"During the modern KRDS period various phonological and morphological features have entered KRDS lects due to increased diglossia with standardised State languages." Kamatapuri is represented by group of modern lects, termed variously Kamtapuri (West Bengal), Rangpuri (Bangladesh), Rajbanshi (West Bengal) and Surjapuri (Bihar).
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The modern KRNB lects are spoken primarily in western Assam, northern West Bengal, northern Bangladesh, north-eastern Bihar and south-eastern Nepal.
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The Dida lects have consonant and vowel inventories typical of the Eastern Kru languages. However, tone varies significantly between dialects, or at least between their descriptions. The following phonology is that of Abu Dida, from Miller (2005).
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Urak Lawoi’ is an Aboriginal Malay language of southern Thailand. The Orang (Suku) Laut who live between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula speak divergent Malayic lects, which bear some intriguing connections to various Sumatran Malay varieties.Anderbeck, Karl (2012). "Notes on Malayic Suku Laut dialectology".
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Tolkien says this copy was important because it alone contained the whole of Bilbo's Translations from the Elvish. This version survives until Tolkien's time, and he translates the Red Book from the original languages into English and other representative languages or lects (e.g. Old English for Rohirric).
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A twenty-sixth variety is Madan-tara, spoken by a group of Eggon east of Eggon. It is said to be impossible to understand without special learning and is sufficiently different from other lects to be effectively a new language. Its precise relationship to the other varieties of Eggon is unknown.
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Kamarupa dialect comprising Assamese and the dialects of North Bengal is one of them. So it becomes necessary to see how much Kamrupi is related to North Bengali" and can be dated prior to 1250 CE, when the proto-Kamta language, the parent of the Kamatapuri lects, began to develop."On sociliohistorical grounds, this stage is termed 'proto-Kamta' and assigned the chronological period c1250-1550..." Though not substantially proven, the existence of the language that predated the Kamatapuri lects and modern Assamese is widely believed."The Kamta-Asamiya sub-grouping hypothesis was probably first articulated by Grierson (1903). At this point Chaterji (1926) and Kakati (1962) concur with Grierson's diagnosis and the same position is reflected in recent statements like that of Baruah and Masica (2001).
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A literary language is the form of a language used in its literary writing. It can be either a non-standard dialect or standardized variety of the language. It can sometimes differ noticeably from the various spoken lects, but difference between literary and non-literary forms is greater in some languages than in others. Where there is a strong divergence between a written form and the spoken vernacular, the language is said to exhibit diglossia.
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Further research into the historical origins of the Phla and Pherá peoples has yet to take place . Due to the uncertainty about the internal structure of the eastern Gbe major grouping, the Ethnologue has omitted Phla–Pherá altogether from its subclassification of Gbe languages. Some of the lects of Capo's and Kluge's Phla–Pherá are included in other branches (for example, Xwla is found under Aja) while others are not included in any subgroup of Gbe (e.g. Xwela).
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Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 1999, Polish, along with Czech and Slovak, forms the West Slavic dialect continuum. The three languages constitute Ausbau languages, i.e. lects that are considered distinct not on purely linguistic grounds, but rather due to sociopolitical and cultural factors. Since the idioms have separately standardized norms and longstanding literary traditions, being the official languages of independent states, they are generally treated as autonomous languages, with the distinction between Polish and Czech-Slovak dialects being drawn along national lines.
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Standard Modern Greek, which has apical , lacked both processes. The Germanic-speaking regions that did not have either phenomena have normally preserved the apical , that is, Icelandic, Dutch and many Scandinavian lects. It also reached modern times in Low German, but this language has largely been replaced by Standard German. The main Romance language to preserve the sound, Castilian Spanish, is exceptional in that it had both events that produced and , and preserved the apical S at the expense of both, that were shifted farther away.
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The eastern grouping consists of three clusters: Fon (roughly equivalent to Capo's 'Fon' branch), western Phla–Phera, and eastern Phla–Phera (together roughly equivalent to Capo's Phla–Pherá languages). Among other things, this part of Kluge's analysis confirmed the uncertainty of the classification of the Alada dialect: some possible results point to inclusion in the Fon group, while others suggest membership of one of the Phla–Pherá clusters . Likewise, Kluge's results indicate uncertainty regarding the classification of Ayizo and Kotafon . A number of lects considered by Kluge were not included in Capo's research (cf.
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The vernacular of Brunei—Brunei Malay—for example, is not readily intelligible with the standard language, and the same is true with some lects on the Malay Peninsula such as Kedah Malay. However, both Brunei and Kedah are quite close.Ethnologue 16 classifies them as distinct languages, ISO3 kxd and meo, but states that they "are so closely related that they may one day be included as dialects of Malay". The closest relatives of the Malay languages are those left behind on Sumatra, such as the Minangkabau language, with 5.5 million speakers on the west coast.
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"The replacement of ṣ and s by ś is one of the main characteristics of the Magadha Prakrit, as warranted by Vararuci's rule, ṣasau śah. But in the Kamarupa inscriptions, we find the reverse of it, i.e the replacement of ś by s as in the word suhańkara, substituted for the Sanskrit śubhańkara in line 32 of the Subhankarpataka grant of Dharmapala." This contrary rule was first pointed out by Dimbeswar Neog , (link) Linguists claim this apabhramsa gave rise to various eastern Indo-European languages like modern Assamese and felt its presence in the form of Kamrupi and Kamatapuri lects.
