620 Sentences With "leaf springs" | Random Sentence Generator

"Starting in the early 90s, trucks were just pickup trucks with leaf springs and little-bitty shocks," Saucier said.

That knife was made out of leaf springs from trucks, and he made it using less resources than we have here.

Sure, under the dashboard are leaf springs and gears, shaking haptics torqued to within a play-tested centimeter of their lives to give good feedback.

The secret weapon, of course, is the four-corner coil or air suspension (competitive pickups from Ford and Chevy continue to use rear leaf springs)

The company, one of India's largest makers of tapered leaf springs and parabolic springs for automobiles, joins a growing list of auto components manufacturers, including Bosch Ltd and Wabco India Ltd, that have trimmed production amid a demand slump.

Unlike some of the hardtail SUVs of old, the Defender's D7x engineering, as explained by Jaguar Land Rover, makes use of a lightweight, stiff aluminum monocoque assembly and four-wheel independent suspension, versus a body-on-frame steel construction with rear leaf-springs.

Chassis setup remained the same, only with updated internal codes corresponding to new engine types. Suspension was upgraded on the front to double wishbones with coil springs, instead of transverse lower leaf springs; and at the rear to live axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs, in place of longitudinal leaf springs.

Suspension The front suspension was independent with twin wishbones, transverse leaf springs and hydraulic shock absorbers. Leaf springs will later give way to helical spring setup. The rear suspension sported a live axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs and lever type hydraulic shock absorbers. Brakes were hydraulically operated drum type all round.

The rear suspension consists of a De Dion tube that located the wheels and which was sprung by the usual longitudinal leaf springs. The first year of production (1998) used lightweight carbon fiber monolithic leaf springs which had insufficient lateral stiffness to provide lateral location of the suspension; these early versions also featured a Watt's linkage. Later versions used conventional steel leaf springs and did not have the Watt's linkage. In the 1998 model, carbon fiber leaf springs support a DeDion tube located by a Watt's linkage, motor/transmission is attached to chassis.

A coil spring five-link rear suspension replaces the leaf- springs for the 1500.

The car had solid front and rear axles suspended on leaf springs and rear wheel drive.

The M1 had a ladder frame with three live beam axles, the front on leaf springs, the rear tandem on leaf springs with locating arms. All models had a wheelbase. The M1 weighed , the -A1 . Brakes were full air, the tires were 11.00x20 with dual rear tires.

Within a decade, most British horse carriages were equipped with springs; wooden springs in the case of light one-horse vehicles to avoid taxation, and steel springs in larger vehicles. These were often made of low-carbon steel and usually took the form of multiple layer leaf springs. Leaf springs have been around since the early Egyptians. Ancient military engineers used leaf springs in the form of bows to power their siege engines, with little success at first.

The SM8 had a suspension of leaf springs with dampers at the front and rear. A Renault TRM4000.

Leaf springs have also replaced traditional coil springs in some trampolines (known as soft-edge trampolines), which improves safety for users and reduces risk of concussion. The leaf springs are spaced around the frame as 'legs' that branch from the base frame to suspend the jumping mat, providing flexibility and resilience.

Springing of the coupled axles was achieved using overhung leaf springs. The spring elements were linked by equalising beams. On the carrying axles, transverse leaf springs were used. The locomotives were later fitted with a Westinghouse compressed-air brake, a steam heating system, washout equipment, sand distributor and adjustable blastpipe.

The steering employed a rack and pinion mechanism which was conventional at the time. It required 2¼ turns between opposite locks: the turning circle was . The front wheels were suspended independently by two laterally mounted leaf springs. At the back there was a swing axle with semi-elliptical longitudinally configured leaf springs.

Jeep Cherokee with 2 inch Suspension lift on 31 inch BFG A/Ts, using add-a- leaf and coil spring spacers Many trucks are supported by leaf spring suspensions. Leaf springs offer exceptional articulation, a large payload and can take a substantial amount of abuse. With the correct methods they can be modified to help a vehicle carry more weight, have better articulation or to fit large oversized tires. Some vehicles may be equipped with front and rear leaf springs or just rear leaf springs with independent front suspension.

Suspension was the same as the TC 21, independent at the front using coil springs with leaf springs at the rear.

All models had a ladder frame with three live axles, the front on leaf springs, the rear tandem axles on leaf springs with locating arms. There were two wheelbases. The standard and the long used by the pontoon cargo truck. (Measurements are from the centerline of the front axle to the centerline of the rear tandem).

Power was delivered to the rear-wheels via a four speed manual gear box. The suspension used traditional leaf springs all round.

The car was powered by a four-cylinder 1213 cc ohv water-cooled engine producing at maximum power at 4,200 rpm. The four-speed gear-box included synchromesh on the top three ratios, power being delivered to the rear wheels via a jointed prop shaft. Front suspension: Independent using transverse leaf springs. Rear suspension: independent using transverse leaf springs with floating half-axles.

The suspension of the range had leaf springs on both axles. Brakes were hydraulic/air brakes (SM6) and compressed air brakes (SM7 and SM8).

The ladder frame had a wheelbase with two banjo style live beam axles on leaf springs. Brakes were full air, the tires were 12.00x20.

The C7's suspension consists of independent unequal- length double wishbones with transverse fiberglass mono-leaf springs and optional magnetorheological dampers, similar to its predecessor.

The drum brakes operated on all four wheels. Suspension was traditional, involving rigid axles front and back with semi-elliptic leaf springs and “friction dampers”.

As in a coil- spring suspension design, the FRP mono-leaf spring supports the weight of the vehicle. However, the FRP leaf springs differ from steel coils and traditional steel multi-leaf springs in a number of significant ways. The FRP plastic springs have 4.3–5.5 times the strain energy storage per weight, compared to steel. This results in a lighter spring for a given application.

Because leaf springs are made of relatively high quality steel, they are a favorite material for blacksmiths. In countries such as India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Philippines, Myanmar and Pakistan, where traditional blacksmiths still produce a large amount of the country's tools, leaf springs from scrapped cars are frequently used to make knives, kukris, and other tools. They are also commonly used by amateur and hobbyist blacksmiths.

The model was launched in 1931, the same year as the Tatra 80, and the two models have the same backbone chassis and swing axle suspension. The front wheels have a rigid axle with overhead transverse leaf springs. The rear wheels are on a swing axle with half transverse leaf springs. The Type 70 has disc wheels, whereas the Type 80 has wire wheels.

The chassis was a lengthened version of that used in the 14/60. Semi-elliptical leaf springs were fitted front and rear. Wire-spoked wheels were used.

The suspension used semi-elliptic leaf springs at the front and three-quarter elliptic at the rear. Several of the cars were used in motor sport competition.

The car had an independent front suspension and de Dion axle at the rear. Transverse leaf-springs and Houdaille hydraulic shock absorbers were used on both ends.

The chassis had half elliptic leaf springs at the front and quarter elliptic at the rear and the brakes used rather primitive metal shoes. The 65 mph Sports version with a Coventry-Simplex engine of 1498 cc capacity had quarter elliptic leaf springs all round. A Dorman engined model was introduced in 1921 but it is believed that only two were made. The last cars were made in 1921.

The engine, transmission, and final drive were assembled together and installed as a unit. The Rumpler-invented rear swing axles were suspended by trailing leaf springs, while the front beam axle was suspended by leading leaf springs. Able to seat four or five,Wise, p.1966. all the passengers were carried between the axles for maximum comfort, while the driver was alone at the front, to maximize view.

The J range had a suspension of leaf springs with dampers and anti-roll bars at the front and rear. The steering is a worm and sector setup.

The Thames 400E, the first real Thames product That model was the 400E, introduced in November 1957. It was considered a lot more improved from its predecessors. The new car, being a forward-control one, was more comfortable in driving, having much more stability and turning radius. It had not the archaic transverse leaf springs suspension system, although it retained the live rear axle, which however was located in a pair of longitudinal leaf springs.

The front wheels were suspended from two transversely mounted overlapping leaf- springs, supported by telescopic shock absorbers: the rear wheels were attached to a Swing axle supported with longitudinally mounted leaf springs. The footbrake was controlled using a hydraulic linkage and drum brakes all round. The hand-brake worked on the front wheels and was operated with a cable linkage. The steering employed a rack and pinion mechanism which was conventional at the time.

HULDA had a screw reversing gear. The suspension on the driving wheels was achieved by leaf springs underneath and was linked to the leaf springs of the leading wheels using a compensating lever. HULDA had a transverse leaf spring under the trailing axle, this axle was unsprung on the other engines. The locomotives were coupled to four-wheeled tenders which had a water capacity of 4.45 m3 and 3 t coal tank.

Suspension was made of leaf springs on both axles, with telescopic dampers on front and anti-roll bar on rear. The trucks had a 38-tonne GVW as a maximum.

Both axles were rigid, suspended on semi-elliptical leaf springs. Cable-operated brakes provided stopping power to all four wheels. The stated maximum speed was 95 km/h (59 mph).

The wheels at the front were independently suspended subject to a transverse leaf spring, while the back wheels were attached using a rigid axle suspended from longitudinally mounted leaf springs.

Suspension was independent at the front using coil springs with leaf springs at the rear. drum brakes using a Lockheed system were used, the first use of hydraulic operation by Alvis.

The Type 15 was a version of the Type 13 with a longer, 2400-mm (94.5-in), wheelbase. It had a six-sided radiator in front and semielliptical rear leaf springs.

Overhead drawing of M939 series A ladder frame with three live beam axles, the front on leaf springs, the rear tandem on leaf springs with locating arms. Brakes on the M39 and M809 were air over hydraulic with drum brakes on all wheels, M939s were full air. Many trucks were available with a front-mounted capacity winch. There were three wheelbases (Measurements are from the centerline of the front axle to the centerline of rear tandem).

The chassis was 6x6, with three live beam axles, adapted and strengthened for conditions in the USSR. It had a reinforced ladder frame with three live beam axles, the front on semi elliptical leaf springs, the rear tandem on quarter elliptical leaf springs with locating arms. Wheelbase was to the center of the rear bogey and to the center of the rear axle. ZiS-151’s tires have a larger cross section, versus the US6’s .

Most models had a ladder frame with three live axles, the front on leaf springs, the rear tandem leaf springs with locating arms. The exception was the crane truck, which had a walking beam rear suspension for stability. There were three wheelbases. The short, used for prime movers, was ; the long, used for cranes, was ; and the extra long, used for bridge erectors, was (measurements are from the centerline of the front axle to the centerline of rear tandem).

The first Minica (LA20) was first introduced in October 1962 as a two-door sedan based on the Mitsubishi 360 light truck, sharing its front-mounted ME21 359 cc twin-cylinder air-cooled engine driving the rear wheels, transverse leaf springs in front and beam axle/leaf springs at the rear.Nippon Memorial, p.60 Top speed was marginally higher at . With its tailfins and scalloped rear windshield, the Minica looked even more anachronistic than its van/pickup counterparts.

Suspension is carried out with leaf springs, the front axle has got also shock absorbers. The service brakes are air operated and the hand brake works by releasing of the air pressure.

Shock absorbers were available for the front end. The rear suspension differed from the Model A Ford. The AA had leaf springs mounted to the chassis and shackled to the rear axle.

The chassis was a conventional ladder frame, with solid axles sprung on semi-elliptic front and three- quarter-elliptic rear leaf springs. The brakes were on the transmission and on the rear wheels.

The front suspension was independent, utilizing coil springs over hydraulic shocks. Rear suspension was a common leaf springs design, dampened with hydraulic shocks. The 1600 SPL311 came with a pair of SU carburators.

The front suspension was independent, and the rear was a De Dion type with transverse leaf springs. Hydraulic shock absorbers were installed on both ends. Transmission and braking remained the same as before.

Bus 706 RTO-K also had a peculiarity each axle or suspension. The front axle was suspension with leaf springs, using a central axle air suspension, rear axle uses pneumatic suspension with membrane.

The M20 truck had a riveted ladder frame with three beam axles, the front on leaf springs, the rear tandem on leaf springs with locating arms. The wheelbase was , measured from the centerline of the front axle to the centerline of rear bogie. A pintle hitch of capacity was mounted on the rear frame crossmember; another pintle hitch was mounted on the front crossmember for positioning the trailer. All models had Budd split rim disc wheels with 12.20×20-20” tires.

Leaf springs can serve locating and to some extent damping as well as springing functions. While the interleaf friction provides a damping action, it is not well controlled and results in stiction in the motion of the suspension. For this reason, some manufacturers have used mono-leaf springs. A leaf spring can either be attached directly to the frame at both ends or attached directly at one end, usually the front, with the other end attached through a shackle, a short swinging arm.

The front wheels were suspended by two laterally mounted leaf springs. At the back there was a swing axle with semi-elliptical longitudinally configured leaf springs. There were essentially three development phases for the Lloyd 400, and the first batch of cars was delivered with drum brakes of 180mm diameter, controlled via a cable linkage. From March 1953, however, a hydraulic linkage mechanism was installed, and on cars produced after August 1955 the diameter of the brake drums was increased to 200mm.

The CCKW had a ladder frame chassis with three driven beam axles, the front on leaf springs, the rear tandem on leaf springs with locating arms. There were two wheelbases, the short Model 352 and the long Model 353. The short, (Measurements are from the centerline of the front axle to the centerline of rear bogie) was used with a short cargo bed as an artillery prime mover for 75 mm and 105 mm howitzers. All other models used the long wheelbase.

Unlike in Masi, the frame is stiff and the high travel of wheels is only carried out by suspension. The front axle is sprung with coil springs, the rear axle with parabolic leaf springs.

The independent front suspension to Alvis's own design is by transverse leaf springs. The semi- elliptic rear springs are underslung. Luvax hydraulic shock absorbers control the springing. A fully floating rear axle is fitted.

No other drills have attempted to use this approach.Talalay et al. (2014), p. 207. For the next deployment of the drill leaf springs were installed, and this has proved to be a more durable design.

The D 9506 utilises a frameless block construction. It has a rear live axle and a dead front beam axle. The front axle was available with optional leaf springs. The tractor has air filled tyres.

The back wheels were, as before, attached to a rigid axle suspended with longitudinal leaf springs. At the 30th Paris Motor show in October 1936 the car was offered in bare chassis form at 24,000 francs.

The 125 S used a steel tube-frame chassis and had a double wishbone suspension with transverse leaf springs in front with a live axle in the rear. Hydraulic power drum brakes were specified front and rear.

The chassis had beam axles front and rear and suspension by half elliptic leaf springs and hydraulic dampers.Graham Robson, A-Z British Cars 1945-80, Herridge & Sons, 2006, page 388 The brakes used a Lockheed hydraulic system.

The frame rails featured a continuous hole spacing of 50 mm. Frame components were made of cold-formed E 380 TM and E 500 TM high-strength steel. It consisted of a two-piece modular frame with two symmetrical Z-profile members on front end and straight, untapered, U-shaped longitudinal flange at the rear which were interconnected by means of riveted gusset plates. The front suspension had parabolic leaf springs and for the rear there was a choice of leaf springs or air-suspension with Telligent level control.

The use of leaf springs in catapults was later refined and made to work years later. Springs were not only made of metal; a sturdy tree branch could be used as a spring, such as with a bow. Horse-drawn carriages and the Ford Model T used this system, and it is still used today in larger vehicles, mainly mounted in the rear suspension. Leaf springs were the first modern suspension system and, along with advances in the construction of roads, heralded the single greatest improvement in road transport until the advent of the automobile.

Any suspension is above the bogey pivot. They can have leaf springs, rubber load cushions, air bags, or be solidly mounted. Walking beams are very stable at low speeds and when stopped. Mack and Hendrickson models are available.

The rest of the mechanicals were akin to the Kappa's: ladder frame, solid axles on semi-elliptic leaf springs front and rear, transmission brake and rear-wheel drum brakes, 4-speed gearbox and a multi-plate dry clutch.

A ladder frame with beam axles is used. Front axles are on semi- elliptical leaf springs and tandem steer axles are available. The base rear suspension is a Mack tandem but other axle/suspension available. Wheelbases are from .

The front wheels had leaf springs and shock absorbers.Spielberger, p. 165 The upper body had a crew compartment common to all versions. This had bench seats, one for the driver and his assistant, and another for the crew.

Power was transmitted via a four-speed manual transmission to the rear wheels which were fixed to a rigid axle suspended from semi-elliptic leaf springs. The braking applied to all four wheels, mechanically controlled using rod linkages.Oswald, p.

Power was transmitted via a three-speed manual transmission to the rear wheels, which were fixed to a rigid axle suspended from semi-elliptic leaf springs. The braking applied to all four wheels, mechanically controlled using rod linkages.Oswald, p.

The rear suspension comprised semi-elliptic leaf springs, wide, mounted on the chassis and shackled to the rear axle. The 10–12 cwt version had seven leaves, and the 15–17 cwt version had eight leaves. Each leaf was thick.

Suspension was independent at the front using MacPherson struts, and at the rear the live axle used semi elliptic leaf springs. A contemporary road tester was impressed, noting that "probably the most impressive thing about the Classic is its road holding".

The suspension was independent at the front using coil springs with semi elliptic leaf springs at the rear. The brakes used drums all round and were operated hydraulically at the front and mechanically at the rear via a gearbox driven servo.

The W07 had a contemporary boxed chassis suspended by semi-elliptic leaf springs onto beam axles front and rear. Dimensions would vary with coachwork, but the chassis had a wheelbase of and a front track equal to the rear track of .

On PLS A1 variants the front AxleTech/Oshkosh axles are sprung using Oshkosh's TAK-4 fully independent coil spring suspension. The original PLS had a pair of rigid AxleTech front axles, these with leaf springs. Tires are Michelin 1600R 20.

The M39 series had a ladder frame with three live beam axles, the front on leaf springs, the rear tandem on leaf springs with locating arms. There were three chassis wheelbases (measurements are from the centerline of the front axle to the centerline of rear tandem). The M61 short wheelbase chassis, used for tractors and dump trucks, is , the M40 long chassis, used for cargo and wreckers, is , and the M63 extra-long chassis, used for long cargo and expansible vans, is . There was also an M139 heavy duty extra long chassis for extreme service, including the Honest John rocket launcher truck.

The channel section chassis had suspension by leaf springs at the front and a mix of leaf springs and torsion bars at the rear. At the front semi-elliptical springs were used with radius arms controlling fore and aft movement of the axle. The radius arms were joined by a torsion bar across the front of the chassis to act as an anti-roll bar. At the rear the quarter-elliptical springs had their front ends mounted in a boss that was attached to a short transverse torsion bar which controlled the rotation of the boss making the suspension a hybrid arrangement.

The US6 had a ladder frame with three beam axles, the front on semi elliptical leaf springs, the rear tandem on quarter elliptical leaf springs with locating arms. There were two wheelbases, the short , used in semi tractors, dump trucks, and short cargo models, and the long , used in tankers, long cargo models, and the U9 chassis cab (measurements are from the centerline of the front axle to the centerline of rear bogie). All models had 7.50-20” tires and dual rear tires. 6x4 models, intended for on road use only, were rated at , twice the 6x6's off-road rating.

Therefore, this type of suspension does not provide good riding comfort. The inter-leaf friction between the leaf springs affects the riding comfort. Acceleration and braking torque cause wind-up and vibration. Also wind-up causes rear-end squat and nose-diving.

The front carrying wheels had leaf springs above the axles. The screw brake was located on the tender. The locomotives had a spacious driver's cab with side windows. The locomotives were equipped with 2 T 4.45 and 3 T 7.90 class tenders.

For the luxury market it further encouraged the development of inherently smoother multi-cylinder engines in place of sixes and eights and, too late for Weymann, the introduction of flexible engine mounts and better chassis suspension systems in place of primitive leaf springs.

The vertical stabilizer was slightly enlarged, but the tailplane was unmodified. The conventional landing gear was also unmodified other than the tailwheel which now used several steel leaf springs as shock absorbers. The Yak-Jumo carried a total of of fuel.Gordon 2002, pp.

Brakes were conventional, consisting of drum brakes finned for improved cooling and operated by rod. Semi-elliptic leaf springs were used at front and rear. 1928 Bentley 4 12 litre Harrison Flexible Coupe 3828699267.jpg 1928 Bentley 4 12 litre Harrison Flexible Coupe 3828692303.

This continues until the desired shape and size is achieved. The advantages of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a favorable grain structure into the workpiece. Examples of products produced using this method include axles, tapered levers and leaf springs.

The convertible top was easily and quickly removed as needed. Due to the open cab configuration, all instrumentation and switches were both water- and dust proof. It used a MacPherson strut front suspension and a De Dion tube with half leaf springs in the back.

The cylinders set horizontally and drive the coupling rod on the first axle. The steam chests were, like the Stephenson valve gear, on the inside. The coupled axles were sprung underneath with leaf springs. Weight balancing was achieved using an equalising beam between the springs.

Mainly classified as the type 519C with a wheelbase measuring . The front suspension was independent with an unequal-length wishbones. The rear had De Dion axle and transverse leaf springs, already introduced on racing Ferraris a couple years back. Brakes were drum-type all round.

A ladder frame with beam axles is used. Front axles are on semi-elliptical leaf springs. The base rear suspension is a Mack tandem but other axle/suspension types are available. The LR has more frame options than other Mack trucks, with drop frames available.

Jean-Yves Brouard and Michel Fontany, Les véhicules du service public de chez nous, Editions MDM. In January 1974, the SG3, incorporating dual rear wheels and rear suspension with leaf springs entered production. For 1979, the external appearance was again modernised with a large black plastic grille.

The Iso Autocarro was larger than most, with its four-wheel layout, conventional rear axle with differential and leaf springs, and a large tubular frame. It could carry a load. The name Isetta Autocarro was also used. It is thought that more than 4,000 Autocarros were built.

The locomotives had an outer frames. The steam dome sat on the front ring of the boiler, and had the safety valves mounted on top. The two cylinders and the valve gear were all mounted between the frames. The suspension used leaf-springs mounted above frame.

The Winger van is front-wheel-driven, with the engine mounted longitudinally as in the original Renault Trafic. A five-speed transaxle of Renault design is used. The Winger's suspension is MacPherson strut up front with a beam axle with parabolic leaf springs at the rear.

The rear driven axle used semi elliptic leaf springs. The steering mechanism used a worm and peg system. On test, The Motor magazine recorded a top speed of and acceleration from 0- in 27.2 seconds. A "touring" fuel consumption of 36 miles per gallon (imperial) was recorded.

The name of the Hotchkiss firm was given to a form of power transmission from a vehicle's engine by shaft to the differential on its back axle, which through leaf springs both locates the back axle and transmits drive forces to the vehicle, called Hotchkiss drive.

Cooling system: Water-cooling system with vane-based heat exchanger in the front of the car. Transmission: Two-speed and reverse gear. As in modern cars there is a clutch pedal and a gear box. Suspension system: The semi-elliptic leaf springs act directly on the axles.

Front axles are available from . Multi-leaf leaf springs are base, tapered leaves are optional. Springs have an eye mount at front but at the rear the spring goes through a solidly-mounted slipper. The slipper is stronger side to side than the typical shackle arrangement.

An Allison fully automatic transmission is optional. Axles are of the hub-reduction type, rear drive axles being single tyre specific if required. Examples with undriven front axles are also available. Suspension is by conventional leaf springs, complemented by shock absorbers and anti-roll bars as required.

Multi-leaf springs are widely used for the suspension of cars, trucks and railway wagons. A multi-leaf spring consists of a series of flat plates, usually of semi-elliptical shape. The flat plates are called leaves of the spring. The leaf at the top has maximum length.

TL11 to be dropped Commercial Motor 28 February 1987Royal wave to Lions and Tigers Commercial Motor 12 May 1988Irish Transport Trust Like the Leopard, the Tiger was also sold as a bus. Usually it would have a downrated engine, and leaf springs in place of the standard air suspension.

Hilton-Peacey Motors also offered to supply spares to Blériot-Whippet owners. The body was made largely of plywood covered in fabric. The chassis was made of laminated ash and the front axle was carried on quarter elliptic leaf springs. To simplify the transmission the back wheel was unsprung.

The frame is made of U-shaped sections with lateral members. The axles have semi-elliptical leaf springs and telescoping shock absorbers. Maximum wading depth is 500 mm. The vehicles have the usual NATO trailer hitch for offroad trailer pulling, together with two air pressure and one electrical connectors.

The independent front suspension used coil springs and the rear had quarter elliptical leaf springs. Some cars were fitted with Blackburne engines. The open body was made of fibreboard which was made waterproof by soaking it in linseed oil. The car seated two people, one behind the other.

The 1.5 L B-Series engine continued. Drum brakes of diameter were fitted front and rear and the steering used a cam and peg system. The suspension was independent at the front using coil springs and had a live axle and semi-elliptic leaf springs at the rear.

These cars were 14 hp sport roadsters, with no wings or other useless accessories, yielding a high weight to power ratio, separate springs in front and four leaf springs at the rear, with a de Dion-type bridge; they could drive very fast even on low quality dirt roads.

The coupled axles had overhung springing using leaf springs. An equalising beam, level with the axle boxes, linked the two springs. On the final batch of 1869 the springs were located underneath the axle boxes of the coupled wheels. On the carrying axle the springs were above the frame.

The biggest technical change was the introduction of a four link suspension system incorporating rear coil springs on the sedans. Wagons, utes and vans retained the rear semi-elliptical leaf springs as used on XD models. Up until 1991, the XE was Ford Australia's last V8-powered Falcon.

1938 Hudson 112 coupé 1939 Hudson Country Club Six Series 93 Convertible Coupé 1941 Hudson Coupé Hudson dealer in Louisiana, In 1936, Hudson revamped its cars, introducing a new "radial safety control" / "rhythmic ride" suspension which suspended the live front axle from two steel bars, as well as from leaf springs. Doing this allowed the use of longer, softer leaf springs ("rhythmic ride"), and prevented bumps and braking from moving the car off course. The 1936 Hudsons were also considerably larger inside than competitive cars -- Hudson claimed a interior, comparing it to the in the "largest of other popular cars" of the time. With an optional bulging trunk lid, Hudson claimed the trunk could accommodate of luggage.

The SandCat is based on a well-proven Ford Super Duty commercial pick-up chassis to reduce through life cycle costs, and automotives used in all SandCat generations have remained standard Ford wherever possible. Automotives used in all SandCat generations have remain standard Ford wherever possible, the latest fourth-generation models powered by a Ford PowerStroke 6.7-litre V8 diesel developing 330 hp and coupled to a Ford TorqShift six-speed automatic transmission. Standard F550 drive axles are retained, however the front coil and rear leaf springs plus the brakes are uprated/tuned to suit operating weight. On second-generation models the rear leaf springs were swapped for a Plasan-designed coil spring and trailing arm set-up.

The 3-speed gearbox with column shift also came from the Vanguard and had synchromesh on all the forward ratios. There was independent suspension at the front but a solid axle and half-elliptic leaf springs was at the rear. Lockheed hydraulic brakes with drums were fitted. 2000 were produced.

An idler wheel, mounted at the rear of the vehicle, was used to control track tension. The front axle had transversely mounted leaf springs and shock absorbers – the only ones on the vehicle.Jentz, p. 10 The upper body had a baggage compartment separating the driver's compartment from the crew compartment.

In 1955, Ferrari updated their existing 553 F1 car. New helical springs were used for the front suspension, instead of the transverse leaf-springs. The rear saw the replacement of a lower leaf-spring to an upper one. It also received a five-speed gearbox instead of a four- speed.

The body was longer than the earlier car, despite having a wheelbase that was (initially) shorter. It was also wider. A conventional chassis frame was retained, and the brakes were mechanical, with operation by a system of rods. Rigid beam axles were retained front and rear with conventional leaf springs.

Its planform changed to a constant taper from root chord to tip chord. In 1970 the 210K became the first full six-seat model. This was achieved by replacing the flat leaf-springs used for the retractable main landing gear struts (undercarriage) with tapered tubular steel struts of greater length.

A three-speed gearbox was fitted from 1922 with shaft drive and a rear axle incorporating a differential. Front suspension was by a transverse leaf spring and the rear by quarter elliptic leaf springs. The two-seat bodies were made by the coachbuilder Charlesworth. A coupé version was called the "Palace".

It consisted of four large road wheels per side, each pair mounted on a wheel carrier and sprung by leaf springs. There were two wheel carriers per side. The idler wheel was at the rear and one return roller was fitted. It had a ground pressure of only 0.5 kg/cm2.

The front wheels had leaf springs and shock absorbers.Spielberger, p. 164 The upper body had a crew compartment with three bench seats, one for the driver and his assistant, and two others for the crew. The rear cargo area contained storage compartments, one on each side and two in the rear.

The suspension consisted of bogies, sprung by leaf springs, of four wheels. The tank could cross a gap and overcome a gap. Mobility tests showed issues with the tank’s tracks and with the engine overheating, but mobility was deemed unsatisfactory. Firing tests conducted between 5 - 7 February 1918 also had satisfactory results.

Model G had very big wheels hubs which gave the car a characteristic look. Suspension consisted of a semi- elliptical leaf springs in front and elliptical at the rear. There were two brakes; one actuated the transmission by a lever outside of the bodywork that actuated, the other, operated by pedal, the differential.

The front end was also chromed, including a dropped axle, coil springs (not the factory leaf springs), split wishbones, Panhard rod, and tube shocks. 1940 Ford drum brakes were used. In back, a 1932 Ford rear axle was fitted, along with specially-fabricated coil springs, Panhard rod, all chromed, and Ford drum brakes.

A cylindrical separation device was designd to keep the sphere attached to the third stage prior to deployment. At deployment, a strap holding the satellite in place would be released and three leaf springs would separate the satellite from the cylinder and third stage at a relative velocity of about 0.3 m/s.

The rear axle is now a 11.5 AAM axle (with selectable locker). The rear suspension now has a 5-link coil spring arrangement instead of leaf springs. The front suspension has been changed to a radius arm arrangement (3-link) instead of the 5-link used since 2005. Tires are now Goodyear Duratracs.

The air-cooled Gilmore, p.46. motor's built-in oil cooler, and the flat-four engine configuration's superior performance was also effective for the German Afrika Korps in Africa's desert heat. The suspension design used compact torsion bars instead of coil or leaf springs. The Beetle is nearly airtight and will briefly float.

0005-3, 0005-5, 0007-1 On the A0 model the front Rockwell steer-drive axle has Hendrickson parabolic taper leaf springs. The rear tridem unit is sprung by Hendrickson-Turner air suspension. The rearmost axle is a steer-drive unit. All axles are Rockwell SVI 5MR hub-reduction with differential locks.

The vehicle is also equipped with a two- speed reduction gear. Both axles are driven and equipped with lockable differentials. The suspension consists of longitudinally mounted leaf springs and two-way acting telescopic shock absorbers. The vehicle frame is twisting type enabling of each wheel touching the ground also in rough terrain.

The suspension was conventional for the time with half elliptic leaf springs all round mounted above the axles. The pedal brakes work shoes in enclosed drums on all four wheels by rods but the handbrake uses those on the back wheels and operates them by chain. There are shock absorbers fore and aft.

The suspension was conventional for the time with half elliptic leaf springs all round mounted above the axles. The pedal brakes worked shoes in enclosed drums on all four wheels by rods but the handbrake used those on the back wheels and operated them by chain. There are shock absorbers fore and aft.

The rear springing was unusual in that the long semi-elliptic leaf springs were supplemented by coil springs. It was fitted with Sankey detachable wheels and Dunlop tyres. The basic body was an open two-seater, but a long-wheelbase version allowing a dickey seat was also available. About 800 were made.

The drive train included a clutch, a kickstarter, and a three-speed gearbox. The standard frame for the Powerplus had a conventional rigid rear wheel mounting, but the Powerplus was also available with Indian's Cradle Spring Frame. Introduced in 1913, the Cradle Spring Frame had a rear swingarm linked to trailing leaf springs.

