In translation, this meant trying to write rules to analyse the text of a sentence in the language of origin, breaking it down into a sort of abstract "interlanguage" and rebuilding it according to the rules of the target language.
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It is possible to apply an interlanguage perspective to a learner's underlying knowledge of the target language sound system (interlanguage phonology), grammar (morphology and syntax), vocabulary (lexicon), and language-use norms found among learners (interlanguage pragmatics). By describing the ways in which learner language conforms to universal linguistic norms, interlanguage research has contributed greatly to our understanding of linguistic universals in second-language acquisition.
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Research on universal grammar (UG) has had a significant effect on second-language acquisition (SLA) theory. In particular, scholarship in the interlanguage tradition has sought to show that learner languages conform to UG at all stages of development. Interlanguage UG differs from native UG in that interlanguage UGs vary greatly in mental representations from one L2 user to another. This variability arises from differing relative influences on the interlanguage UG, such as existing L1 knowledge and UG constraints.
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In 1997, she wrote a seminal article in which she suggested the application of complex/dynamic systems theory to study second language acquisition. A book of papers in her honor, Complexity Theory and Language Development, was published in 2017. Larsen-Freeman criticised Larry Selinker's Interlanguage in a chapter entitled Another Step to be Taken published in Han and Tarone's Interlanguage - Forty Years Later by claiming that there is no endpoint of the interlanguage continuum. She suggested the reconsideration of the Interlanguage.
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An interlanguage is an idiolect that has been developed by a learner of a second language (or L2) which preserves some features of their first language (or L1), and can also overgeneralize some L2 writing and speaking rules. These two characteristics of an interlanguage result in the system's unique linguistic organization. An interlanguage is idiosyncratically based on the learners' experiences with the L2. It can "fossilize", or cease developing, in any of its developmental stages.
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The interlanguage rules are claimed to be shaped by several factors, including L1-transfer, previous learning strategies, strategies of L2 acquisition (i.e., simplification), L2 communication strategies (i.e., circumlocution), and overgeneralization of L2 language patterns. Interlanguage is based on the theory that there is a dormant psychological framework in the human brain that is activated when one attempts to learn a second language.
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Interlanguage can be observed to be variable across different contexts. For example, it may be more accurate, complex and fluent in one discourse domain than in another. Variability is observed when comparing the utterances of the learner in conversation to form- focused tasks, such as memory-based oral drills in a classroom. Spontaneous conversation is more likely to involve the use of interlanguage.
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Interlanguage theory is often credited to Larry Selinker, who coined the terms "interlanguage" and "fossilization." Uriel Weinreich is credited with providing the foundational information that was the basis of Selinker's research. Selinker (1972) noted that in a given situation, the utterances produced by a learner are different from those native speakers would produce had they attempted to convey the same meaning. This comparison suggests the existence of a separate linguistic system.
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They contain interlanguage links to each other, but there is no global governing organization comparable to the Wikimedia Foundation that oversees Wikipedia as well as its sister projects.
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Tarone's published research on second-language acquisition began in 1972, and, , includes 10 books and more than 135 papers in scholarly journals and edited volumes. From 1996 until her retirement from the University of Minnesota in 2016, she was director of the university's Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA). A major research interest has been the sociolinguistic factors affecting second-language acquisition, and she is particularly known for her work on interlanguage, interlanguage variation}] and the impact of emergent alphabetic print literacy on oral second-language acquisition. In 1972, she published the first paper on interlanguage phonology, and in 1978, the first research on communication strategies in second-language acquisition .
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In these interlanguage transfers, when phonemes or phonotactic constraints are too different, more extreme compromises may occur; for example, the English phrase Merry Christmas, when borrowed into Hawaiian, becomes mele kalikimaka.
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This is a native dialect of English, not learner English or interlanguage; it is possible to differentiate this variety from an interlanguage spoken by second-language speakers in that the "Miami accent" does not generally display the following features: there is no addition of before initial consonant clusters with , speakers do not confuse of with , (e.g., Yale with jail), and /r/ and /rr/ are pronounced as alveolar approximant [] instead of alveolar tap or alveolar trill [r] in Spanish.
