originally referred to a type of wine, and gave its etymology, in turn, to the verb قها qahā, signifying "to have no appetite", since this beverage was thought to dull one's hunger.
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The novel is composed in written vernacular (baihua) rather than Classical Chinese (wenyan). Cao Xueqin was well versed in Chinese poetry and in Classical Chinese, having written tracts in the semi-wenyan style, while the novel's dialogue is written in the Beijing Mandarin dialect, which was to become the basis of modern spoken Chinese. In the early 20th century, lexicographers used the text to establish the vocabulary of the new standardised language and reformers used the novel to promote the written vernacular.
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Al-Farahidi began his extraction of the actual language from the possible language based on the phonological limit by calculating the nonrepetitive number of combinations of Arabic roots, taken as r to r with r = 2 - 5. He then took that along with the number of permutations for each r group; he finally calculated Arn = r! (nr) with n being the number of letters in the Semitic alphabet. Al-Farahidi's theory and calculation are now found in the writings of most lexicographers.
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" Axon offers for any interested readers who wish to know more about vegetarianism to "send me a postcard," at 257, Deansgate, Manchester, and "I shall be happy to send them some information on the matter." In 1886 work Juvenal, which is a supplement to the poems of Latin author Juvenal, Mayor notes that he has "corrected Sir Henry's error, shared by Prof. Skeat and other lexicographers, as to the origin and meaning of the term Vegetarianism. It also occurs in Ed. v.
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Callistratus, Alexandrian grammarian, flourished at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. He was one of the pupils of Aristophanes of Byzantium, who were distinctively called Aristophanei. Callistratus chiefly devoted himself to the elucidation of the Greek poets; a few fragments of his commentaries have been preserved in the various collections of scholia and in Athenaeus. He was also the author of a miscellaneous work called Summikta (), used by the later lexicographers, and of a treatise on courtesans (Athenaeus iii.125b, xiii.591d).
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It is generally thought that Old French borrowed the Italian melarancio ("fruit of the orange tree", with mela "fruit") as pume orenge (with pume "fruit"). Although pume orenge is attested earlier than melarancio in available written sources, lexicographers believe that the Italian word is actually older. The word ultimately derives from a Dravidian language – possibly Tamil நாரம் nāram or Telugu నారింజ nāriṃja or Malayalam നാരങ്ങ nāraŋŋa — via Sanskrit नारङ्ग nāraṅgaḥ "orange tree". From there the word entered Persian nārang and then Arabic nāranj.
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The longest recognized systematic name is for the protein titin, at 189,819 letters. While lexicographers regard generic names of chemical compounds as verbal formulae rather than words, for its sheer length the systematic name for titin is often included in longest-word lists. Longest word candidates may be judged by their acceptance in major dictionaries such as the Oxford English Dictionary or in record-keeping publications like Guinness World Records, and by the frequency of their use in ordinary language.
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Bilingual electronic dictionaries and monolingual dictionaries of inflected languages often include an interactive verb conjugator, and are capable of word stemming and lemmatization. Publishers and developers of electronic dictionaries may offer native content from their own lexicographers, licensed data from print publications, or both, as in the case of Babylon offering premium content from Merriam Webster, and Ultralingua offering additional premium content from Collins, Masson, and Simon & Schuster, and Paragon Software offering original content from Duden, Britannica, Harrap, Merriam- Webster and Oxford.
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Vladimir Ivanovich DalAlternatively transliterated as Dahl, the original spelling of his father's surname in the Latin script. (; November 10, 1801 – September 22, 1872) was one of the greatest Russian-language lexicographers and a founding member of the Russian Geographical Society. He knew at least six languages, including Turkic, and is considered one of the early Turkologists. During his lifetime he compiled and documented the oral history of the region that was later published in Russian and became part of modern folklore.
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The name titin is derived from the Greek Titan (a giant deity, anything of great size). As the largest known protein, titin also has the longest IUPAC name of a protein. The full chemical name of the human canonical form of titin, which starts methionyl... and ends ...isoleucine, contains 189,819 letters and is sometimes stated to be the longest word in the English language, or of any language. However, lexicographers regard generic names of chemical compounds as verbal formulae rather than English words.
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The Saluva dynasty was created by the Saluvas, who by historical tradition were natives of the Kalyani region of northern Karnataka in modern India. The Gorantla inscription traces their origins to this region from the time of the Western Chalukyas and Kalachuris of Karnataka.Durga Prasad, p219 The term "Saluva" is known to lexicographers as "hawk" used in hunting. They later spread into the east coast of modern Andhra Pradesh, perhaps by migration or during the Vijayanagara conquests during the 14th century.
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Those two grammars represent the final confrontation with the competing conception of standard language advocated by Zagreb philological school. Beside Ivan Broz, he was among the first Shtokavian purists. In 1907 he became editor of the massive dictionary compiled by the Academy, and until his death (from the lexeme maslo up to the lexeme pršutina) he has edited approximately 5 500 pages which makes him one of the most prolific Croatian lexicographers. He studied the language of Slavonian and Dalmatian writers and folk epics.
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11 who mentions Aelius Aristides and Ephoros, as well as the lexicographers. Furthermore, a careful reading of the Delphic Hymns to Apollo illuminates the mythological connections that the Athenians tried to establish. Thus, Apollo is born under an olive tree, the sacred tree of the goddess Athena, a fact which reflects the Athenian supremacy over the Delian League and its treasury. Furthermore, the tragedy "Ion" by Euripides aims at justifying the worship of Apollo "patroos" in Athens: Kreousa, mother of Ion, falls victim of rape by Apollo.
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A donation of just $152 from the United States in 1923 saved the DWB from ruin. Max Planck repeatedly advocated for the dictionary and funding was eventually taken up by the Emergency Association of German Science. Due to the efficiencies of a permanent staff of lexicographers as well as standardized policies for production, the period between 1931–1939 saw six times as much work completed as in the previous years. Nearly 100 years after its conception the DWB was permanently institutionalized and its conclusion was in sight.
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The 1894 reprint of Select Poems replaced the comment with "Browning would not have used the word if he had known its meaning". In 1911 Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve alluded to "a notorious word which smirches the skirt of Pippa Passes".; cited in Browning's error posed a dilemma for many pre-1960s lexicographers, who excluded words deemed obscene but aspired to include all words used by major writers like Browning. The 1890 Century Dictionary included the correct definition, labelled "vulgar", and noted Browning's "supposition" of its meaning.
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Unroasted coffee beans The word "coffee" entered the English language in 1582 via the Dutch koffie, borrowed from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, borrowed in turn from the Arabic قهوة qahwah. The Arabic word qahwah was traditionally held to refer to a type of wine whose etymology is given by Arab lexicographers as deriving from the verb قَهِيَ qahiya, "to lack hunger", in reference to the drink's reputation as an appetite suppressant. The term "coffee pot" dates from 1705. The expression "coffee break" was first attested in 1952.
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Generally lexicographers seek to avoid circularity wherever possible, but the definitions of words such as "the" and "a" use those words and are therefore circular. Lexicographer Sidney I. Landau's essay "Sexual Intercourse in American College Dictionaries" provides other examples of circularity in dictionary definitions. (McKean, p. 73–77)An exercise suggested by J. L. Austin involved taking up a dictionary and finding a selection of terms relating to the key concept, then looking up each of the words in the explanation of their meaning.
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New Yorker contributing editor Henry Alford combed the section, and discussed several unusual entries he found with a group of American lexicographers. Most found "esquivalience" to be the most likely candidate, and when Alford approached NOAD editor in chief Erin McKean she confirmed it was a fake entry, which had been present since the first edition, in order to protect the copyright of the CD-ROM edition. Of the word, she said "its inherent fakeitude is fairly obvious". The fake entry apparently ensnared dictionary.