Shot peening is a crucial process in spring making. Types of springs include leaf springs, extension springs, and compression springs. The most widely used application are for engine valve springs (compression springs) due to high cyclic fatigue. In an OEM valve spring application, the mechanical design combined with some shot peening ensures longevity.

The handbrake had its own set of shoes on the rear brakes. The steel section chassis had semi-elliptic leaf springs all round. In a test by The Autocar magazine, the top speed was around and fuel consumption 23-24 mpg. ;Bodies A range of bodies were offered including saloons and tourers.

At the front, the suspension was handled by leaf springs with 2 vertical guide bars supporting the hydraulic shock absorbers; in the rear, it was handled by oscillating semi-trees with double universal joints and 2 overlapping leaf springs. When the car was presented at the Paris Salon, Gaston Doumergue, President of the French Republic congratulated the Lyon car manufacturer for his historic invention, that would promote the French Automobile Industry. Cottin reportedly replied that the government had contributed to this invention - by the very bad quality of the roads. The Sans-Secousse was also very successful outside France. In 1930, the first Saharan Tourist Car Rally was won by four “Sans Secousse” cars that demonstrated a high level of resistance.

In early 1958 Newtondrive two-pedal control was available as an option. Suspension was independent at the front by coil springs and with an anti-roll bar was fitted on a rubber mounted cross member. The rear suspension used a live axle and semi elliptic leaf springs. Steering was of the recirculating ball type.

SAE horsepower claims were , and , respectively. The front wheels are driven through a four-speed gearbox with column shift, with synchromesh on the upper three gears. Suspension at the front is provided by two transverse leaf springs, and at the back by three torsion bars each side. The standard car weighs approximately , and the Tigre .

The new engine, called 580, was a 2.72-litre four-cylinder unit and had a power output of at 2,900 rpm and a torque of . The truck had a single-disc manually-operated clutch. The suspension was made of leaf springs on both axles, with hydraulic dampers. The steering was a recirculating ball type.

Thus in 1997 a compromise solution was developed, the GAZ-3111. Retaining most of the chassis architecture from the GAZ-3110 (single rear axle with leaf springs, A-bar front suspension, traditional propshaft drive, etc.), it nonetheless featured completely new body, influenced by the GAZ-3103 with retro-styling elements from the GAZ-21.

He founded The Canara Workshops Ltd. in 1943 and started manufacture of automobile leaf springs under the brand name Canara Springs in 1950. Considering the increased demand in Northern India he opened another factory in Nagpur. The Nagpur unit was closed in the late 60's due to various problems faced by the company.

The locomotives were designed as box frame engines (Kastenlokomotiven) and had an outside plate frame with a well tank. The two saturated steam engines were on the inside, and the diagonally-oriented cylinders drove the rear coupled axle. The entire running gear was covered. Suspension was provided by leaf springs over the axle boxes.

The B 611 sat on a ladder-frame steel chassis with transverse reinforcement bars. At the front independent suspension used laterally mounted wishbones with coil springs. At the back a rigid "swing" axle was suspended with longitudinally mounted leaf springs. The engine, clutch, transmission, radiator and front suspension were all supported by an additional subframe.

The chassis featured half-elliptic leaf springs front and rear with beam axles. The front-mounted flat-twin engine produced and drove the rear wheels through a three-speed non- synchromesh gearbox. In 1950 the engine was updated to give and synchromesh was fitted to the top ratio. This improved the top speed to .

The E-series eventually had the rear door taken out of use and blocked with an extra seat. All but one of the trams had a SV36-bogie from Strømmens Værksted. The two bogies, each with two axles, were attached to the steel crossbeam. The aluminium body was attached to the crossbeam with leaf springs.

For 1936 it added the ABx diesel engine, tuned for – at 1,600 rpm. There were two lengths avalaible for the ZP, with a maximum length of 8.57 metres. The ZP short has 23–28 passenger seats and the long 31–36. The suspension of both is made up of leaf springs with hydraulic dampers.

Leaf springs were used in the suspension, and a three-speed manual transmission was specified. Four people could ride in the DC-3. Only 50 DC-3s were ever built; of these, 30 were sold (the remaining cars were converted back into trucks). A variant of the DC-3 was the Datsun 5147 pickup.

Styling was typically late-1930s, with an upright radiator. There were standard and deluxe models, the latter having better instrumentation and, on pre-war models, running boards. Both front and rear suspensions used transverse leaf springs, and the brakes were mechanical. The two-door Anglia is similar to the longer, four-door, E93A Ford Prefect.

In the engine car the cylinders were cast in pairs. Power transferred to the rear axle via a disc clutch and a steel drive- shaft. The car was designed for comfort, with suspension that used both laterally and longitudinally mounted leaf springs. With the FN Typ 2000, the car also gained flexible engine mountings.

Suspension settings were soft, for maximum comfort. The car then underwent a minor facelift in autumn 1984. The original leaf springs at the rear were replaced by coilovers at this time. European market models became available with a catalyzed version of the 4A engine for the last few years; this fuel injected engine produces .

The 301 was fitted with independent front suspension: it was one of the first volume produced cars to be thus equipped from launch, and benefited from exceptionally good road holding as well as greatly reduced vibration from the steering column by the standards of the time. Leaf springs at the rear were in line with contemporary practice.

A ladder frame with beam axles is used. Normally there is a single undriven front axle on semi-elliptical leaf springs, but driven and tandem steer (popular in Canada) axles are available. The base rear suspension is a Mack tandem (two powered axles). Granites are also available with single and tridem (three driven) axles, different axle/suspension combination types.

The Appia Berlina used unibody construction. Front suspension was of Lancia's sliding pillar type, with hydraulic dampers. At the rear there was a solid axle on leaf springs, with hydraulic dampers; the axle had an aluminium differential housing and a stamped steel structure. All Appias were equipped with hydraulic brakes, and drums an all four wheels.

The truck has an independent front suspension with coil springs and wishbones. At the rear it mounts a beam axle with leaf springs instead of the coil springs used by the similarly designed Super Goélette. It has telescopic dampers on both axles. The transmission is a rear-wheel drive system with a fully synchronised 4-speed gearbox.

The service brake system is air operated and dual-circuit type. The frame is U-profile pressed from 8 mm thick steel, with profile height of 250 mm and 90 mm width. Both front and rear leaf springs are 1 500 mm long; the front springs consist of 11 leaves, rear springs have got 16 each.

A naked cab and chassis version was also available in some markets. Mechanical features included recirculating ball steering and front disc brakes, rear-wheel drive, and front suspension with coil springs. Four-wheel drive (4WD) was added in 1981, featuring torsion bar suspension up front. The rear suspension for both comprised leaf springs with bias-mounted shock absorbers.

Torsion-bar suspension on the front combined with multi-leaf springs on the rear provided a smoother ride and improved handling. Pillarless hardtops, in both two and four-door configurations, received the Southampton designation. The Hongqi CA770, a Chinese state limousine, was based on the second-gen Imperial, however used a 340 which was not available in the Imperial.

Vuly Play (previously known as Trampolines Australia and Vuly Trampolines) is an Australian company that designs and manufactures recreational trampoline products and other outdoor play equipment. It was founded in 2007 and has its headquarters in Brisbane, Australia. The company makes a springless Thunder trampoline, which uses elliptic leaf springs positioned around its base, to provide the trampoline’s rebound.

A very-undersquare design, it had a 60 mm bore and 100 mm stroke for a total of 1.1 L (1131 cc/69 in3). This was attached to an open roadster body with solid axles front and rear. Leaf springs suspended the front with no suspension at all in the rear. Cables operated rear drum brakes.

The Wolseley, together with the Austin Cambridge and the Morris Oxford, was at the bottom and with its single SU carburettor gave just . The front suspension was independent using coil springs with a live axle and semi elliptic leaf springs at the rear. The brakes were by Girling, hydraulically operated, with 9 in. (229 mm) drums.

Both front and rear axle with reduction gears were planned to be technically identical live axles, welded together from just two preformed metal panels each; they were supposed to have four drive joints only. Later plans also included differential locks for the axles and gearbox, and coil springs with hydraulic shock absorbers instead of leaf springs for the suspension.

The chassis design was by A. E. Masters and consisted of side members held apart by a combination of tubular and channed cross members. Semi-elliptical leaf springs were fitted front and rear. drum brakes operated by rods and cables were fitted on all four wheels with separate shoes in the rear brakes for the handbrake.

Drive to the front axles is selectable and all axles have differential locks. Suspension on the A2 variant is by Hendrickson RT40 leaf springs with equalizing beams. Suspension on A4 models is Holland air suspension, ADS-240 (front) and AD-246 (rear). Tire size is 1600 R20 on all models, and standard tire fit is Michelin XZL.

The leaf spring acts as a linkage for holding the axle in position and thus separate linkages are not necessary. It makes the construction of the suspension simple and strong. Because the positioning of the axle is carried out by the leaf springs, it is disadvantageous to use soft springs i.e. springs with low spring constant.

Suspension is carried out by leaf springs long and wide. Both front and rear axle are equipped with telescopic shock absorbers. The standard wheel size is 7.50 – 16" and 5.50 – 20" was available as an option. The service brake consists of hydraulically operated drum brakes, which are same size on the front and the rear axle.

Tandem axle of Sisu K-44. The foremost axle on the tandem axle is powered. When fully loaded, the K-44 carries approximately 62% of the weight lying on the tandem axle. The rear, non-driven axle, is linked to the driven axle through a simple sub- assembly consisting of wide and long leaf springs and rocker arms.

During the winter of 1973-74, five AWD GAZ-24-95s were built.Thompson, p.133. It used a UAZ transfer case, with a heavily modified floorpan. The front axle ended up being a Volga rear axle turned backwards, attached to UAZ joints for the steering, with front leaf springs (on stronger frame rails, to carry the greater load).

A ladder frame was used. The front beam axle was mounted on leaf springs, the rear tandem beam axles were mounted on a leaf sprung “walking beam” type suspension. All models shared a wheelbase (measured from 1st to 3rd axles). Full air drum brakes were used, M123s were able to control the trailer brakes independently of the tractor.

The car was available in two sizes, a short-wheelbase sports and standard model. The distinctive pre-war radiator design does not seem to have been carried through. The maker of the engine is not known, but it used Bosch electrics and a Claudel-Hobson carburettor. The conventional chassis with half elliptic leaf springs had four-wheel brakes.

The Light Tank V4 was a Hungarian tank design of the interwar period. One of Nicholas Straussler's earlier armoured vehicle projects, though it progressed beyond prototype, was never mass-produced. A small amount of models were built, it had few variants. The V4 had a cross-articulated three-point suspension with leaf springs and rubber bogie rollers.

A chain-driven overhead camshaft operated two parallel poppet valves per cylinder. Bore and stroke measured respectively , for a total displacement of ; maximum power was at 4,000 rpm. Lancia declared a top speed of . Noteworthily the engine was not directly attached to the chassis, but rather suspended via two leaf springs in order to dampen vibrations.

The transmission was a 4-speed gearbox with a single-plate dry clutch; fourth speed was a direct drive. Front suspension was independent of the "Lancia" sliding pillar type, developed from the Lambda's. At the rear there was a solid axle on semi-elliptic leaf springs and friction disk dampers. Braking was via drums, on all four corners.

The front wheels, carried on the rigid front axle, had transversely mounted leaf springs and shock absorbers, the only ones on the vehicle, to dampen impacts.Spielberger, p. 158 Two different upper bodies were built over the production run of the Sd.Kfz. 11. The "artillery" body had an ammunition compartment separating the driver's compartment from the crew compartment.

The 1937 car had a 1525 cc overhead camshaft, four-cylinder engine. The car had a separate chassis that was conventional using beam axles and semi-elliptic leaf springs all round and hydraulic brakes. The wheels were of the pressed steel type. The car was available as a standard saloon, Super saloon (from 1938) or drophead coupe.

The chassis, based on that of the Hudson, was conventional, with semi-elliptic leaf springs on all wheels and rigid axles front and rear. Wooden-spoked artillery-style wheels were fitted. Initially brakes were on the rear wheels, only but front wheel brakes were fitted as standard from 1925 and at the same time the wheels became steel-spoked.

The rear wheels were driven by splined half-shafts. The semi- elliptical rear leaf-springs were conventional, and dampened by lever-arm hydraulic shock absorbers, instead of outdated friction-type. The new inline six-cylinder overhead-valve engine produced between 140 and 160 brake horsepower, depending on whether a single Solex carburetor, or triple Solex carburettors were fitted.

It was steered by an epicyclical transmission combined with hydraulically reinforced brake disks, which failed to provide the desired precision during tests. SRA side view Seen from the front it was very similar to the final model, but its side- on profile was more like that of the British Medium Mark D, including the snake track-system, with the drive wheel higher than the idler in front. The suspension used leaf springs. A Renault six-cylinder 180 hp engine (a bisected 12V aircraft engine) allowed for a maximum speed of 17.5 km/h; a four hundred litre fuel tank for a range of 140 kilometres. The SRB The SRB, also using leaf springs, was a somewhat larger vehicle, six metres long, 2.28 metres high and 2.5 metres wide.

The front wheel used helical springs and hydraulic dampers; the rear axle leaf springs. It was connected on both sides to the Trado-system by which all four rear wheels could be driven. Hydraulic brakes were present on all six wheels. It had been intended to fit bulletproof tyres, but as none were available conventional Dunlop Trackgrip terrain tyres were used.

The ladder-type frame used semielliptical leaf springs front and rear. Steering included now ball bearings instead of roller types, and featured a Pitman arm in front of the front axle. Brakes were mechanical on the rear wheels only, working either by pedal (external contracting) or lever (internal expanding). Following the owner's manual, either was sufficient for stopping under normal conditions.

Front axles are available from , Dana-Spicer and Meritor driven axles up to are also available. Multi-leaf leaf springs are base, tapered leaves are optional. Mack powered axles have the drive carrier on top of the housing. This lets the driveshafts be in line from the transmission to and between the axles at a higher level above the ground.

From the gearbox, the torque was transmitted to two drive axles using a transfer case and three driveshafts. The shafts and gearbox were in a special tunnel that ran along the car body. The front axle received a permanent drive, the rear - disabled. Both self- propelled axles were made rigid and attached to the chassis frame using leaf springs with hydraulic shock absorbers.

Windshield wipers and washers were not provided. Each half-locomotive had two axles with leaf springs. The four 150-horsepower traction motors were mounted coaxially on the axles, with a bellcrank linkage to the wheels, similar to that also used for the Valtellina electric railcars. The wheels and motors were covered by sloping bonnets, each equipped with four doors to allow maintenance.

The 1960 Continental features the a beautiful one year only restyled dashboard. The rear grill and bumper were also completely restyled setting it apart from the previous two years. The rear suspension was changed from coil spring to leaf springs, the fusebox was placed under the hood for ease of access and cruise control was offered for the first time.

The car was undoubtedly the most elegant small saloon of the period. The classic saloon featured the streamlining increasingly characteristic of mainstream British cars in the later 1930s, along with "stand-alone" headlights. Power came from a 1185 cc side-valve engine for which 41 bhp (30 kW) of power output was claimed. All four wheels were suspended using semi elliptical leaf springs.

The company designed its first trampoline in 2008, and it has since manufactured them in its factory in China. Their original trampoline underwent a series of updates and was renamed the "Classic". Thunder, the company's second model, is a trampoline that uses leaf springs instead of coil springs. It is sold with a tent kit, and it uses no bolts in its assembly.

The A40 Sports also employed a twin-SU carburetored version of the 1.2 L engine producing rather than . Gear selection was originally via a floor-mounted shifter. Steering was worm and roller type, front suspension was independent coil springs with rigid beam axle and semi-elliptic leaf springs at the rear. Production of the A40 Sports occurred in two series.

Essential technical aspects such as engine with carburetor, leaf springs and rear-wheel drive remained unchanged throughout the construction period. The Nissan 1400 was regarded as a reference of this class in South Africa and was also nicknamed "Champion of Africa". The production, which was discontinued due to stricter emission and safety regulations, ended with 150 copies of the Heritage Edition.

Suspension was not independent and used semi elliptic leaf springs all round. Lockheed hydraulic drum brakes were fitted. The 1140 cc engine designated XPJW was also slightly more powerful than the one in the Morris delivering as against . As the car was intended to compete in the up-market sector, it was well equipped with leather upholstery, pile carpets and walnut trim.

Based on a lengthened version of the Vauxhall Cadet the new car had a conventional chassis with semi-elliptical leaf springs all round and Vauxhall-Lovejoy hydraulic dampers. Wire -spoked wheels were fitted. Compared with the Cadet, the engine was mounted further forwards. To satisfy the demand for larger coach-built bodies the BXL model was a long wheelbase version.

This type of trickle valve utilizes a specially designed duckbill rubber sleeve. The negative pressure of the dust collection system collapses the sleeve on itself, creating an airtight seal. Adjustable leaf springs are inserted into the sides of the sleeve which help to resist the vacuum. The weight of collected material above the valve forces the sleeve open to allow a steady discharge.

Function is to even out weight carried on adjacent axles on uneven or poorly laid tracks. :42 Leaf Springs – Main suspension springs for the locomotive. Each driver wheel supports its share of the locomotive weight using a leaf spring which connects the axle journal box to the frame. :43 Driving wheel/Driver – Wheel driven by the pistons to move the locomotive.

The front suspension used parallel quarter- elliptic leaf springs, while at the rear a De Dion tube was suspended on parallel torsion bars. The car appeared at the 1930 Indianapolis 500 for the first running of the so-called "Junk Formula". Driven by Louis Meyer, it took an early lead but had to pit for repairs. The car finished fourth.

The suspension consists of 2½" wide and 1 200 mm long half-elliptic leaf springs, with additional auxiliary springs on the rear axle, and telescopic hydraulic double-acting shock absorbers. The wheel size is 7.50 – 16". The service brakes are hydraulically operated drum brakes, which are similar type both on the rear and the front axle. Each brake includes two slave cylinders.

Springing is by semi-elliptic leaf springs on both front and rear axles. It is a small car with a wheelbase of and a track of . Rolls Royce intended to make 20 of the cars but only 16 were made as it was thought that a twin-cylinder engine was not appropriate for the marque. The last 10 hp was made in 1906.

Carved ivory dentures from the 18th century. Left is lower/mandibular; upper/maxillary is at right. Pierre Fauchard described the construction of dentures using a metal frame, animal bone teeth, and leaf springs in 1728. As early as the 7th century BC, Etruscans in northern Italy made partial dentures out of human or other animal teeth fastened together with gold bands.

The front and rear bumpers were designed to absorb the force of a impact. The front suspension used A-arms and coil springs and was made up of parts shared with a variety of existing AMC models. At the rear was a Hotchkiss system of leaf springs on a live axle. Braking was by power-assisted disks in front and drums in back.

The rear suspension however received a new de Dion axle, twin radius arms with transverse leaf springs and Houdaille shock absorbers in place of an old live axle with semi- elliptical springs. New setup greatly improved balance and road-holding. The fuel tank had 190 litres fuel capacity, especially welcomed on long-distance races. Drum brakes were standard all round.

Gwynnes moved production to their factory and then made about 1450 more of the original 12HP design. In 1923 a new model was announced with the engine enlarged to 1944 cc and the name changed to Gwynne-Albert. A plate clutch replaced the previous cone one and the suspension changed to semi- elliptic leaf springs. From 1925 front wheel brakes were fitted.

The car was initially built with the same wheelbase as the Typ 200 (W 21). It also inherited the sophisticated all-round independent suspension system originally introduced with the manufacturer’s smaller Mercedes-Benz W15 model. There was no full width axle at the front, the wheels being suspended from two transverse leaf springs. At the back there were two half swing-axles.

The suspension consisted of bogies, sprung by leaf springs, of four wheels each with alternating external and internal flanges. The tracks were 600 mm (23.6 in) wide, resulting in a ground pressure of 0.6 kg/cm2. Ground clearance was 400 mm (15.7 in). The centre of gravity was in the middle of the vehicle, at a level of one metre above the ground.

Single-cylinder or 10 hp V-twin engines were used. Drive was to the rear wheels through a belt which could be moved between pulleys to give a two speed transmission. The front axle was centre pivotted with suspension by a single mid mounted coil spring and the steering was by a cable and bobbin. Elliptic leaf springs were used at the rear.

The Zeta was powered by a Tipo 59 side valve monobloc inline-four, displacing 2,620 cc, which produced 30 hp at 1,800 rpm. Top speed was . The separate body was built on a ladder frame; front and rear there were solid axles on semi-elliptic leaf springs. The brakes were drums on the rear wheels, with both lever and pedal actuation.

The chassis was very conventional with semi-elliptic leaf springs on all wheels and rigid axles front and rear. The transmission brake has been discontinued in favour of brakes on the road wheels. Steering is by worm and wheel. At the top of the steering wheel there is an electric horn button and the headlamp control lever for the dip and switch mechanism.

59–62 The vehicle has independent suspension, the front wheels were equipped with double control arms, coil springs and telescopic shock absorbers, in rear it had a pendulum axle, also equipped with coil springs and telescopic shock absorbers. Experiments with front transverse leaf springs had not led to a satisfying result. Hydraulically operated drum brakes on all wheels were standard.

The outside wet-steam engine had inside valves and drove the first coupled axle. The wheels were sprung with leaf springs located over the top, that were linked by a compensating lever between the coupled wheels. The vehicles were equipped with tenders of classes 2 T 8 or 2 T 6.67. Several locomotives were equipped with rearward-facing driver's cabs on tenders.

The steel- channel ladder frame (upswept to the rear) was similar to the Panther but about 2ft shorter, with a wheelbase of 16ft 6in rather than the Panther's standard 18ft 6in or optional 17ft 6in. The front-mounted radiator, front steel-leaf springs, driving controls, fuel-supply, braking system, electrical systems and other ancillaries were standard Panther components, whilst the Leyland 0.400H engine, pneumocyclic gearbox, brakes, axles, eight-stud wheels, tyre equipment and rear steel-leaf springs were units taken from or derived from the Tiger Cub PSUC1/13. The exhibit at the 1964 show was a Manchester Corporation unit with a Park Royal body derived from the BET design, but featuring deeper windows forward of the exit door. The reviewer for Buses Illustrated noted the unladen weight was 6.5 tons, even though the body was 'well-finished'.

Transmission is by a dry clutch and four-speed gearbox. The rear wheels are on half-axles with transverse leaf springs. The drum brakes are hydraulically-operated. The choice of bodies offered included a four-door sedan, two-door, four-seat convertible, six-seat landaulet by Tatra and more luxurious versions with bodies by a choice of coachbuilders: Bohemia in Česká Lípa and Sodomka in Vysoké Mýto.

For this version, the standard three-leaf rear leaf springs were replaced with more robust four-leaf equivalents. The CarAVan was particularly popular with self- employed tradesman, combining most of the driving characteristics of a car with the load-carrying potential of a small commercial vehicle. A small number of cabriolet and coupé versions were also produced by the Darmstadt body builders Autenreith. These are extremely rare.

The suspension used semi elliptic leaf springs all round. Autocrat build their own coachwork to a very high standard but the price was high at £875 in 1920. Electric starting was introduced in 1923 and a closed body was offered alongside the open cars. A detachable hard top was also available for some models and a sports version with the chassis lowered by 3.5 inches was listed.

The central supporting tube was split at the front, which allowed the engine and gearbox to be attached. The drive shaft was located inside the tube, and transmitted the engine's power to the rear wheels. The Superb utilized leaf springs for its suspension; one at the front and two at the rear. It featured hydraulically-operated drum brakes, with a mechanical handbrake connected to the rear wheels.

When braking, the front wheels create the majority of the braking force. The block moves this lateral force, caused by braking, higher above the axle than it did in the stock form. This can cause the block to become displaced from its location and result in total loss of control. A more accepted way to build up the leaf springs is by using an add-a-leaf.

The chassis of the 212 Export was a new construction, still utilising steel, elliptical in section, tubes. Later models could be equipped with a Gilco-designed "Tuboscocca" trellis frame which was constructed out of smaller diameter tubes for increased rigidity. The wheelbase was the same as on the 195 S model, measuring . The front suspension setup was independent with double wishbones and transverse leaf springs.

The Gazelle was initially offered in saloon and convertible body styles. The Gazelle Series II, offered from autumn 1957, was also available as an estate car, and had optional overdrive and larger fuel tank. The suspension was independent at the front using coil springs while at the rear was a live axle and half elliptic leaf springs. The steering gear used a worm and nut system.

As in the prior generation, all Chrysler Corp. full sized wagons shared a common greenhouse on a unitized body and chassis with longitudinal front torsion bars, rear leaf springs and the Dodge’s 122” wheelbase. And, as before, the wagon’s shorter wheelbase was offset by additional rear overhang. 1969 Town and Country wagons were nearly identical to other Chrysler body styles in overall length at just under 225”.

The suspension used leaf springs in front and rear with optional rear auxiliary springs. The truck was diesel powered, with forward control and a tilt cab; it was launched in December 1964. Customers obtained the trucks in primer and painted them. The cabs were noted for their styling, roominess and comfort, visibility of the road, and engine placement with minimal intrusion into the cab.

The tricycle had only one single driven rear wheel and two steerable front wheels. The rigid front axle was suspended by two longitudinally mounted leaf springs. Foto im BMW Group Archiv The rear wheel had a single control arm and a leaf spring, aligned longitudinally to the prop shaft. BMW used this groundbreaking design principle again for their 1980's BMW R 80 G/S motorcycles.

The Muntz was heavier than the KSC, weighing almost . Its wheelbase was , longer in both overall length and wheelbase than the Kurtis, which gave it enough room to include a back seat and accommodate four occupants. The Jet stood in height. It was built with body-on-chassis construction and had independent front suspension (A-arms with coil springs) and a live rear axle with leaf springs.

The Coupé Speciale sported a type 128 Colombo V12 engine, rated at . The Speciale was based on a different chassis than other Coupés with their own, unique for the series, designation type 513, that also had a of wheelbase. Suspension setup was almost identical to the Boano-era Coupés. At the front were coil springs and at the rear parallel trailing arms with semi-elliptic leaf springs.

The K-44 features a driven double reduction front axle incorporating an interlockable differential. The steering knuckles are attached via bevel roller bearings, while the front drive shaft uses homokinetic joints. The wheel hubs incorporates planetary gears, which permits a higher ground clearance through the inclusion of a small differential unit. The front suspension uses wide by long leaf springs and telescopic shock absorbers.

1922 M type with Princeton 4-door body and disc wheels. First shown at the 1921 London Motor Show, the car reached the public in 1922. The new car, designed by Clarence King, had a four-cylinder 2297cc side-valve engine mounted in-unit with a three-speed transmission. The separate chassis had semi-elliptic leaf springs at the front and cantilever springs at the rear.

The 2993 cc engine, first used in the 1950 TA 21, received a modified cylinder head and manifold which increased power to at 4000 rpm giving the car a top speed of . A choice of automatic or five speed gearbox made by ZF was available. Suspension was independent at the front using coil springs, with leaf springs at the rear. Disc brakes were fitted to all wheels.

A ladder frame with beam axles is used. The front axle is set forward on semi- elliptical leaf springs. The set-back axle version was replaced by the Anthem in 2017 The base rear suspension is a Mack tandem (two powered axles) but other axle/suspension combinations are available. Wheelbases are from Meritor supplies S-cam air brakes, steering systems, driveshafts, and other components.

Transmission, reduction gear, differential, driving shafts and brakes were all taken from the Praga AN truck.Kliment and Francev, pp. 46-7 The suspension was a modified version of that used in the Carden-Loyd tankettes. It consisted of two small road wheels fastened together on a frame, two frames paired and sprung by leaf springs that made a wheel carrier, one wheel carrier per side.

There was no front axle, the wheels were controlled by two transverse leaf springs. Steering was by rack and pinion. Braking was on the rear wheel only and used shoes operating on the outside of the transmission drum. The first Xtra was a single seater (monocar) with a light plywood on ash frame body with an occasional seat behind the driver on top of the engine.

Mainly with the addition of Houdaille-type shock absorbers. The front suspension was independent with unequal-length wishbones, and transverse leaf- springs with Houdaille hydraulic shock absorbers. On the rear a live axle with semi-elliptic springs and Houdaille hydraulic shock absorbers were mounted. The 250 MM used a 4-speed, all-synchronised manual gearbox (The 250 S had a 5-speed), and drum brakes all-round.

The MAN front axle is rated at 7.1-tonnes, the rear at 11.5-tonnes. Suspension is by parabolic leaf springs, shock-absorbers and anti-roll bars. Standard tyres are 365/85 R 20 Michelin XZL fitted with Hutchinson run flat inserts Survivor R’s armoured steel monocoque cabin provides undisclosed STANAG-compliant levels of protection and one of the highest internal volumes in its class.

The ABF and the ABG have the same inline-four engines: a 5.9-litre petrol unit and an 8.4-litre diesel, both delivering at 2,000 and 1,600 rpm respectively. The ABF has servomechanical brakes and the ABG has both servomechanical and air brakes. The suspension on both trucks is by leaf springs. Wheelbases are 2.4 metres (ABG), 2.6 metres (ABF short), and 3.4 metres (ABF long).

In retrospect the Sunbeam's achievement became eclipsed by the extent to which the race came to be dominated by Bentleys during the second half of the decade. Although the sturdily constructed chassis was based on that from earlier Sunbeams, the hitherto characteristic semi-elliptical leaf springs were, at the back, replaced by cantilever rear springs which during the second half of the decade became a Sunbeam hallmark.

Indian Fours would feature Indian-style trailing-link forks with leaf springs. The property of Ace Motor changed hands for the last time in 1927, when it was purchased by the Indian Company. Production was moved to Springfield, Massachusetts, and the motorcycle was marketed as the Indian Ace for one year. Once the designs began to be modified within Indian, the Ace name was discontinued.

1959 Ford Thunderbird convertible For the 1959 model year, Ford made changes to the front, rear, and side ornamentation; leather upholstery was available for the first time. The rear suspension was revised, discarding coil springs for Hotchkiss drive with parallel leaf springs. A new V8 engine, the 345-hp MEL-series, was available in small numbers. Sales almost doubled again, to 67,456 units, including 10,261 convertibles.

Passenger coaches consisted of First, Second and Third Class, finished in Spanish Brown and lined out in Black. First Class had three compartments, each holding six people. Second Class was open at the sides, but the three compartments, each for eight people, were separated by a wooden partition. Both the buffers and the couplings were sprung by an arrangement of leaf springs under the carriage.

The main differences from the pre-war model were round headlights as opposed to hexagonal ones, as well as improved leaf springs and dampers. From May 1950 the dashboard was redesigned and the shifter was relocated from the floor to the steering column.Ludvigsen, p. 61 With , the first post-war Kapitän could reach a top speed of , needed 29 seconds to reach , and consumed in the process.

Its main failings were comparatively thin side armor, limited ammunition storage, poor gun traverse, poor internal layout that made operating the vehicle difficult, as well as leaf springs and drive wheels that were prone to failure due to the increased weight.Spielberger Using the Jagdpanzer 38 and similar vehicles according to a defensive doctrine would offset some of the disadvantages of poor side armor and limited gun traverse.

The Range Rover broke from the Land Rovers of its time by using coil springs instead of the then-common leaf springs. Because of its hefty weight, it also had disc brakes on all four wheels. Originally, it had no power steering, though this was added a few years after its introduction. One problem with the Range Rover chassis was that it suffered considerably from body roll.

The suspension of the Mirada utilized transverse torsion bars in the front and leaf springs with a sway bar in the rear. A "sport handling package" was offered, which included heavy-duty shock absorbers, torsion bar bushings, springs, as well as anti-sway bars in both the front and rear. The braking system used power assisted disc brakes in the front and drum brakes in the rear.

The twin prop-shafts were given strong casings in case they came apart at high speed. The axle was given no differential. At that time the car was notable among land speed record cars for having 4-wheel brakes. Suspension was by half-elliptic leaf springs all round, axle travel was limited to just 1¼ inches in front and 1¾ at the rear axle.