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In areas where code-switching among two or more languages is very common, it may become normal for words from both languages to be used together in everyday speech. Unlike code-switching, where a switch tends to occur at semantically or sociolinguistically meaningful junctures, this code- mixing has no specific meaning in the local context. A fused lect is identical to a mixed language in terms of semantics and pragmatics, but fused lects allow less variation since they are fully grammaticalized. In other words, there are grammatical structures of the fused lect that determine which source-language elements may occur.
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Most authors refer to this language by the names Nawat or Pipil. However, Nawat (along with the synonymous Eastern Nahuatl) has also been used to refer to Nahuatl language varieties in southern Veracruz, Tabasco, and Chiapas, states in the south of Mexico, that like Pipil have reduced the earlier /t͡ɬ/ consonant (a lateral affricate) to a /t/.Ligorred, E: Lenguas Indígenas de México y Centroamérica Those Mexican lects share more similarities with Nawat than do the other Nahuatl varieties. Pipil specialists (Campbell, Fidias Jiménez, Geoffroy Rivas, King, Lemus, and Schultze, inter alia) generally treat Pipil/Nawat as a separate language, at least in practice.
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There are still more or less certain borders between lects, such as the Westrobothnian complete loss of a final vowel in some long- stem words such as in Rietz, Johan Ernst, Svenskt dialektlexikon : ordbok öfver svenska allmogespråket, 1862-1867, pg. 141 'blow around, snow lightly' versus the Angermannian and Iemtian mostly preserved vowel in . Another example is a vowel-balance split, such as the rounded vowel in Westrobothnian ~~ versus the unrounded Angermannian and Iemtian vowel ~ 'to speak'. The softening of intermediary consonants before front vowels is also different in ~~~ and ~ ’taken.’ Generally, Westrobothnian did not partake is the western vowel-assimilations of the type → vuku, → hata, → lasa, → sovo, etc.
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From a purely linguistic viewpoint, Malaysian and Indonesian are two normative varieties of the same language (Malay). Both lects have the same dialectal basis, and linguistic sources still tend to treat the standards as different forms of a single language.An example of equal treatment of Malaysian and Indonesian: the Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu database from the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka has a "Istilah MABBIM" section dedicated to documenting Malaysian, Indonesian and Bruneian official terminologies: see example In popular parlance, however, the two idioms are often thought of as distinct tongues in their own rights due to the growing divergence between them and for politically motivated reasons. Nevertheless, they retain a high degree of mutual intelligibility despite a number of differences in vocabulary and grammar.
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Romance languages are divided phylogenetically into Italo-Western, Eastern Romance (including Romanian) and Sardinian. The Romance-speaking area of Europe is occasionally referred to as Latin Europe. We can further break down Italo-Western into the Italo-Dalmatian languages (sometimes grouped with Eastern Romance), including the Tuscan- derived Italian and numerous local Romance lects in Italy as well as Dalmatian, and the Western Romance languages. The Western Romance languages in turn separate into the Gallo-Romance languages, including French and its varieties (Langues d'oïl), the Rhaeto-Romance languages and the Gallo-Italic languages; the Occitano-Romance languages, grouped with either Gallo-Romance or East Iberian, including Occitan, Catalan and Aragonese; and finally the West Iberian languages (Spanish-Portuguese), including the Astur-Leonese languages, Galician-Portuguese, and Castilian.
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There are three identified dialects in this group: (1) Eastern, (2) Western and (3) Intermediate. Scholars from Assam associate these dialects with the Assamese language, Chatterji (1926) classifies Western Goalpariya with the North Bengali dialects and included them, East Goalpariya and Assamese in the Kamarupi branch,Chatterji's tabulation reproduced in Figure 7-3, classes all Goalpariya dialects, including Eastern Goalpariya (Bongaigaon), in Kamatapuri lects and he also included them and Assamese in the Kamarupi branch. Birendranath Dutta identifies three main dialects. One he classifies as Eastern Goalpariya, with a number of local variations: the variety around Abhayapuri and Goalpara towns forming one; and the speech around Krishnai, Dudhnai and Dhupdhara, with a large number of Rabha and Boro speakers, forming another.
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In scholarly contexts, disyllables may be distinguished from diphthongs by use of the diaeresis on the former vowel (as in Italian and distinct from French and English). In older writing, the acute accent is sometimes found on stressed , the circumflex on stressed , indicating respectively () and () phonemes. Corsican has been regarded as a dialect of Italian historically, similar to the Romance lects developed on the Italian peninsula, and in writing, it also resembles Italian (with the generalised substitution of -u for final -o and the articles u and a for il/lo and la respectively; however, both the dialect of Cap Corse and Gallurese retain the original articles lu and la). On the other hand, the phonemes of the modern Corsican dialects have undergone complex and sometimes irregular phenomena depending on phonological context, so the pronunciation of the language for foreigners familiar with other Romance languages is not straightforward.
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The western continuum of Romance languages comprises, from West to East: in Portugal, Portuguese; in Spain, Galician, Leonese or Asturian, Castilian or Spanish, Aragonese and Catalan or Valencian; in France, Occitan, Franco-Provençal, standard French and Corsican which is closely related to Italian; in Italy, Piedmontese, Italian, Lombard, Emilian-Romagnol, Venetian, Friulian, Ladin; and in Switzerland, Lombard and Romansh. This continuum is sometimes presented as another example, but the major languages in the group (i.e. Portuguese, Spanish, French and Italian) have had separate standards for longer than the languages in the Continental West Germanic group, and so are not commonly classified as dialects of a common language. Focusing instead on the local Romance lects that pre-existed the establishment of national or regional standard languages, all evidence and principles point to Romania continua as having been, and to varying extents in some areas still being, what Charles Hockett called an L-complex, i.e.
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