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The word taʾrīkh is not of Arabic origin and this was recognized by Arabic philologists already in the Middle Ages. The derivation they proposed—that the participle muʾarrakh, "dated", comes from the Persian māh-rōz, "month-day"—is incorrect. Modern lexicographers have proposed an unattested Old South Arabian etymon for the plural tawārīkh, "datings", from the Semitic root for "moon, month". The Ge'ez term tārīk, "era, history, chronicle", has occasionally been proposed as the root of the Arabic term, but in fact is derived from it.
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The dictionary, intended primarily to teach students and young Jesuits, has around 25,000 words. It belongs to the corpse of dictionaries in Shtokavian dialect, with some Chakavian parts, and even Kaykavian lexic as entry or synonym. Mikalja's dictionary is regarded as a Croatian dictionary by mainstream lexicographers and linguists. Micaglia's thesaurus is a trilingual dictionary in which the entry column is, though, organised as a monolingual dictionary: with a sequence of synonyms founded on dialectical contrasts, as well as definitions, and hyperonims as explanations.
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The correct derivation is alluded to in the text, but set out in parallel to fanciful ones that lexicographers would consider quite wide of the mark. Even the "correct" explanations (silvas, "forest", and the mention of green boughs) are used as the basis for an allegorical interpretation. Jacobus da Varagine's etymologies had different goals from modern etymologies, and cannot be judged by the same standards. Jacobus' etymologies have parallels in Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae, in which linguistically accurate derivations are set out beside allegorical and figurative explanations.
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Word usage is the way a word, phrase, or concept is used in a language or language variety. Lexicographers gather samples of written instances where a word is used and analyze them to determine patterns of regional or social usage as well as meaning. A word, for example the English word "donny" (a round rock about the size of a man's head), may be only a rare regional usage, or a word may be used worldwide by standard English speakers and have one or several evolving definitions. Word usage may also involve grammar.
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Consequently, sub-field dictionaries are ideal for extensive coverage of the linguistic and extra-linguistic aspects within a particular subject field. Secondly, if the lexicographers intend to make a bilingual, maximizing sub- field dictionary they will not run into the same problems with the space available for presenting the large amount of data that has to be included in the dictionary, cf. a multi-field dictionary. Consequently, the best coverage of linguistic and extra-linguistic aspects within the subject field covered by a dictionary will be found in a sub-field dictionary.
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Computational lexicology is a related field (in the same way that computational linguistics is related to linguistics) that deals with the computational study of dictionaries and their contents. An allied science to lexicology is lexicography, which also studies words, but primarily in relation with dictionaries – it is concerned with the inclusion of words in dictionaries and from that perspective with the whole lexicon. Sometimes lexicography is considered to be a part or a branch of lexicology, but properly speaking, only lexicologists who write dictionaries are lexicographers. Some consider this a distinction of theory vs. practice.
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A group of more than 400 editors and lexicographers began compilation in 1979, and it was published in eight volumes from 1986 to 1989. A separate volume of essays (Li and Zhao 1990) documents the lexicographical complexities for this full-scale Chinese dictionary. Besides the weighty 5,790-page first edition, there are 3-volume (1995) and pocket (1999) editions. A second edition (pictured at right) was published in 2006, and has a list of radicals printed on the dust jacket of each volume for quicker character look up.
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The Cangjiepian, also known as the Three Chapters (, Sancang), was a BCE Chinese primer and a prototype for Chinese dictionaries. Li Si, Chancellor of the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE), compiled it for the purpose of reforming written Chinese into the new orthographic standard Small Seal Script. Beginning in the Han dynasty (206 BCE-221 CE), many scholars and lexicographers expanded and annotated the Cangjiepian. By the end of the Tang dynasty (618-907), it had become a lost work, but in 1977, archeologists discovered a cache of (c.
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Greek lexicographers in the Hellenistic period claimed that Ariadne is derived from the Cretan dialectical elements ari (ἀρι-) "most" (which is an intensive prefix) and adnós (ἀδνός) "holy". Conversely, Stylianos Alexiou has argued that despite the belief being that Ariadne's name is of Indo-European origin, it's actually pre-Greek. Linguist Robert S. P. Beekes has also supported Ariadne having a pre-Greek origin; specifically being Minoan from Crete. This being due to her name containing the sequence dn (δν), which is rare in Indo-European languages, indicating that it's a Minoan loanword.
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The Oxford English Dictionary suggests that the European languages generally appear to have gotten the name from Turkish kahveh, about 1600, perhaps through Italian caffè. Arab qahwah, in Turkish pronounced kahveh, the name of the infusion or beverage; said by Arab lexicographers to have originally meant "wine" or some type of wine, and to be a derivative of a verb-root qahiya "to have no appetite". Another common theory is that the name derives from Kaffa Province, Ethiopia, where the species may have originated.Souza, Richard M. (2008) Plant-Parasitic Nematodes of Coffee. Springer. p. 3.
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This edition credits the book, or at least the part on hunting, to Juliana Berners as there is an attribution at the end of the 1486 edition reading: "Explicit Dam Julyans Barnes in her boke of huntyng." It contains three essays, on hawking, hunting, and heraldry. It became popular, and went through many editions, quickly acquiring an additional essay on angling.World Wide Words: Precision of Lexicographers The section on heraldry contains many coats-of-arms printed in six colours (including black ink and the white of the page), the first colour printing in England.
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The Sixth Doctor and Peri attend a conference of lexicographers at a college where an unfortunate murder has occurred. The victim was a perfectionist linguist compiling the galaxy's biggest dictionary, and also a personal friend of The Doctor, but the only suspect is her holographic assistant, named Book, who is also a repository for every word in the English language. The Omniverbum is the mythical longest word in existence. According to records, no one who has found the Omniverbum, or its sentient affix "Ish", has lived to tell of it.
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A study undertaken between 1999 and 2001 in New Zealand by lexicographers Laurie and Winifred Bauer on traditional forms of play included truce terms. The terms they described in their study were regional and the most common were pegs (widespread), twigs (Taranaki), gates (Auckland), tags (Nelson Marlborough), and nibs (Otago-Southland). In Wellington schools the dominant term was fans, recorded in New Zealand before 1920, which the authors state derives from fains or fain it as described by the Opies, itself dating back to Chaucerian times. The most widespread term was pegs, derived from pax.
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I, p. 315 In 1741 he set up a business selling violin strings from his home.Dunning 1981, vol. I, pp. 310 & 320 et seq Including taxes he earned about 1500 guilders in 1742 alone, the highest income of any musician from Amsterdam.Dunning 1981, vol. I, p. 306 It is unknown why from 1744, when he released Op. 8, to 1762, when he released Op. 9, there were no reports of him from lexicographers, listeners or national and international music journalists. Locatelli died on 30 March 1764 in his house on the Prinsengracht.
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There are two possible etymologies of the name al-Lat.Fahd, T., "al-Lat", in Medieval Arab lexicographers derived the name from the verb latta (to mix or knead barley- meal). It has also been associated with the "idol of jealousy" erected in the temple of Jerusalem according to the Book of Ezekiel, which was offered an oblation of barley-meal by the husband who suspected his wife of infidelity. It can be inferred from al-Kalbi's Book of Idols that a similar ritual was practiced in the vicinity of the image of al-Lat.
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The last book covers the period from 222 to 229 (the first half of the reign of Alexander Severus). Dio's work has often been deprecated as unreliable and lacking any overall political aim. Recently, however, this Roman historian has received a thorough reevaluation and his complexity and sophisticated political and historical interpretations have been highlighted. The fragments of the first 36 books, as they have been collected, consist of four kinds: # Fragmenta Valesiana: fragments that were dispersed throughout various writers, scholiasts, grammarians, and lexicographers, and were collected by Henri Valois.