The leaves are held together by means of two U-bolts and a center clip. Rebound clips are provided to keep the leaves in alignment and prevent lateral shifting of the leaves during operation. At the center, the leaf spring is supported on the axle. Multi-leaf springs are provided with one or two extra full-length leaves in addition to the master leaf and the graduated length leaves.

FEA model of a leaf spring under load. The initial, unbent shape of the spring is shown as a silhouette box. An upward deflection on the right side of the spring results in a smaller upward movement on the left side. A notable advantage of the FRP transverse leaf springs—when supported with widely spaced, pivotable mounts—is the ability to supplement or replace the anti-roll bar.

A new four speed gearbox from the Austin-Healey appeared and Borg Warner three speed automatic transmission was offered. Overdrive was available on the manual transmission from late 1960 to 1962. Suspension was similar to the TC 21, independent at the front using coil springs with leaf springs at the rear but the track was increased by to and a front anti roll bar added. Wire spoked wheels became an option.

The trailing-link forks use double leaf springs for damping, with no rear suspension; the rear frame tubes emerge straight out of the gearbox casting, and hold the final drive housing for the shaft drive, and rear hub and brake. Despite its massive appearance, the total weight of the machine was only 440 lbs. The price when new was 1,750DM, a bit more than the contemporary 750cc BMW R63 (1,600DM).

Most surviving examples are old enough that they are forged from iron rather than steel, with hard steel edges welded to them. Modern examples may be wholly of steel, frequently recycled truck leaf springs. A socket is forged on the side for the handle, this being a short wooden handle, often made to the user's own preference. Twybils are rare today, even amongst the recreators of specialist green woodworking tools.

This is done by inserting an extra leaf into the vehicle's leaf pack. Using the add-a- leaf will increase the height, but sometimes makes the suspension ride rough because of the added spring rate. With an adequate budget, the best way to lift with leaf springs is to buy a new set with the lift built in. An add-a- leaf depends on the integrity of the old springs.

The first Compagno prototype was shown at the 1961 Tokyo Motor Show and had a design reminiscent of the Fiat 1800/2100. This was not a very well balanced design and the production version ended up looking quite different. The Compagno used a ladder-type chassis instead of the more modern monocoque style, with torsion bar wishbone suspension at the front and semi-elliptical leaf springs for the rear axle.

Between the axle and the bogie frame was a series of C-shaped steel leaf springs stacked inside each other for the basic suspension, with rubber sheets between the leaves providing some shock absorption. A second set of softer springs on top of the bogie provided finer ride quality. Four sets of shock absorbers completed the suspension. The tilt controls were developed by SPAR Aerospace and Sperry Rand Canada.

At the same time, they built a light tank similar to the T2 for the cavalry – the T5 combat car. The only major difference between the two was that the T5 used vertical volute suspension while the T2 had leaf springs as on the Vickers. The T5 was developed further and the T5E2 was accepted for production as the "M1 combat car". The M1 entered service in 1937.

The RS01 uses a frameless block construction with a rigid rear axle and a front swing axle with leaf springs. Engines of the type 4F 145 BE were used, they are water-cooled inline four cylinder four stroke diesel engines with prechamber injection and five litres of displacement. The rated power is 29.4 kW. These engines were started using a crank and petrol, they were switched to diesel fuel afterwards.

Leaf springs were now fitted all around, and the car rode on a roughly 2-m (79-in) wheelbase. Although having the appearance of a toy, the Bugatti Type 13 was successfully raced. It was seen at hillclimbs as early as 1910 looking rather out of place compared to the bulky and brutish competition. What the Type 13 lacked in power, it made up in handling, steering, and braking.

The previous engine was retained but with compression ratio raised from 6.25 to 6.75:1 and revised timing increasing the output to 48bhp at 3000rpm. Other features included independent front suspension using torsion bars in place of the previous Dubonnet system with semi-elliptic leaf springs at the rear, Lockheed hydraulic brakes and a three-speed all-synchromesh gearbox in place of the four-speed "silent third" gearbox.

Series II 6/90s, introduced for 1957, included leaf springs on the live axle in the rear, a more conventional walnut dash and a floor-mounted gear lever — unusually on the right-hand side, on right-hand-drive cars. Overdrive or automatic transmission were available as options. In production for only 8 months, the Series II gave way to the Series III in 1958 after only 1024 had been made.

Electric lighting became an option in 1914 and was standardised in 1919. Electric starting was fitted from 1919 along with electric lights to replace the older ones that used acetylene or oil. Development of the Silver Ghost was suspended during World War I, although the chassis and engine were supplied for use in Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars. The chassis had rigid front and rear axles and leaf springs all round.

The frames of the locomotives are welded from thick steel plates with a cover plate that was cut out for engine and gearbox. The ends of the frame are strengthened to carry standard buffers and chain link couplers. The frame rests on adjustable leaf springs, the axles have slide bearings. Engine, radiator, fuel tank, sandboxes and silencer are mounted under the hood, air tanks beneath the running boards.

The usual Daimler large cruciform chassis had a double wishbone front suspension, with laminated torsion bars, telescopic dampers, and an anti-roll bar, while the rear suspension used leaf springs with telescopic dampers. All cars featured automatic chassis lubrication to 21 points, using a pump controlled by exhaust heat at startup. Cam and peg steering was used, and Girling hydro-mechanical brakes: hydraulic front, mechanical rear. The cars had an wheelbase.

Spring stilts also known as bounce stilts are spring-loaded and allow the user to run, jump and perform various acrobatics. Spring stilts using fiberglass leaf springs were patented in the United States in 2004 under the trademark "PowerSkip", marketed for recreational and extreme sports use.Alexander Böck (Apr 13, 2004) "Device for helping a person to walk". Using these stilts is also called powerbocking, named for the stilts' inventor, Alexander Boeck.

Only a month later, the 31 PS engine used in the lower spec variants (Standard, Deluxe, Automatic, Custom) also became water-cooled.Nippon Kei Car Memorial, pp. 83–84 The engine's technical achievements reflected influences from Honda's larger, 1.3 L, air-cooled four-cylinder used in the Honda 1300 coupe and sedan. The Z featured coil sprung and independent front suspension and leaf springs on a beam axle rear suspension.

The car had a 2155 cc four-cylinder, water-cooled, side- valve engine This was directly attached to a four-speed gearbox and then by shaft to the rear axle. A compressed air starter was fitted. The steel section chassis had half-elliptic leaf springs all round. The brakes followed the convention of the time, with the hand lever operating the rear drums and the foot pedal a transmission brake.

The M3 GMC was 20.46 feet (6.24 m) long, 7.29 feet (2.22 m) wide, 8.17 feet (2.49 m) high (including the gun shield), and weighed 20,000 pounds (9.1 t). Its suspension consisted of semi-elliptical longitudal leaf springs for the wheels and vertical volute springs for the tracks, while its transmission consisted of constant mesh. Its ground clearance was 11.2 inches (280 mm).Hunnicutt, p. 218.Ness, p. 207.

Driveline is completed by an Allison 3000 six-speed fully automatic transmission coupled to an Axletech two-speed transfer box with selectable 4x2 or 4x4 drive. A longitudinal driver-controlled pneumatically operated differential lock is fitted. Both the front steer-drive axle and the rear drive axles are Axletech rated at 9,500 kg capacity and sprung by the combination of parabolic leaf springs, telescopic shock-absorbers, and an anti-roll bar.

Some people use shocks to modify spring rates but this is not the correct use. Along with hysteresis in the tire itself, they damp the energy stored in the motion of the unsprung weight up and down. Effective wheel bounce damping may require tuning shocks to an optimal resistance. Spring-based shock absorbers commonly use coil springs or leaf springs, though torsion bars are used in torsional shocks as well.

A dry sump lubrication system was standard on all Jano V12s. The tubular steel spaceframe chassis was based on an older Formula One Ferrari 375, modified to accommodate new engine. The front suspension was independent with double wishbones, coil springs instead of a leaf springs and hydraulic shock absorbers. The rear suspension had a De Dion axle with twin radius arms, transverse leaf spring and hydraulic shock absorbers.

The running gear — wheelsets, bogies (trucks), and suspension — may fail. The most common historical failure mode is collapse of plain bearings due to deficient lubrication, and failure of leaf springs; wheel tyres are also prone to failure due to metallurgical crack propagation. Modern technologies have reduced the incidence of these failures considerably, both by design (specially the elimination of plain bearings) and intervention (non- destructive testing in service).

From 1965 on, Torqueflite used an instrument panel–mounted selector lever similar to the Corvair Powerglide. All Dodge motorhome chassis engines were specially improved "truck" versions, that operated on regular gasoline, with special durability features such as improved valves and stress-relieved castings and forged crankshafts. The Dodge chassis utilized a live dual rear wheel axle and an "I"-beam front axle suspended on semi-elliptic leaf springs at both ends.

From the late 1940s, Jack Turner built a series of one-off specials, and prepared racing cars, including building his own engines. The first cars for sale were based on one of the specials, and consisted of chassis, independent suspension units using transverse leaf springs, and Turner's own alloy wheels. It was up to the customer to arrange engine, transmission and body. Eight are thought to have been made.

The 380S came on the standard wheelbase, but the car was distinguished by its longer eight-cylinder side-valve engine. Claimed output of the 3820 cc unit was 80 PS (59 kW). Available with a choice of cabriolet bodies, the car, like its six-cylinder sibling, rode on two rigid axles suspended on semi-elliptical leaf springs. A top speed of 120 km/h (75 mph) was claimed.

A ladder frame had two live beam axles on leaf springs with a wheelbase. There was a winch behind the front bumper and a pintle hitch at the rear. A civilian type closed cab was used, right behind the cab was an open cargo box used to carry engineer tools, outboard motors, and other equipment. Early semi-tractors and all vans used 9.75x20 tires, later semi-tractors had 12.00x20 tires.

Otherwise, the axle housing would suffer axle wrap, such that the front of the differential would lift up excessively during acceleration and sink down during braking. Its use is not as widespread in modern automobiles as is the Hotchkiss drive, which holds the rear end in place and prevents it from flipping up or down, during acceleration and braking, by anchoring the axle housings to the leaf springs using spring perches.

Because of the fully enclosed armor, it was 5 tonnes heavier than the Marder III. To compensate for the increased weight, track width was increased from 293 mm to 350 mm. Initial production Jagdpanzer 38 did not sit even with the ground because the gun, transmission and thicker frontal armor weighed the front down. The leaf springs were strengthened from June 1944, which leveled the posture of the vehicle.

The engine was designed by W L Adams of the Laxtonia Engineering Works of Peterborough who also designed a World War I aero engine. The car had semi elliptic leaf springs, rear wheel only brakes and a wheelbase of 7 feet 9 inches (2362mm) and a track of 3 feet 9 inches (1143 mm). Drive was to the rear axle through a cone clutch, separate three speed gearbox and torque tube.

When the P 250 came on the market in 1934, Moto Guzzi also built a Triporteur based on this model, which had the 232 cc engine. Technically, there was no difference with the other models. The front was P 250, the back had a trailer with leaf springs. The prototype P 250 could be provided with a closed container to which a canvas roof for the driver was confirmed.

However, it was discovered that the rear of the vehicle was overloaded and that the vehicle's manoeuvrability was far from satisfactory. To counter the first problem, the rear tension wheels were enlarged, equipped with leaf springs and lowered to the ground, thus converting them to driving wheels. The problem with steering the tractor under heavy load was eventually solved by adding two steering clutches to both sides of the suspension system.

The suspension for the front wheels were leaf springs and track's suspension used a vertical volute spring. Powered by a White 160AX, , , 6-cylinder petrol engine with a compression ratio of 6.3:1, the M21 could reach up to on a road.Norris (2012) The fuel capacity was and the vehicle had a range of . It had a power-to-weight ratio of 15.8 hp/ton with the vehicle weighing nine tons.

Examples with undriven front axles are also available. Suspension is by conventional leaf springs, complemented by shock-absorbers and anti-roll bars as required. Standard tyre size is 14.00 R 20, with options including 395/85 R 20, 525/65 R 20.5 and 12.00 R 24 twin tires for heavy equipment transporters. Militarised TGS range trucks are assembled and militarised to individual customer requirements at RMMV's plant in Vienna, Austria.

35,542 SS packages were installed, making 1973 the best-selling year for the option. A modified rear side window shape was also introduced, eliminating the vent windows on both two- and four-door models. A revised rear suspension was adapted from the second generation Camaro with multi-leaf springs replacing the mono-leaf springs used on Novas since the original 1962 model. By this time, six-cylinder and V8 engines were de rigueur for American compact cars, with the and V8s becoming fairly common. The 1973 Nova with a six-cylinder engine or 307 cu. in.(5.0 L) V8 were among the last Chevrolets to be offered with the two-speed Powerglide automatic transmission, which was in its final year. A dressy Custom series (which became a mid-level trim package in 1975) joined the Nova line and a Custom hatchback listed for $2,701 with a six- cylinder engine. That was $173 more than the six-cylinder base-model two-door hatchback.

The suspension consisted of four inverted quarter-elliptical leaf springs. Friction dampers became fitted, at the rear from 1925 on the heavier "Cabriolet". At the end of 1923, the short chassis Type C.2 was lengthened by 10 cm from 2.25 m (7 ft 5 in) to 2.35m (7 ft 9 in) and re-inforced by an additional crossbar which protruded from the rear deck and supported the rear of the body.

The Series II was introduced in 1955 with 386 built by October 1960. Although very similar in appearance to the model it replaced, it was virtually a new car with a chassis based on the one used in the Morgan Plus 4. The traditional independent front suspension using sliding pillars and coil springs was fitted with a rigid axle and semi-elliptic leaf springs at the rear. Disc wheels were fitted as standard items.

Brakes were Corvette drums all around and the wheels were standard Corvette items. The rear suspension was a narrowed Chevrolet live axle with Positraction that was located originally on factory leaf springs, but in later revisions by trailing arms (one or two per side depending on version) and a Watt's linkage. The early engines were Chevrolet small-block V8s displacing with Rochester fuel injection. A later change put a engine in one car.

The doors were aluminium. Suspension was independent at the front using coil springs with a Panhard rod located rigid axle and leaf springs at the rear. A choice of wire spoked or steel disc wheels with centre lock fitting was offered. At first the car had servo assisted drum brakes but from 1956, the newly introduced 541 Deluxe version featured Dunlop disc brakes both front and rear—the first British four seater thus equipped.

A total of 50 identical Turbine Cars were built between October 1963 and October 1964. They were all two-door hardtop coupes, with air-over-oil power brakes and power steering. The cars had independent front suspension with a coil spring at each front wheel, eschewing Chrysler's contemporary- standard independent front longitudinal torsion bar system (although their rear suspension utilized off-the-shelf leaf springs). All four wheels were equipped with power-assisted drum brakes.

Now the engine had been given a new cast-iron cylinder head holding overhead valves, the pushrods rising through the old valve guides. Output could now reach at 4100 rpm. The sports saloon weighs 26.25 cwt, The chassis with beam axles and semi-elliptic leaf springs all round was scarcely changed from the same 2 Litre model but provided a wider track. The old basic Lockheed brakes were updated to hydraulic operation.

The locomotive was inside ITM's shop undergoing additional work. It was lifted several inches off its supporting trucks and running gear to allow access to the leaf springs and bushings without the need to drop all the drivers. The bushings will be removed and replaced as most have worn thin from years of use. In 2008, the ownership of No. 587 was officially transferred from the Indianapolis Parks Department to the Indiana Transportation Museum.

Gone were the transverse leaf springs that were inadequate to provide effective handling given a higher weight and also the higher speeds which the 407 was capable of; in its place were coil springs. This basic suspension design was to be used on all future eight-cylinder Bristols, though there were to be major refinements from the 603 onwards. Gone also was rack and pinion steering, which inhibited the 407's handling.Setright, p.235.

A suspension lift is a modification to vehicle's suspension system that includes a lengthening coil springs or re-arching leaf springs to make them taller. Doing this will make the vehicle taller and make the approach, departure, and breakover angles better for off-roading. Increasing the distance between the axles and body of a vehicle drastically often requires the replacement of other parts in the suspension system to make it work correctly again.

Likewise, the 610 four-door and two-door retained the class- leading, independent rear trailing arm design, while the wagon reused the rear live axle with leaf springs from the 510 wagon. Whether four or six-cylinder models, all 610s were equipped with Nissan's L-series inline engines. In many export markets, including UK, Europe, and Australia, the 610 was badged as the 160B or 180B with respect to particular engine displacement.

This mechanical communication between the left and right sides of the suspension results in an effect similar to that of an anti- roll bar. Chevrolet Corvettes, starting with the 4th generation in 1984 have combined the dual pivot mounts with FRP leaf springs. The transverse leaf spring is not used as commonly as it was earlier. It is very rare on modern cars, the Corvette and a few Volvo models being examples.

M425 cab interior view All models had a ladder frame with two axles on semi elliptical leaf springs. A set back front axle allowed a wheelbase of only , allowing a very short turn radius. The M425 and M426 were general service load carriers, designed to haul load over roads, so they didn't need to be 4 x 4. The front axle was an I-beam, the rear was a double reduction full floating type.

The chassis was based on a pressed steel ladder frame with channel-section side members and fabricated and tubular cross members. Suspension was by semi-elliptic leaf springs and Watson Stabilator dampers front and rear, with a tubular beam axle at the front and a live axle and radius rods at the rear. The standard wheelbase was , with a wheelbase of available for seven-passenger bodies. The front and rear tracks were both wide.

At the time, TCMA's plant was the nation's first to implement this technology. In 1976, the new plant commenced operations, and the first Datsun from TCMA was flagged off by Tan Yuet Foh in an official ceremony. The following year, TCMA began assembling Datsun Diesel trucks and buses, and by 1980, locally manufactured parts for TCMA's models had grown to include shock absorbers, leaf springs, tyres, glass, batteries, seat belts and wiring harnesses among others.

Suzuki Alto (SS80S), European market, note the big export bumpers and the 12-inch wheels. Suzuki FX (SS80S), assembled in Pakistan, note the facelifted square front lights and extended plastic bumpers. Suzuki Alto 1983 model in Punjab Pakistan The first generation (SS30V/40V), introduced in May 1979, is a three-door cargo version of the Fronte passenger car, equipped with a folding rear seat. Front suspension comprised coils struts, with leaf springs at the back.

One fuel tank was located on each side of the engine. The transmission had four forward gears and one reverse gear to drive the front- mounted drive sprockets. The suspension was an enlarged and modified version of that used in the Carden-Loyd tankettes. It consisted of two small road wheels fastened together on a frame, two frames paired and sprung by leaf springs that made a wheel carrier, two wheel carriers per side.

Being the first four-wheeled armored vehicle produced by Engesa, the Jararaca lacked the articulated "boomerang" suspension usually characteristic of that firm's vehicle range. Its front and rear beam axles are fitted with the more conventional semi-elliptical leaf springs, as well as hydraulic shock absorbers. The axles also have hypoid gears. Standard equipment included a central tire pressure regulation system that allowed the driver to adjust the tire pressure depending on the terrain.

In a rear wheel drive car, the braking applied by the rear brakes is just as important as the power transmission, and the problem is the same and is solved in the same manner. Firmly anchoring the axle housing to the leaf springs transfers both directions of torque, (both acceleration and braking), to the car body. There is no connection between the Hotchkiss drive and the modern US suspension-modification company called Hotchkis.

Later the Super Deluxe GL became the top trim level. Due to the Gloria and Cedric being combined to save on production costs, the De Dion axle previously used by the Prince Gloria was downgraded to a solid rear axle with leaf springs. The original model was the PA30 sedan and VPA30 wagon, originally fitted with Prince's own G7 six-cylinder engine. The four-cylinder version, with Nissan's H20 engine, was called A30 or VA30.

Suspension is independent by MacPherson struts in front, with either leaf springs or coil springs in rear depending on the equipment level. Brakes are discs up front and drums in the rear, and only a five-speed manual transmission is available. Safety features such as airbags and ABS brakes are available at extra cost. Sales in Latin America began in July 2008, as the car entered the Peruvian market under the name of Chevrolet N200.

The fully enclosed turret housed a 37mm Puteaux SA 18 gun and an 8mm Hotchkiss M1914 machine gun, unusually the two weapons were at opposite sides of turret, in service this arrangement proved difficult for the gunner compared to a coaxial arrangement. The chassis was 4x2 rear wheel driven with leaf springs and doubled wheels at the rear, its 4-cylinder petrol engine delivered for a maximum speed of , it had a maximum range of .

In 1929, MG were attempting to develop their M-type Midget for racing. The rear axle leaf springs were mounted in sliding trunnions at the rear end, rather than the more usual shackles. The improved axle location encouraged good handling, which compensated when racing for the 750cc engine's low power output. Captain George Eyston and Ernest Eldridge saw this chassis under development and decided that it could form the basis for a speed record breaker.

The is a minivan manufactured by Nissan, joining the slightly larger Nissan Vanette. The car was engineered by Nissan's Aichi Manufacturing Division and launched in 1991 as compact passenger van, and it grew larger with each generation over the years. Earlier versions were front-engine, rear-wheel- drive layout with a live axle mounted on leaf springs. Later versions had a multilink independent rear suspension, and were front-wheel drive or 4WD.

The new design was ready by 1934, but Army Chief of Staff Kazushige Ugaki opposed its production until further tweaks were made. Production finally commenced in 1937. A total of 440 units were produced. The revised Type 96 howitzer could be identified by a relatively short tube with muzzle only slightly forward of rectangular cradle, three demountable spade plates and demountable trail block for each trail end, wheel chocks and leaf springs above the axle.

The system uses longitudinal leaf springs attached both forward and behind the differential of the live axle. These springs transmit the torque to the frame. Although scorned by many European car makers of the time, it was accepted by American car makers because it was inexpensive to manufacture. Also, the dynamic defects of this design were suppressed by the enormous weight of US passenger vehicles before implementation of the Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard.

The Dodge M-series chassis were a line of heavy-duty frames used under various Class A motorhomes from 1968 to 1979. M-series chassis use a Dana 60 or 70 or Spicer M70 solid rear axles with leaf springs. Frames were used by Winnebago, Champion, Apollo MotorHomes and several other RV manufacturers. The line was offered in four ratings, M-300, M-400, M-500, and M-600 depending on the application.

HEMTT A4 models are fitted with an Allison 4500SP 5F/1R automatic transmission and an uprated version of Oshkosh's two-speed transfer case. The front axles on all HEMTTs are single-reduction Oshkosh 46K, the rear are Dana single-reduction which vary according to configuration. Drive to the front axles is selectable and all axles have differential locks. Suspension on A0/A1/A3 models is by Hendrickson leaf springs with equalizing beams.

Convenience features such as power steering, carpeted floors, air conditioning, cloth/leather seats, and wooden interior trim were fitted later. The Range Rover was a body-on-frame design with a box section ladder type chassis, like the contemporary Series Land Rovers. The Range Rover used coil springs as opposed to leaf springs, permanent four-wheel drive, and four-wheel disc brakes. The Range Rover was originally powered by various Rover V8 engines and diesel engines.

Drive in both cases came from the engine, through a remotely mounted fluid flywheel. The radiator was mounted vertically, directly behind the front wheels, and the semi-elliptic leaf springs were of substantial construction. It soon became clear that the Freeline, like the Regal IV, Royal Tiger and Guy Arab UF, was over-engineered for UK operating conditions. A typical bodied 39-seat coach could weigh more than a 60-seat half-cab double-decker bus.

In 1980 the high end Laredo package was introduced. Dana 44 axles were used both in the front and the rear at least through 1979. Brake hardware was mostly General Motors equipment (sourced from the straight axle 1/2 ton 4x4 light duty truck and SUV line including the six lug rims), with disc brakes up front (optional on earlier models) and drum brakes in the rear. All Cherokees had semi- elliptical leaf springs in the front and rear.

The cars had a separate chassis with independent suspension by coil springs at the front and a live axle with half-elliptical leaf springs at the rear. The brakes on early cars were operated by a hybrid hydro-mechanical system but became fully hydraulic in 1950. Girling disc brakes replaced drums at the front from October 1959. The complete body shells were made by the Pressed Steel company and featured aluminium/magnesium alloy (Birmabright) doors, boot lid and bonnets.

The car had two rigid axles with transverse leaf springs. Claimed top speed was 80 km/h (50 mph). The footbrake operated on all four wheels via a hydraulic control mechanism. The Type P was available only as a two-door sedan with four windows. It was priced in 1931 at 3,385 Marks. Audi P 5/30 in Spandau Rasmussen seems to have hedged his bets when deciding how to use the spare capacity of his Spandau plant.

1950 Ford 4-door sedan For the 1949 model year, Ford redesigned its car lineup with a number of significant changes. The transverse-leaf suspension, seen since the Model T, was replaced by independent front suspension and longitudinal leaf springs. Fenders and running boards were completely integrated into the bodywork. In 1950, the Ford model line expanded itself further as the division added model names to the lineup (as opposed to Ford Standard or Ford Custom).

The Unimog has live front and rear axles that have portal gears (portal axles). Such axles have a lifted axle centre, but the wheels' centre remains unchanged, meaning that a high ground clearance can be achieved with small wheels and tyres. Unlike "regular" trucks, the Unimog has coil springs with hydraulic shock absorbers rather than leaf springs, as coil springs provide more spring travel. The axles themselves have only one longitudinal pivot point each, the so-called torque tubes.

A man performs a grab at the Capital Bocking USA Meetup. A powerbocker A pair of M60 Powerizers A pair of Powerskips Jumping stilts, bounce stilts or spring stilts are special stilts that allow the user to run, jump and perform various acrobatics. Spring stilts using fiberglass leaf springs were patented in the United States in 2004 under the trademark "PowerSkip", marketed for recreational and extreme sports use.Alexander Böck (13 April 2004) "Device for helping a person to walk".

At its open end, towards the gearbox, this tube forked out into two ends which, linked to the chassis, located the rear axle. The gearbox was positioned towards the middle of the chassis, almost underneath the driver, rather than in block with the engine—to which it was connected by a short propshaft. Front and rear solid axles were sprung on longitudinal semi-elliptic leaf springs. Brakes were drums on the rear wheels, with both pedal and hand controls.

An independent suspension in front used wishbones and a single leaf spring, while a beam axle with a panhard rod and leaf springs was used in back. Four wheel Dunlop disc brakes were fitted to first series Fulvias. With the introduction of the second series in 1970 the brakes were uprated with larger Girling calipers all round and a brake servo. The handbrake design was also changed - using separate drums and brake-shoes operating on the rear wheels.

The rod system provided good handbrake efficiency and was applied by a lever in an unorthodox position to the right of the driver's seat (Right hand drive vehicles). Bumps were handled by independent coil springs at the front end and beam axle/semi-elliptic leaf springs at the back. A car tested by The Motor magazine in 1952 had a top speed of and could accelerate from 0– in 29 seconds. A fuel consumption of was recorded.

This was described as a frictionless system of centrifugal control in which the torque was developed by balanced weights brought into action by planetary gears without need of a clutch or gear lever. Suspension was provided through very thin semi-elliptic leaf springs (18 for the front and 24 for the rear). Each alternate spring was interlocked. This system, combined with the flexibility afforded by chasis-less construction, enabled the vehicle to be built without shock absorbers.

The only shock absorption was in the flexibility of the planks. When riding on the rough roads of their day, passengers felt like they were riding a bucking horse, hence the name. Joubert devised a way to attach two steel leaf springs, bowed upwards to the planks, with the passenger seat attached to the top of the springs. The seats moved vertically on the springs and also rocked forward and back, making for a more cushioned ride.

It was a small car with a 1018 cc four-cylinder side-valve engine with fixed cylinder head from White & Poppe. Ignition was by a Bosch magneto. The chassis made by Rubery Owen was of pressed-steel construction and suspension was by leaf springs, semi-elliptic at the front and longer three-quarter elliptic at the rear slung above the axle. The welded single piece banjo rear axle with splined half shafts was driven by a Wrigley Worm.

The van was fitted available with the familiar B series petrol engine in 1622cc form and also, at extra cost, with a 1500 cc diesel unit. Stopping power came from drum brakes all round; there was no servo assistance. Suspension was similar to that on the Austin Cambridge/Morris Oxford of the time: the front independent suspension incorporated coil springs and hydraulic "Lever-type" shock absorbers while the rear springing was achieved by semi-elliptic leaf springs.

The area behind the front seat could be converted into spacious one-level cargo compartment. The 24-02 had heavy-duty rear leaf springs (six leaves as opposed to the sedan's five) and could carry up to , thanks to stiffer rear springs. The GAZ-24-04Vektaxi was a taxicab variant of the Volga station wagon with special features similar to those of the sedan taxi. The ambulance specification GAZ-24-03 model was introduced in 1973.

In July 1938 a prototype of a lengthened chenillette was presented by Renault. It had a fourth bogie in the suspension to reduce track pressure and a third return wheel. To save weight and better dampen shocks the number of leaves in the leaf springs was reduced from six to three. The tracks were obviously longer too, with 156 instead of 131 links. The bin was also "longer" at 72 centimetres, but less "wide" with 123 cm.

In response to requests from United States distributors Bud Forman and Les Genser Triumph developed a version of the TR4A fitted with a TR4-style rear live axle and made IRS an extra-cost option for that market. To locate the newly re-introduced leaf springs, spring brackets were added to the revised chassis. Live axle cars received a commissioning number (Triumph did not use serial numbers) that started with "CT". This was the same prefix used for TR4s.

Swords and longer blades, in modern times, are often crafted of 5160 carbon spring steel, which is not as hard or brittle as a high carbon steel (such as 1095), but is more durable and less prone to breakage, and therefore more suitable for longer weapons. 5160 carbon spring steel is sometimes used for leaf springs in American trucks, making it readily available in the US.Goddard(2000)page 27. In Europe, EN-45 is more commonly used.

A cabriolet version was offered until 1964. The car was powered by the Rootes unit, which had first appeared late in 1953 with a capacity. The original Super Minx had the cast-iron cylinder head version of the engine, though on later cars the cylinder head was replaced with an aluminium one. Suspension was independent at the front using coil springs with anti-roll bar and at the rear had leaf springs and a live axle.

Starting from 1972, this model became the standard coupé of Anadol until its production was stopped in 1975. The five-seat body was built from fibre glass and affixed to an h-frame chassis. The Anadol was originally only available as a coupé, but in late 1973 was joined by a saloon (sedan) and an estate version. The chassis had independent front suspension utilising coil springs and leaf springs on a live axle for the rear.

The engine had an overhead camshaft with the same unusual valve springing using leaf springs as those found on Parry Thomas's Leyland Eight. Drive was to the rear wheels via a Moss 4-speed gearbox and ENV spiral- bevel rear axle. It was one of the first English cars to use an electric fuel pump. Production of two variants was started in 1926 at the Letchworth works, a low-chassis sporting model and a high-chassis touring type.

The 2993 cc engine, first used in the 1950 TA21, had its power increased to at 4750 rpm by fitting triple SU carburettors, giving the car a top speed of . A choice of automatic or five- speed gearbox made by ZF was available. The chassis and suspension continued with front coil springs and leaf springs at the rear. Disc brakes were fitted to all wheels and recirculating ball-type steering gear was used with power assistance optional.

The Eric-Campbell 10 (10/22 in 1924) was assembled from bought-in components with a Coventry-Simplex 1498 cc, four cylinder, side valve engine driving the rear wheels through a cone clutch and three speed Moss gearbox. The engine was tuned with a special camshaft and lightened pistons. Half elliptic leaf springs were fitted at the front whilst at the rear cantilever springing was used. A top speed of 55 mph was guaranteed and 60 mph claimed as possible.

The XJ uses a leaf spring rear suspension. Each leaf pack contains four leaf springs with a fixed eye at the front of the spring and a compression-style shackle at the rear of the spring. Two gas-charged shock absorbers are also used, along with a mild anti-sway/anti-roll bar. The suspension used on vehicles with the optional UpCountry package did not employ the rear anti-sway/anti-roll bar and provided one inch of lift over the standard suspension.