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An interlanguage can fossilize, or cease developing, in any of its developmental stages. Fossilization is the process of 'freezing' of the transition between the L1 and L2, and is regarded as the final stage of interlanguage development. It can occur even in motivated learners who are continuously exposed to their L2 or have adequate learning support. Reasons for this phenomenon may be due to complacency or inability to overcome the obstacles to acquiring native proficiency in the L2.
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The concept of interlanguage is closely related to other types of language, especially creoles and pidgins. Each of these languages has its own grammar and phonology. The difference is mostly one of variability, as a learner's interlanguage is spoken only by the learner and changes frequently as they become more proficient in the language. In contrast, creoles and pidgins are generally the product of groups of people in contact with another language, and therefore may be more stable.
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Guosa is a constructed interlanguage originally created by Alex Igbineweka in 1965. It was designed to be a combination of the indigenous languages of Nigeria and to serve as a lingua franca to West Africa.
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Although second-language acquisition proceeds in discrete sequences, it does not progress from one step of a sequence to the next in an orderly fashion. There can be considerable variability in features of learners' interlanguage while progressing from one stage to the next. For example, in one study by Rod Ellis a learner used both "No look my card" and "Don't look my card" while playing a game of bingo. A small fraction of variation in interlanguage is free variation, when the learner uses two forms interchangeably.
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The Volapük Wikipedia was created in February 2003, alongside the Croatian, Lithuanian, Armenian, and Bihari Wikipedias. The main page was created on 27 January 2004, marking the edition's official launch. It underwent a redesign on 3 March 2004, and a second one on 15 December 2006, which serves as the basis for the current layout. In January 2007, Wikipedian Sérgio Meira (Smeira) began to actively use a bot called SmeiraBot to create many new articles about Volapük-related topics, before massively adding stubs about cities primarily in France, Italy, and the United States. MalafayaBot was another active bot on the Volapük Wikipedia: It served primarily to greet new users, add interlanguage links,Maintenance of interlanguage links on individual editions of Wikipedia has been deprecated since the advent of Wikidata, where interlanguage links from all editions are centralized since 6 March 2013.
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Simple and complex word spans as measures of working memory capacity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 1118–1133.Payne, J.S., & Whitney, P.J. (2002). Developing L2 oral proficiency through synchronous CMC: Output, working memory, and interlanguage development.
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Weinreich is also credited with being the first linguist to recognize the phenomenon of interlanguage 19 years before Larry Selinker coined the term in his 1972 article "Interlanguage". In his benchmark book Languages in Contact, Weinreich first noted that learners of second languages consider linguistic forms from their first language equal to forms in the target language. However, the essential inequality of these forms leads to speech which the native speakers of the target language consider unequal. He died of cancer on March 30, 1967, at Montefiore Hospital in New York, prior to the publication of his Yiddish-English dictionary.
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Hong Kong English is the English language as it is used in Hong Kong. The variant is either a learner interlanguage or emergent variant, primarily a result of Hong Kong's British overseas territory history and the influence of native Hong Kong Cantonese speakers.
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Francophone second-language speakers of English use an interlanguage with varying degrees, ranging from French-accented pronunciation to Quebec Anglophone English pronunciation. High-frequency second-language phenomena by francophones, allophones, and other non-native-speakers occur in the most basic structures of English, both in and outside of Quebec. Commonly called "Frenglish" or "franglais", such phenomena are a product of interlanguage, calques, or mistranslation and thus may not constitute so-called "Quebec English" to the extent that they can be conceived of separately, particularly since such phenomena are similar for Francophone-speakers of English throughout the world, which leaves little to be specific to Quebec.
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Colloquial Singaporean Mandarin, also known as Singdarin (), is an interlanguage native to Singapore. In Taiwan, this language variety is known as Singnese (). It is based on Mandarin but has a large amount of English in its vocabulary. For this reason, Singdarin is sometimes known as "Anglo- Chinese".