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Especially when making bilingual law dictionaries, the lexicographers need to take a broad view of what legal lexicography involves. Most users of bilingual law dictionaries need information about language and law, and the lexicographer's task is to present the information as clearly and structured as possible. This involves various lexicographic analyses: user research, dictionary typology, and a clear structure for presenting and linking the information in the dictionary. The information must be presented in such a way that the user is not burdened with heavy lexicographic information costs.
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Furthermore, many of the slips were misplaced. Furnivall believed that, since many printed texts from earlier centuries were not readily available, it would be impossible for volunteers to efficiently locate the quotations that the dictionary needed. As a result, he founded the Early English Text Society in 1864 and the Chaucer Society in 1868 to publish old manuscripts. Furnivall's preparatory efforts lasted 21 years and provided numerous texts for the use and enjoyment of the general public, as well as crucial sources for lexicographers, but they did not actually involve compiling a dictionary.
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Modeled in part on Western monolingual dictionaries, Genkai gave not only basic information about words--their representations in kana and kanji and their definitions in Japanese--but also pronunciations and etymologies and citations of their use. Its successor, the four-volume Daigenkai, though published under Ōtsuki's name and based in part on his work, appeared some years after his death and was completed by other lexicographers. Bust of Ōtsuki Fumihiko at Sendai Dai-Ichi Elementary School, Miyagi Prefecture Ōtsuki's grammatical works, especially ' and ', strongly influenced the teaching of Japanese grammar for generations to come.
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Frontispiece to the 1657 edition of the Deipnosophists, edited by Isaac Casaubon, in Greek and Jacques Daléchamps' Latin translation The Deipnosophistae is an early 3rd-century AD Greek work (, Deipnosophistaí, lit. "The Dinner Sophists/Philosophers/Experts") by the Greco-Egyptian author Athenaeus of Naucratis. It is a long work of literary, historical, and antiquarian references set in Rome at a series of banquets held by the protagonist Publius Livius LarensisSee also his article at the German Wikipedia. . for an assembly of grammarians, lexicographers, jurists, musicians, and hangers-on.
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Thus Štokavian-Čakavian terms are accompanied by Bosnian Franciscan words, turcisms, Raguseisms and Croatian words. It has thus been said to illustrate the lexical wealth of the "Illyrian regions".Darija Gabrić-Bagarić, "Dijalektna podloga riječnika Blago jezika slovinskoga..." Rasprave instituta za hrvatski jezik i jezikoslovlje, kn.26 (2000), 45-58 From the cultural point of view, Micaglia's work was influenced by earlier works of Fausto Veranzio and Bartolomeo Cassio, and it influenced the Croatian circle of lexicographers (among them Franciscans Divković and Tomo Babić), both in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
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The Latin term striga in both name and sense as defined by Medieval lexicographers was in use throughout central and eastern Europe. Strega (obviously derived from Latin striga) is the Italian term for witch, and in Romanian strigăt means 'scream',DEX Online strigoaică is the name of the Romanian feminine vampire,DEX Online and strigoi is the Romanian male vampire.DEX Online Both can scream loudly, especially when they become poltergeists—a trait they have in common with the banshees. Strigăt is also the Romanian name of the barn owl and of the death's-head hawkmoth.
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Full verb conjugation in all tenses, and number conversion from digits to text in the available languages (e.g. "123" → "one hundred twenty-three"), are available through the program interface, as well as free access to online examples of language in use, and a discussion forum moderated by linguists and lexicographers. The search algorithms are tolerant of capitalisation, minor misspelling, and omitted accents and diacritics. Extensive lexical information is provided including irregular plurals, irregular verb forms, phrases and examples of use, American English and British English variations, and grammar references.
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The dialect of Yemen was very well represented in the writings of the grammarians because of the special interest it held for the scholars of the 3rd and 4th centuries A.H., especially for lexicographers like Ibn Durayd (d. 321/933) and Našwàn (d. 573/1178). Although home to a host of South Arabian dialects, Yemen does not reflect much South Arabian influence, except for some lexical items that may be mere loanwords from that language. A good example is the word baˁl ‘lord’, which is still common in Mehri (Rabin 1951:25–27).
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As far as spelling is concerned, the differences between American and British usage became noticeable due to the first influential lexicographers (dictionary writers) on each side of the Atlantic. Samuel Johnson's dictionary of 1755 greatly favoured Norman-influenced spellings such as centre and colour; on the other hand, Noah Webster's first guide to American spelling, published in 1783, preferred spellings like center and the Latinate color. The difference in strategy and philosophy of Johnson and Webster are largely responsible for the main division in English spelling that exists today. However, these differences are extremely minor.
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" The Chinese lexicographers Yong and Peng identify this Shizi passage, with six synonyms meaning jun "ruler" and 11 synonyms meaning da "great; big", as the source for the (c. 3rd century BCE) Erya dictionary (1.2–1.3) definitions that list 10 synonyms meaning jun and 39 meaning da . The zhuzi "The Masters/Philosophers" category of the Yiwenzhi "Treatise on Literature" in the Hanshu subdivided philosophical books into ten schools: Confucianism (), Daoism (), School of Yin-Yang (), Legalism (), School of Names or Designatism (), Mohism (), Diplomatic (), Syncretism (), Agriculturalism (), and Miscellaneous (). It summarized Syncretism: "Syncretists probably emerged from the Councilor office.
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The Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language (), commonly known as Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary (), is a major explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. It contains about 200,000 words and 30,000 proverbs. It was collected, edited and published by academician Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl (; 1801–1872), one of the most prominent Russian language lexicographers and folklore collectors of the 19th century. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary of the Great Russian language was the only substantial dictionary printed repeatedly (1935, 1955) in the Soviet Union in compliance with the old rules of spelling and alphabet, which were repealed in 1918.
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Numerous theorists (Marpurg, Mattheson, Quantz, and Scheibe, among others) cited his works as models, and major composers such as J. S. Bach and Handel bought and studied his published works. He was immensely popular not only in Germany but also in the rest of Europe: orders for editions of Telemann's music came from France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Switzerland, and Spain. It was only in the early 19th century that his popularity came to a sudden halt. Most lexicographers started dismissing him as a "polygraph" who composed too many works, a Vielschreiber for whom quantity came before quality.
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According to lexicographers, it is a synonym also meaning "bow-string", but only its geometrical meaning is attested in literature. Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit Dictionary (1899): " jīvá n. (in geom. = jyā) the chord of an arc; the sine of an arc Suryasiddhanta 2.57"; jīvá as a generic adjective has the meaning of "living, alive" (cognate with English quick) At some point, Indian astronomers and mathematicians realised that computations would be more convenient if one used the halves of the chords instead of the full chords and associated the half-chords with the halves of the arcs.
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Other English equivalents for antiphonary are antiphonar (still in reputable use) and antiphoner (considered obsolete by some English lexicographers, but still sometimes used in the early 20th century). In the "Prioress' Tale" of Chaucer it occurs in the form antiphonere: :He Alma Redemptoris herde synge / As children lerned hir antiphonere. The word Antiphonary had in the earlier Middle Ages sometimes a more general, sometimes a more restricted meaning. In its present meaning it has also been variously and insufficiently defined as a "Collection of antiphons in the notation of Plain Chant", and as a liturgical book containing the antiphons "and other chants".
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Since 1555, the Company has acted as the Trustee of Gresham's School in Holt, Norfolk, in accordance with the wishes of Lord Mayor Sir John Gresham (1492–1556). Among other responsibilities, the Company provides more than half of the school's governors, including the chairman of the governing body, which meets at Fishmongers' Hall. In 1729, the Fishmongers' Company presented the school with "...a valuable and useful library, not only of the best editions of the Classics and Lexicographers, but also with some books of Antiquities, Chronology, and Geography, together with a suitable pair of globes".Monroe, Paul, ed.