The Armstrong Siddeley Lancaster is an automobile which was produced by Armstrong Siddeley Motors Limited from 1945 to 1952. It was the first post-war sports saloon to be made by the company. The chassis of the Lancaster was all new and featured independent front suspension using torsion bars and a live rear axle with leaf springs. A Girling hydro-mechanical braking system was fitted, with the front drums hydraulically operated while those at the rear used rod and cable.

The lower-powered engine arrived in 1972; with milder cams and lowered compression it gave up some peak power and torque, while allowing for a less peaky delivery and higher drivability. It delivered surprisingly peppy performance because of its light weight (around 550 kg/1100 pounds), due to compact dimensions and some plastic parts (like the boot lid). The brakes on early models were very weak, despite having front discs and servo assistance. Rear suspension was a dead axle on leaf springs.

The model range expanded in 1904, including the 4.9-litre four-cylinder Type 21, the mid- priced Type 16, and the two-cylinder Type 15B. These were joined in 1905 by a chain-driven 8-litre luxury model, one of which was purchased by King Alfonso XIII of Spain. All 1907 models featured half-elliptic springs at the rear as well as transverse leaf springs, and while shaft drive appeared that year, chain drive was retained on luxury models until 1911.

Other features included police-spec suspension with 15"x7" wheels, heavy duty torsion bars/leaf springs/shocks, front and rear sway bars, and a 3.23 rear gear ratio. The deteriorating U.S. domestic economic conditions that led to the early 1980s recession reflected in low demand and less than 2,900 were built. The 300 model was planned for the 1980 model year using the new 2nd- generation Cordoba (based on the downsized Chrysler J platform), but was instead called the "LS".

Honker trucks were produced in the hard-top versions, with a container carrier and as a pick-up. Honkers produced up to 1992 used M20 gasoline engines shared with Żuk and Nysa trucks. In later models, M20 engine was replaced with gasoline engines from the FSO Polonez car, Iveco diesel engines (2.5 dm ³), and from 1997 onwards used the turbo engines Andoria 4CT90 and later 4CTi90. The truck had a 3-door body, based on a rigid frame bridges driving the leaf springs.

The Ford Excursion was produced sharing the platform architecture of the F-250 Super Duty pickup truck. Sharing quite a bit of its chassis components and dimensions with the F-250 Super Cab, 8' Bed. The Excursion shares a common width, wheelbase, and front/rear track width with its F-250 counterpart. Other shared assemblies include the front and most of the rear suspension (the leaf springs and front spring hanger bracket were specific to the Excursion), along with the steering gear.

The V 901/2 is a body-on-frame lorry with two axles; the frame is made from welded U-sections. It was available with two wheelbase options, 2800 mm and 3100 mm, and three different payload options (520, 690, and 900 kg). The rear axle is a leaf-sprung live beam axle; in front, the V 901/2 has independent suspension with suspension arms and leaf springs. On all four wheels, the V 901/2 has hydraulically operated drum brakes.

The chassis used leaf springs at the rear and independent coil springing at the front. A control on the steering wheel centre adjusts the hardness of the rear springing by hydraulically adjusting the rear dampers. This is done via opening a check valve that provides pressure by diverting transmission oil to the dampers. A pedal-operated central lubrication system type Bijur-Girling allows oil to be applied to moving parts of the suspension from a central reservoir by using a foot pedal.

The fourth-generation E-Series (Econoline/Club Wagon) shares the VN platform of the third-generation Econoline, introduced in 1975. Sharing many components with F-Series trucks, the E-Series retained the "Twin I-Beam" front suspension used by rear-wheel drive Ford trucks in North America from the 1960s to the early 1990s. The rear suspension was a live rear axle with rear leaf springs. For the 2008 model year, the chassis underwent its largest revisions of the fourth generation.

The final iteration of the chassis had to be revised to accept the 150S racing engine, a gearbox casing from A6G/2000 road car and 200S prop shaft. The front independent suspension with coil springs and Houdaille hydraulic shock absorbers remained mostly unmodified from their original A6GCS race car specification. The rear suspension was a live axle type with semi elliptical leaf springs. The front hydraulic drum brakes were from a Maserati 250F, and the rear ones from an A6GCS.

The S76 had a 4-cylinder engine with a displacement of (190 mm × 250 mm)(7.48in x 9.84in), providing at 1900 rpm, compressed air starting with 3 spark plugs per cylinder, ignition with high voltage magneto, water cooling, transmission with chain, axle suspension rigid with front and rear leaf springs (rear longitudinal struts), and 4-speed gearbox plus reverse gear. The radiator design of this "prototype" for records was reused by Fiat for subsequent road models. The S76 had a maximum speed of .

The Turnpike Cruiser shared its rear-wheel drive chassis with the Monterey and Montclair, using a 122-inch wheelbase. Using body-on frame construction, the front axle of the Turnpike Cruiser was fitted with independent ball-joint front suspension with coil springs; the live rear axle was fitted with leaf springs. 11-inch drum brakes were fitted to all four wheels. For 1958, the chassis (using a 124-inch wheelbase) was adopted by Edsel for its premium Corsair and Citation model lines.

The car used a conventional chassis on which was mounted the slab sided body.Suspension was independent at the front with coil springs, and a live axle and leaf springs at the rear. Front and rear anti-roll bars were fitted. The brakes were cable driven with 9-inch (228 mm) drums all round, and to make the most of the interior space a column gear change was used initially on the right of the steering wheel then later on the left.

UK fuel was no longer restricted to the 72 octane "Pool petrol" of the 1940s and early 1950s, and with the modest increases in available octane levels, the Vanguard's compression ratio was increased to 7.0:1. The engine with its single Solex downdraught carburettor now produced . The front suspension was independent, using coil springs, and was bolted to a substantial sub-frame which also carried the recirculating ball steering gear. Semi-elliptic leaf springs were used on the rear axle.

The Kappa's Tipo 64 side valve inline-four was Lancia's first engine with a separate cylinder head, as opposed to the earlier monobloc designs. Displacing 4,940 cc, it produced 70 hp at 2,200 rpm for a top speed of . The separate body was built on a ladder frame; front and rear there were solid axles on semi-elliptic leaf springs, brakes were on the transmission and on the rear wheels. The transmission was a 4-speed gearbox with a multi-plate dry clutch.

The independent front suspension used a transverse mounted leaf spring mounted above the wheel centre line. The hubs were located with the spring mounts at the top and control arms at the bottom. The rear suspension used a live axle on semi-elliptic leaf springs, a conventional system neither as advanced nor as troublesome as the 3/20's swing axles. The 303 was the first German car in its size and price class to have automatic "one-shot" chassis lubrication.

In addition to the narrow V engine, another first for Lancia were brakes on all four wheels. The first examples produced left the factory with rear wheel brakes only and were upgraded later. The brake pedal acted on the front brakes and transmission brake, while the rears were actuated via a hand lever. The rest of the mechanicals were as on other coeval Lancia models: ladder frame, solid axles front and rear with semi-elliptic leaf springs and Hartford dampers.

Additional modifications include trimming sheet metal from around the wheel wells, removing parts of bumpers, welding the doors shut, and relocating the battery and gas tank. The radiator is sometimes relocated to the back seat. To make the cars last longer, they are occasionally pre-bent, with frames notched, rear bumpers removed, trunk lids notched, and rear coil springs are (when rules allow) replaced with leaf springs. In many instances, roll bars, fire extinguishers, and other safety equipment is installed.

For export markets, right- hand drive Pregios were built only in panel van form. The front suspension is independent with coil springs and double wishbones, while at the rear a live axle with elliptic leaf springs is found, to save space and to handle heavy loads. Disc brakes up front and drums at the rear were standard in Europe at least. Late in its life, a intercooled turbodiesel engine of Mitsubishi origins (called TCi) was made available in European market Pregios.

Special suspension set which exclusively reserved for all MU-7 is called MOVE suspension. Front: Double Wishbone, torsion bar, anti-roll bar, gas-type shock absorber. Rear: SUV-type leaf springs via gas-type shock absorber. In the late third quarter of 2006, the MU-7 range of models was updated and separated as Primo (4x2) and Activo (4x4). With a new 3.0 4JJ1-TCX DDi iTEQ, new transmissions were implemented as well: MUX five-speed manual and MaxMatic-III automatic transmission.

The Eaton spiral-bevel rear axle, to a variety of different final drive ratios, was just ahead of the power pack and a very short drive shaft was fitted with resilient rubber-based joints. Originally on the long-wheelbase version a similar arrangement was employed but with the engine further from the rear of the frame. Conventional leaf springs were used, but the spring shackle-pins were fitted with polyurethane bushes, which would not require greasing and so reduce maintenance costs.

Caldina (T190) The first Toyota Caldina was the five- door wagon or commercial van version of the four-door sedan Toyota Corona in Japan. The wagon has independent strut rear suspension while the commercial wagon has semi-independent leaf springs. The wagon was given its own identity, whereas previous station wagon versions were named Corona wagons. The Caldina was introduced as a successor to the Corona and Carina wagons, and was sold at Toyota Japanese dealerships Toyota Store and Toyopet Store locations.

DB's proposal used an external leaf spring suspension, in contrast to the MAN proposal of twin torsion bars. Wa Pruef 6's opinion was that the leaf spring suspension was a disadvantage and that using torsion bars would allow greater internal hull width. It also opposed the rear drive because of the potential for track fouling. Daimler Benz still preferred the leaf springs over a torsion bar suspension as it resulted in a silhouette about shorter and rendered complex shock absorbers unnecessary.

The 2,993 cc engine was upgraded to produce by modifying the cylinder head and fitting twin SU carburettors. Suspension was the same as the TA 21, independent at the front using coil springs with leaf springs at the rear. The drum brakes using a Lockheed system were also retained. However this update found few buyers during a very difficult year for the British Motor Industry and though it remained in the catalogue and continued to be advertisedDisplay Advertising Alvis Limited.

The locomotives had the same piston stroke as their English counterparts and were also equipped with a fork valve gear (Gabelsteuerung). The locomotive OFFENBURG had a Capry valve gear on delivery. The engines had improved running gear however due to their adjustable leaf springs and centre axle box. The last engine of this class, EXPANSION No. 15, had a Meyer double rocker (Doppelschwing) valve gear, a larger cylinder bore of 381 mm, higher boiler pressure of 5.0 bar and 101 heating tubes.

The Jeep Wrangler (TJ) is the second generation of the Jeep Wrangler off-road and sport utility vehicle. Introduced in 1996 as a 1997 model, the TJ reintroduced the circular headlights the classic Jeep models had been known for. Contrary to the original Willys MB, the CJ Jeeps, and the Wrangler (YJ), starting with the TJ all Wranglers were fitted with coil spring suspension instead of leaf-springs. In 2004 the name Unlimited was introduced for the long-wheelbase version.

The covered goods wagons of classes Glrhs Dresden and Gltrhs Dresden were first placed in service in Germany by the Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft in 1937. The wartime (Kriegsbauart) wagon, the DRB Glmhs Leipzig, and the wartime passenger wagon, the DRB MCi-43, were based on the Dresden classes. The vehicles were of welded design and could be used in trains travelling at up to . The suspension comprised nine-layered leaf springs with a length of and a cross section of .

The Palmerston had a 6-9 hp Coventry-Victor water cooled, flat twin engine driving the rear wheels through a cone clutch, separately mounted three-speed gearbox and bevel geared rear axle. The brakes acted on the rear wheels using a hand lever with the foot brake operating a transmission brake on the drive shaft behind the gearbox. The steel section chassis had quarter-elliptic leaf springs front and rear. The early cars had wire spoked wheels later replaced by steel disc type.

The Sd.Kfz. 250 also inherited the track- sparing but more complicated rollers in place of the more commonplace toothed sprockets. The track ran on four double roadwheels overlapping and interleaved in the so-called Schachtellaufwerk design used by nearly all German half- tracked vehicles, mounted on swing arms sprung by torsion bars, track tension being maintained by an idler wheel, mounted at the rear. The front wheels had transversely mounted leaf springs and shock absorbers (the only ones fitted) to dampen impacts.

The in-line six cylinder, overhead valve, 4,257 cc engine was based on that of the 25/30 but featured a cross-flow cylinder head. The four-speed gearbox had synchromesh on second, third and fourth speeds and retained the traditional right hand change. The later engines were used as the basis for the Bentley MK V and the Corniche. The Wraith featured an independent coil sprung front suspension based on a Packard 120 retaining semi elliptical leaf springs on the rear axle.

The substantial chassis has semi elliptic leaf springs and rigid axles front and rear. The engine, with fixed cylinder head and bore of 95 mm and stroke of 140 mm, drives the rear wheels via a multi-plate clutch and four speed transmission separated from the engine. The engine, clutch and transmission are mounted on a sub frame. There are no brakes on the front wheels but the car has a transmission brake immediately behind the gearbox operated by the foot pedal.

The specifications of the M5 were almost identical to the specifications of the M3 half-track. It was 20.8 feet (6.3 m) long, 7.3 feet (2.23 m) wide, 9 feet (2.74 m) high, and weighed 21,500 pounds (9.8 t). It had vertical volute springs for the tracks and semi-elliptical longitudal leaf springs for the wheels. It was powered by a 142 hp (106 kW) White 160AX, 386 cubic inch (6,330 cc), 6-cylinder engine, with a compression ratio of 6.35:1.

The Mayflower used a version of the pre-war Standard Flying Ten's side-valve engine updated with an aluminium cylinder head and single Solex carburettor. The engine developed at 4200 rpm. The 3-speed gearbox, with column shift, came from the Standard Vanguard and had synchromesh on all the forward ratios. There was independent suspension at the front using coil springs and telescopic dampers, but a solid axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs, also based on the Vanguard's design, was at the rear.

A three-speed gearbox is used, connected to the engine via a short shaft and a leather cone clutch is used. The car has a top speed of . There is a transmission brake fitted behind the gearbox operated by foot pedal and internal expanding drum brakes on the back axle operated by the handbrake lever. Springing is by semi-elliptic leaf springs on both front and rear axles with an additional crossways helper spring on the rear of some of the cars.

The 1Z was powered by the Tipo 61 4,940 cc side valve, monobloc inline four-cylinder engine delivering at 2,200 rpm. The chassis was a conventional ladder frame with solid axles on semi-elliptic leaf springs; brakes were on the transmission and on the rear wheels. The transmission was a Tipo 105 4-speed manual gearbox with a multi- plate dry clutch. Main differences from the Theta's mechanicals were wider axle tracks, and tyres and metal disc wheels more suited to military use.

The side-valve engine of the KIM-10 had a displacement of 1170 cm³ and produced 30 hp. Its cooling system lacked a water pump, relying on thermocirculation instead, and a thermostat, the latter being quite impractical during cold Russian winters because the engine took a lot of time to warm up. Rear wheels were driven via a 3-speed manual transmission, with synchromesh on II and III (direct drive) gears. Suspension employed transverse leaf springs, both front and rear.

Station wagons continued to use unique model names. The Kingswood Estate wagon was considered to be equivalent to the Chevrolet Caprice being the top-level wagon. Unlike previous years, station wagons used unique rear suspension using a solid axle with leaf springs as opposed to coil springs and trailing arms on sedans and coupes. A clamshell tailgate Wagons featured a 'clamshell' design marketed as the Glide- away tailgate, also called a "disappearing" tailgate because when open, the tailgate was completely out of view.

Ozeki (2007), p. 53 This was meant to compete directly with Nissan's Datsun minitrucks, but it never sold particularly well in its home market and was replaced by the Briska and Hilux following Toyota's takeover of Hino Motors. Conventional mechanical parts were used in the form of leaf springs and four-wheel drum brakes on a ladder frame chassis. Body styles include a pickup (two-door, three seater), a double-cab pickup (four-door, six seater) and a two-door panel van.

The Olympia Show, The Motor Cycle, 27th November 1913, p1591 One model had the air cooled version of the engine, and the other used the water-cooled version. In the original car the drive was to the rear wheels by belts, but the water-cooled version for 1913 had a 3-speed with reverse gearbox, the air-cooled version retaining the belt system. The suspension used half elliptic leaf springs all round. The engine size increased to 1070 cc in 1915.

The suspension consisted of vertical volute springs for the tracks and leaf springs for the wheels, while the vehicle had a fuel capacity of 60 US gallons (230 l). It had a range of and had a speed of 40 mph (64 km/h),Berndt (1993), p. 152. and was powered by a White 160AX, 147 hp (110 kW), 386 in3 (6,330 cc), six-cylinder, gasoline engine, with a compression ratio of 6.3:1. It had a power-to-weight ratio of 15.8 hp/ton.

The fenders, quarter panels, floor and roof contributed to the stiffness of the body shell. A unit wheelbase comparison showed the Valiant to be 95% stiffer in torsion and 50% stiffer in beam than a 1959 Plymouth with separate body-on-frame construction. Dynamic testing showed that high structural resonant frequencies were attained, indicating greater damping and reduced body shake. The front suspension consisted of unequal length control arms with torsion bars, while the rear suspension used a live axle supported by asymmetric leaf springs.

All of Chrysler’s full sized cars, except the Imperial, received major makeovers for the 1965 model year. They were the work of Chief of Design, Elwood Engel, who was hired away from Ford Motor Company a few years earlier. The unitized body and chassis, with longitudinal front torsion bars and rear leaf springs carried over from the prior generation. Automatic transmission equipped cars dropped the dashboard pushbutton shift control, and converted to the new industry standard PRNDL sequence shift lever, either column or floor mounted.

The suspension used semi- elliptic leaf springs in both the front and rear as well as fitted friction type dampers. Brakes were only provided on the rear wheels. The drum-type brakes were 220 mm diameter (increased to 225 mm in 1928), and were operated by foot-pedal, which differed from the hand-lever operation employed in both the CS and CC automobiles. Standard equipment was ample for the period, consisting of a speedometer with recording odometer, an ammeter, and the dashboard incorporating lighting.

The side members rose over the rear axle and were not underslung like the Consort. The suspension was independent at the front using coil springs but retained traditional leaf springs and live axle at the rear. Automatic chassis lubrication continued to be fitted, operating "thermostatically every time the engine warm(ed) up", and the propeller-shaft centre bearing was "prepacked with grease" so did not require lubrication. However, the propeller shaft itself was not served by the system and four grease points required "attention every 1,000 miles".

The first generation of the large Farinas was introduced with the Austin A99 Westminster, with the Wolseley 6/99 following shortly after in 1959 to replace the 6/90. It used the same 2.9 L (2912 cc) C-Series straight-6, , twin SU carburettor engine from the Austin-Healey 3000. The suspension was the conventional BMC arrangement of coil springs and wishbones at the front with a live axle and semi elliptic leaf springs at the rear. An anti-roll bar was fitted at the front.

The Burraq MRAP is powered by an Isuzu NPS-75 engine delivering 150 horsepower (110 kW). The Isuzu NPS-75 engine originally drives a manual transmission with an option of automatic transmission also. Capable of manual and automatic power-shifting, the transmission has 5 forward and 1 reverse speed(s). The suspension consists of hydraulic dampers and leaf springs with telescopic shock absorbers, which provide a stable firing platform while the vehicle is moving at speed over rough terrain particularly in North-West Pakistan.

Thompson, p. 67 The ZIM's compression ratio was increased to 6.7:1, but it was still able to employ the 70 octane petrol (gasoline) common in the Soviet Union; this, plus an improved intake manifold and twin-choke (two-barrel) carburetor, was responsible for the increased power. The front suspension was by coil springs, with leaf springs at the rear, and hydraulic shock absorbers. It had drum brakes at all four corners. Despite lacking power steering, the 18.2:1 ratio steering box made turning fairly easy.

Leaf springs and hinged friction blades on CRREL drill used to drill at Byrd Station in Antarctica from 1966 to 1968 The two main requirements of an anti-torque system are that it should prevent rotation of the sonde, and it should allow easy movement of the drill up and down the borehole.Talalay et al. (2014), p. 211. Attempts have been made to design drills with counter-rotating components so that overall torque is minimized, but these have had limited success.Wehrle (1985), pp. 196–198.

The 170 was the first Mercedes with all- round independent suspension. There was no full width axle at the front, the wheels being suspended from two transverse leaf springs. At the back there were two half swing-axles. The suspension lay-out, which minimized unsprung mass and provided a high level of stability, was subsequently introduced across the entire Mercedes-Benz range, giving the cars a quality of comfort and safety that competitors using the then common combination of rigid axles and leaf springing could not match.

Carved ivory dentures from the 18th century. Left is lower/mandibular; upper/maxillary is at right. Pierre Fauchard described the construction of dentures using a metal frame, animal bone teeth, and leaf springs in 1728. As early as the 7th century BC, Etruscans in northern Italy made partial dentures out of human or other animal teeth fastened together with gold bands. The Romans had likely borrowed this technique by the 5th century BC. Wooden full dentures were invented in Japan around the early 16th century.

The initial engine was the carry-over four-stroke, 358 cc inline-four from the B360. The engine was changed to the Chantez' 359 cc water-cooled, two-stroke two-cylinder in April 1973, which brought with it some cosmetic changes (KBAA/KBAAV). In 1975 the Porter was modified to fit new, larger license plates and the engine downgraded to to match new, stricter emissions regulations. The wheelbase was with leaf springs in the rear, weight was and maximum cargo capacity was when first introduced.

The rear suspension employed a live axle supported on leaf springs with short radius rods. MacPherson struts were featured at the front in combination with rack and pinion steering (sourced from the Ford Escort) which employed a steering column that would collapse in response to a collision. The initial reception of the car was broadly favourable. In the June 1970 edition of the Monthly Driver's Gazette, tester Archie Vicar wrote of the gearchange that it was "...in Ford fashion easy to operate but not very jolly".

GSM Flamingo advert The Flamingo coupé was produced by GSM from 1962. The original intention was to use a forthcoming Ford V6 but it did not appear in time and so it was initially powered by a 1.7-litre Ford Taunus engine and later by the 1.5-litre Ford Cortina (non-crossflow) engine. Although similar in appearance, the Flamingo is a very different car. The front suspension replaced the transverse leaf springs of the Dart with two wishbones compressing Mini rubber cones, and later small coil springs.

The gear change lever was mounted directly on the gearbox. Suspension (for each side) consisted of two bogies, four rubber- covered return rollers, a track driving wheel and a track idler. Each bogie consisted of a cast box with four twin rubber-covered road wheels connected by balancing levers and two one-quarter elliptic leaf springs. The cast track driving wheel with removable sprocket ring was located in front, and the track idler with a crank lever tightener was located at the rear of the vehicle.

The synchronised four-speed gearbox (which would be called later 3 + E by VW) is accommodated in front of the rear axle, the balance being provided by coil springs. The front axle was equipped with two transverse leaf springs. The car was sold as a sedan, an open-top sedan or a convertible (with and without cabrio cover and without side windows), each being fitted with two doors. Due to its extreme unbalance (⅔ of the mass on the rear axle), the car had very awkward handling.

A single camshaft per cylinder bank was standard for the Lampredi V12s, unlike dry sump lubrication adopted for the last of the 'long- block' powered models: the 375 Plus and the 410 S. Although the wheelbase on the 375 Plus and its predecessor, the 375 MM, was the same at , the chassis was of a new type 505. Also created of a steel tubes, elliptical in section. The front suspension was the same as on the previous models, independent with unequal-length wishbones and transverse leaf springs.

The 346 was the first of the Sapphires introduced late in 1952 for sale in 1953 and continuing until 1958. The six-cylinder 3,435 cc engine had hemi-spherical combustion chambers and could have optional twin Stromberg carburettors(£25 extra) which increased the output from 125 to 150 bhp (93 to 112 kW) giving a top speed in excess of . The front suspension was independent coil springs with a rigid axle and leaf springs at the rear. The Girling hydraulic brakes used drums all round.

The cars were initially built in small numbers for competition use, but they were exhibited and offered for road use at the 1927 Paris Motor Show. They used a front-wheel-drive system featuring Grégoire's patented Tracta constant-velocity joint and sliding pillar independent front suspension and a live axle with quarter-elliptic leaf springs at the rear. 1100, 1200, 1500 and 1600 cc engines made by S.C.A.P. were available with optional Cozette supercharger. The 1500 cc car was claimed to reach 80 mph.

The four-wheel chassis featured all round independent suspension using transverse leaf springs. The car was deliberately simple, there was no electric starter, the fuel tank was mounted above the engine with gravity feed and the windscreen wipers were hand operated. It was available as an open two- seater and, unusually for a light car, as a closed 3-seater. Production stopped on the outbreak of the Second World War, with a claimed 250 made, with cars exported to the Netherlands, New Zealand and South Africa.

A new smoother single plate spring-drive clutch was now fitted, the two friction rings carried by the centre plate were held apart by leaf springs. Other changes included Girling brakes with wedge and roller shoe expansion and balance lever compensation using operating rods in tension with automatic compensation between front and rear brakes all four of which might be applied by hand or foot. Drums were now 9 inches diameter. 16-inch steel disc wheels replaced the 18-inch wires Top speed rose to .

At full load, the vehicle had a power-to-weight ratio of 160 kg/kW. To avoid further bad criticism, Goliath offered replacing the air-cooled engine with a passively thermosiphon-cooled one for free. The Goli had a U-profile ladderframe, a control arm with a quarter elliptical spring for its front wheel, a solid rear axle with progressive leaf springs, a worm drive steering system, a hydraulic three wheel braking system, a parking brake for the rear wheels, and an all-steel cab.

The Armstrong Siddeley Typhoon is a two-door, four-seat fixed-head coupé automobile produced by the British company Armstrong Siddeley from 1946 to 1949. It was based on the Armstrong Siddeley Lancaster saloon and continued the company's theme of naming cars after Hawker Siddeley World War II aircraft. The chassis had independent front suspension using longitudinal torsion bars and a live rear axle with leaf springs. A Girling hydro- mechanical braking system was fitted, with the front drums hydraulically operated while those at the rear used rod and cable.

5.5:1 was by far the most popular and 6:1 was the standard for bus versions built for Bristol Omnibus Company Ltd. The vehicle was built to the contemporaneous legal maximum limits of size, namely and . When regulations allowed longer () and wider (8 ft in or 2.5 m) vehicles, BCV did not extend this chassis and moved to a new concept with a rear engine. Despite this, as late as 1962, an option was designed to incorporate major modifications to the chassis to fit air springs instead of the traditional multi-leaf springs.

The transmission was integral to the engine block. The car had independent Dubonnet suspension with integral shock absorber at front, with a live axle on semi-elliptic leaf springs and hydraulic shock absorbers at the rear. As Mille Miglia regulations required that racing car chassis be based on production models, the AAC 815's chassis was also derived from the Fiat 508 C Balilla. The bodywork was done by Carrozzeria Touring using Itallumag 35, an aluminium/magnesium alloy, and was done in long, flowing forms with integrated wings.

Moskvitch cars were sturdy, reliable on substandard roads and were offered at low cost. Demand always exceeded production, so people in the Soviet Union had to wait a long time for a new car. Until the 1980s all Moskvitch cars were compact rear-wheel drive saloons and estates with solid rear axles suspended by leaf springs. The Moskvitch was also produced in Bulgaria (see Moskvitch (Bulgaria)) between 1966 and 1990 on the basis of complete knock down (CKD) kits. Models 408, 408I, 412, 21412 "Aleko", total of 304,297 cars.

The most popular 365 model was 1967's 365 GT 2+2, replacing the 330 GT 2+2. Unlike the 330 GT 2+2 car it replaced, which had a live rear axle on leaf springs, the 365 GT 2+2 had independent rear suspension. The 365 GT 2+2 was a luxurious car with leather seats, power steering and brakes, electric windows, and optional air conditioning. It quickly became the company's top-selling model with about 800 produced in four years, 52 of which were right hand drive.

A number of sources claim that the Belgian T-13 B3 tank destroyer (or Type 3) was based on the Light Dragon Mark IIB. It seems that a single vehicle was purchased for trials (being cheaper than an entire tank), but the resulting production vehicle bears almost no resemblance to the Dragon. As photographs clearly show, the bogie suspension was changed from coil springs to leaf springs to cope with the extra weight of the turret. The tracks were strengthened; the upper body is completely different; and a more powerful engine was fitted.

Steyr 120 Super Convertible (1935) The 120 series cars were equipped with a six-cylinder in-line engine (as opposed to the four-cylinder Steyr 100) driving the rear wheels via a four-speed transmission. Front wheels had a transverse leaf spring suspension while the rear swing axle was mounted on quarter-elliptic leaf springs. On the four-door sedan model the rear doors were hinged at the back-end (known as suicide doors), allowing the B-pillar to be omitted. By 1936 a total of 1200 Steyr 120 Super had been produced.

During World War II, Champions were coveted for their high mileage at a time when gas was rationed in the United States. From 1943–1945, the Champion engine was used as the powerplant for the Studebaker M29 Weasel personnel and cargo carrier, which also used four sets of the Champion's leaf springs arranged transversely for its bogie suspension. The Champion was phased out in 1958 in preparation for the introduction of the 1959 Studebaker Lark. Prior to this, Studebaker had been placed under receivership, and the company was attempting to return to a profitable position.

For the first time in a Rootes car MacPherson strut suspension featured at the front, with a conventional live axle mounted on leaf springs at the rear. Other firsts for Rootes in the new car were curved side glass and flow-through ventilation. Manual transmissions were available in four-speed form with an optional Laycock de Normanville overdrive, or Borg-Warner automatic transmission, again as an option. Initially, the Borg Warner Type 35 3-speed automatic was offered, then the Type 45 four-speed automatic became available in 1973.

The 1981 VAM Lerma was available as a single edition and carried a VAM I6 engine with Motorcraft two-barrel carburetor, 8.0:1 compression ratio and 266 degree camshaft designed by VAM's engineering department. It was rated at at 3900 rpm and torque of of torque at 2200 rpm. The only transmission was the Chrysler Torque-Flyte A998 three-speed automatic with 3.07 rear differential gear ratio. Suspension consisted of a front independent design with coil springs with stiff shocks and front sway bar while the rear design incorporated leaf springs with stiff shock absorbers.

For the 1965 model year, the full-size Ford platform underwent a complete redesign. While sharing the 119-inch wheelbase of the previous generation, Ford redesigned the frame and suspension in an effort to upgrade ride and handling. The longitudinal rear leaf springs (used since 1949) were replaced by a three-link coil-sprung live rear axle, becoming the first full-size American car fitted with four-wheel coil springs. In modified form, the design was used through the production of the 1979-2012 Panther chassis (and the Ford Aerostar van).

Behind the engine there is a dry single- plate clutch and six-speed gearbox that was made by ZF. The vehicle is equipped with a two-step reduction gear that doubles the number of gears. Both axles are rigid and driven and equipped with air S cam drum brakes. Suspension is carried out by leaf springs and the front axle has hydraulic dampers. The axle load is nearly even and the frame allows torsional bending which helps the wheels keeping their contact on ground also on rough terrain.

Rolls-Royce Phantom II frame The chassis of the Phantom II was completely new. The front axle was mounted on semi-elliptical leaf springs as on earlier 40/50 hp models, but the rear axle was now also mounted on semi-elliptical springs instead of cantilever springs. This, along with the drivetrain changes, allowed the frame to be lower than before, improving the handling. The 4-wheel servo-assisted brakes from the Phantom I were continued, and the Bijur centralized lubrication system from the Springfield-built Phantom I was included on all Phantom II chassis.

The Aston Martin Le Mans was a two or four seat sports car made by Aston Martin between 1932 and 1934. Aston Martin's single-overhead-cam engine with a Bore/Stroke of 69.3 mm x 99 mm, had first been seen in the 1927 models, was highly efficient and now had an output of at 4750 rpm from 1.5 litres, an outstanding development by early 1930s standards. Twin Horizontal SU carburettors were fitted. The aluminium body was mounted on a separate steel chassis which had beam axles front and rear with semi-elliptic leaf springs.