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This system can be observed when studying the utterances of the learner who attempts to produce meaning in their L2 speech; it is not seen when that same learner performs form-focused tasks, such as oral drills in a classroom. Interlanguage can be variable across different contexts; for example, it may be more accurate, complex and fluent in one domain than in another. To study the psychological processes involved one can compare the interlanguage utterances of the learner with two things: #Utterances in the native language (L1) to convey the same message produced by the learner. #Utterances in the target language (L2) to convey the same message, produced by a native speaker of that language.
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Her primary research interests are second-language temporality and tense-mood- aspect systems and interlanguage pragmatics. Bardovi-Harlig is credited for the creation of the Coordination Index (CI) which was published in the TESOL Quarterly in 1992 and since then has been considered as the only reliable measure of coordination.
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Chomsky developed the idea that phonetic space is universal and every human is born with a discreet phonetic space. The most cited rebuttal of Chomsky's proposal of a universal and discreet phonetic space is an article by Port and Leary titled, "Against Formal Phonology". Applications of phonetic space include interlanguage phonetic comparison and phonological analysis.
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Between 1971 and 1976 she was married to the writer Hermann Kant. Her third marriage, between 1977 and 1987, was to the politician and senior Central Committee member, Konrad Naumann. Between 1988 and 2006 she lived with the screenwriter- journalist Gregor Edelmann. Her life partner since 2008 has been the architect and urbanist {Interlanguage link multi [Fritz Stuber]}.
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Interlanguage is claimed to be a language in its own right. Learner language varies much more than native-speaker language. Selinker noted that in a given situation the utterances produced by the learner are different from those native speakers would produce had they attempted to convey the same meaning. This comparison reveals a separate linguistic system.
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Norwood, NJ: Ablex, p. 13-14 DCTs are used in pragmatics research to study speech acts and find the medium between naturally occurring speech and scripted speech acts. In comparing role-plays to DCTs, role-plays are considered to elicit data more similar to naturally occurring speech acts,Gass, S., & Houck, N. (1999). Interlanguage refusals: a cross-cultural study of Japanese English.
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Within the theory of contrastive analysis, the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities, the greater the differences between the two languages, the more negative transfer can be expected.Lennon, P. (2008). Contrastive analysis, error analysis, interlanguage. In S. Gramley & V. Gramley (Eds.), Bielefeld Introduction to Applied Linguistics (pp. 51-60).
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Finally, they learned the rule for appropriate use of "-ing". The "chunking" method enables a learner to practice speaking their L2 before they correctly break the chunk up in to its component parts. According to interlanguage theory, this seeming progression and regression of language learning is an important and positive manifestation of the learner's developing understanding of the grammar of the target language.
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Santa Ana, 2004b, p. 374 as well as in Chicago.Santa Ana, 2004b, p. 375 Chicano English is sometimes mistakenly conflated with Spanglish, which is a grammatically simplified mixing of Spanish and English; however, Chicano English is a fully formed and native dialect of English, not a "learner English" or interlanguage. It is even the native dialect of some speakers who know little to no Spanish.
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The first version, containing nine language backgrounds, came out in 2002. The second version, released in 2009, contains data from 16 learner populations, and a third version is in the making. Its spoken counterpart, the Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage (LINDSEI), came out in 2011. Besides those two, she also launched the collection of a number of other corpora, such as LOCNESS, PLECI and LONGDALE.
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An interlanguage phonemic contrast (diaphonemic contrast) is the contrast required to differentiate between two cognate forms coming from two compared varieties or dialects. Within languages that have particular phonemic contrasts there can be dialects that do not have the contrast or contrast differently (such as American South dialect pin/pen merger, where the two are not contrasted, but in other American dialects they are).
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An example of a UG constraint is an "island constraint," where the wh-phrase in a question has a finite number of possible positions. Island constraints are based on the concept that there are certain syntactical domains within a sentence that act as phrase boundaries. It is theorized that the same constraints that act on a native UG are also often present in an interlanguage UG.
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The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics, by Robert Lawrence Trask, p. 125 Examples of fossilization include fossilized morphemes and fossil words. The term fossilization or interlanguage fossilization is also used in linguistics to refer to the process in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks and writes a new language, especially when not learned as a young child.