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Walter Henry Medhurst with Choo Tih Lang and a Malay student Walter Henry Medhurst and Robert Morrison were London Missionary Society (LMS) colleagues and friends. Both were professional printers, missionaries in China, and amateur lexicographers. In an 1817 letter, Morrison told the LMS directors that Medhurst had sent a promising specimen of small metal types, intended for magazines and tracts, and said the "qualifications and attention of Mr. M. give us great satisfaction" (Morrison 1839: 477). When Morrison was returning to China in 1826, he met with Medhurst in Java and they discussed their common work (Broomhall 1927: 172).
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3 volumes of Hanyu Da Cidian The Hanyu Da Cidian () is the most inclusive available Chinese dictionary. Lexicographically comparable to the Oxford English Dictionary, it has diachronic coverage of the Chinese language, and traces usage over three millennia from Chinese classic texts to modern slang. The chief editor Luo Zhufeng () (1911-1996), along with a team of over 300 scholars and lexicographers, started the enormous task of compilation in 1979. Publication of the thirteen volumes began with first volume in 1986 and ended with the appendix and index volume in 1994. The Hanyu Da Cidian includes over 23,000 head Chinese character entries, defines some 370,000 words, and gives 1,500,000 citations.
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Chinese lexicographers began compiling the first edition Ciyuan in 1908, with Lu Erkui (陸爾奎, 1862–1935) as editor-in-chief. They chiefly derived material from the 1710 Kangxi Dictionary and 1798 Jingji cuangu (經籍簒詁) dictionary of characters used in the Chinese classics. In 1915, Commercial Press, a major Chinese publishing house, issued the original Ciyuan in two volumes totaling 3,087 pages, available in large, medium, and small sizes (Teng & Biggerstaff 1971:132). It contained approximately 100,000 entries (Hartmann 2003:165), with dictionary order by individual character head entries arranged by radical and stroke, using the traditional 214 Kangxi radicals.
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Eldad ben Maḥli ha-Dani (, 'Eldad son of Mahli the Danite') () was a ninth- century Jewish merchant, traveller, and philologist. Though probably originally from southern Arabia, he professed to be a citizen of an "independent Jewish state" in East Africa, inhabited by people claiming descent from the lost Tribes of Dan, Asher, Gad, and Naphtali. Eldad visited Babylonia, Kairouan, and Iberia, where he spread fanciful accounts of the Ten Lost Tribes and halakhot which he claimed he had brought from his native country. Eldad's Hebrew narrative, Sefer Eldad, established his reputation as a philologist whom leading medieval Jewish grammarians and lexicographers quoted as an authority on linguistic difficulties.
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A representation of phubbing, showing two people with one on a smartphone Phubbing is a term coined as part of a linguistic experiment by Macquarie Dictionary to describe the habit of snubbing someone in favour of a mobile phone. In May 2012, the advertising agency behind the campaign, McCann, had invited a number of lexicographers, authors, and poets to coin a neologism to describe the behaviour. The word "phubbing," a portmanteau of phone and snubbing, was first described by McCann Group Account Director Adrian Mills, who was working with David Astle. The term has appeared in media around the world and was popularized by the Stop Phubbing campaign created by McCann.
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Specialised software is used to arrange key words in context from a corpus of several million words of naturally occurring text. The collocates can then be arranged alphabetically according to first or second word to the right or to the left. Using such a method, Elena Tognini- Bonelli (2001) found that the word largely occurred more frequently with negative words or expressions, while broadly appeared more frequently with positive ones. Lexicographers have often failed to account for semantic prosody when defining a word, although with the recent development and increasing use of computers, the field of corpus linguistics is now being combined with that of lexicography.
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John Bullokar, presumably because of his religion, obtained his medical degree away from England, at Caen, France, on 16 October 1612. John Bullokar was the author of "An English Expositor: Teaching the Interpretation of the Hardest Words Used in our Language" (1616) and "A True Description of the Passion of our Saviour Jesus Christ, a poem in six-line stanzas" (1622). For his contribution to the development of the English dictionary, John Bullokar is recognized by linguists and lexicographers. The "Expositor" treated Latin and Greek loanwords of Renaissance English, drawing from many contemporaneous sources, ranging from Robert Cawdrey's alphabetical and Thomas's Latin–English dictionaries to specialist glossaries.
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That interpretation was followed by some later lexicographers, including Thomas Charles and Titus Lewis. It is now accepted, however, that cader is a spelling of a spoken form of cadair, and that there is no evidence that cadair and cader are separate words. But as it represents the pronunciation in the local dialect, the spelling Cader Idris is often seen in Welsh and English, and in June 2016 Snowdonia National Park decided to adopt that spelling on its signage, despite advice from the Welsh Language Commissioner and from Park officers, who favoured 'Cadair'. The local dialect form is also seen in the name of the local secondary school, Ysgol y Gader.
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Dictionaries intended for collegiate and professional use generally include most or all of the lexical information to be expected in a quality printed dictionary. The content of electronic dictionaries developed in association with leading publishers of printed dictionaries is more reliable that those aimed at the traveler or casual user, while bilingual dictionaries that have not been authored by teams of native speaker lexicographers for each language, will not be suitable for academic work. Some developers opt to have their products evaluated by an independent academic body such as the CALICO. Another major consideration is that the devices themselves and the dictionaries in them are generally designed for a particular market.
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Etymologicon Linguae Anglicanae, Stephen Skinner, 1671. Quote (in Latin): "'". As for John Minshew, primero and prima-vista (', that is, first and first seen, because he that can show such an order of cards, wins the game), are two different games of cards.John Minsheu's 1617 Ductor in Linguas (Guide into Tongues) Whichever opinion these two seventeenth-century lexicographers might have had on the origin of primero, it seems fairly plausible that the game being played in different parts of Europe had to acquire similar names as it migrated from one country to another, or from one region to the other, notably in Italy and Spain.
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Linguists and lexicographers have expressed skepticism regarding the methods and results of some of these studies, including one by Petersen et al.,"When physicists do linguistics", BEN ZIMMER, Boston Globe, February 10, 2013 while other have demonstrated bias in the Ngram data set, and their results "call into question the vast majority of existing claims drawn from the Google Books corpus," and "instead of speaking about general linguistic or cultural change, it seems to be preferable to explicitly restrict the results to linguistic or cultural change ‘as it is represented in the Google Ngram data’" because it is unclear what caused the observed change in the sample.
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Lexicographers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of words: prescriptive or descriptive. Noah Webster, intent on forging a distinct identity for the American language, altered spellings and accentuated differences in meaning and pronunciation of some words. This is why American English now uses the spelling color while the rest of the English-speaking world prefers colour. (Similarly, British English subsequently underwent a few spelling changes that did not affect American English; see further at American and British English spelling differences.) Large 20th-century dictionaries such as the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and Webster's Third are descriptive, and attempt to describe the actual use of words.
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English dictionaries provide some insights into the Daoism/Taoism pronunciation issue. For over a century, British and American lexicographers glossed the pronunciation of Taoism as (), but gradually began changing it to () and added Daoism entries. One scholar analyzed Taoism pronunciation glosses in general- purpose English dictionaries, comparing twelve published in Great Britain (1933–1989) and eleven published in the United States (1948–1987). After standardizing the various dictionary respelling systems into the International Phonetic Alphabet, there are four types of Taoism glosses involving prescriptive linguistics and descriptive linguistics: () is prescriptively accurate, () describes a common distortion, and the alternate (, ) and (, ) glosses are more comprehensive (Carr 1990: 63-64).
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A selection of translation dictionaries published by Collins The most important challenge for practical and theoretical lexicographers is to define the functions of a bilingual dictionary. A bilingual dictionary works to help users translate texts from one language into another or to help users understand foreign- language texts. In such situations users will require the dictionary to contain different types of data that have been specifically selected for the function in question. If the function is understanding foreign-language texts the dictionary will contain foreign-language entry words and native-language definitions, which have been written so that they can be understood by the intended user groups.