In 1965, a 240 cubic-inch inline-six became the optional engine, with the 170 six becoming standard. A three-speed manual was standard, with a Dagenham four- speed manual introduced for 1963 and discontinued in 1964; the 170 cubic-inch engine was offered with a 3-speed automatic in 1964 and the larger two engines were both offered with a 3-speed automatic as an option thereafter. In contrast to the Falcon, the Econoline was fitted with a solid front axle and a solid rear axle suspension with leaf springs for all four wheels.

Big Tyre Pty Ltd in Australia is developing a "non- pneumatic, non-solid wheel", which is designed to handle high working loads, such as those found in underground mines. The wheel utilizes multiple arrays of concentric leaf springs to distribute force evenly across the wheel. A prototype of the wheel was built in 2011, and has been tested on an Eimco 936 underground loader. In 1938, J. V. Martin in the United States invented a safety tire with hoops of hickory encased in rubber and fitted with crisscross spokes of ribbed rubber.

78 The corrugated rubber walls of the boots add a degree of isolation of horizontal wheel-rail vibrations, and are insulators of the track signal circuit in the humid tunnel environment. UIC60 (60 kg/m) rails of 900A grade rest on rail pads, which fit the RN/Sonneville bolted dual leaf-springs. The rails, LVT-blocks and their boots with pads were assembled outside the tunnel, in a fully automated process developed by the LVT inventor, Mr. Roger Sonneville. About 334,000 Sonneville blocks were made on the Sangatte site.

The doors, rear hinged, were heavily cut away at the top and the windscreen could be folded flat. The 2993 cc engine was slightly modified to produce with a single SU carburettor replacing the Solex one used on the saloon. The TA 21 suspension was retained, independent at the front using coil springs with leaf springs at the rear. As the car was lighter than the TA 21 the final drive ratio was changed from 4.09:1 to 3.77:1 helping to increase the top speed and improving economy.

Conceptually it was the most modern of Röhr's Adlers, with front wheel drive and independent front suspension using two overlapping transversely mounted leaf springs. The rear suspension was also inventively thought through. The rack and pinion steering was in effect the system originally used for the 1927 Röhr 8. The characteristic Röhr underslung chassis permitted a low centre of gravity and above-average road holding and, while giving the car a far more modern and dynamic look than the new competitor offering from Opel which also appeared in 1934.

In contrast to the Zephyr (and in a massive change from the K-Series Lincoln), the hood sat nearly level with the fenders. To focus on the styling of the car, the chrome trim on the car was largely restricted to the grille; instead of door handles, pushbuttons opened the doors. As with the Lincoln-Zephyr, the prototype was fitted with a 267 cubic-inch V12 engine; it was fitted with front and rear transverse leaf springs and hydraulic drum brakes. The design would introduce two long-running features used in many American automobile designs.

The Doblò uses Fiat Strada's platform, in turn derived from the Fiat Palio's one, using a rigid axle with leaf springs at the rear, instead of a torsion beam with coil springs as on the Palio. It is manufactured by Fiat's Tofaş subsidiary factory in Bursa, Turkey, in Brazil since 2002 and in Russia and Vietnam. Turkish models have an engine range that includes a 1.4 litre petrol, a 1.9 litre MultiJet, and a 16 valve 1.3 litre MultiJet. In North Korea, Pyonghwa Motors produces Doblò branded as its own name Ppeokkugi.

The engine was mated to an all-synchromesh 4-speed manual transmission with floor-mounted shifter. Neither an automatic or different engine options were offered. (technical data for 1970/71 models) Suspension was as on the Primula. At the front it consisted of A-arms and an upper transverse leaf spring, which doubled both as upper link and an anti-roll bar, as well as providing the attachment point for double-acting hydraulic dampers; at the rear there was a beam axle on longitudinal semi-elliptic leaf springs, plus double-acting hydraulic dampers.

The rear suspension was also upgraded, the rigid axle with leaf springs being replaced by a more modern dependent suspension system known as the "Omega axle", consisting of a non-straight rigid axle with a central mounting and coil springs (first seen on the Lancia Y10, which used the same platform). The 4x4 retained the leaf- sprung live axle set-up. The body was strengthened and fully-galvanised on later models, virtually eliminating the earlier car's notable tendency to rust. Rear quarter panels received wheel arches mirroring the front fender/wing wheel arches.

The second- generation Ford Granada is based on the rear-wheel drive Ford Fox platform, sharing its 105.5-inch wheelbase with the Ford Fairmont and Mercury Zephyr. In the shift from the Ford Falcon chassis (dating from 1960) to the Fox chassis, the suspension and steering systems were modernized. In line with all Fox- platform vehicles, the second-generation Granada used MacPherson strut front suspension (replacing short/long-arm suspension) with a coil-sprung live rear axle (replacing leaf springs). A rack-and-pinion steering system was introduced, replacing the previous recirculating-ball system.

The innovations did not end with the car's layout and body design. In an era where almost everything on the road had rigid axles with leaf springs, the Scarab featured independent suspension using coil springs on all four corners, providing a smoother, quieter ride. The rear- engine-induced weight bias coupled to the coil spring suspension and "Oil Shock Absorbers" endowed the Scarab with "Smooth Riding and Easy Steering on Rough Roads", if not very good handling and traction. The rear swing axle suspension with long coil spring struts was inspired by aircraft landing gear.

The driveline comprised a dry multi-plate clutch, a four-speed gearbox and a one-piece propeller shaft, spinning inside a tube attached to the rear differential housing. At its open end, towards the gearbox, this tube forked out into two ends which, linked to the chassis, located the rear axle. The gearbox was positioned towards the middle of the chassis, almost underneath the driver, rather than in block with the engine—to which it was connected by a short prop shaft. Front and rear solid axles were sprung on longitudinal semi-elliptic leaf springs.

A cross deck pendant milliseconds after an aircraft nose-wheel passes over it. The arched supports are leaf springs that raise the pendant above the flight deck. A normal arrestment is accomplished when the arresting hook of an incoming aircraft engages one of the deck pendants. When a landing aircraft engages a deck pendant, the force of the forward motion of the landing aircraft is transferred to a purchase cable which is routed via sheaves to the arresting engine, located in a machinery room below the flight deck or on either side of the runway.

Sharp edges on the leaf springs catch in the walls and provide the necessary resistance to prevent this part of the drill from rotating. At the point where the cable connects to the sonde, most drills include a slip ring, to allow the drill to rotate independently of the cable. This is to prevent torque damage to the cable if the anti-torque system fails. Coring drills may also have a weight that can be used as a hammer to assist in breaking the core, and a chamber for any instrumentation or sensors needed.

Dyna Junior rear three-quarter view The Dyna Junior would use two versions of the Dyna X chassis over the course of its production history. Early Juniors used the X86 chassis from the Dyna X 120 while later models used the X87 chassis from the Dyna X 130. This platform gave the Junior a wheelbase of and front and rear tracks of . The front suspension was independent with upper and lower transverse leaf springs, while the rear was a rigid trailing axle with a central pivot and torsion bars.

It was a two-door convertible that weighed under . Initially offered at US$325 for a two-passenger coupe or $350 for a four-passenger sedan,The two models were essentially the same car, except the sedan had rear side windows. the Crosley cars were cheaper than the nearest competition, the American Austin Car Company's American Bantam, which sold for $449 to $565. The Crosley car's chassis had an wheelbase and used beam axles with leaf-springs (half-elliptic springs in front, and quarter- elliptic springs in the rear).

The front wheels were suspended on two transverse leaf springs, as well as the rear pendulum on a swing axle. All four wheels were mechanically braked; the handbrake also worked on all four wheels. The fuel consumption of the Hansa 400 was 29 MPG (8 l/100 km) of two- stroke fuel, that of the Hansa 500 was 27 MPG (8.5 l/100 km). That was rather mediocre for such a small car; the 1934 Hansa 1100 managed 24 MPG (9.5 l/100 km) of regular gasoline, while being significantly larger and more powerful.

The Goliath F400 is a three-wheeled pickup transporter, made by Hansa-Lloyd and Goliath Company Borgward & Tecklenborg in Bremen, Germany which was sold under the brand Goliath. It was based on the three-wheeled passenger car Goliath Pionier with a closed timber-framed wood cab. Unlike the Pionier, a three-wheel microcar, the rear of the F400 a longer box as panel van or a framed flatbed as pickup truck was installed. The rear axle was set on leaf springs, but the engine position continued to be installed under the seat.

Renault R35: the hatch at the back of the turret is clearly visible To save time, Renault based the suspension and running gear on that of the AMR 35 that was designed for the cavalry. It had five wheels at each side, fitted with horizontal leaf springs, like the AMC 35. The hull, with a length of 4.02 m, consisted of three cast modules, with a maximum armour thickness of 43 millimetres, that were bolted together. Total weight was 10.6 metric tonnes (9.8 tonnes without fuel and ammunition).

The T19 Howitzer Gun Motor Carriage was similar to the M3 Half-track, as it shared the same chassis, engine, suspension, armor, and fuel tank. It was 20 ft 2 in long, 7 ft 3.5 in wide, 7 ft 8 in high, with a weight of 9.54 short tons. The suspension consisted of semi-elliptical longitudinal leaf springs for the wheels and vertical volute springs for the tracks. It was powered by a White 160AX, 147 hp, 386 in3, six-cylinder gasoline engine with a compression ratio of 6.3:1.

Land Rover and Santana Motor Company ended their non-competitive agreement with Land Rover in 1983. The newer Land Rover 110 and 90 were, in some markets, directly competing against Santana's for the first time. Santana's continued to offer a more robust platform with leaf springs (instead of coil springs found on defender models) and heavier-duty axels. The two companies continued to share most components and coordinate global sales in certain markets, with Santana continuing to sell to South America, Central America, Spain, and parts of Africa.

The front torsion bar suspension was retained, but the multi-leaf springs in the rear were replaced by coil springs. In addition, the Toronado introduced as a novelty what later became a federal mandate in a modified form, two high-mounted taillights above the trunk and below the rear window, which was shared on its platform twin the Riviera.Flory, J. "Kelly", Jr. American Cars 1960–1972 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Coy, 2004), p.841. These taillights mirrored brake and turn functions of the normal taillights, but not the nighttime taillights.

Ticket hall in February 2011 looking towards Uxbridge High Street entrance following refurbishment The station was designed by Charles Holden with L H Bucknell and features a red-brick facade with paired sculptures by Joseph Armitage over the entrance, representing stylised "winged wheels" with leaf springs. A tall concrete canopy arches over the tracks with a row of clerestory windows above the platforms. The canopy at Uxbridge is similar to the one at Cockfosters, the terminus at the other end of the Piccadilly line. The station is below street level in a cutting.

The car was powered by a 8 (RAC)hp Ford sidevalve engine. The little Ford was available in two- and four-door versions. In June 1935, a reduced specification two-door model was the only closed-body car ever to sell in Britain for just £100, a price it held until July 1937. The suspension was by the traditional Ford transverse leaf springs front and rear and the engine drove the rear wheels through a three-speed gearbox which, right from the start, featured synchromesh between the top two ratios.

It was tested until 8 May. This vehicle also closely resembled the Renault UE, but had a higher roof, making hoods unnecessary and enlarging the cargo space. Its suspension had two bogies per side with each two road wheels, sprung by leaf springs. The type, its submission too late because a choice had already been made for a rivalling type, was rejected because its mechanical parts were not easily accessible and the vibration level was too high. Berliet obtained an order for a prototype on 4 December 1936.

The chassis of Majestic Major was an evolution of the design introduced in 1937 with the Daimler New Fifteen. As with the New Fifteen and several derivatives in between,Other models with these features include the Eighteen, the Consort, the Regency, the One-O-Four, and the Sportsman. the Majestic Major had a cruciform-braced box- section frame with conventional coil-sprung independent front suspension and a live rear axle on semi-elliptic leaf springs. As with the Majestic, there were four-wheel Dunlop disc brakes with a vacuum servo.

This is made more effective if a pair of driving wheels is able to make the most of its axle load, i.e. its individual share of the adhesive weight. Equalising beams connecting the ends of leaf springs have often been deemed a complication in Britain, however, locomotives fitted with the beams have usually been less prone to loss of traction due to wheel-slip. Suspension using equalizing levers between driving axles, and between driving axles and trucks, was standard practice on North American locomotives to maintain even wheel loads when operating on uneven track.

The chassis was similar to that used on the A-type and used semi elliptic leaf springs and rigid axles front and rear and was available in a choice of two wheelbases of or . The side-valve engine had a bore of 90 mm and stroke of 120 mm and produced an output of 30 bhp. On later cars the capacity increased to 5013 cc. Drive was to the rear wheels via a multi-plate clutch and four-speed transmission separated from the engine by a short shaft.

Two leaf springs, above and below the knurled adjusting knob, help unlock the jaw when pressure on the handle of the wrench is released. Pipe wrenches are not intended for regular use on hex nuts or other fittings. However, if a hex nut becomes rounded (stripped) so that it cannot be moved by standard wrenches, a pipe wrench can be used to free the bolt or nut, because the pipe wrench is designed to bite into rounded metal surfaces. Pipe wrenches are classified by the length of the handle.

This allowed customers to order a rolling chassis and have a body custom-built to their own specifications by a coachbuilder. The side rails of the frame were reinforced by x-braced crossmembers. The rear wheels were driven through a Hotchkiss drive system modified with control arms linking the rear axle casing to pivot points on the frame located directly above the true pivot of the leaf springs. These arms controlled the lateral movement of the rear axle without distorting the normal action of the springs, and allowed freedom in the vertical and longitudinal directions.

Flint Road-Cart Company road-cart at the Sloan Museum In 1886 William C. Durant rode in a friend's spring- suspensionThe seat with attached footrest was supported above the axle by long cantilevers. The cantilevers which freely pivoted on their fulcrum were supported by leaf springs fixed to the shafts. road-cart built by the Coldwater Road-Cart Company of Coldwater, Michigan. Impressed with the smoothness of the ride Durant went to Coldwater and bought the road-cart's patent and manufacturing rights from Schmedlin and O'Brien for $1500.

Only 6 months after the Rebel's launch in 1965, it was relaunched as the Rebel Deluxe (but never actually using this name again). The car was updated with a new dashboard design using different instruments, thicker seats for greater comfort and five leaf springs in the rear instead of seven for a softer ride. The top half of the grill was deleted completely and filled in smooth, orange front indicators replaced the original clear units and a unique steering wheel was added. This model in later years was simply named the Rebel 600.

The first car of 1912 was a small two-seater bullnosed cyclecar and had a 1,099 cc twin-cylinder or 1,074 cc four-cylinder engine made by Alpha of Coventry driving the rear wheels via a three-speed-and-reverse gearbox and a countershaft from which two V-belts went to the rear wheels. The engine could be started from the driving seat using a mechanical linkage. The channel section steel chassis was placed under the axles with suspension by semi-elliptic leaf springs. This arrangement allowed the car to have a low, sporting appearance.

After the war in 1919 a larger car was developed and the company name changed to Airedale. This new model was rated at 12 hp and had a 1795 cc four-cylinder overhead-valve Dorman KNO engine with Zenith carburettor producing at 1500 rpm. Drive to the rear wheels was through a four-speed gearbox and plate clutch. The car had a wheelbase of and overall length of with conventional half elliptic leaf springs all round. It seems to have also been known as the 12/24 and 11.9 hp.

The parabolic suspension system can be regarded as a cost-effective compromise between the simplicity and load carrying ability of leaf springs and the better comfort and axle articulation (and thus off-road ability) of coil springs. The Massif is built as a body-on-frame construction with a ladder chassis, rather than a monocoque construction which is now common with most modern 4×4s. The chassis is based on the chassis used for the Iveco Daily van range. This layout is another similarity with Land Rover’s Defender.

Tubes in the USA typically had from four to seven pins in a circular array, with adjacent pairs of larger pins for heater connections. Before AC line/mains-powered radios were developed, some four-pin tubes (in particular, the very common UX-201A ('01A)) had a bayonet pin on the side of a cylindrical base. The socket used that pin for retaining the tube; insertion finished with a slight clockwise turn. Leaf springs, essentially all in the same plane, pressed upward on the bottoms of the pins, also keeping the bayonet pin engaged.

C-Series pickups included two-wheel drive and featured an independent front suspension (IFS) system with contoured lower control "A" arms and coil springs. GM's new Load Control rear suspension system took up residence in the back. The Load Control rear suspension system consisted of a rear live axle with dual stage Vari-Rate multi-leaf springs and asymmetrical (offset) shock absorber geometry, to help sort out any "wheel hop" under heavy loads or hard acceleration. K-Series pickups included either Conventional, Permanent, or Shift-on-the-move four-wheel drive.

This new smaller car employed a conventional steel reinforced (with flitch plates) wooden chassis with half elliptic leaf springs front and rear supporting the car on rigid axles. The forward end of the springs are fixed rigidly to the chassis frame, the rear ends slide within brackets. The right pedal applies iron-lined external bands on the rear brake drums through levers and horizontal shafts. The left pedal first releases the clutch then when moved further the same pedal to ease the gear change applies the brake on the propellor shaft drum behind the gearbox.

For a channel constructed balisong, the main part of each handle is formed from one piece of material. In this handle, a groove is created (either by folding, milling, or being integrally cast) in which the blade rests when the knife is closed. This style is regarded as being stronger than sandwich construction. Some of the blades of traditional butterfly knives in the Philippines were made from steel taken from railroad tracks thus giving them a decent amount of durability and hardness, while others are made from the recycled leaf springs of vehicles.

The car has a top speed of . There is a transmission brake operating on a drum fitted behind the gearbox operated by foot pedal and internal expanding drum brakes on the back axle operated by the handbrake lever. Suspension is by semi-elliptic leaf springs on both front and rear axles with an additional crossways helper spring on the rear. The axle is located by a triangular strut linking axle and chassis and the main drive thrust is transmitted to the car by links between the ends of the axle and forward spring brackets.

The Greater Eight models were built on Hudson's wheelbase "T-Series" chassis riding on solid front and rear axles with semi-elliptic leaf springs and four-wheel mechanical brakes. Power for the 1931 models was supplied by a cast iron L-head inline eight-cylinder (I8) engine producing mated to a three-speed sliding gear manual transmission. The Greater Eight received Hudson's first attempts at having a softer, less rigid styling. The Greater Eight offered a number of stylish features including a fine mesh grille-work that set it apart from other contemporary marques.

Commonwealth bogie as used on BR Mark 1 and CIE Park Royals The Commonwealth bogie was manufactured by the English Steel Corporation under licence from the Commonwealth Steel Company in Illinois, United States. Fitted with SKF or Timken bearings, it was introduced in the late 1950s for all BR Mark 1 vehicles. It was a heavy, cast- steel design weighing about , with sealed roller bearings on the axle ends, avoiding the need to maintain axle box oil levels. The leaf springs were replaced by coil springs (one per wheel) running vertically rather than horizontally.

However, Donald Healey's original plan was to use an even heavier Cadillac V8 engine and the car was designed with an engine bay that allowed a few later owners to convert their cars to V8 power. The chassis was a widened and reinforced Healey Silverstone box-section ladder-type steel frame. Independent front suspension, also Healey Silverstone, was by coil springs, trailing link, and a sway bar. The rear suspension featured Nash's rear end and coil springs replaced the Silverstone’s leaf springs, while the beam axle was located by Panhard rod.

The rear suspension was built by cutting the donor's leaf springs in half, and mounting one left half and one right half behind the cab to suspend and locate the solid rear axle. Contemporary reports praised the Bantam's performance and handling, as well as the fit and finish of the kit car components. Despite these accolades, few Bantams (and indeed few Lotus replicas of any type) were sold in the US in the 1970s and 1980s. Larger, heavier V8-powered sports cars, like the numerous AC Cobra replicas, were more popular, as were kits built on the popular Volkswagen chassis.

Corvette leaf spring commonly refers to a type of independent suspension that utilizes a fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) mono-leaf spring instead of more conventional coil springs. It is named after the Chevrolet Corvette, the American sports car for which it was originally developed and first utilized. A notable characteristic of this suspension configuration is the mounting of the mono-leaf spring such that it can serve as both ride spring and anti-roll spring. In contrast to many applications of leaf springs in automotive suspension designs, this type does not use the spring as a locating link.

The single FRP mono-leaf front spring used on the fourth-generation Corvette is 33 percent of the weight of an equivalent set of coil springs. Comparing FRP to conventional steel leaf springs in similar applications, the weight saved is even greater. The third-generation Corvette offered an optional FRP mono-leaf spring as an alternative to the standard multi-leaf steel spring, the steel spring being replaced by a FRP spring. Volvo claims a weight savings of by using a FRP spring in the rear suspension of its second-generation XC90, compared to designs using coil springs.

Designed by T. C. Pullinger from Darracq, Sunbeam and Humber with Fred Neale from Hillman, and heavily influenced by the Fiat 501, the 10/20 used a straight four, side valve engine of 1460 cc driving the rear wheels through either a three or four speed gearbox in unit with the engine. Suspension was by semi elliptic leaf springs at the front and quarter elliptic springs at the rear. However, the Galloway car had several adaptations to appeal to women drivers. Some, like the introduction of a rear-view mirror and more reliable engine, would be appreciated by all drivers.

The suspension is by double A-arms, manganese bronze trunnion, coil springs and tube shocks at the front, optional anti-roll bar, and with worm and peg steering. Unlike MGs of the same period, the steering mechanism and linkage have considerable play and friction, which increase with wear. The rear is conventional leaf springs, with solid axle and lever arm dampers, except that the (box) frame rails are slung under the axle. The wheels are 15 inches in diameter and 4.5 inches wide (increased from 4 inches after the first few TR2s), with 48-spoke wire wheels optional.

First Glasgow Alexander RV bodied B55 in Bridgeton in August 2005 Trans-Clyde livery in Glasgow in May 1984 London Transport Alexander RV bodied B55 V3 in April 2008 Cardiff Bus Northern Counties bodied B55 in June 2002 The B55 was designed with a front-mounted engine that still allowed a front entrance position suitable for one-person operation. In this sense there was a common goal with the earlier, unsuccessful, Guy Wulfrunian. It was fitted with the Volvo TD70 engine, a compact turbocharged unit of 6.7-litres. The rest of the design was relatively simple, with beam axles and leaf springs.

Other suspension components can be made to act as radius rods under certain conditions. For example, the rear suspension of the original 1966 Oldsmobile Toronado used shock absorbers to connect the rear beam axle to the frame; these shocks controlled longitudinal wheel movement, but their damping action prevented the forces of those movements from being felt by the passengers. On a vehicle with longitudinal leaf springs, such as a Hotchkiss drive suspension, the springs themselves provide some longitudinal wheel control. One or more torque arms may be added to provide supplementary wheel control, particularly for vehicles with strong torque such as drag racers.

These changes included the use of C-channel frame rails (as opposed to the box rails of the CJ-5) and, while the hood was the same dimensions as (and interchangeable with) the CJ, it did not have the reinforced design of the original. Also, the standard configuration had only a driver's seat and a letter tray installed. This decreased curb weight, combined with different leaf springs than other models, allowed carrying more cargo weight behind the driver. The metal side doors were also designed to slide open and closed, and could be locked open while driving.

The raw material for the leaf springs, spring steel flats used to be imported into the country. In the late 60s Kudva felt the need for starting a mini steel plant to manufacture the required spring steel within the country. With this in mind a mini steel plant consisting of a 5 metric tonne electric arc furnace, a vertical continuous casting machine to cast steel billets and a rolling mill was conceptualised. This steel plant was commissioned in Mangalore in 1963, and production of steel started a year later after initial production related problems were sorted out.

Airpsrings, coil-over springs, and leaf-springs are commonly used to provide a restoring force for suspension seats. Motion is attenuated and impact energy is dissipated as heat in a damping chamber that is coupled with the spring mechanism. This combination is intended to enable the seats to reduce impact severity and return to their equilibrium position. Though it is the most common configuration, the axis of travel of the shock-absorber need not be parallel to the axis of travel of the seat surface, and it need not be fixed over the course of its stroke.

The design, which used many commercial components to improve reliability and the rate of production, was standardized in 1940 and built by the Autocar Company, Diamond T Motor Company, and the White Motor Company. With a White 160AX engine, the M3 was driven through a manual constant-mesh (non-synchromesh) transmission with four forward and one reverse gear, as well as a two-speed transfer case. The front suspension uses leaf springs, while the tracks use vertical volute springs. Braking was hydraulic assisted while steering was manual. Onboard electronics run on a 12-volt system.Berndt (1993), p. 152.

Using a Coventry Climax FWA engine, all independent suspension using transverse leaf springs at the rear and a lightweight glass fibre body the car was really a racing car and at £1560 it is doubtful if any were bought just as road cars. The company was losing money and at the end of 1954 Kieft sold the company to racing driver Berwyn Baxter. Kieft Cars left Wolverhampton in 1956 and moved to nearby Birmingham where they concentrated on preparing and tuning other makes of cars. There were plans for a return to making Kieft cars but these failed to materialise.

Rear of pre-facelift Fiat Panda Mechanically the first Pandas shared engines and transmissions with the Fiat 127 and, in certain territories, the air-cooled 652 cc two-cylinder powerplant of the Fiat 126. Rear suspension used a solid axle suspended on leaf springs. Later versions added mechanical improvements while retaining a robust simplicity throughout its model life. Launch models included the Panda 30, powered by a longitudinally-mounted air cooled 652 cc straight-two- cylinder engine derived from the 126, and the Panda 45, with a transversely- mounted water cooled 903 cc (FIAT 100 series) four-cylinder from the 127.

The truck frame rests on the axleboxes via the axlebox suspension, which consists of 4 coil springs per axlebox (2 on each end of each axle). In turn, the truck frame bears the weight of the bolster via the double central suspension; the bolster bears the weight of the car directly. The truck frame is additionally reinforced at the attachment points for the suspension swing links. On early trains, the central suspension incorporated elliptical leaf springs, but from 1965 onward they were replaced with coil springs, which increased the maximum suspension travel from 95 to 120 mm (which reduced the risk of bottoming).

Individual cables are often removed and left "stripped" in order to perform maintenance on other components of the arresting gear during aircraft recoveries (using other, on line, systems). Wire supports raise the deck pendants several inches so that they may be picked up by the tailhook of a landing aircraft. The wire supports on carriers are merely curved steel leaf springs that can flex to allow an aircraft to taxi over the installed deck pendant. On land based systems, "donut" shaped rubber supports raise the cable off the runway surface a minimum of 2 inches (51 mm).

These are mounted vertically, with a curve outwards so that they are easily compressed by the borehole wall, and can slide up and down with the movement of the drill. They pass easily through any areas of irregularity in the borehole, but the edges of the springs cut into the borehole wall and prevent rotation. Leaf springs are very simple mechanically, with the additional benefit of being easy to adjust by changing the spacing between the end points. They can be placed anywhere on the drill that does not rotate, so they do not add length to the sonde.

After building only bottom-end of the market economy cars since its inception, Crosley introduced a little sports car in 1949, the doorless Hotshot roadster. It also featured a largely new, dropped frame – both more low slung, and for the first time with a wheelbase that diverged from all the previous Crosley models' wheelbase by extra. The rear suspension used a combination of coil springs, assisted by single leaf quarter-elliptical leaf-springs that doubled as torque-rods, and the car had disc brakes on all four wheels. The engine was placed behind the front axle, for a front mid-engined layout.

The most striking change was the use of a box drive with large wheels, with a hydraulic pivoting device tower. The vehicle was designed to be equipped with 50mm armour all-round, with 60mm thick armor plates on the front part of the body having a 60 degree vertical inclination on the top and 45 degrees vertical inclination at the bottom. Driving wheels of the PzKpfw III were used with the addition of reinforced output shafts, along with 540mm wide symmetrical tracks with a central ridge. The chassis had six semi-detached rollers 660mm in diameter on the leaf springs.

This was also the first Corona to be sold as a "Toyota" rather than a "Toyopet" in the Japanese domestic market. Corona XX sedan (Australia; facelift) Corona XX sedan (Australia; facelift) All models featured MacPherson strut independent front suspension as well as a four-link trailing arm rear suspension arrangement with a Panhard rod, except for the wagon, which used leaf springs, like the Corolla and Cressida wagons. Disc brakes were fitted as standard equipment on the front of all models. Rear disc brakes were fitted as standard on the 2000GT and 2000SL, which were not available to all international markets.

The taillights were different from both the LeSabre and the Electra in all of these years. The Estate Wagons, as with other GM full-sized wagons during these years, used a rear suspension with multi-leaf springs instead of the coil springs used on other full-sized Buicks, and other full-sized GM cars. The Estate Wagons also featured a new 'clamshell' tailgate design, marketed as the Glide-away Tailgate, where the rear power-operated glass slid up into the roof as the lower tailgate (manually or with power assist), slid into a recess under the cargo floor.

The design of the Super X was a considerable departure from its predecessors at Excelsior. Where earlier Excelsiors had an enclosed primary chain transmitting power from the engine to a separate gearbox, the Super X had the engine and transmission together in a single crankcase, using a helical gear to power the transmission directly from the engine. The Super X also marked the return of leading-link forks on Excelsior motorcycles, which had earlier switched to trailing-link forks similar to those used by Indian but with coil springs instead of Indian's quarter-elliptic leaf springs.

Rassini is a company based in Mexico. It produces vehicle parts such as springs, suspension components, and disc brakes. Formerly known as SANLUIS Rassini is a Mexican company that produce leaf springs, coil springs, rubber bushings and brake discs, drums and hubs. Have three facilities in U.S.A., two are manufacturing facilities and one is a Technical center located in Plymouth MI. In 2000 Rassini open a technical center in Plymouth MI to support customers in NA, in 2001, it opened a plant in Montpelier, Ohio after negotiating with city officials, making it the first Mexican company to set up operations in the state.

The interior featured veneered burr elm woodwork and Connolly leather. The engine produced 190 bhp (142 kW) at 4,750 rpm, achieving 0–60 mph (96 km/h) in 5.9 seconds. Largely due to the rear drum brakes and rear leaf springs, the RV8 was not popular with road testers. The high price of the car put it in direct competition with contemporary rivals from specialist manufacturers such as TVR which offered modern technology and a more up to date driving experience. A large proportion of the limited MG RV8 production went to Japan – 1,579 of the 1,983 produced.

The car employed rack and pinion steering. At the front it had disc brakes, with drum brakes controlled via a dual-line hydraulic system at the rear. Suspension was independent, employing MacPherson struts at the front and an unusual combination of full-width swing axles and half-elliptic leaf springs at the rear. The front suspension was substantially modified after the car's initial presentation: production cars incorporated modified front suspension geometry, a lowered steering ratio and a steering damper, intended to reduce the unusually strong self-centring propensity which was a feature of the pre- production cars originally presented to journalists.

Post war, the Prefect design changed little until replaced in 1952. The headlamps moved into the wings and trafficators were fitted (internally lit semaphores springing out from the door pillars to signal left and right turns), though due to space restrictions these were left out on the Australian-built Ute. Only four-door saloons were available on the home market, the two-door sector being left to the Anglia but some were made for export. The brakes remained mechanically operated using the Girling rod system with drums and the chassis still had transverse leaf springs front and rear.

Cox, p.11 The first cars used the 832 cc side-valve engine from the Triumph Super 7 fitted to an 84 inch wheelbase chassis bought in from Rubery Owen, semi- elliptic leaf springs all round, and the hydraulic brakes and axles from the Triumph.Cox, p.30, p.59 The top speed was only 65 mph (105 km/h),Cox, p.63 which was too slow for serious sporting events: so from 1933 a 1098 cc, overhead-inlet, side-exhaust, four-cylinder, Coventry Climax engine was offered, followed in 1934 by the 1476 cc six-cylinder version of the same engine.

To keep the vehicle centered in the guideway, smaller horizontal tires were attached by leaf springs to the main bogies, one in front and rear of the main axle on either side, for a total of four wheels per bogie. The springs pressed the wheels against metal guide rails on either side of the track, and when the car entered a curved section of the guideway they rotated the bogie so it steered along the curve.Chamberlain, pg. 46 A separate set of wheels was also attached to the bogies, located above them on the end of switch arms.

Second-generation Camaro (1971 SS model shown) Introduced in February 1970, the second-generation Camaro was produced through the 1981 model year, with cosmetic changes made in 1974 and 1978 model years. The car was heavily restyled and became somewhat larger and wider with the new styling. Still based on the F-body platform, the new Camaro was similar to its predecessor, with a unibody structure, front subframe, an A-arm front suspension, and leaf springs to control the solid rear axle. Road & Track picked the 1971 SS350 as one of the 10 best cars in the world in August 1971.

This has an integral single-speed transfer case. All-wheel drive is full-time, with a 30/70 per cent front/rear torque split for on-road driving, and a 50/50 per cent split for off-road driving. All FMTV models are fitted with Meritor beam axles, the ratings and specifications of which have also evolved as the FMTV has developed. Suspension is by a combination of parabolic tapered leaf springs (inverted on the MTV rear bogie), shock-absorbers, and an anti-roll bar for the rear axle/bogie; Two cargo trailers are part of the Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (FMTV).

The bar attaches on either end with pivots that let it swivel upwards and downwards only, so that the axle can move in the vertical plane only. This does not effectively locate the axle longitudinally, therefore it is usually used in conjunction with trailing arms that stabilize the axle in the longitudinal direction. This arrangement is not usually used with a leaf spring suspension, where the springs themselves supply enough lateral rigidity, but only with coil spring suspensions. However, Ford used a similar connected rear axle damper (5th shock) on some Explorers and light trucks with rear leaf springs.

The Corvette C6 featured new bodywork with exposed headlamps, revised suspension geometry, a larger passenger compartment, a larger V8 engine and a higher level of refinement. It is 5.1 inches (13 cm) shorter than the C5, but the wheelbase was increased by 1.2 inches (3 cm). It is also one inch (2.5 cm) narrower. The new LS2 engine has a power output of at 6,000 rpm and of torque at 4,400 rpm. Like the C5, the Corvette C6's suspension consisted of independent unequal- length double wishbones with transverse fiberglass mono-leaf springs and optional magnetorheological dampers.

The LD engines were already shrouded around their flywheel, cooling fan and the cylinder head fins and so there was no longer any need for the distinctive Auto-Truck engine cover or front plate. These late machines also used leaf spring front suspension, where the bearing ring was supported on the engine group by a pair of leaf springs. This gave much better isolation between front wheel bumps and the chassis, but the high unsprung weight, a drawback for all monowheel tractors, meant that they were still not high speed or effective road vehicles. By the mid 1950s, all production was diesel engined.

However, many owners of the Gypsy who constantly complained about the poor fuel consumption never knew about this novel feature. Six times INRC rally champion N. Leelakrishnan in a rally modified Maruti Gypsy in 1993 The two major complaints of the vehicle in the civilian market were poor fuel consumption and poor ride quality especially in the rear seats. The suspension was indeed harsh with live axles and leaf springs all around. It features almost no creature comforts, like power- windows and power-assisted steering. In July 1993, Maruti introduced the "widetrack Gypsy" codenamed "MG410W" replacing the MG410.

In 1987, Chevrolet started building a new generation of CUCV. The US Air Force initially bought small batches of these units, dubbed the CUCV II. Produced through 2001, CUCV IIs were basic civilian Chevrolet C/K, Tahoe, and Suburban units sent to another plant for "militarization" on special order. The trucks were originally white in color with gray vinyl interiors. They received CARC exterior paint (Forest Green, Desert Sand, or 3-color camouflage), a brush bar, a pintle hitch, towing/loading shackles, extra leaf springs to give them a 5/4 ton rating and a host of other small changes.

In line with the prevailing economic directives from the United Kingdom government, the majority of cars were exported. Although based on the 1938 Morris Eight, the car was given a very different external appearance by having a traditional Wolseley bonnet and grille and the boot lid was bottom rather than top hinged. The engine was converted from the side valve original to an overhead valve type and the power output consequently increased from the original to . The suspension was non-independent and used half elliptic leaf springs front and rear and the brakes were drums all round, hydraulically actuated.

The engine was carried in a separate subframe on the ladder type chassis with semi-elliptic leaf springs, a live rear axle of orthodox design and shock absorbers front and rear. A four-speed gearbox with right hand change was fitted driving the rear wheels through a 3.08:1 straight cut bevel rear axle. For 1923 with the OE engine the straight cut back axle gear was replaced by a spiral bevel with a higher 3.3:1 reduction ratio. The chassis and wheelbase were lengthened four inches and the chassis was also strengthened by widening the cross-section of the side rails.

1979 Spirit DL liftback The AMC Spirit was largely a restyled Gremlin, which had been manufactured from 1970 to 1978. Engineering and equipment upgrades introduced on the 1978 Concord carried over to the subcompact Spirit. The suspension system was revised with "soft-ride" mountings for the coil springs over A-arms in the front and the rear live-axle with leaf springs to improve ride and handling. Features included enhanced sound-deadening and corrosion protection as well as lightweight aluminum bumpers, lock-up automatic transmission converter, and higher-compression six-cylinder camshaft and pistons for economy, performance, and emissions.

American carriage showcasing thoroughbrace suspension—note the black straps running across the side of the undercarriage An early form of suspension on ox-drawn carts had the platform swing on iron chains attached to the wheeled frame of the carriage. This system remained the basis for most suspension systems until the turn of the 19th century, although the iron chains were replaced with the use of leather straps called thoroughbraces by the 17th century. No modern automobiles have used the thoroughbrace suspension system. By approximately 1750, leaf springs began appearing on certain types of carriage, such as the Landau.

Galena cat whisker detector used in early crystal radio Precision crystal detector with iron pyrite crystal, used in commercial wireless stations, 1914. The crystal is inside the metal capsule under the vertical needle (right). The leaf springs and thumbscrew allow fine adjustment of the pressure of the needle on the crystal. A crystal detector is an obsolete electronic component used in some early 20th century radio receivers that consists of a piece of crystalline mineral which rectifies the alternating current radio signal and was employed as a detector (demodulator) to extract the audio modulation to produce the sound in the earphones.

The TriAlce took the front frame, the fork and the engine FTAA. The engine, a single cylinder four-stroke 498.4 cm³ with horizontal cylinder cast iron and fly outside, air-cooled and disbursing 13.2 hp at 4000 rev / min. The power, in the fall, is guaranteed by the carburetor Dell'Orto MC 26 F. The transmission is the primary helical gear, the secondary roller chain, with gearbox 4-speed and multi-plate clutch in oil bath. The rear part of the frame was modified with the installation of a frame with suspended axle on leaf springs and chain drive on the center differential.

Horler, p 50 Mechanically the car was identical to its Austin-Healey counterpart, retaining the rear suspension using quarter-elliptic leaf springs and trailing arms from the 'frogeye'. The engine was a 948 cc A-Series with twin SU carburettors producing at 5500 rpm and at 3000 rpm. Brakes were drums all round. A hard top, heater, radio and luggage rack were available as factory-fitted extras. In October 1962, the engine was increased to 1098 cc, raising the output to at 5500 rpm and at 3250 rpm, and disc brakes replaced the drums at the front.

In spite of the name "Hilux", it was a luxury vehicle only when compared to the Stout. The Hilux was engineered and assembled by Hino Motors to replace the earlier vehicle that the Hilux was derived from, called the Briska in the niche beneath the larger and older Stout – it replaced the Stout fully in some markets. For the North American market, the only body style was a regular cab short bed and all were rear- wheel drive. It used a typical truck setup of A-arms and coil springs in front and a live axle with leaf springs in back.

"The ABC Motor Cycle. A New Development", Motor Cycle magazine, 19 December 1918, p541 In December 1918 it was announcedFull page announcement, Motor Cycle magazine, 26 December 1918 that ABC had transferred the rights for manufacturing and selling motor cycles to Sopwith Aviation Co Ltd, allowing Granville Bradshaw of ABC Motors to focus on design. In 1919 they jointly exhibited the Sopwith 390 cc horizontally opposed twin-cylinder overhead valve (OHV) machine at the annual Motor Cycle show. It aroused a lot of interest with innovative front and rear leaf springs and "expanding" brakes, wet sump lubrication, and a four-speed gearbox.

The Tracfort used the side valve 933 cc, 8 hp engine from the Ford Model Y but in order to support the front-wheel drive lay-out the engine was turned through 180 degrees so that the gearbox was at the front. Two bodies were listed, both with two doors. These were a four seater 2-door "coach" ("Mouette") bodied car with a fashionably fast-back tail and an open topped two seater "roadster" ("Irlande"). The inclusion of a Ford engine was reflected in the grill which also came from the Model Y. Although the Ford transverse leaf springs were retained, the front suspension was made independent.

The first-generation Bronco is built upon a chassis developed specifically for the model range, shared with no other Ford or Lincoln-Mercury vehicle. Built on a 92-inch wheelbase (sized between the CJ-5 and Scout; only an inch shorter than the later CJ-7), the Bronco used box-section body-on- frame construction. To simplify production, all examples were sold with four- wheel drive; a shift-on the-fly Dana 20 transfer case and locking hubs were standard. The rear axle was a Ford 9-inch axle, with Hotchkiss drive and leaf springs; the front axle was a Dana 30, replaced by a Dana 44 in 1971.

At in length, the T1E4 was nearly a quarter again as long as preceding T1 versions. The T1E4 also got a new suspension, in this case using semi-elliptic leaf springs and articulated four-wheel bogies. (This suspension was similar to that of the British Vickers 6-Ton light tank, which the Army had recently tested.) The main gun was replaced by the 37 mm semi-automatic gun M1924, whose muzzle velocity of was lower than that of the long-barreled Browning in the T1E2 and T1E3. The armor thickness was similar to the T1E2 and T1E3. The T1E4 had an overall weight of .

1970 Fiat Dino 2400 Spider In 1969, both Ferrari and Fiat introduced new 2.4-litre Dino models. The Fiat Dino 2400 premiered in October 1969 at the Turin Motor show; besides the larger engine, another notable improvements was independent rear suspension. The V6 now put out , and used a cast iron instead of the previous light alloy engine block; the same engine was installed on the Dino 246 GT, Ferrari's evolution of the 206. Whereas the original Dino was equipped with a rigid axle suspended by leaf springs and 4 shock absorbers, 2.4-litre cars used a coil-sprung independent rear suspension with 2 shock absorbers derived from the Fiat 130.

Scammell had experience with GRP cabs in heavy lorries such as the Routeman, Trunker and Handyman which also had cabs designed by Michelotti. The new cab had many new developments, such as vacuum-assisted hydraulic brakes, a heater-demister, two rear view mirrors, interior sun-visors, totally enclosed oil-immersed coil spring front suspension and dual rate mounting of semi-elliptic leaf springs at the rear. Later a larger engine was fitted; the Leyland OE160, being an in- house product due to Standard-Triumph and Scammell being part of the Leyland Group. The OE160 was used in the Leyland Twenty and Leyland 90 commercials built under Leyland badges by Standard-Triumph.

LX range 6x6 truck demonstrating the speed advantage off-road of an individually sprung rear axle pair Introduced in 1988, the LX range was designed to be relatively light weight, C-130 Hercules transportable, and possess a good level of cross country mobility. LX range were based on MAN's then current M2000 medium weight commercial truck chassis, these modified and militarized as required. Two- and three-axle chassis were available, these having maximum carrying capacities including body/superstructure of 3.5- to 10-tonnes. On three axle chassis the rear axle pair are not sprung by the more conventional shared inverted leaf spring, but are sprung individually by leaf springs.

Taking styling cues from the 1981 design, the new car had full width tail lights, complete with a Firebird emblem in the center. The all-new suspension design was more advanced and aggressive than anything Detroit had offered previously, easily rivaling the Corvette's handling abilities, (but not its sophistication). The front suspension utilized MacPherson struts, with inboard mounted coil springs and lower front control arms. In the rear, coil springs and shocks were positioned between the body and solid rear axle, with twin rear lower control arms/trailing links and a torsion bar, replacing the old-fashioned leaf springs design used previously in the 2nd Gens.

Between 1990 and 1991, Mike realized the future of monster trucks, which was racing. To be competitive, Mike replaced the leaf springs with airbags, the old heavy split ring rims with lightweight one piece rims, fiberglass body pieces, cutting the tires, gutting the interior out, 4 linking the truck and putting in a bigger engine. The modifications proved to be beneficial to Mike, with close races with First Blood, and competing in some Pendaliner Special Events racing events. After a violent rollover in Bloomsburg Pennsylvania in 1991, Mike decided to put King shocks on the truck, which he later added coil springs in 1992.

However, the 4Runner did remain virtually identical to the Hilux from the B-pillars forward. It also gained an all new coil spring rear suspension system, which unfortunately proved to be just as prone to sagging as the leaf springs on the rear of the previous models. Nearly all second generation 4Runners were four-door models; however, from launch in 1989 to May 1993, a two-door model was also produced. These models are similar to the four-door models of the time in that the bodies were formed as a single unit, instead of the fiberglass tops used in the first generation 4Runners.

44 Magnum loads, included a new latch at the crane, to firmly lock the cylinder at front and rear, a feature last seen in the Smith & Wesson's triple lock design, discontinued in 1915.Wilson(2008) pp.161-162 The Ruger Redhawk uses modern coil springs design instead of old-fashioned leaf springs that are found in most modern revolvers. The revolvers also used a single spring for both the hammer and the trigger, and this meant that the force required to pull the trigger was higher than similar offerings from other manufacturers, and there was no way to adjust or correct this as it was inherent in the single-spring design.

Commentators noted the contrast between the car's relatively short 2,100 mm wheelbase and the overall 3,835 mm length of the car, which may, by later standards, have compromised the handling but did permit the use of a relatively short drive-shaft. Front suspension used trailing arms and independent springs in combination, while at the back a rigid “swing” axle was supported by leaf springs. Both at the front and at the back the suspension was enhanced with “rubber air-filled hollow springs”. The hydraulically controlled drum brakes operated on all four wheels while the hand brake operated via a cable linkage to the rear wheels.

Based on Evernden's writings and examination of company records, historian Ray Gentile determined that the common specifications of the Continental chassis were the short wheelbase and stiffer, five-leaf springs. By this definition, two hundred and eighty-one Continental Phantom II's were produced, including 125 left-hand drive versions. Regarded as the two most important P-II Continentals are 20MS and 2SK, the only two P-II Continental Roadsters ever built. 20MS has been in a private Mid-Atlantic collection since 1989, 2SK, the Thrupp and Maberly Roadster once owned by Tyrone Power, was in the Fred Buess collection since 1958 but was sold at auction in 2010.

The Group was divided into three strategic business units: Agri (tractors, combines, cotton harvesters, sprayers, implements), Auto (engines, suspension systems, auto parts, defence systems, motorcycles, leaf springs) and Argentum (real estate, hospitality, franchising, technology). In 2007, Uzel bought 51% of the Ursus Tractor Factory, manufacturer of the Ursus brand of tractors, and a former Massey Ferguson licensee.Uzel buys 51 percent of Ursus - Turkish Daily News Sep 12, 2007 At that time, Uzel was now one of ten largest tractor companies in the world with six manufacturing facilities and three major brands and was given the Palladium Balanced Scorecard Hall of Fame Award.BusinessWire (14 June 2007).

The 8 Litre was built on Bentley’s largest rolling chassis, a ladder frame with large tubular steel cross-members downswept from the front and rear axles towards the centre to lower the centre of gravity. Neither engine nor gearbox contributed to the bracing of the chassis. Suspension by long semi-elliptic leaf springs was controlled by double acting dampers, friction on the front and hydraulic on the rear axle, and all four wheels were fitted with Dewandre vacuum-servo-assisted drum brakes, the forward brakes being of Bentley-Perrott design. Steering was by worm and sector and castor action could be adjusted to suit individual taste.

The Jota was Lancia's first truck, designed for military use. Production for the Royal Italian Army began in 1915, and continued throughout World War I, making up two thirds of Lancia's total wartime production of roughly 3,000 vehicles. The Jota was powered by the Tipo 61 4,940 cc side valve, monobloc inline-four, with 70 hp at 2,200 rpm, from the 1912 Lancia 1Z military light truck and 1913 35 HP Theta passenger car. Front and rear the Jota used solid axles on semi-elliptic leaf springs; brakes were on the transmission and on the rear wheels, and the transmission was a 4-speed gearbox with a multi-plate dry clutch.

Motorbase – The Home of Classic Car Information. Accessed 29 June 2017 In 1933, a four-door touring car, a sedan and a two-door convertible were introduced under the name Alvis Firefly 12.Alvis Firefly 12. Motorbase – The Home of Classic Car Information. Accessed 29 June 2017 The rigid axles front and rear were suspended by semi-elliptical leaf springs. The wheelbase, the type of suspension and, in some cases, the bodies, corresponded to the previous six-cylinder model Silver Eagle SE and TB. The top speed was approximately 71 mph depending on the design. In 1934, the Firebird model replaced both Firefly models.

AAR type A truck AAR Type A trucks were first introduced with EMD locomotives sold in 1935; they were a success, became standard on EMD switchers into the 1970s, and were also used on various other makers' locomotives. Their initial design was a collaboration between Martin P Blomberg at EMD and the originating foundry General Steel Industries. Intended for industrial plant and rail yard shunting duty, this truck has a basic suspension system with drop equalizers, secondary leaf springs and primary coil springs, which provide adequate damping and relatively simplified maintenance. It does not have swing hangers as may be seen in higher-speed designs such as the Blomberg B.

The car used an enlarged version of the side valve engine fitted to the Ford Model Y; it was increased to a capacity of 1172 cc by increasing the bore from 56.6 mm to 63.5 mm but keeping the stroke at 92.5 mm. A standard engine would produce at 4000 rpm. This engine became a favourite for many engine tuners post-WWII and gave a start to several sports car makers including Lotus Cars, and remained in production until 1962. Suspension was by the Ford system of transverse leaf springs with rigid axles front and rear, a system little changed since the Model T. A three speed gearbox was fitted.

This was controlled by a micro switch hidden in the gear lever operating a vacuum servo. Having no synchromesh on bottom gear could make changes into the lowest ratio, which would normally require double declutching, difficult. The construction was monocoque with independent suspension at the front by coil springs and a live rear axle with semi elliptic leaf springs. The steering was rack and pinion and Lockheed brakes were fitted with drums all round In keeping with the up- market positioning of the Wolseley brand the car had upmarket trim with polished walnut dashboard and door cappings and leather seats and a traditional Wolseley radiator grille with illuminated badge.

16; Issue 54596; col F It was a very small estate car with a horizontally split tailgate having a top-hinged upper door and bottom-hinged lower door. October 1959 also saw the standardisation on both cars of self-cancelling indicators and the provision of a centre interior light and, in early summer 1960, a flat lid was added over the spare wheel in the rear luggage compartment. At launch the car shared the 948 cc A-Series straight-4 used in other Austins including its A35 predecessor. The suspension was independent at the front using coil springs with a live axle and semi elliptic leaf springs at the rear.

Public Carriage Office archives Following on from previous designs of London taxi, the FX3 had a traditional 3-door body, with an open luggage platform rather than a front passenger seat beside the driver. The FX3 was fitted with mechanical brakes, with rod operation, beam axles on leaf springs and a built-in Jackall hydraulic jacking system. Like all London taxis, it has a tight turning circle of 25 ft (7.6m) diameter, as required by the Conditions of Fitness.Austin FX3 brochure The petrol engine proved too expensive to run and a conversion to a Standard diesel engine was offered by taxi and bus proprietors Birch Brothers of Kentish Town.

Today, the TD2000 roadster consists of 2 models, a Silverstone comes with a 5-speed manual shift and Gatsby with a 4-speed automatic gear. It sits on a steel chassis and is equipped with an independent double wishbone front suspension, a leaf-spring back axle and all-round disc brakes, delivering better handling and smoother ride than the original. Many local OEM engineers were contracted to study and build a complete suspension system with softer absorbers and 3-leaf springs, colder air-conditioning unit, and integrate a double-core radiator into the cooling system. Its fiber glass bodywork incorporates side intrusion bars, is protected by stainless steel bumpers.

1938 Roadmaster Spring and shock absorber mechanism on the rear wheels of the 1938 Buicks Styling changes for 1938 were modest, with a longer hood extending to a now nearly vertical grill, taller bumper guards and redesigned hubcaps, but the effect was striking. Important changes were made to both engine and chassis. The ride was improved by replacing the rear leaf springs with coil springs, supported by double-acting shock absorbers that were some four times the size of any others on the market. The frame X-member was changed from I-beam to channel construction and all wood structural elements were replaced with steel.

An automatic transmission, overdrive on the manual, and Burman power steering were optional with overdrive becoming standard from May 1960. Stopping power came originally from a Girling brake system that employed drums all round, but this was a heavy car and by the time of the London Motor Show in October 1959 Girling front power discs brakes were fitted. The suspension was independent at the front using wishbones and torsion bars and at the rear had a live axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs. A Mark I-A line, introduced in September 1961, featured a minor restyle with added front quarter windows, intended to "assist the dashboard ventilation".

At the beginning Yhteissisu production was dependent on availability of German components; gearboxes and steering gears were from ZF, rims from Kronprinz, cardan shafts from Rheinmetall and Bosch supplied electrical equipment. These were later replaced by number of domestic options. The gearboxes were produced by Rosenlew, electrical equipment came from Strömberg, Hackman & Co. made rims, Fiskars produced leaf springs, the engines were made by SAT and Tampereen Pellava- ja Rautateollisuus, of which the latter one produced also front axles. Valtion lentokonetehdas made cabins and cardan shafts, Valtion Tykkitehdas steering gears, rear axle housings and wheel hubs came from Ahlström, drive shafts from Lokomo and rubber parts, including tyres, from Suomen Gummitehdas.

The rear was even more radical with vertical coil spring/dampers replacing the leaf springs and two trailing arms with a A- bracket (which connected to the differential housing and brackets near the trailing arm pivots) sorting out axle location. To support this set-up, further braces were put behind the rear seat and from the rear wheelarch down to chassis in the boot. The stiffening braces meant that the spare wheel had to be moved from the standard Cortina's wheel well and was bolted to the left side of the boot floor. The battery was also relocated to the boot, behind the right wheelarch.

The third and probably most important change came in mid-1965, when the Lotus rear suspension was changed for the leaf springs and radius arms of the Cortina GT. This replaced all the stiffening tubing as well. The last update also came in 1965 when the rear drums were swapped for self-adjusting items and also the famous 2000E gearbox ratios were used. These lowered first and reverse about halfway between the Cortina GT ratios and the ultra close-ratio box. All these changes made the cars less specialised but far more reliable and all the special parts were still available for competition as well as to members of the public.

The SA was Toyota's first true post war design. It differed from all previous Toyota cars by having a 4-cylinder engine (previously a 6-cylinder was used), 4-wheel independent suspension (previously using rigid axles with leaf springs) and a smaller, "ponton" influenced aerodynamic body. The project was driven by Kiichiro Toyoda under the wisdom of his father's (Sakichi Toyoda) words, "Stay ahead of the times""Toyota: Fifty Years in Motion", Eiji Toyoda, Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1987, , p119 but most of the design work was done by Dr Kazuo Kumabe."Fifty Years of Toyota Concept Cars", in "the wheel extended", vol 17, no.

SS-Ki of the 5th Independent Engineer Regiment using its craneA Sōkō Sagyō Ki (frontmost) amongst a Japanese tank unit after surrender in Tianjin, with its external parts dismantled The design used the Type 89 I-Go medium tank chassis and hull and a few of its parts. It also featured other parts from various mass-production vehicles. The suspension was made from two blocks of four roadwheels with two return rollers and no independent forward bogie, in addition to semi-elliptical leaf springs. The steering sprocket was placed within the front of the vehicle, whilst the drive sprocket was placed within the rear.

The specifications of the M16 were similar to those of the M3 half-track. It was 21 ft 4 in (6.5 m) long (with a wheelbase of ), 7 ft 1 in (2.16 m) wide, and 7 ft 8 in (2.34 m) high and weighed 9.9 short tons (9 t).Ness (2002), p. 202. It had suspension consisting of vertical volute spring suspension for the tracks and leaf springs for the wheels. It was powered by a 128-horsepower (95 kW) White 160AX 386 cubic inch (6,300 cc) 6-cylinder gasoline engine. It had a compression ratio of 6.3:1 and a 60 US gallon (230 l) fuel tank.

In common with carriages and railway locomotives, most early motor vehicles used leaf springs. One of the features of these springs was that the friction between the leaves offered a degree of damping, and in a 1912 review of vehicle suspension, the lack of this characteristic in helical springs was the reason it was "impossible" to use them as main springs."Springs - A simple study of car suspension", The Automotor Journal, August 10th, 1912, pp936-937 However the amount of damping provided by leaf spring friction was limited and variable according to the conditions of the springs, and whether wet or dry. It also operated in both directions.

The 1957 Ford chassis was a split-wheelbase platform; the 118-inch wheelbase was exclusive to the Fairlane, with Ford (and Edsel) station wagons sharing a 116-inch wheelbase with the Ford Custom. To allow for a lower floor, the frame layout changed from a truck-style ladder frame to a perimeter frame. A configuration used until the 2011 discontinuation of the Ford Crown Victoria, the perimeter frame allowed the floorpan to sit between the frame rails (instead of above them). To further reduce vehicle height, the rear leaf springs were moved outboard of the frame rails and the wheels were decreased in diameter from 15 to 14 inches.

The rear-wheel drive 1965 Ford chassis used by the sixth-generation Country Squire retained the 119-inch wheelbase of the previous generation. For higher strength and rigidity, the frame rails became fully-boxed; the perimeter frame configuration was retained. While again using a double-wishbone, ball-jointed A-arm configuration for the front suspension, the front track width was widened to improve handling. The rear leaf springs were discontinued, replaced with a three-link coil-sprung solid rear axle; in various forms, Ford would use this suspension configuration on rear-wheel drive full-size vehicles through the production of the final Ford Crown Victoria in 2011.

A separate GT "rally- tuned" suspension option included tuned front and rear sway bars, "Hi-Control" rear leaf springs with "iso-clamp" pads, special strut rod bushings, adjustable Gabriel "Strider" shock absorbers, as well as heavy-duty brakes and a quick ratio steering box. The standard engine on all models except the AMX was a EA831 inline-four supplied by Audi. Optional were AMC's and inline-sixes (the latter standard on the AMX). The AMC V8 engine was offered as an option only on the liftback; the 1979 model year would mark a (one-year) reprieve for V8 availability in the short wheelbase AMC chassis.

They were fitted with a bigger radiator, a condenser system, built up leaf springs for the harsh terrain, wide, low pressure desert tyres, sand mats and channels, plus map containers and a sun compass devised by Bagnold. Wireless trucks had special compartments built into the bodywork to house wireless equipment.Jenner and List 1999, p.11 Initially the LRDG patrols were equipped with one Canadian Military Pattern (CMP) Ford 15 cwt F15 truck for the commander, while the rest of the patrol used up to 10 Chevrolet 30 cwt 158.5" wheelbase (WB) trucks {the 'WA' model mentioned in some texts appears to be an 133" wheelbase version of the same vehicle}.

The Dodge Rampage was a subcompact, unibody coupe utility based on Chrysler's L platform and manufactured from 1982 to 1984. First released as a 1982 model, the Rampage was later joined for 1983 by its rebadged variant, the Plymouth Scamp. The Rampage borrowed the car's unibody construction and the front fascia from the sporty 024/Charger variant, and used the suspension from the Omni/Horizon with coil struts and a linkless sway bar at the front, and leaf springs with shock absorbers at the rear. It was available with a Chrysler built and designed 2.2 L carbureted inline-four engine with and a curb weight of around .

1919 Singer 10 The Ten launched in 1912 was a great success for Singer with possibly as many as 6000 being made.Nick Baldwin, A-Z of Cars 1920s, Bay View Books, 1994, page 167 The engine was a four-cylinder unit of 1096 cc initially with side valves but changing to overhead valves in 1923. The three speed transmission was initially located with the rear axle but moved to the centre of the car in 1922 and from 1923 was in-unit with the engine. The chassis had rigid axles front and rear with semi-elliptic leaf springs until 1922 when they changed to quarter elliptic.

The front suspension components of a Ford Model T. Automobiles were initially developed as self-propelled versions of horse-drawn vehicles. However, horse-drawn vehicles had been designed for relatively slow speeds, and their suspension was not well suited to the higher speeds permitted by the internal combustion engine. The first workable spring- suspension required advanced metallurgical knowledge and skill, and only became possible with the advent of industrialisation. Obadiah Elliott registered the first patent for a spring-suspension vehicle; each wheel had two durable steel leaf springs on each side and the body of the carriage was fixed directly to the springs which were attached to the axles.

This was as an answer to the rival Ford Transit range, which in Australia used six-cylinder engines from the Ford Falcon. The Bedford used the same basic suspension lay- out as the Vauxhall Victor, though married to greater wheel arch clearances and calibrated for greater weight carrying capacity. The front independent suspension featured a double wishbone layout with coil springs and telescopic shock absorbers, while the rear wheels were suspended by a combination involving a live axle and traditional long single-leaf springs. Several different manual transmissions were used, namely the Vauxhall three-speed, four-speed, Bedford four-speed, ZF four-speed, ZF five-speed, and the General Motors automatic.

The Kadett B inherited its suspension from the Kadett A. Two years after launch, however, in August 1967, the simple longitudinally mounted leaf springs with a centrally connected rigid axle which till then had suspended the rear wheels were replaced with a more sophisticated set-up incorporating coil springs, trailing arms and a Panhard rod. Road holding was usefully improved. At the same time, reflecting growing preoccupation with secondary safety in the marketplace, the old steering wheel was replaced with a padded "Safety" steering wheel, now mounted on a telescopic steering column which was designed to collapse in the event of a serious collision.

Dulcitone, display at the Palace of Cortés, Cuernavaca, Mexico A dulcitone is a keyboard instrument in which sound is produced by a range of tuning forks, which vibrate when struck by felt-covered hammers activated by the keyboard. The instrument was designed by Thomas Machell of Glasgow in the 1860s, at the same time as Victor Mustel's organologically synonymous typophone, and manufactured by the firm of Thomas Machell & Sons during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Most of the early models are tuned to sharp pitch, or the diapason normal of a 435. Some of the late models use an action suspended on a system of leaf springs, which is considerably quieter than that illustrated.

1970 Rolls-Royce Phantom VI limousine, the official car used on ceremonial occasions to transport the Governor-General of Australia and visiting heads of state landaulet by Mulliner Park Ward – invoice price £498,365 or in 2018 pounds £1,015,169.40 Most of the coachwork was created by Mulliner Park Ward, usually in limousine form, although a few landaulets were made. The Phantom VI was the last Rolls-Royce with a separate chassis. It featured coil springs in front, leaf springs and live axle in rear, and drum brakes on all four wheels. The car was powered by a 90-degree V8 with a bore of and stroke of with twin SU carburettors, coupled to a 4-speed automatic gearbox.

It was the first appearance of the new four cylinder B-Series I4 engine with a pair of -bore twin-choke SU carburettors, delivering , driving the rear wheels through BMC's new four speed manual gearbox with synchromesh on the top three ratios. Suspension was independent at the front using coil springs and had a live axle with half elliptic leaf springs at the rear. The steering was by rack and pinion. Hydraulically operated Lockheed drum brakes were fitted to front and rear wheels. When leaving the factory the Magnette ZA optionally fitted the recently developed belted textile-braced, radial-ply Pirelli Cinturato 145HR15 tyres (CA67) but had 5.5-15 Dunlop tyres as standard.