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In the many Bible translations that followed, including Martin Luther's, this translation was repeated. Benet further claimed that the Scythians, who were described by Herodotus as ritual hemp users in the fifth century B.C., were at least one millennium older than has been previously assumed. Sulah Benet's claim has found some support in the academic community among lexicographers and botanists. The standard reference lexicons of Biblical Hebrew, and reference works on Hebrew Bible plants by scholars such as University of Jerusalem botanist Michael Zohary mention Benet's suggestion, while others argue the word refers to an either different species of hemp or a different plant entirely.
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Al- Zubaydī was a native of Seville, al-Andalus (present-day Spain), whose ancestor, Bishr al-Dākhil ibn Ḥazm of Yemeni origin, had come with the Umayyads to al-Andalus from Ḥimṣ in the Levant (Syria). Al-Zubaydī moved to Córdoba, the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, to study under Abū ‘Alī al-Qālī. His scholarship on the philologist Sībawayh’s grammar, Al-Kitāb, led to his appointment as tutor to the son of the humanist caliph Ḥakam II, the crown prince Hishām II. At the Caliph’s encouragement, al-Zubaydī composed many books on philology, and biographies of philologists and lexicographers. He became qāḍī of Seville, where he died in 989.
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Considered his "greatest monument of Latin scholarship", he employed research assistants for the 1543 version: Andreas Gruntleus, Gerardus Clericus, and Adam Nodius. Page from Robert Estienne's 1549 Dictionaire françoislatin From his work on the Thesaurus linguae latinae, he published Dictionarium latino- gallicum in 1538 and Dictionaire francoislatin in 1540. These dictionaries were superior to others at the time because non-classical elements had been edited out; when determining words, they were checked for correctness and applicability in context; and citations were exclusively from classical authors. Furthermore, it applied consistency to word order since lexicographers disagreed about whether words should be ordered alphabetically or etymologically.
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Some lexicographers claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning (in all contexts or social levels of language) because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, connotations, ambiguous meanings, usage, and so on make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason: feline is more formal than cat; long and extended are only synonyms in one usage and not in others (for example, a long arm is not the same as an extended arm). Synonyms are also a source of euphemisms. Metonymy can sometimes be a form of synonymy: the White House is used as a synonym of the administration in referring to the U.S. executive branch under a specific president.
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Cook returned to London in 1960. He soon fronted a property company for Charlie Da Silva, an associate of the Krays. After undergoing interrogation by the Dutch police force in connection with an insurance scam related to the apparent theft of a Rembrandt painting, Cook claimed to have given up a life of actual crime for good in favour of a life of writing about it. Published under the name of Robin Cook, his study of one man's deliberate descent into the milieu of London lowlifes, The Crust on its Uppers (1962) was an immediate succès de scandale upon publication. Lexicographers mined it for authentic usage of Cockney rhyming slang and thieves’ cant.
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The British National Corpus contains ample information on the dominant meanings and usage patterns for the 10,000 words that forms the core of English. The number of words in the British National Corpus (ca 100 million) is sufficient for many empirical strategies for learning about language for linguists and lexicographers, and is satisfactory for technologies that utilize quantitative information about the behavior of words as input (parsing). However, for some other purposes, it is insufficient, as an outcome of the Zipfian nature of word frequencies. Because the bulk of the lexical stock occurs less than 50 times in the British National Corpus, it is insufficient for statistically stable conclusions about such words.
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1937 first edition Cihai The Cihai originated when Lufei Kui, founder of the Zhonghua Book Company, decided to publish a comprehensive Chinese dictionary to compete with rival Commercial Press's 1915 Ciyuan (辭源 "source of words") (Wilkinson 2000:89). Under the editorship of Shu Xincheng (舒新城, 1893-1960), Shen Yi (沈颐) and others, over 100 lexicographers worked for two decades to compile the Cihai, which was published in 1936. This 2-volume first edition has over 80,000 entries arranged under single characters in radical-stroke order, with the words and compounds under each character listed by the number of characters and strokes. The definitions are written in wenyan "literary Chinese" (Hartmann 2003:166).
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The Hermeneumata were composed as a Greek-Latin schoolbook in late antiquity, probably around the third century CE. The work was originally composed to help Greeks learn Latin, but in the medieval West, it came to be widely used as a source for Latin- literate authors to learn about Greek. In the twentieth century, the name of the Hermeneumata inspired scholars to give the name Hermeneutic style to a style of Latin writing found in late Antiquity and the early Medieval West which was characterised by extensive use of Greek loan-words.[Christine Franzen], 'Introduction', in Ashgate Critical Essays on Early English Lexicographers Volume 1: Old English, ed. by Christine Franzen (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), xv-lxxiii (p. xxxiv).
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Dictionaries that contain data for several languages may have a "jump" or "skip-search" feature that allows users to move between the dictionaries when looking up words, and a reverse translation action that allows further look-ups of words displayed in the results. Many manufacturers produce hand held dictionaries that use licensed dictionary contentFranklin MWS-1840 that use a database such as the Merriam Webster Dictionary and Thesaurus while others may use a proprietary database from their own lexicographers. Many devices can be expanded for several languages with the purchase of additional memory cards. Manufacturers include AlfaLink, Atree, Besta, Casio, Canon, Instant Dict, Ectaco, Franklin, Iriver, Lingo, Maliang Cyber Technology, Compagnia Lingua Ltd.
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The terms commodification and commoditization are sometimes used synonymously,Robert Hartwell Fiske’s Dictionary of Unendurable English: A Compendium of Mistakes in Grammar, Usage, and Spelling with commentary on lexicographers and linguists, Robert Hartwell Fiske, p. 99 particularly in the sense of this article, to describe the process of making commodities out of anything that was not used to be available for trade previously; compare anthropology usage.Appadurai 1986, also cited in Martha M. Ertman, Joan C. Williams, Rethinking commodification, 2005, in Afterword by Carol Rose, pp. 402–403. This cites various uses of commodification to mean "become a commodity market", and considers the use of commodification (Peggy Radin, 1987) and commoditization (Appadurai 1986) as equivalent.
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I do not for one > moment believe that the doctrine which has these lazy consequences is true. > I realize, however, that I have an overpoweringly strong bias against it, > for, if it is true, philosophy is, at best, a slight help to lexicographers, > and at worst, an idle tea-table amusement. Ernest Gellner wrote the book Words and Things, in which he was fiercely critical of the work of Ludwig Wittgenstein, J. L. Austin, Gilbert Ryle, Antony Flew, P. F. Strawson and many others. Ryle refused to have the book reviewed in the philosophical journal Mind (which he edited), and Bertrand Russell (who had written an approving foreword) protested in a letter to The Times.
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Based on the discussion in Nielsen 1994, there are a number of aspects that lexicographers should take into account when working with legal lexicography. One of the important aspects of legal lexicography is to establish a profile of the intended dictionary users. This is particularly significant if the dictionary is to be used by other than "native" lawyers, for instance bilingual law dictionaries for translation. A user profile should focus on the following competencies: The users' legal competence in their "native" field of law; the users' legal competence in the foreign field of law; the users' legal-language competence in their native language; the users' legal-language competence in the foreign language.
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In English (among others), John Cowell's Interpreter, a law dictionary, was published in 1607, Edward Phillips' The new world of English words came out in 1658 and a dictionary of 40,000 words had been prepared in 1721 by Nathan Bailey, though none was as comprehensive in breadth or style as Johnson's. The problem with these dictionaries was that they tended to be little more than poorly organised and poorly researched glossaries of "hard words": words that were technical, foreign, obscure or antiquated. But perhaps the greatest single fault of these early lexicographers was, as historian Henry Hitchings put it, that they "failed to give sufficient sense of [the English] language as it appeared in use."Hitchings 2005, London p.
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The Etymologicum Genuinum (standard abbreviation E Gen) is the conventional modern title given to a lexical encyclopedia compiled at Constantinople in the mid-ninth century. The anonymous compiler drew on the works of numerous earlier lexicographers and scholiasts, both ancient and recent, including Aelius Herodianus, Georgius Choeroboscus, Saint Methodius, Orion of Thebes, Oros of Alexandria and Theognostus the Grammarian.Reitzenstein (1897) 1-69; Alpers (1969) 3-24; Alpers (1989) The Etymologicum Genuinum was possibly a product of the intellectual circle around Photius. It was an important source for the subsequent Byzantine lexicographical tradition, including the Etymologicum Magnum, Etymologicum Gudianum and Etymologicum Symeonis.Berger (1972); Rance (2007) 201-206 Modern scholarship discovered the Etymologicum Genuinum only in the nineteenth century.
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DeFrancis overseeing the general planning and supervision of the project as well as its detailed operations, a volunteer team of some 50 contributors – including academics, Chinese language teachers, students, lexicographers, and computer consultants – were involved in the myriad tasks of processing dictionary entries, such as defining, inputting, checking, and proofreading. The University of Hawai'i Press published the ABC Chinese–English Dictionary in September 1996. UHP republished the original paperback ABC Chinese–English Dictionary, which had a total 916 pages and was 23 cm. high, into the ABC Chinese–English Dictionary: Pocket Edition (1999, 16 cm.) and hardback ABC Chinese–English Dictionary: Desk Reference Edition (2000, 23 cm.). In Shanghai, DeFrancis' dictionary was published under the title Han-Ying Cidian: ABC Chinese–English Dictionary (Hanyu Dacidian Chubanshe, 1997).
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Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (commonly known as Webster's Third, or W3) was published in September 1961. It was edited by Philip Babcock Gove and a team of lexicographers who spent 757 editor-years and $3.5 million. The most recent printing has 2,816 pages, and as of 2005, it contained more than 476,000 vocabulary entries (including more than 100,000 new entries and as many new senses for entries carried over from previous editions), 500,000 definitions, 140,000 etymologies, 200,000 verbal illustrations, 350,000 example sentences, 3,000 pictorial illustrations and an 18,000-word Addenda section. The final definition, Zyzzogeton, was written on October 17, 1960; the final etymology was recorded on October 26; and the final pronunciation was transcribed on November 9.
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176 In 1962 two English professors, James Sledd (Northwestern) and Wilma R. Ebbitt (University of Chicago), published a "casebook" that compiles more than sixty lay and expert contributions to this controversy.James Sledd and Wilma R. Ebbitt, Dictionaries and That Dictionary: A Casebook on the Aims of Lexicographers and the Targets of Reviewers (Chicago: Scott, Foresman, 1962). In it, Sledd was drawn into debate with Dwight Macdonald (1906-1982), one of the most prominent critics of the dictionary, who in the pages of The New Yorker (March 10, 1962) had accused its makers of having "untuned the string, made a sop of the solid structure of English"; Macdonald held that the dictionary was an important indicator of "the changes in our cultural climate".
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The gaon Ẓemaḥ ben Hayyim of Sura, whose opinion they had asked, soothed them by saying that there was nothing astonishing in the four tribes disagreeing with the Talmud on some halakic points. Moreover, Eldad was known to the Gaon through Isaac ben Mar and R. Simḥah, with whom the Danite associated while he was in Babylonia. Hisdai ibn Shaprut cites Eldad in his letter to the king of the Khazars, and Eldad's halakhot were used by both Rabbinites and Karaites as weapons in defense of their respective creeds. Talmudic authorities like Rashi, Abraham ben David, and Abraham ben Maimon quote Eldad as an unquestioned authority; and lexicographers and grammarians interpret some Hebrew words according to the meaning given them in Eldad's phraseology.
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Blavatsky writes that, "according to lexicographers, the term theosophia is composed of two Greek words—theos "god," and sophos "wise." She then writes that Noah Webster defines it as "a supposed intercourse with God and superior spirits, and consequent attainment of superhuman knowledge, by physical processes, as by the theurgic operations of some ancient Platonists, or by the chemical processes of the German fire-philosophers." Professor James Santucci wrote that the article author considers this interpretation unsuccessful, calling it "a poor and flippant explanation." In hers opinion, Robert Vaughan has proposed "a far better, more philosophical" definition: "A Theosophist is one who gives you a theory of God or the works of God, which has not revelation, but an inspiration of his own for its basis.
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Novelist David Foster Wallace said, "The fact of the matter is that Garner's dictionary is extremely good .... Its format ... includes entries on individual words and phrases and expostulative small-cap ." (An unabridged, much lengthier version of Wallace's essay, "Authority and American Usage", appeared in a 2005 anthology of essays entitled Consider the Lobster.) He commended Garner's stance on the linguistic descriptivism versus prescriptivism issue that lexicographers (dictionary writers) face. Garner's dictionary is prescriptive in aiming to uphold good English usage, but also concedes to variant forms and usage errors that are so widespread that there is no lexicographical hope of changing them. Garrison Keillor has called Garner's Modern American Usage one of the five most influential books in his library.
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The British diplomat and scholar Thomas Watters (1840-1901) was first to describe Xuanying's dictionary in English. > The work is a glossary to the foreign, technical, and difficult words and > phrases in the Buddhist canon. It gives the sounds and meanings of the > Sanskrit proper names and terms of religion, and the different > transcriptions which had been used. Important Chinese phrases are also > explained and the pronunciation of characters given and illustrated. (1889: > 53) Categorizing the groundbreaking Yiqiejing yinyi is difficult, and the lexicographers Heming Yong and Jing Peng (2008: 173, 171, 208, and 174) classify it as a defining dictionary, special-purpose dictionary, general dictionary for interpretations of Buddhist scriptures, and sound-meaning book (yinyi shu 音義書).
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In the traditional history of Chinese lexicography, the first proto-dictionary primers were the Eastern Zhou dynasty Shizhoupian "Historian Zhou's Chapters", the Qin dynasty Cangjiepian, and the Han dynasty Jijiupian. The Chinese lexicographers Heming Yong and Jing Peng (2008: 34) say these texts that arranged characters into categories "acted as the catalyst for the birth of ancient Chinese dictionaries". During the Warring States period (475-221 BCE), there was a wide and confusing variety of unstandardized Large Seal Script characters, with the same word being written in several different ways. After Emperor Qin Shi Huang had conquered all other Warring States and unified China in 221 BCE, he adopted a language-reform proposal made by the Legalist Li Si and promulgated a decree of Shutongwen 書同文 "Writing the Same Character".
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Philochorus was strongly anti-Macedonian in politics, and a bitter opponent of Demetrius Poliorcetes. When Antigonus Gonatas, the son of the latter, besieged and captured Athens (261 BC), Philochorus was put to death for having supported Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt, who had encouraged the Athenians in their resistance to Macedonia.Ancient Greek civilization in the 4th century: Historical writings at the Britannica Online Encyclopedia His investigations into the usages and customs of his native Attica were embodied in an Atthis, in seventeen books, a history of Athens from the earliest times to 262 BC. Considerable fragments are preserved in the lexicographers, scholiasts, Athenaeus, and elsewhere. The work was epitomized by the author himself, and later by Asinius Pollio of Tralles (perhaps a freedman of the famous Gaius Asinius Pollio).
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Ampersands are commonly seen in business names formed from partnership of two or more people, such as Johnson & Johnson, Dolce & Gabbana, Marks & Spencer, A&P; (supermarkets), and Tiffany & Co., as well as some abbreviations containing the word and, such as AT&T; (American Telephone and Telegraph), R&D; (research and development), D&B; (drum and bass), R&B; (rhythm and blues), B&B; (bed and breakfast), and P&L; (profit and loss).Robert Hartwell Fiske's Dictionary of Unendurable English: A Compendium of Mistakes in Grammar, Usage, and Spelling with Commentary on Lexicographers In film credits for stories, screenplays, etc., & indicates a closer collaboration than and. The ampersand is used by the Writers Guild of America to denote two writers collaborating on a specific script, rather than one writer rewriting another's work.