The model was refreshed and upgraded in June 1986. The leaf springs of the rear end were replaced by coil springs, the front end (forward of the steel body) was remodelled with a more forward swept grill and headlights, the dashboard was remodelled, and the windscreen was now caulked in place (rather than being held with a molded seal as in the earlier model). The 1.0- and 1.3-liter were slightly detuned while the turbo model gained fuel injection and now produces (JIS net), while the more powerful twin cam GTi model also arrived. The facelift model entered Indonesian production by early 1987 as the Forsa GL, and now featured some external trim pieces from the sporting GTi.

He had worked with the Czech Škoda company and based his design on that of the LT35: eight road wheels paired on four bogies with leaf springs and an equally large tension wheel. The first fifty vehicles had tracks consisting of 144 track links, each link with a length of 75 mm; later vehicles had 103 links of 105 mm length. The engine was in the rear of the hull side by side with two self- sealing fuel tanks, of 100 and 410 litres respectively, separated from the fighting compartment by a firewall bulkhead. The (officially) 200 hp engine, designed by Javier-Sabin, drew fuel from the smaller tank, which was itself automatically replenished from the larger one.

Drills that rely on auger flights and which are not designed to work in a fluid-filled hole are limited to depths at which borehole closure is not a problem, so these are known as shallow drills. Deeper holes have to be drilled with drilling fluid, but whereas circulation in a rotary drill takes the fluid all the way down and then up the borehole, cable-suspended drills only need to circulate the fluid from the drill head up to the cuttings chamber. This is known as bottom-hole circulation. The upper part of the sonde has an antitorque system, which most commonly consists of three or four leaf-springs that press out against the borehole walls.

Leaf springs have been found to be so effective that they can prevent rotation even in heavy drills running at full power. Skate antitorque systems have blades attached to vertical bars which are pushed against the borehole wall; the blades dig into the wall and provide the anti- torque. Skates can be built with springs which allow them to keep the blades pressed against the wall in an irregular borehole, and to prevent problems in narrower parts of the borehole. Although skates are a popular design for anti- torque and have been used with success, they have difficulty preventing rotation in firn and at boundaries between layers of different densities, and can cause problems when drilling with high torque.

The principal mechanical changes were: coil spring (instead of leaf spring) live front axle; longer rear leaf springs; 5-bolt wheels instead of 6-bolt wheels; redesigned steering wheel; redesigned front indicators; and, in the cab-chassis, a longer wheelbase, which increased the rear storage capacity. 2007: The facelifted 70 Series began production in January for market release in late February / early March 2007. Changes involve significant modifications to the front end design, eliminating the trademark flat fenders featured on all commercial Land Cruiser series' since the 40 series. This change along with a wider front axle/track and wider chassis were required to allow fitment of the new Euro-4 compliant 4.5L V8 turbo diesel, the 1VD-FTV.

The Grand Safari wagons, as did other GM full-sized wagons during these years, used a unique rear suspension with multi-leaf springs instead of the coil springs used on other full-sized Pontiacs, and other full-sized GM cars. The Grand Safari wagons also featured a new 'Clamshell' tailgate design where the rear power-operated glass slid up into the roof as the tailgate (manually or with power assist), slid into a recess under the cargo floor. The power tailgate, the first in station wagon history, ultimately supplanted the manual tailgate, which required marked effort to lift from storage. It was operated by switches on the instrument panel or a key switch on the rear quarter panel.

The car, also known as the Type I, was a total redesign and given the new 12-4 name. It featured a longer six-light body based on the Vauxhall 10 but with a monocoque hull with independent torsion-bar front suspension and semi-elliptic leaf springs at the rear. Lockheed hydraulic drum brakes were fitted all round to the same design as the 10-4 and featured a split circuit to prevent complete loss of braking in the event of a fluid leak. The engine was a 4-cylinder 1.4-litre (1442 cc) with overhead valves enlarged from the 10-4 by increasing the bore from 63.5mm to 69.5mm and keeping the same 95mm stroke.

It was sold until 1961. The Anglia, Popular and Prefect sold well for a long time despite their old fashioned technology using transverse leaf springs and beam axles for front and rear suspension, side valve engines and only partly synchromeshed three speed gearboxes. They sold on price because of limited car supply on the used car market due to the Second World War, and new car market because of the British government's post war policy of exporting cars. The Morris Eight, introduced in 1935, was a deliberate close copy of the Ford and served as a lower cost, more profitable replacement for the 1928-vintage Morris Minor which had not achieved the hoped-for success.

Several independent suspension designs have featured transverse leaf springs. Most applications used multi-leaf steel springs, although more recent designs have used fiber reinforced plastic (FRP, typically fibers are fiberglass) springs. In addition to spring type (multi- leaf steel, FRP), a distinction can be drawn between systems where the spring also acts as a locating link and those where the spring only acts as a spring member. The AC Cobra is an example of a transverse, multi-leaf steel spring suspension that uses the leaf spring as the upper suspension arm. Alternatively, the 1963 Corvette's rear suspension is an example where the transverse leaf spring is used only as a ride spring.

However, from May 1934 it became possible to specify, at extra cost, a "Cotal Preselector transmission".Frankenberg, Richard von; Neubauer, Otto: Geschichte des Automobils, Künzelsau, , S. 181 Suspension was based on rigid axles front and back with longitudinal leaf springs, semi-elliptic at the front and attached using demi-cantilevers at the back. At the 27th Paris Motor show in October 1933 the car was priced by the manufacturer at 21,950 francs in bare chassis form. The manufacturer's inventiveness was more apparent under the bonnet than in respect of the body options, which were mostly at best conventional: the car incorporated a flat grill at the front, which by 1933 was perceived by some a little old fashioned.

Power was transmitted to the rear wheels via a multi-plate dry disc clutch (“Mehrscheibentrockenkupplung”) and a four speed manual transmission. The gear lever was initially to the driver's right, directly outside the door, but at some stage it was repositioned to what has subsequently become a more conventional location in the middle of the floor to the driver's left.Oswald, p 215 (At this time it was still normal in western Europe for the steering wheel and therefore also the driver to be placed on the right side of the car.) The suspension configuration followed the conventions of the time, using rigid beam axles and semi-elliptic leaf springs. Braking operated on all four wheels using a cable linkage.

The donor leaf springs are cut approximately in half, with just one of the halves on each side of the differential making up the rear springing.Michael Branowski, "Inside the Bernardi: There's more than cheese that comes from Wisconsin", Kit Car Illustrated June 1985 The rear axle is actually mounted above the side rails of the frame, which keeps the frame design simple but limits the axle's vertical range of movement. The front suspension is a somewhat sportier double-wishbone design, built from the donor car's lower A-arm and a custom upper A-arm, with coil-over shocks and the donor's disk brakes. The car's body was built at the factory and featured an unusual form of fiberglass construction.

The car was aimed at the top end of the Cyclecar market and so was fitted with a four-cylinder, water- cooled engine. The first batch of cars had side-valve, straight four, Dorman engines of 1094 cc with the remainder using Belgian Peters 1207 cc engines. These were in-unit with a gearbox, either of two-speed epicyclic or three- speed conventional type and drove the single rear wheel by a shaft and bevel gears. The open two-seater body with dickey seat had a smart nickel-plated radiator and electric lighting and was attached on a chassis with the suspension using quarter elliptic leaf springs at the front and semi elliptic at the rear.

Torque reaction effects on a leaf spring in a Hotchkiss drive system Most shaft-drive systems consist of a drive shaft (also called a "propeller shaft" or Cardan shaft) extending from the transmission in front to the differential in the rear. The differentiating characteristic of the Hotchkiss drive is the fact that the axle housing is firmly attached to the leaf springs to transfer the axle torque through them to the car body. Also, it uses universal joints at both ends of the driveshaft, which is not enclosed. The use of two universal joints, properly phased and with parallel alignment of the drive and driven shafts, allows the use of simple cross-type universals.

The Riley Pathfinder is an automobile which was produced by Riley Motors Limited in the United Kingdom from 1953 to 1957. It was first presented at the London Motor Show in October 1953 and replaced the RMF as Riley's top-line model. Designed as the "RMH" just before the 1952 merger of Riley-parent, the Nuffield Organisation, with Austin to form BMC, the Pathfinder is seen as the last proper Riley car. It used Riley's , 2.5-litre — — twin-cam, "Big Four" straight-4 engine fitted with twin SU carburettors and had a separate all- steel chassis with coil spring rear (this was changed to leaf springs towards the end of production) and front torsion bar independent suspension.

Frits van Sold, Obadiah Elliott & the Elliptic Spring, The Carriage Journal: Vol 53 No 2 March 2015 Coachbuilder Obadiah Elliott obtained a patent covering the use of elliptic springs - which were not his invention. His patent lasted 14 years delaying development because Elliott allowed no others to license and use his patent. Elliott mounted each wheel with two durable elliptic steel leaf springs on each side and the body of the carriage was fixed directly to the springs attached to the axles. After the expiry of his patent most British horse carriages were equipped with elliptic springs; wooden springs in the case of light one-horse vehicles to avoid taxation, and steel springs in larger vehicles.

The Paramount had an aluminium over wood frame body with BMW like grille and was mounted on a separate tubular steel chassis with front transverse and rear semi elliptical leaf springs. It was originally intended to have Alvis engine and suspension but to reduce cost the production versions used Ford 10 components including the 1172 cc side valve engines, but fitted with twin SU carburettors, which resulted in poor performance. The car was listed in both 2 and 4 seat versions. In 1953, the company was bought by Camden Motors and production moved to Leighton Buzzard and the Ford Consul 1,508 cc engine was an option in a longer chassis as also was a Wade or Shorrock supercharger.

Engines were shared with the Corona, with both using the 2R, and the 12R engine. Transmissions offered were an automatic transmission with three speeds for export and two speeds in Japan, or a choice of either a four- or three-speed manual transmission. The RT62 sedans and the RT72 coupé feature the 1.9-litre 8R four-cylinder engine, unique to the Mark II. The RT63 sedan, RT73 coupé, and RT78/RT79 station wagons feature a two-litre 18R four-cylinder engine, also unique to the Mark II. The suspension setup uses double wishbone with coil springs at the front and leaf springs at the back with a front- engine, rear-drive powertrain format.

Examples of the torque tube were the American cars of the Ford brand up through 1948, including over 19,000,000 Model Ts. Ford used the less expensive transverse springs that could not take forward thrust. For many of those years, Chevrolet used the torque tube, while Buick used it starting in 1906 (in the model D)."Buick, The Golden Era" by Prof. Francis Therou"Seventy Years of Buick" by George H. Damman, page 18 "Buick pioneered the torque tube this year" referring to the model D built in 1906. The torque tube also allowed Buick, beginning in 1938, to use coil springs for a softer ride than traditional leaf springs, which can use a Hotchkiss drive, but coil springs cannot.

The principal longitudinal bars of the chassis curved up at the ends which meant that the car body sat lower on the road than on cars featuring a more traditional 1920s style "overslung" chassis.An overslung chassis sits directly above the car's axles below the chassis frame. An underslung chassis hangs directly below the axles, resulting in a lowered centre of gravity and a lower look for the car The Dauphine’s chassis was also noteworthy for following the recent trend to independent front suspension, the front wheels being suspended from a transverse leaf spring, and here combined with rack and pinion steering. At the back there was a traditional rigid axle suspended from a pair of longitudinally mounted leaf-springs.

Dubbed "Super Hugger", the second-generation Camaro was an all-new car with its basic mechanical layout familiar and engineered much like its predecessor with a unibody structure utilizing a front subframe, A-arm and coil spring front suspension, and rear leaf springs. The chassis and suspension of the second generation were refined in both performance and comfort; base models offered significant advances in sound-proofing, ride isolation, and road- holding. Extensive experience Chevrolet engineers had gained racing the first- generation led directly to advances in second-generation Camaro steering, braking, and balance. High-performance configurations were initially available, but the marketplace changed as 1970s progressed with fuel crisis, higher insurance rates, and tightening emissions regulations.

The GCR Class 2 was derived from a Kitson (Leeds) built/Thomas Parker designed prototype 4-4-0 locomotiveBuilt to General Arrangement Drawing # 1239(9)(held by the new build group) No. 561, (the first single frame locomotive built for the MSLR) exhibited in Manchester in 1887. The design lead to the production of a series of express steam locomotives built between 1890 and 1894 for use on the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway, later the Great Central Railway. The last batch of six, built 1894, had larger bearings for the coupled wheels, coil springs (instead of leaf springs) for the driving axle and was classified 2A. When first built, the Class 2s were used on the MSLR main express trains.

The Continental Cowley, shown to the press in April 1915, was a larger engined (1495 cc against 1018 cc), longer, wider and better equipped version of the first Morris Oxford with the same "Bullnose" radiator; in addition it could carry a four-passenger body. To reduce the price many components were bought from United States suppliers. The 1495 cc, side valve, four cylinder engine was made by Continental Motor Manufacturing Company of Detroit, and the clutch and three speed gearbox by Detroit Gear & Machine Co. Back axle, front axle and steering gear also came from the USA. Supply of these components was badly affected by World War I. The suspension used semi elliptic leaf springs at the front and three quarter elliptics at the rear.

Balsa wood was chosen for its stiffness, light weight, and sound absorption qualities. The all aluminium LS1 overhead valve engine is much lighter than its bi-metal (cast iron block, aluminum heads) predecessor, the LT1, and provides for a much lower hoodline when compared to an overhead cam design of relative displacement. The composite leaf springs are much lighter and sit much lower than typical coil springs and help provide the C5 with its smooth ride characteristics and low ride height. Ending production on July 2, 2004, the C5 became both the last generation of Corvette, and alongside Lotus Esprit (the last Esprit rolled off the production line on February 20, 2004), the last car overall to use pop-up headlamps.

The 17/50 used a straight six, single sleeve valve engine of 2370 cc driving the rear wheels through a four speed gearbox. Suspension was by semi elliptic leaf springs at the front and cantilever springs at the rear. A Cozette supercharger was an optional extra costing GBP50 giving the car a top speed of and an economy of The car had a distinctive two part V shaped windscreen and was available with saloon, open touring or coupé bodies. In 1929, a car was entered into, and completed, the Monte Carlo Rally driven by the Hon Mmrs Victor Bruce, and two supercharged cars were entered for the 1929 RAC Tourist Trophy (TT) in Ulster driven by E.R. Hall and N. Garrard.

Although introduced in 1986 (under control of Renault), and by 1987 (the first model year) under new ownership of Chrysler, the first-generation Wrangler had still been developed by American Motors Corporation. It featured rectangular headlamps, differing from the round ones on its predecessors, the CJ Jeeps. Although continuing many essentials, such as an open body with only minor modifications, on a separate frame, with the same wheelbase, part-time 4WD and live rigid axles on leaf-springs, both front and rear, just like the CJ-7 – the new 'Wrangler' was promoted by the manufacturer as a significantly new design with a wider track, slightly less ground clearance, more comfort and improved safety and handling. Israeli military carmaker Automotive Industries Ltd.

The Jeep CJ models are both a series and a range of small, open-bodied off- road vehicles and compact pickup trucks, built and sold by several successive incarnations of the Jeep automobile marque from 1945 to 1986. The 1945 Willys Jeep was the world's first mass-produced civilian four-wheel drive car. In 1944, Willys-Overland, one of the two main manufacturers of the World War II military Jeep, built the first prototypes for a commercial version – the CJ, short for "civilian Jeep". From then on, all CJ Jeeps consistently had a separate body and frame, rigid live axles with leaf springs both front and rear, a tapering nose design with flared fenders, and a fold-flat windshield, and could be driven without doors.

Crosley introduced several "firsts" in American automotive history, including the first affordable, mass-market car with an overhead camshaft engine in 1946; the first use of the term 'Sport(s-) Utility' in 1947, for a 1948 model year convertible wagon; and the first American cars to be fitted with 4-wheel caliper type disc brakes, as well as America's first post-war sports car, the Hotshot, in the 1949 model year. All of Crosley's models were lightweight () body-on-frame cars with rigid axles front and rear, and engines with less than displacement. With exception of the late introduced Hotshot and Farm-O-Road models, the vast majority of all Crosleys were built on an wheelbase,The same as the British 1959 Mini. and with leaf-springs.

Republic of ChinaRepublic of China Army Wrangler Unlimited On September 13, 2007, at the Defence Systems and Equipment International trade show, Chrysler LLC unveiled a Wrangler Unlimited version designed for military use dubbed the J8. The unarmored Jeep J8 is equipped with larger brakes, axles and suspension components than the civilian version and has a payload capacity of 1,339 kg (2,952 lb). The J8 also differs from the civilian model by utilizing heavy- duty rear leaf springs for carrying heavier payloads. The Jeep J8 is powered by a VM 2.8-liter (169 CID) four-cylinder turbo-diesel engine that produces 118 kW (158 hp) and 400 N·m (295 lbf·ft) of torque, providing towing capability of up to 3,500 kg (7,700 lb).

Fortunately for Toyota, the tax incentive announcements did actually not materialize; the displacement did classify in the lowest annual road tax bracket, which helped sales. The new car was given a two-door sedan body, which was intended to accommodate four people and a significant amount of luggage in the trunk, thus fulfilling the projected expectations of the customers. The car had a double wishbone suspension in the front and semi-elliptical leaf springs in the rear. While the name "Publica" was chosen with reference to the English phrase "public car", referring to the car's intended attainability and popularity, due to the lack of exact distinction between the "l" and "r" consonants in Japanese the name can be sometimes misinterpreted as something closer to paprika.

The word "coach" was derived from the Hungarian town of Kocs. Custom or bespoke coachbuilt bodies were made and fitted to another manufacturer's rolling chassis by the craftsmen who had previously built bodies for horse-drawn carriages and coaches. Separate coachbuilt bodies became obsolete when vehicle manufacturers found they could no longer meet their customers' demands by relying on a simple separate chassis (on which a custom or bespoke body could be built) mounted on leaf springs on beam axles. Unibody or monocoque combined chassis and body structures became standardised during the middle years of the 20th century to provide the rigidity required by improved suspension systems without incurring the heavy weight, and consequent fuel, penalty of a truly rigid separate chassis.

Power was transmitted to the rear wheels via a multi-plate dry disc clutch (“Mehrscheibentrockenkupplung”) and a four speed manual transmission. The gear lever was initially to the driver's right, directly outside the door, but at some stage it was repositioned to what has subsequently become a more conventional location in the middle of the floor to the driver's left.Oswald, p 215 (At this time it was still normal, if no longer universal, in western Europe for the steering wheel and therefore also the driver to be placed on the right side of the car.) The suspension configuration followed the conventions of the time, using rigid beam axles and semi-elliptic leaf springs. Braking operated on all four wheels using a cable linkage.

The basic construction is a Body-on-frame design with a fiberglass body mounted on a pre-fabricated metal chassis. The factory- provided chassis is a custom ladder frame built of by rectangular steel tubing with a 5/16th inch wall thickness.Tony Assenza, "Do-it-yourselfer's dream: The real fun of building a kit car is driving it when it's finished", Popular Mechanics October 1981 The factory attached fuel and brake plumbing, as well the tail-light wiring bundle, to the frame before shipping. The mechanical components, including engine, suspension, and transmission, could be drawn from the Ford Pinto, Mercury Bobcat, or Ford Mustang II. Based on these donor choices, the suspension is relatively unsophisticated, with a solid rear axle mounted on quarter-elliptical leaf springs.

The torque tube solves that problem by coupling the differential housing to the transmission housing and therefore propels the car forward by pushing up on the engine/transmission and then through the engine mounts to the car frame, with the reverse happening during braking. In contrast, the Hotchkiss drive transmits the traction forces to the car frame by using suspension components such as leaf springs or trailing arms. A type of ball and socket joint called a "torque ball" is used at one end of the torque tube to allow relative motion between the axle and transmission due to suspension travel. Later American Motors Rambler models (1962 through 1966) used a flange and cushion mount in place of the ball and socket.

1962-1966 AMC Technical Service Manuals Since the torque tube does not constrain the car's body to the axle in the lateral (side-to-side) direction a panhard rod is often used for this purpose. The combination of the panhard rod and the torque tube allows the easy implementation of soft coil springs in the rear to give good ride quality, as in Buicks after 1937. Before 1937, Buicks used leaf springs, so the panhard rod was not used, though the torque tube allowed a cantilever spring suspension, which gives a softer ride than a center-mount axle on the leaf spring, as required by the Hotchkiss setup. In addition to transmitting traction forces, the torque tube is hollow and contains the rotating driveshaft.

Another alternative is flexible drill-stem rigs, in which the drill string is flexible enough to be coiled when at the surface. This eliminates the need to disconnect and reconnect the pipes during a trip.alt=The bottom of an ice drillThe need for a string of drillpipe that extends from the surface to the bottom of the borehole can be eliminated by suspending the entire downhole assembly on an armoured cable that conveys power to the downhole motor. These cable-suspended drills can be used for both shallow and deep holes; they require an anti-torque device, such as leaf-springs that press against the borehole, to prevent the drill assembly rotating around the drillhead as it cuts the core.

The chassis, with its wheelbase, was effectively a shortened version of the chassis provided for the manufacturer's fill-size "Cadette" and "Major" sedans/saloons. The name "Baby" does not alter the fact that even these shortened chassis Talbots were substantial automobiles by the standards of the time and place. The steering wheel and driving seat were on the right-hand side of the car, following a convention that had been almost universal among European auto-makers twenty years earlier, but which was now seen as rather old fashioned in countries where traffic drove on the right. The wheels at the front were independently suspended subject to a transverse leaf spring, while the back wheels were attached using a rigid axle suspended from longitudinally mounted leaf springs.

A total of 3300 mm and 6300 mm wheelbase can be selected, the construction version of the Actros is available between 3300 and 5100 mm wheelbase with the option of Leaf or Air Suspension on the front axle and Parabolic leaf springs on the rear. The Construction variant of the Actros with 4x2 axle configuration are equipped with drum brakes. Engine and Transmission The Engines for the MP1 Actros is equipped with OM501LA V6 or OM502 V8 mated to a 16-speed manual gearbox or 16-speed hydropneumatically-operated automatic gearbox. Fuel Processing Another new feature of the Actros is the Pump-Line Nozzle Fuel injection system, an improvement for the plug-in pumps that have been used for decades.

The Cavalry saw this as a pre-series to obtain a platoon to be used for its very first trials with a mechanised unit. Renault however decided to provide each with a different suspension type, to lower the risk that his design would be found wanting. All were generally based on the Carden Loyd type that Renault had simply copied for his Renault UE – without paying any licence rights – and used the standard Renault Reinastella engine. As there simply wasn't time to fully develop all types before the autumn, in July the five vehicles, with military registration numbers 79756 to 79760, were delivered with the simplest one: two leaf springs on each side didn't spring the suspension units, they were the suspension units.

A powershift-type fully automatic transmission is an option. Drive axles are MAN single tyre hub- reduction, and with the exception of the heavier tractor units which are full- time all-wheel drive for traction and torque distribution reasons, all models have selectable front axle(s) drive. All axles have cross-axle differential locks and there are longitudinal differential locks in rear (and front on 8×8 and 10x10 chassis) axle combinations and the transfer case. Axle weight ratings are 9000 kg or 11,000 kg for front axles, and 10,000 kg for rear axles with single wheels/tyres. Front steer-drive axles (including the 2nd axle on 8x8/10x10 chassis) are sprung by a combination of parabolic leaf springs with progressively acting rubber assistors and hydraulic telescopic shock absorbers.

Six different payload classes, a wide range of bodies, and more than twenty different wheelbase-lengths were manufactured, and fitted with different sized versions of the Chrysler-sourced inline six-cylinder side-valve engines — from the half-ton TC pickup on a 116-inch wheelbase to three-ton tractor cabs. Nevertheless, mechanically, the trucks were all very similar, with solid axles front and rear and leaf springs at all four corners. With World War II taking up most of production capacity from 1942 to 1945, the 1939 styling continued largely unchanged through 1947, as engineering and production became the main focus. The Dodge trucks enjoyed some popularity before the war, and the last of them built in 1942, before Dodge turned to mostly military production, had progressed to the W-series model name.

The radiator was mounted at the front and the chassis had conventional steel leaf springs. One was shown on the Daimler stand at the 1962 Commercial Motor show and a brochure was produced for the type, although production was not an immediate prospect as the Daimler engine had ceased production. Customer interest in a modern Daimler single decker was however strong enough for Lyons to give the go ahead for a production bus of this type. Instead of the complex transverse horizontal drive it was decided to use a vertical longitudinal rear-engined layout, Instead of the very low horizontal frame of the first two chassis, this was slightly higher at the front and ramped gently upward and tapered outward toward the rear, where the Cummins VIM V6-200 engine was mounted.

SDEC R-series SC28R 150 Q5 VGT diesel engine from a Maxus T60 The original Maxus T60 is powered by a 2.8 liters R series SC28R engine based on a VM Motori RA 428 engine licence. It is an I4 intercooled, variable-geometry turbocharged diesel engine manufactured by SDEC. In November 2017, two new engine options were added; a 2.0 litre SAIC-GM MGE 20L4E Inline 4 turbocharged engine producing 224 horsepower, with 6 speed manual or 6 speed automatic transmission and an older 2.4 litre Mitsubishi Sirius-family SAIC 4G69S4N Inline 4 naturally aspirated petrol engine, producing 136 horsepower with a 5 speed Aisin manual gearbox. The T60 is a traditional body-on-frame truck with MacPherson suspension at the front and leaf springs at the rear.

The frame was the widened chassis of the Halford-Cross Rotary Special racing car which was such a failure it was broken up by the Works, it was painted green and re-numbered as Chassis WT-68. The rear section of the car was a second series of the distinctive MG Airline coupe with a sliding sunroof and an enclosed rear spare manufactured by Carbodies, later known as Manganese Bronze Holdings (trading as the London Taxi Company). The wings and bonnet were unique to the HRG and were formed by Alban Crofts' Crofts Coachbuilding firm which also assembled the body. Brakes are 4 wheel cable-operated drums, suspension is by quarter-elliptic leaves up front on a tubular axle beam, with semi-elliptical leaf springs on an ENV axle at the rear.

The fast Whippet-Mark V hybrid constructed by Johnson Major Philip Johnson, the unofficial head of Central Tank Corps Workshops in France, as soon as he received them began fitting one of the Whippets with leaf springs. Later, in 1918, he fitted this vehicle with sprung track rollers, Walter Gordon Wilson's epicyclical transmission from the Mark V and a 360 hp V12 Rolls-Royce Eagle aero-engine. A top speed of about was reached. This project made Johnson the best qualified man to develop the later fast Medium Mark D, which looks like a reversed Medium A. Other experiments included the fitting of a large trailing wheel taken from an old Mark I tank and attaching a climbing tail, in both cases attempts to increase trench- crossing ability.

Ever the sportsman—at six foot two and 250 pounds—he once fought off goons hired by (as was believed at the time) General Motors. It is alleged that he sent two to hospital and the third running. McCahill was a personal friend of Walter P. Chrysler and appreciated the handling and performance characteristics of Chrysler Corporation cars in the late 1950s and 1960s, which included many advanced engineering features such as front torsion-bar suspensions (combined with rear multi-leaf springs) for flatter cornering, powerful V8 engine options across the board and positive-shifting three-speed TorqueFlite automatic transmissions. In a 1959 road test of the Plymouth Sport Fury (which he referred to as the "Sports Fury"), he claimed that the torsion bar suspensions were the finest in America.

The facelifted ML series was released in September 1986, this included a coil sprung rear end replacing the leaf springs of the MB, a revised dashboard, headlights, tailgate and lights, and front grille. In the Used Car Safety Ratings undertaken by the Monash University Accident Research Centre, published in 2008, found that the first generation Barina provides a "significantly worse than average" level of occupant safety protection in the event of an accident. In New Zealand, the Barina (also sold as the "Suzuki Swift") was assembled by GMNZ from 1985 until 1989. At least for the ML series, a three-door version was also offered in NZ. From 1986 to 1989, a Holden Barina GTi model was also sold, being a rebadged Suzuki Swift GTi (see Suzuki Cultus).

With the downsized 1977 model, the Catalina Safari got a new two-way tailgate that could be opened to the side as a door or lowered as a tailgate which replaced the more complicated 1971-76 clamshell tailgate design. The wagons also shared the same full-coil spring suspension as their sedan counterparts, rather than the multi-leaf springs found on 1971-76 Safaris. As Pontiac V8s were completely banned from the State of California beginning in 1977 due to the inability to meet the state's more stringent emission control standards, Catalinas (and Bonnevilles) sold in California were equipped with engines from other GM divisions through 1981. Those included the Buick 231 V6 and an assortment of V8s including the Chevrolet 305, Oldsmobile 307, Buick and Oldsmobile 350s, and Oldsmobile 403 V8.

In production model vehicles, it is most important for the company to remain profitable, and as such, the most cost effective designs are most commonly used. Due to its simplicity, systems such as leaf springs or the MacPherson strut can be relatively cheap to design and integrate into a vehicle, and their wide usability make them a popular choice for such cars. Push-rod suspension, however, features many moving parts working together in a complex system, resulting in not only in significantly higher costs, but also higher chances of breakage. In terms of usability for daily use, while push-rod suspension is highly effective on a maintained and smoothed track, it does little to soften impacts and forces while driving on active roads, resulting in a rough and uncomfortable ride.

Even minor alterations such as roof racks (pictured below) could be fitted at the factory through this coachbuilding service, meaning that purchased vans could enter active service extremely quickly after delivery. The van would also come in crew cab (up to seven seats) pickup and fleet-based vans, and was the cheapest full-size van on the market in the United Kingdom at the time, providing it with many fleet-based customers such as local authorities and government agencies. Disc brakes were standard for the front (ventilated discs were available as an optional extra), drums standard for the rear, and the van used a traditional live rear axle setup, with leaf springs on all wheels. The van was available in both a low-topped (nicknamed 'City'), and a high-topped (nicknamed 'Hi-Loader') variant.

The strut suspension of the pre-war Stout Scarab could have been an influence and long-travel struts in aircraft landing gear were well-known by this time. French Cottin-Desgouttes utilized a similar design, albeit with less sophisticated leaf springs,Cottin-Desgouttes however the Cottin-Desgouttes front suspension was in turn inspired by American engineer J. Walter Christie's 1904 design. MacPherson designed the strut for all four wheels, but it is normally used for the front suspension only, where it provides a steering pivot as well as a suspension mounting for the wheel. The first production car to use MacPherson struts is often listed incorrectly as the French 1949 Ford Vedette, but it was developed before MacPherson with an independent front suspension based on wishbones and an upper coil spring.

1967 Isuzu Bellett B Introduced in November 1966 the Bellett B line was a simplified version with its own rear bodywork and larger luggage space, especially for commercial (mainly taxi) use. The B had a live rear axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs, which was cheaper and took up less space than the regular Bellett's independent rear suspension. The rear doors were the same as for the regular Bellett, but the section behind that was more squared in design, with rounded wheel openings and a reverse rake of the rear panel rather than the forward sloping design of the private use Bellett. Originally equipped with the 1.3 litre gasoline engine or the 1.8 diesel, a 1.5 litre engine which ran on LPG was added later in the year.

The suspension in front was MacPherson struts supported by a transverse leaf spring beneath the engine cross-member, with leaf springs connected to a solid axle in back. The engine was originally meant to be for the under 1000 cc tax class but was changed late in the design process to be 1077 cc in order to beat the forthcoming Datsun 1000. In Japan, this put it into a 1000cc engine road tax class but gave it some prestige over the Datsun 1000 - helped by its "100 cc advantage" advertising campaign. In May 1967 a four-door sedan (KE10F) and a three-door light van (KE16V, essentially a station wagon but classified as a light commercial vehicle in Japan) joined the lineup, as did the "Toyoglide" two-speed automatic.

The design is based on the Volvo PV sedan and shares its engine and front suspension with that model. However, unlike the PV, which had a unibody design and a coil spring rear suspension, the Duett used a ladder frame with leaf springs supporting the rear. A 1965 Volvo Duett (21134E) While the Duett has been criticised as a regressive design by those who point out that the ladder-frame car was based on Volvo's first unibodied car; the use of a separate ladder chassis provided Volvo with an easy solution in their desire to produce a suitable commercial vehicle. The availability of the bare chassis also allowed Swedish coach builders such as Grip, Valbo and Nordbergs to build Duett-based pickup trucks, convertibles and specialised commercial vehicles.

Between 1934 and 1938 Triumph made a large and complex range of Gloria sporting saloons, coupés, tourers, 2-seater sports cars, drophead coupés and golfer’s coupés. All these Glorias, apart from the final two models (1.5-Litre Saloon and Fourteen (1767 cc) Six-Light Saloon of 1937-1938) were powered by 1087 or 1232 cc four- cylinder or 1467 or 1991 cc six-cylinder Coventry Climax overhead inlet and side exhaust valve designed engines (modified and built under licence by Triumph). The chassis came in two lengths, with an extra ahead of the passenger compartment depending on whether the four- or six-cylinder engine was fitted, and had conventional non-independent suspension with semi elliptic leaf springs. The brakes were hydraulically operated using the Lockheed system with large drums.

The first Arrol-Johnston car was a six- seater "Dogcart" (a vehicle with two transverse seats placed back to back), which went into production at a factory at Camlachie, in the East End of Glasgow. The 1905 Arrol-Johnston opposed-piston twin cylinder engine The Dogcart was a wood-bodied vehicle powered by a 10 hp 2 cylinder opposed piston engine mounted beneath the floor, which was started by pulling on a rope. The vehicle boasted chain final drive and its high-wheeled, solid-tyred, horse- carriage type of body was retained well into the 1900s. The brakes were arranged in the form of shoes which could be pressed on the back of the solid rear tyres, and the suspension comprised full elliptic leaf springs at the front, and half-elliptics at the rear.

A Tilbury carriage in Geraz do Lima Carriage Museum, Portugal A tilbury is a light, open, two-wheeled carriage, with or without a top, developed in the early 19th century by the London firm of Tilbury, coachbuilders in Mount StreetWith coachbuilding works in Gloucester Place, New RoadAt South Street, London in about 1820 according to Walrond, Sally: Looking at Carriages, p. 73. Pelham Books, London 1980 (see also Stanhope (carriage)). A tilbury rig is little more than a single "tilbury seat"--the firm's characteristic spindle- backed seat with a curved padded backrest-- mounted over a raked luggage boot, and fitted with a dashboard and mounting peg, all on an elaborate suspension system of curved leaf springs above the single axle. The tilbury has large wheels for moving fast over rough roads.

In 1976, the Dart was offered with a police package, with production code A38. The A38 Dart had high-specification components and systems throughout, including a heavy-duty suspension with a rear sway bar, stronger leaf springs and firmer shock absorbers, larger brakes with semi- metallic front disc pads, maximum engine cooling as well as a high-capacity alternator and battery. The engines were Chrysler's 225 slant-six, 318 V8, and LA V8 (220 H.P., with non-catalyst in 49-state models and a true dual exhaust; California models had a single exhaust with the catalytic converter) with an A727 TorqueFlite transmission. Police-specific equipment such as a calibrated speedometer ("certified" 120 mph), high-intensity dome light and wiring harness for a rooftop light bar were standard equipment with an A-pillar spotlight and push bars were optional.

The prototype appeared in 1956, and was tested in both the Caucasus Mountains and the Crimea. Its loaded weight was 2.7 tonnes, and it, like all the 450 series vehicles, was powered by a low-compression inline- four (based on the ubiquitous Pobedas, but with an bore, rather than ), and the Pobedas three-speed transmission, while the transfer case, drive axles, leaf springs, and drum brakes came from the GAZ 69. In 1958, UAZ began production of the UAZ-450 series of trucks and vans. The first model was the 450A ambulance; with room for two stretchers and four-wheel drive, it was arguably the best in the world for use in remote areas. It was followed by the 450D drop-side pickup, which had an payload; the 450 van, with a payload; and the 11-seat 450V microbus.

The FD (1966–74) was released at a time when the UK was undergoing a currency crisis as well as increasingly militant labour relations, resulting in rising prices and reduced quality. On paper, this new 1599 cc and 1975 cc overhead camshaft engine design (the Slant Four) was advanced, but suffered an out of balance couple which earned it the US tag 'Hay Baler'. The suspension design of the car was far less compromised than most previous British mass-produced efforts, featuring a live axle with trailing arms, Panhard rod and coil springs instead of the traditional leaf springs, and a double wishbone front suspension assembly, but the FD's on-road performance and durability were less than its on paper promise in standard form. Independent tuner Blydenstein could effectively transform the overhead cam Victors to fulfill their advanced specifications.

Rolls-Royce 40-50hp Phantom II 'Continental' Sports Saloon Royce had body designer Ivan Evernden build him a one-off short-wheelbase Phantom. Designated 26EX, the car had a tuned engine, five-leaf springs that were stiffer than standard and a Barker four-seat lightweight close-coupled saloon body painted with an artificial pearl lacquer made from ground herring scales. The sales department initially showed no interest in 26EX but, when Evernden returned to the office from the 1930 Biarritz Grand Concours d'Elegance, where 26EX had won the Grand Prix d'Honneur, he found that the sales department had already announced the new "Phantom II Continental Saloon", prepared a brochure for it, and costed it. According to Evernden, neither he, Royce, nor the Rolls-Royce sales department had written specifications for the "Continental" model, although he and Royce had a clear specification in mind.

Technically derived from the GM B-body chassis, the Oldsmobile Custom Cruiser shares its 127-inch wheelbase with the GM C-body chassis (though the Custom Cruiser was given a B-body serial number). Shared with the same-generation Oldsmobile Ninety Eight, the 1971-1976 Custom Cruiser is the longest-wheelbase Oldsmobile ever produced by General Motors. In contrast to the rest of the GM B/C/D-platform vehicles of the time, GM 1971-1976 full-size station wagons used a truck-style rear suspension of multi-leaf springs (in lieu of rear coil springs). At shipping weight ( with woodgrain), or about curb weight, the three-seat 1974 Custom Cruiser wagons are easily the heaviest Oldsmobiles ever built (the Custom Cruiser competes with similar models of the Buick Estate as the heaviest GM vehicle ever produced).

It may have been somewhat conservatively styled, but the effort Nissan had put into the engineering of the car made it reliable and tough, qualities most Australians rated higher than a more advanced design. Only the early fully imported 200B sedans and coupés retained the independent rear suspension from the 180B, locally assembled 200B sedans instead switched to coil springs with a live axle, while the wagon (imported from Japan) had a live axle in the rear with leaf springs. Seen as a giant step backwards, the reason for the change was certainly not a cost-cutting measure, but simply the need for Nissan to reach an 85% local content quota that the then Federal Government demanded of Australian car manufacturers. However, in practice the live rear axle, being an Australian development, proved to actually benefit the car's overall handling dynamics.

Most of the early cars were exported; a 7:1 low-compression version, with commensurately reduced performance, was reserved for the UK market, where the post-war austerity measures then in force restricted buyers to 70 octane "Pool petrol". The Jaguar factory's access to 80 octane fuel allowed it to provide cars with the higher compression ratio to the press, enabling journalists to test the model's optimum performance in Belgium, on a long, straight stretch of road between Jabbeke and Ostend. The XK engine's basic design by William Heynes, later modified into 3.8 and 4.2-litre versions, survived until 1992. All XK120s had independent Heynes designed torsion bar front suspension, semi-elliptic leaf springs at the rear, recirculating ball steering, telescopically adjustable steering column, and all-round 12-inch drum brakes which were prone to fade.

The EF mount also changed the logical clamping action of the bayonet receptacle to improve the tactical operation. Attaching an FD lens to a camera body required two hands: one to hold the lens in position, and a second to twist the breech- lock ring to rigidly lock the lens to the camera. The EF mount instead provides leaf springs in the receptacle, which hold the registration surfaces of the lens and receptacle together along the optical axis, while the manual twisting action engages a spring-loaded registration pin in the receptacle which drops into a recess provided on the bayonet fitting, locking the rotation. This EF mount feature provided the convenience of attaching EF lenses with one hand (holding the lens and twisting), versus two hands (one to hold the lens, one to twist the breech-lock) required for the FD attachment.

In contrast, a torque tube arrangement uses only a single universal at the end of the transmission tailshaft, typically a constant velocity joint, and the axle housing is held fast by the torque tube, which anchors the differential housing to the transmission. In the Hotchkiss drive, slip-splines or a plunge-type (ball and trunnion u-joint) eliminate thrust transmitted back up the driveshaft from the axle, allowing simple rear-axle positioning using parallel leaf springs. In the torque-tube type, this thrust is taken by the torque tube to the transmission and thence to the transmission and motor mounts to the frame. While the torque-tube type, when combined with rear coil springs (1938-62 Buick), requires additional locating elements, such as a Panhard rod, this is not needed with a torque tube/leaf spring combination (1906-1937 Buick, early Ford, etc).

This meant that Santana began to engineer its own solutions to common problems into the models it produced and thus Santana's models diverged from Land Rover's original products. Up to the late 1980s the Santana models – supposed to be quickly and cheaply built versions of Land Rover's original product - often ended up being quite different to Land Rover's own vehicles. For instance Santana models featured anatomical seats, disc-brakes, turbo diesel engines, taper-leaf springs, coil springs, and civilian-specification Forward Control versions before the Land Rover equivalents and there was even a civilian version of the Land Rover Lightweight called the "Ligero" which was never released by Land Rover. The Santana Motor Company ended its agreement with Land Rover in 1983 but continued to develop its own range of vehicles which remained visually similar to Land Rover's series and Defender range.

These rings surround the tone holes so that when a finger covers the tone hole it also pushes a metal ring down to a level flush with the top of the hole. The ring, in turn, is connected to a long axle (borrowed directly from Boehm's flute), which then causes another hole located elsewhere on the instrument to be covered by a padded key. As an original invention for the clarinette à anneaux mobiles, Buffet utilized needle springs in order to control the opening and closing of keys mounted on axles. Needle springs are mounted on posts screwed directly into the wooden body of the clarinet and are used for all keys other than those with extremely short pivoting axles, which continue to make use of simple leaf springs attached longitudinally to the underside of each separate key.

The test car, which had the optional hydraulically powered top and window operation (£40 extra), cost £824, including taxes. The handling was average, but adequate for the era, with coil independent suspension at the front and leaf springs at the rear, employing lever arm shock absorbers or 'dampers' which, when worn, resulted in a characteristic 'wave motion' over undulating surfaces. The underpinnings were somewhat less exotic than the all-enveloping bodywork: the chassis and running gear were based on that of the well-proven 1949 Austin A70 Hampshire saloon (not to be confused with the smaller entry level A40 Devon). Brakes were initially a mix of hydraulic (front) and mechanical (rear) with drums, replaced by a fully hydraulic brake setup from 1951 onwards on the hardtop coupe (saloon)which with large diameter finned drums and vented wheels.

Introduced in April 1954 as the Toyopet RK 1¼ ton truck, it was larger than the similar Toyota SG light truck but smaller than the Toyota FA medium duty truck. In 1955 it was upgraded to carry 1.5 tons. The standard body was a 2-door, 3 seater pickup with a separate well body (with a fold down tailgate). Other bodies advertised by Toyota included a van, an ambulance, double cab coupe utility (2-doors, 6 seater, integral well body), drop-side pickup, pickup with stake sides, a pickup with full height metal side with a canvas top, a light bus (precursor to the Coaster) and an ice cream van. All models used mechanicals common to new vehicles of its time, such as a ladder frame chassis, leaf springs, solid axles and 4 wheel drum brakes.

1919 Ford Model T Transverse leaf spring front suspension is a type of automotive front suspension, whose usage is most well known in Ford Motor Company products from 1908 to 1948 (1959 for the inexpensive Ford Popular in the UK). "Suicide front axle" is a term that has been used for it. The configuration consists of a one-piece axle (solid front axle), to the ends of which the steerable front wheels are mounted. The axle receives its vertical and transverse support from a transverse leaf spring (leaf springs were often used for support in more than one direction), and its longitudinal support from fore-aft links sometimes called "radius rods" which are attached (via pivots) to the ends of the axle at their forward end and to the sides of the chassis (again via pivots) at their aft end.

Darts were offered to the taxicab industry for their whole production run from 1963 to 1976. While specifications varied by year, interior upgrades generally included heavy-duty front and rear black rubber floor mats, heavy-duty seat cushion springs with full-foam back and air-foam seats, black all-vinyl trim with heavy canvas-backed vinyl seat covers, interior door pull assist straps or handles, and a door-ajar warning light for the driver. Mechanically, Dart taxicabs were generally equipped with heavy-duty brakes, tires, shock absorbers, front torsion bars and rear leaf springs, a high-output alternator, an increased-capacity cooling system, and extra-lean carburetor calibration for greater economy. In 1976, the Chrome Yellow taxi package was available only with a 225 slant-six engine producing and ; transmission was the (rare) A-727-RG (raised-deck motor, which was the slant-six series) with California emissions, and .

The estate and van versions used the same doors, roof and rear panelwork as the Mark I, but with the Mark II front end and interior. The car used a revised underbody, which had been introduced as a running change during the last six months production of the Mark I. The rear suspension still sat on leaf springs though some contemporaries such as the Hillman Avenger had moved on to coil springs. The car came in for criticism for its lack of oddments space, with a glove compartment available on only higher end models, and its stalk-mounted horn. The "L" and "GL" models (2-door, 4-door, estate) were in the mainstream private sector, the "Sport", "RS Mexico", and "RS2000" in the performance market, the "Ghia" (2-door, 4-door) for a hitherto untapped small car luxury market, and "base / Popular" models for the bottom end.

For 1974, the Fury shared Chrysler's all-new full-size C-body platform in common with the concurrent flagship Imperial (1974-75); Chrysler New Yorker (1974-78), Newport (1974-78) and Town & Country (1974-77); and with the Dodge Monaco (1974-76) and Royal Monaco (1977) as well. Styling was more squared off with lower beltlines and greater use of glass than with Chrysler's previous fuselage generation (1969-73), also with cues more similar to the model year 1971 and later Buicks and model year 1973–74 Mercurys. The unibody structure with subframe for engine/transmission was retained along with other typical Chrysler Corporation engineering features including torsion bar front suspension and multi-leaf springs in the rear. 1974 Plymouth Fury II 2-door hardtop Model lineup again included the Fury I, Fury II, Fury III and Gran Fury series, plus the Suburban and Sport Suburban station wagons.

Curbside Classic: Kaiser Jeep CJ-5 – Transcendent Independent Similar to the Willys MB and the CJ Jeeps before it, all Wrangler models continue to use a separate body and frame, rigid live axles both front and rear, a tapering nose design with flared fenders, a fold-flat windshield, and can be driven without doors. Also, with few exceptions, they have part-time four- wheel drive systems, with the choice of high and low gearing, and standard are open bodies with removable hard- or soft-tops. However, the Wrangler series was specifically redesigned to be safer and more comfortable on-road, to attract more daily drivers, by upgrading its suspension, drivetrain, and interior, compared to the CJ line. The suspension on all Wranglers included trackbars and anti-roll bars, and, from the 1997 TJ onwards, front and rear coil springs instead of the previous leaf-springs.

The latter system was introduced for 1981. Regardless of the type of four-wheel drive system equipped, all K-Series pickups featured four-corner Vari-Rate multi-leaf springs, front live axle with symmetrical (inline) shock absorber geometry, and the Load Control rear suspension system. K-Series pickups also featured an off-road oriented design, with the transfer case bolted directly to the transmission and running gear tucked up as high as possible under the vehicle to reduce the chances of snagging vital components on obstacles, as well as to achieve a low silhouette and optimal ground clearance. Exposed brake lines wrapped in steel were standard, with underbody skid plate armor optional for further protection. Conventional four-wheel drive pickups featured manual locking hubs and a two-speed New Process 205 transfer case with four drive modes: Two High, Four High, Neutral, and Four Low.

However, the plans never came to fruition because of the German invasion on June 22, 1941 - only a small series of four-door prototypes was ever built. The original two-door version was more fortunate, as the plant was allowed to assemble 500 cars using the test bodies produced by Budd – 250 KIM-10-50 two- door sedans and 250 KIM-10-51 phaetons were initially planned to be built. In November and December 1940 the KIM plant assembled 16 sedans, another 70 in January, 1941, 50 in February, 102 in March and 100 in April – 338 units altogether. The exact production numbers for the phaeton are unknown, but they were extremely rare even when new. The production was assisted by ZIS (supplied frames, leaf springs, large forgings), GAZ (stampings and castings), Moscow “Ball Bearing” plant, “Red Etna” factory in Gorky and up to 90 other industrial facilities.

Mark II Gazel, with smaller bonnet In 1972, the Standard Herald was remodeled (redesigned body, new suspension, and new differential) by Standard Motor Products of India as the Standard Gazel, with a different grille and headlights set far apart, purportedly inspired from the Triumph Herald 13/60. It received a new, more sober rear end with low horizontal rectangular tail-lights (which are also still used on some locally built buses and three-wheeled taxis in India) and without the characteristic tail-fins of the Herald designed by Michelotti. It also received a live rear-axle suspended on two leaf springs, purportedly copied from the Triumph Toledo instead of the Herald's swing-axle independent suspension, replacement of the Herald's front bucket seats with a bench, and underwent the retrograde move of replacing the shifter with a long-crank version as also found in the Standard Ten. However, the engine was the same 948 cc single carb.

Suspension lifts are also found on a number of high performance sports cars, in which a very low ground clearance is used to improve handling, using an aerodynamic effect known as downforce; examples include the Ferrari 488, Lamborghini Huracan, McLaren 720S, and the second generation Ford GT. Such vehicles activate the suspension lift while traversing road bumps and ramps to avoid damaging the front underbody of the vehicle when driving on public roads; the suspension lift is deactivated on race tracks and level roads. A lift kit is an aftermarket product package with the parts needed to lift a specific model of vehicle, typically with instructions and customer support. Some kits may have only critical or difficult to obtain parts, needing generic or off the shelf hardware and parts to complete the lift. Some lifts need only a few parts, like lift blocks, the spacers placed between the axles and leaf springs, and coil spring/strut spacers and extended shocks, and special driveshafts, axles, and more.

The organization still plays a major role in the sport's development in the US and EU. With racing taking precedence, several teams began to think in new ways as to how the trucks could be built. Towards the end of 1988, Gary Cook and David Morris debuted Equalizer, a truck with a combination of coil springs and shock absorbers as the main source of suspension rather than the standard of leaf springs and shock absorbers. In 1989, Jack Willman Sr., now with his own truck, Taurus, debuted a new truck which used a solid axle suspension system made of parallel four-link suspensions and coilovers that together weighed in at close to . However, the biggest innovation came from Chandler, also in 1989, when the CAD-designed Bigfoot #8 debuted featuring a full tubular chassis and a long-travel suspension system made of triangulated four-link suspensions, bump stops, limit straps, cantilevers, and shock absorbers charged with nitrogen gas.

The styling is attributed to Datsun in-house designer, Teruo Uchino. The engine was promoted by Nissan USA president Yutaka Katayama, a design developed through Prince, an acquisition. Launched in October 1967, body styles included the original four-door sedan, a two-door sedan (June 1968), five-door station wagon, and two-door coupé (November 1968). The 510 range became famous for Nissan's rallying successes outside Japan and paved the way for greater Nissan sales internationally. The Datsun 510 released to the U.S. market had a Hitachi downdraft-carbureted 1.6L L-series I4 engine, with an advertised gross power of 96 hp (72 kW), a claimed top speed of 100 mph, front disc brakes, four-wheel independent suspension (MacPherson struts front and semi trailing arm rear- wagons had a solid rear live axle and leaf springs in back), rear-wheel drive, and either a four-speed manual or a three-speed automatic transmission.

Four variants were coded and three produced, all had an wheelbase for a nominal bodied length of , with width of and a height of unladen. LR1 had a fluid coupling behind the engine and in front of the step-down gearbox, which joined to a drive shaft under the entry step, whilst on the nearside, aft of the front-entrance position, a four-speed Pneumocyclic semi-automatic transmission was fitted with drive then continued alongside the nearside frame-member to the driving head of the axle. The LR3 had a single-plate clutch and a four-speed manual gearbox with synchromesh on third and top. Both of these had rear semi-elliptic leaf springs; whilst the LR7 was as the LR3, but with rear air suspension designed to provide a constant height (nearly two inches (5 cm) lower than the unladen height of the steel-sprung examples) regardless of loading, an equivalent model with semi- automatic transmission and air suspension was coded LR5 but none were ordered.

Various laboratory-style 4 mm banana plugs Loudspeaker-style banana plugs connected to a loudspeaker A banana connector (commonly banana plug for the male, banana socket or banana jack for the female) is a single-wire (one conductor) electrical connector used for joining wires to equipment. The term 4 mm connector is also used, especially in Europe, although not all banana connectors will mate with 4 mm parts, and 2 mm banana connectors exist. Various styles of banana plug contacts exist, all based on the concept of spring metal applying outward force into the unsprung cylindrical jack to produce a snug fit with good electrical conductivity. Common types include: a solid pin split lengthwise and splayed slightly, a tip of four leaf springs, a cylinder with a single leaf spring on one side, a bundle of stiff wire, a central pin surrounded by a multiple-slit cylinder with a central bulge, or simple sheet spring metal rolled into a nearly complete cylinder.

Because of the tight financial position in this period of British Leyland (which owned Land Rover), Santana's were often better placed than Land Rover was to deal with these failings. This meant that Santana began to engineer its own solutions to common problems into the models it produced and thus arose a degree of originality in Santana's models compared to Land Rover's original products – a trend that led to the company's position today. Up to the late 1980s the Santana models – supposed to be quickly and cheaply built versions of Land Rover's own product - often ended up being improved when compared to Land Rover's own vehicles. For instance, Santana models featured anatomical seats, disc-brakes, turbo diesel engines, taper-leaf springs, coil springs, and civilian-specification Forward Control versions before the Land Rover equivalents and there was even a civilian version of the Land Rover Lightweight called the "Ligero" which was never released by Land Rover.

From July 1981 to September 1982, German RS dealers marketed a limited edition, Zakspeed inspired, left-hand drive only, 'Werksturbo' model capable of . Based on the 3.0 S, this derivative featured widened Series X bodywork, front and rear 'Ford Motorsport' badged spoilers, deep 7.5j four-spoked RS alloy wheels fitted with Pirelli P7 235/60VR13 tyres and an RS badged engine. The engine was based on a normally aspirated carburetor equipped 2.8-litre Cologne V6, Ford Granada (Europe) engine using electronic ignition, a tuftrided crankshaft, heavy duty head gaskets and oil pump, an oil cooler and a single Garrett T4 turbocharger providing 5.4 psi of boost, a limited slip differential, Bilstein dampers all around, an anti dive kit, uprated RS anti roll bars and single rear leaf springs, the engine put out 188 Hp at 5500 rpm. Figures of around 200 produced examples are common, but numbered transmission tunnels possibly indicate 155 conversions were made.

It later arrived in Jeep showrooms in April 1996, after 6 years of overall investment and 36 month production development phase. Instead of leaf springs, this updated Wrangler featured a modern coil-spring suspension, front and rear, based on that of the Jeep Grand Cherokee, for better ride and handling, and a return to the classic CJ's round headlamps. The engine is the same 4.0 L AMC 242 Straight-6 used in the Cherokee and Grand Cherokee. A 2.5 L AMC 150 Inline-4 engine was available on entry-level models until 2002. The 2.4 L DOHC 4-cylinder engine previously used on the Chrysler PT Cruiser replaced it for 2003. A modified 1998 TJ offroading in Alaska In 1998 (MY1999), the fuel tank became standard at capacity. There were some changes between the 2002 and 2003 years. From 1996 to 2002, the side door mirrors were black metal framed mirrors; and from 2003 to 2006 they were plastic molded mirrors.

He expanded greatly on the proven structural technique that effectively stiffened and reinforced the chassis- structure, eliminating flexing and torsional twist, delighting the coachbuilders. A distinct feature of the new chassis was the nearly round open hoop through both rear chassis-rails, through which the DeDion tube and the splined differential half-shafts extended out to the hub-carriers that were bolted onto conventional semi-elliptical leaf springs. The rear of the chassis, aft of the cockpit, was very similar to the Bugatti Type 57. More modern suspension than that of the Type 135 was featured in the 175/178/180 chassis-series. Delahaye's Type 135 had independent front suspension, a proprietary system it shared with Delage and Talbot-Lago. The new 4.5-liter chassis had a previously untried independent front suspension that was unfamiliar to Delahaye. This was the proven Dubonnet-licensed independent suspension system replacing the outdated proprietary system used in the Delahaye Types 135, 145, 155, and 165.

Tahoe Z71 Package Based on the same GMT T1XX platform as the Silverado 1500, the Tahoe distinguishes itself by swapping that truck's live axle and leaf springs for an independent rear multilink suspension setup with coil springs, thus lowering the floor of the vehicle and creates more room in both the cargo area and the second- and third-row seats. The Tahoe expanded its size length to 210.7 inches, and the wheelbase to 120.9 inches while shortened down by 15 inches longer due to the rear wheelbase moving back by 5 inches, making it the largest SUV in the full size length segment. It gains 11 cubic feet of cargo space behind the third row and 10 inches of third-row legroom. The trims will continue to feature the primary basic LS, LT, and Premier levels, with both Z71 and RST moving from package to premium level, along with the newly added High Country level, the latter being the top of the line, making the Tahoe the only standard full size length SUV to offer the most level trims of any vehicle in this segment.

The Japanese auto industry was expanding rapidly in the early 1960s, and the Imperial Household Agency sought a Japanese auto manufacturer to produce a suitable car for the Emperor of Japan. In September 1965, the Prince Motor Company announced that they would be providing two vehicles for the Emperor. The first would be ready by 1966, the other by 1967. In May 1966, Prince Motor Co. merged with Nissan Motor Co., and so Nissan was added to the name of the car. The Prince Motor Company had an established relationship with the Imperial Household Agency previously, when they presented the first Prince Gloria to Crown Prince Akihito as a one-year anniversary wedding gift, and an earlier gift to the Crown Prince called the Prince Sedan in 1954. The Prince Royal was the second Japanese built post-war vehicle to use a V8 engine; the first was the Toyota Crown Eight in 1964. Because of the massive weight at , a 6,437 cc (391 ci) Prince series W64 V8 with overhead valves, producing was used along with custom 8.90-15 Bridgestone tyres. Front independent double wishbone coil suspension, with leaf springs in the rear.

During his career, Williams has conducted dozens of industrial and governmental consultations including (1) papermaking calender rolls, for which "he is considered, by virtue of his extensive work in the field, to be the nation's leading expert on stresses in rotary paper dryers"; (2) the first automated system for installing recessed highway lane delineation reflectors; (3) an earthquake analysis of the 500 KV bus system of the British Columbia (Canada) hydroelectric power generating station and the design of an isolation system to protect its electrical lines during seismic activity; (4) the design of composite rocket motor casings; (5) the residual-life prediction of composite aircraft structures; (6) the stress analysis of a high-speed optical pulsing system; (7) the stress analysis of pelvic implants and bone stints for the Orthopædic Unit of the Massachusetts General Hospital; (8) the effect of ultrasonic irradiation on the enhancement of composite fabrication; (9) the ultrasonic NDE delineation of strength and rupture modes in adhesively bonded joints; (10) the design of deepwater mooring composite systems for offshore oil platforms; (11) an NDE regimen for the structural acceptance of composite automotive leaf springs; among others.

From 1979 until 1985, the Stage 1 was built using some of the same components as the Range Rover and 101 Forward Control, such as the LT95 gearbox and 3.5-litre Rover V8 petrol engine. The engine was detuned to from the 135BHP of the contemporary Range Rover. The vehicle came about because the competing Toyota Land Cruiser and Nissan Patrol vehicles, fitted with powerful and durable 6-cylinder engines, were making considerable inroads into the market, particularly in Australia and Africa. A V8-powered Land Rover with the Range Rover's constant 4WD system was a considerable technological advancement on the part-time 4WD and 4-cyl engines of previous variants, though the Stage 1 still used the Series III's leaf springs. The Stage 1 was normally available only in LWB form but 24 examples were built with the SWB wheelbase. "Stage 1" refers to the first stage of investment by the British Government in the company to improve the Land Rover and Range Rover product offerings to counter the aforementioned market challenges, and were a transitional development on the way to the coil- sprung Land Rover 90 and 110.

The roots of Uzel Group reach back to 1864 when the Uzel family began making and selling phaetons in the city of Rousse in Bulgaria, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire. Ibrahim Uzel, became the founder and the first Chairman of the Uzel Group in 1937 when he set up a sole proprietorship in Bursa, a city in northwestern Turkey and began making leaf springs for motor vehicles. In 1961, production of the company's first agricultural tractors began. The Company built its first diesel engine in 1964. In 1997, 15% of the shares of a subsidiary of the Group, Uzel Makina, were listed both in Istanbul and London Stock Exchanges in an IPO coordinated by Morgan Stanley. In 2005, Uzel relocated its headquarters to Amsterdam in the Netherlands and acquired Gebrüder Holder GmbH, one of Europe's oldest tractor makers. Argentum, the venture capital arm of Uzel, acquired the Century 21 master franchise license from Realogy for Germany, Croatia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Azerbaijan and Hungary in 2006. By 2006, the Group had expanded its products and operations to over 75 countries and operating in a few different industries and embarked on so a major reorganisation.

The wheels were suspended from rigid axles supported by semi-elliptical leaf springs at the front and at the back. Braking applied on all four wheels using a mechanical linkage supported by a Bosch-Dewandre vacuum suction device.Oswald, p 233 The car was close in size to the Horch 8 which had effectively been benchmarked for its design. The 1928 “Pullman-Limousine” bodied version of the Horch came with an overall length of and a weight of 2,100 kg (bare chassis weight 1400 kg). The 1928 “Pullman-Limousine” bodied version of the Mercedes- Benz Nürburg 460 was long which increased to when the detachable rear boot/trunk was added: the Mercedes weighed in at 2,150 kg (bare chassis weight 1550 kg).Oswald, pp 163 & 233 Both cars had an imposing height in this standard bodied form of even though the Horch had since its 1926 launch incorporated an “underlung” chassis. The cars’ respective widths were and .Oswald, pp 163 & 233 In addition to the “Pullman-Limousine” bodied car, priced by Mercedes-Benz at 15,000 Marks, buyers of the 1928 W08 could choose a Torpedo bodied 6 seater “Tourenwagen” for 14,000 Marks or a 4-door “Cabriolet D” for 17,500 Marks.

In theory, passengers could enjoy fresh air even when the car was moving slowly or stopped, as in heavy traffic. In practice, however, it didn't work. Within weeks of the 1971 models' debut, however, Buick—and all other GM dealers—received multiple complaints from drivers who complained the ventilation system pulled cold air into the car before the heater could warm up—and could not be shut off. The ventilation system was extensively revised for 1972. From 1971 to 1976, Buick's full-sized Estate Wagon shared the wheelbase and 455 cubic-inch V8 with the Electra 225, and shared its interior and exterior styling from 1971 to 1974 (complete with the prerequisite four VentiPorts). And although from 1975 to 1976 the number of VentiPorts were reduced by one, and the front fascia was downgraded to a LeSabre's, the Electra 225 style chrome rocker panel moldings and distinctive Electra 225 style rear quarter panels (albeit without fender skirts) remained. These were the first Buick station wagons to be built on Buick's largest chassis since the Roadmaster Estates of 1947–53. The Estate Wagons, as did other GM full-sized wagons during these years, used a unique rear suspension with multi-leaf springs instead of the coil springs used on other full-sized Buicks, and other full-sized GM cars.