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226–227 James A. Riddell gives evidence that other sources likely to have been used include Thomas Dekker's The Strange Horse Race of 1613. Cockeram went through the book, locating words that could be included, and when he found a word that was used in Robert Cawdrey's Table Alphbeticall (the first known dictionary of English), he copied Cawdrey's definition. Cockeram acknowledged the use of other lexicographers on the title page of his dictionary; on one edition, it said that the work was "a Collection of the choicest words contained in the Table Alphabeticall and the English Expositor, and of some thousand of words never published by any heretofore". Despite this, he translated or Anglicised a number of words, shown in the Oxford English Dictionary, which attributes the source of approximately 600 words to Cockeram's dictionary.
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Hidden Publishing. associated with gatherings of women, the Moon, and witchcraft that eventually became established "in the area of Northern Italy, southern Germany, and the western Balkans."Michael Strmiska, Modern paganism in world cultures, ABC-CLIO, 2005, p. 68. This theory of the Roman origins of many European folk traditions related to Diana or Hecate was explicitly advanced at least as early as 1807Francis Douce, Illustrations of Shakspeare, and of Ancient Manners, 1807, p. 235-243. and is reflected in etymological claims by early modern lexicographers from the 17th to the 19th century, connecting hag, hexe "witch" to the name of Hecate.John Minsheu and William Somner (17th century), Edward Lye of Oxford (1694–1767), Johann Georg Wachter, Glossarium Germanicum (1737), Walter Whiter, Etymologicon Universale (1822) Such derivations are today proposed only by a minoritye.g.
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Most lexicographers, botanists, and biblical commentators translate keneh bosem as "cane balsam".Plants of the Bible - Page 40 Harold Norman Moldenke, Alma Lance Moldenke - 1952 "The Hebrew word involved is "keneh" (Ezekiel 27 : 19; Song 4 : 14) or, more fully, "keneh bosem", meaning "spiced or sweet cane" (Exodus 30: 23) or "keneh hattob" or "v'kaneh hatov", meaning "and the good cane" (Jeremiah 6: 20)." The Aramaic Targum Onkelos renders the Hebrew kaneh bosem in Aramaic as q'nei busma.Vernunft und alle Sinne: ine theologisch-ästhetische Betrachtung ... - Page 122 Klaus Röhring - 2007 "Die creme- und rosafarbenen Blüten mischen sich auch farblich in dieses duftende Bouquet, sodass die Augen mitriechen können und sollen. Kalmus wird als fünfte der Pflanzen und Düfte genannt, hebräisch »keneh bosem«, Balsamschilf, ..." Ancient translations and sources identify this with the plant variously referred to as sweet cane, or sweet flag (nl.
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Tradition ascribes to Theseus, whom it also regards as the author of the union (synoecism) of Attica around Athens as a political centre, the division of the Attic population into three classes, Eupatridae, Geomori and Demiurgi. The lexicographers mention as characteristics of the Eupatridae that they are the autochthonous population, the dwellers in the city, the descendants of the royal stock. Philippides of Paiania, son of Philomelos hailed from Attica nobility and was one of the richest Athenians in the age of Lycurgus of Athens. It is probable that after the time of the synoecism the nobles who had hitherto governed the various independent communities were obliged to reside in Athens, now the seat of government; and at the beginning of Athenian history the noble clans form a class which has the monopoly of political privilege.
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Following a two-millennia tradition, Chinese dictionaries – even modern pinyin-based ones like the Xinhua Zidian – are regularly ordered in "sorted-morpheme arrangement" based on the first morpheme (character) in a word. For instance, a Chinese dictionary user who wanted to look up the word Bābāduōsī 巴巴多斯 "Barbados" could find it under ba 巴 in traditional sorted- morpheme ordering (which is easier if one knows the character's appearance or radical but not its pronunciation) or under baba in single-sort alphabetic ordering (which is easier if one knows the pronunciation). In 1990, after unsuccessfully trying to obtain financial support for an alphabetically collated Chinese-English dictionary, Mair organized an international team of linguists and lexicographers who were willing to work as part-time volunteers. Under the editorial leadership of John DeFrancis, they published the first general Chinese-English single-sort dictionary in 1996.
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19 Gow, cited by Douglas Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library (1999), page 347 Ancient literary critics credited him with inventing literary parodyAthenaeus 15.698b, cited by Douglas Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library (1999), page 459 and "lame" poetic meters suitable for vigorous abuse,Demetrius de eloc. 301, cited and translated by Douglas Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library (1999), page 351 as well as with influencing comic dramatists such as Aristophanes.Tzetzes on Aristophanes, 'Plutus', cited by Douglas Gerber, Greek Iambic Poetry, Loeb Classical Library (1999), page 383 His witty, abusive style appears for example in this passage by Herodian, who was mainly interested in its linguistic aspects (many of the extant verses were preserved for us by lexicographers and grammarians interested in rare words): : : :What navel-snipper wiped and washed you as you squirmed about, you crack-brained creature? where 'navel-snipper' signifies a midwife.
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Most of the early electronic dictionaries were, in effect, print dictionaries made available in digital form: the content was identical, but the electronic editions provided users with more powerful search functions. But soon the opportunities offered by digital media began to be exploited. Two obvious advantages are that limitations of space (and the need to optimize its use) become less pressing, so additional content can be provided; and the possibility arises of including multimedia content, such as audio pronunciations and video clips.De Schryver, Gilles-Maurice, ‘Lexicographers’ dreams in the electronic dictionary age’, in International Journal of Lexicography, 16(2), 2003:143-199Atkins, S. & Rundell, M. The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography, Oxford University Press 2008: 238-246 Electronic dictionary databases, especially those included with software dictionaries are often extensive and can contain up to 500,000 headwords and definitions, verb conjugation tables, and a grammar reference section.
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A minor Second Revision was made during and just after World War II. This was used by most postwar lexicographers including Morohashi Tetsuji, who created his 12-volume Sino-Japanese dictionary, the Dai Kan-Wa jiten and included the Four Corner index among several other lookup methods. Oshanin (USSR) included a Four Corner index in his Chinese-Russian dictionary and in new China, an extraordinary project of the 25 Histories (Ershi wu shi) was published in the early 1950s with a Four Corner index volume containing the entire content. Then, in 1958, with the introduction of Pinyin, a small "Xin Sijiaohaoma Cidian" was produced by the Beijing Commercial Press, but the rapid Han character simplification of the following years made the small (30,000 compound) book obsolete in China. Overseas and in Hong Kong, it remained popular for a number of years as a high speed key to phonetic dictionaries and indexes.
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From 1990 to 2000, Hanks served as chief editor of current English dictionaries at Oxford University Press (OUP). In 1991 to 1992, he was joint principal investigator (with Mary-Claire van Leunen) of the HECTOR project at the Systems Research Center of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in Palo Alto, CA. The HECTOR project was a collaboration between OUP and DEC, and although its results were never published, they served as a basis for the New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), while the lexicographers working on it were also guinea-pig users in the development of one of the earliest search engines (AltaVista). On the basis of the COBUILD and HECTOR research in corpus analysis, Hanks began to develop his theory of Norms and Exploitations. From 2001 to 2005, he was adjunct professor of computational lexicography at Brandeis University in Waltham, MA, where he worked closely with James Pustejovsky.
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From its own in-house lexicographers the software provides proprietary bilingual dictionary modules for French-English, Spanish- English, German-English, Italian-English, Portuguese-English, Norwegian- English, French-Spanish, French-Italian, French-German, Spanish-German, Spanish-Portuguese, Esperanto-English, Latin-English, and English and French monolingual dictionaries and thesauri. As well as its own language data sets, third-party modules include an English-French medical dictionary licensed from Masson, the French division of Elsevier, the world's largest publisher of medical and scientific literature, an English-Klingon dictionary developed in collaboration with the Klingon Language Institute and Simon & Schuster, and bilingual corpora developed in association with HarperCollins. The co-branded Dictionaries from Collins, Masson, and Simon & Schuster are for use exclusively with Ultralingua software. The developer also has agreements with McGraw-Hill and Hachette for publication and distribution of print and CD-ROM versions of its dictionaries.
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Wilhelm Grimm and Jacob Grimm in 1847 The Brothers Grimm (' or ', ), Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (1785–1863) and Wilhelm Carl Grimm (1786–1859), were German academics, philologists, cultural researchers, lexicographers and authors who together collected and published folklore during the 19th century. They were among the first and best-known collectors of German and European folk tales, and popularized traditional oral tale types such as "Cinderella" (""), "The Frog Prince" (""), "The Goose-Girl" ("Die Gänsemagd"), "Hansel and Gretel" (""), "Rapunzel", "Beauty and the Beast", "Little Red Riding Hood", "The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats", "Rumpelstiltskin" (""), "Sleeping Beauty" (""), and "Snow White" (""). Their classic collection, Children's and Household Tales ('), was published in two volumes—the first in 1812 and the second in 1815. The brothers were born in the town of Hanau in Hesse-Cassel (now Germany) and spent most of their childhood in the nearby town of Steinau.
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They sometimes erred in selection of specific word versions which they gleaned from their sources, however. On other occasions one cannot be sure that it is not without a degree of humour that they chose to include certain comical versions. It is not clear whether ignorance or wit was responsible for the following examples from some of the aforementioned works – “giolla earbuill, a page or train-bearer”; “lachaim, I duck or dive”; “calaoiseach, a juggler”; “bol, a poet; a cow”. When in future appointing a dictionary editor perhaps the job description should state that a “siollaire” is required – “siollaire, a scanner of every word, a carper, a dictator; a beater, striker, smiter, a dexterous harper also a good singer; siollaire mná, a strong comely woman” – those are the descriptions found in some of the dictionaries for a person deemed a “siollaire”. It will be interesting to note how the word “siollaire will be employed by those lexicographers who come after us.
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There is one count that puts the English vocabulary at about 1 million words—but that count presumably includes words such as Latin species names, scientific terminology, botanical terms, prefixed and suffixed words, jargon, foreign words of extremely limited English use, and technical acronyms. Due to its status as an international language, English adopts foreign words quickly, and borrows vocabulary from many other sources. Early studies of English vocabulary by lexicographers, the scholars who formally study vocabulary, compile dictionaries, or both, were impeded by a lack of comprehensive data on actual vocabulary in use from good-quality linguistic corpora, collections of actual written texts and spoken passages. Many statements published before the end of the 20th century about the growth of English vocabulary over time, the dates of first use of various words in English, and the sources of English vocabulary will have to be corrected as new computerised analysis of linguistic corpus data becomes available.
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Sandro Nielsen is an authority on legal lexicography and bilingual law dictionaries and has proposed a fundamentally sound general theory of bilingual legal lexicography, which is described in his book The Bilingual LSP Dictionary – Principles and Practice for Legal Language published in 1994. His research and publications identifies him as a modern lexicographer with the introduction of lexicographic concepts such as lexicographic information costs (Nielsen 2008), the distinction between a maximizing dictionary and a minimizing dictionary, the typology of multi-field, single-field and sub-field dictionaries, and the concept of function-related cross-references. He is one of the lexicographers that have combined lexicographic theory and translation strategies in an attempt to suggest improvements to bilingual translation dictionaries by showing how bilingual LSP dictionaries mix up source-language and target-language translation strategies (Nielsen 2000). In his paper "Changes in dictionary subject matter" from 2003, Sandro Nielsen suggested a lexicographic approach to defining a dictionary in contrast to the traditional linguistic approach.
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According to family tradition, Graeme devised the plots, and Sarah provided the dialogue.See also Kelling, op.cit. (recounting that Sarah’s first try was rejected: it was funny, but the plot too complicated; Graeme suggested dropping the plot, and the story was published). Many of the characters and situations came from the authors’ own lives and those of their friends, who formed the basis of a number of the characters and plots. Sarah Lorimer's brother, Hunter Moss, and his wife Dora were the inspiration for Sylvia and Jerry, and Graeme Lorimer borrowed at least one of his younger brothers’ entanglements for a plot. When they ran low on their own witty banter, the Lorimers offered to pay teens they knew for any wisecracks that got published. They were sufficiently successful that Life magazine called them “lexicographers to the independent young American female.”“Subdebese: America’s Teen-Age Girls Speak Language of Their Own That Is Too Divinely Super”, Life, Jan.
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As a linguist, she authored two articles on Anton Chekhov's The Student (1894) in 1994–95 and translated Leo Tolstoy's The Cossacks into Y Cosaciaid in 1998. Davies received a PhD at Leeds University in 1989 for a thesis entitled Conscience as Consciousness: the idea of self- awareness in French philosophical writing from Descartes to Diderot contains a concise but comprehensive discussion which is often referred to, first published the following year. In 2000, authored a work on the history of Celtic scholarship entitled Adfeilion Babel: agweddau ar syniadaeth ieithyddol y ddeunawfed ganrif, which according to the Dictionary of Welsh Biography traces the "development of the ideas of grammarians, lexicographers and linguists regarding the beginnings and development of language and the inter- relationship of languages" and discusses the work of the likes of John Davies (Mallwyd), Edward Lhuyd, and Paul-Yves Pezron and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. She continued to research extensively, though in later years was hampered by poor eyesight.
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Hirschfeld's publications include a German translation of Judah Halevi's Kuzari, relying on the Arabic original (1885); a critical edition of the Arabic text and the Hebrew translation by Judah ibn Tibbon (1887); an English translation (1905), of which a revised edition appeared in 1932; Arabic Chrestomathy in Hebrew Characters (1892); the Al-Sab'iniyya, an Arabic philosophic poem by Musa ibn Tubi (1894); Beiträge zur Erklärung des Koran (1886), elaborated into New Researches into the Composition and Exegesis of the Koran (1902); the Hebrew translation of the Book of Definitions by Isaac Israeli (1896); Yefet ben Ali's commentary on the Book of Nahum (1911); Sketch of Hebrew Grammar (1913); Qirqisānī Studies (1918); An Ethiopic-Falasi Glossary (1921); Commentary on Deuteronomy (1925); and Literary History of Hebrew Grammarians and Lexicographers (1926). Among his bibliographical writings are a Descriptive Catalogue of the Hebrew MSS. of the Montefiore Library (1904). Hirschfeld also contributed articles to numerous periodicals, most notably a series of essays on the Arabic fragments in the Cairo Geniza in the Jewish Quarterly Review (1903–1908).
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It largely influenced the formation of a Lithuanian literary language and writing style. Konstantinas Sirvydas (1579–1631) religious preacher, lexicographer, published the first volume of a collection of his sermons entitled Punktai Sakymų (Sermons), the purity, style and richeness of the Lithuanian language of it is still admired today. His Polish-Latin-Lithuanian dictionary Dictionarium trium linguarum was used up to 19th century and was highly rated by Lithuanian writers and lexicographers. Samuelis Boguslavas Chilinskis (1631–1666) a calvinist, translator of the Bible into Lithuanian. The translation was passed to print in London in 1660, but due to unfavorable circumstances it was not finished - only half of the Old Testament was published. Chilinskis also issued two brochures in which he explained his work to the British society and the necessity to publish the Bible in Lithuanian with a short information about the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - An Account of the Translation of the Bible into the Lithuanian Tongue (1659) and Ratio institutae translationis Bibliorum in linguam Lithuanicam, in quam nunquam adhuc Scriptura sacra est versa, ex quo fidem Christianam, ab conjunctionem Magni Ducatus Lithvaniae cum Regno Poloniae (1659).
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