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This interlanguage gradually develops as learners are exposed to the targeted language. The order in which learners acquire features of their new language stays remarkably constant, even for learners with different native languages and regardless of whether they have had language instruction. However, languages that learners already know can have a significant influence on the process of learning a new one. This influence is known as language transfer.
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In 1992 she began teaching at King's College London and in 1995 completed her PhD at the Institute of Education, University College, London with a thesis on Variation in Phonological Error in Interlanguage Talk,Jennifer Jenkins, Variation in Phonological Error in Interlanguage Talk discussing a continuing research interest of hers: "English pronunciation within an international framework". She remained at King's College until 2007 where she designed and directed the MA in English Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics.Southampton University biography: Professor Jennifer Jenkins BA, DipTEFLA, PhD, FAcSS While there, she introduced a fast-track MA for TESOL students.Max de Lotbinière, 'Take the fast road', Guardian 26 Sep 2002 When Jenkins' book Phonology Of English As An International Language was published in 2000 it was seen as potentially controversialGlobal English debate, Guardian, 18 April 2001 and stimulated debate about the prevailing emphasis on "correct" accents in teaching English as a foreign language, and Jenkins' idea of a "Lingua Franca Core".
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Wikidata Birthday Celebration at Kerala The creation of the project was funded by donations from the Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, and Google, Inc., totaling €1.3 million. The development of the project is mainly driven by Wikimedia Deutschland and was originally split into three phases: # Centralising interlanguage links – links between Wikipedia articles about the same topic in different languages. # Providing a central place for infobox data for all Wikipedias.
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A portmanteau language which is said to combine English and French syntax, grammar and lexicons to form a unique interlanguage, is sometimes ascribed to mandatory basic French education in the Canadian anglophone school systems. While many Canadians are barely conversant in French they will often borrow French words into their sentences. Simple words and phrases like "c'est quoi ça?" (what is that?) or words like "arrête" (stop) can alternate with their English counterparts.
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Her co-authored 2009 book Exploring Learner Language helps language teachers develop skills and use tools to analyze learner language samples provided in transcribed videos of adult second- language learners. Her most recent research publications focus on second- language learners' spontaneous language play in oral discourse, and especially the interlanguage variation revealed in oral narratives when learners enact imagined voices of protagonists who are both more- and less-proficient than they are.
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Stalling is the author of the monograph Poetics of Emptiness: Transformations of Asian Thought in American Poetry (Fordham) and has published various articles and book chapters on topics ranging from transpacific poetry, translation studies, and interlanguage art and poetics. More recently Stalling has begun to focus more on Second Language Acquisition theory and applied linguistics and has a forthcoming book (in collaboration with the Psycholinguist Liu Nian) introducing his methodology known as Pinying.
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Lowie obtained his PhD degree at the Centre of Language and Cognition, Faculty of Arts at the University of Groningen on 14 January 1998. He was supervised by his future colleague at the University of Groningen, Cornelis de Bot. The title of his PhD thesis was "The acquisition of interlanguage morphology: a study into the role of morphology in the L2 learner's mental lexicon". Lowie is the Associate Editor of The Modern Language Journal, a peer-reviewed academic journal.
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A 2015-printed Turkish to German (and vice versa) Langenscheidt dictionary with 55,000 words capacity The structure for most Langenscheidt dictionaries is the same. Most pocket dictionaries include around 55,000 references designed for tourists or people studying beginning or intermediate foreign languages, while larger desk sized interlanguage dictionaries include around 220,000 references. After the two languages' references conclude, grammatical assistance appears in the Appendix section, including helpful abbreviations, geographical regions, currency values, temperature conversions, and numerical values.
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There is some confusion over the exact definition of “Z-variant.” For example, in an Internet draft (of RFC 3743) dated 2002, one finds bù “no” (U+4E0D 不) and (U+F967 不) described as “font variants,” the term “Z-variant” being apparently reserved for interlanguage pairs such as the Mandarin Chinese tù “rabbit” (U+5154 兔) and the Japanese to “rabbit” (U+514E 兎). However, the Unicode Consortium's Unihan database treats both pairs as Z-variants.
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Wikidata is a collaborative data repository meant to provide data that can be used by Wikipedia across all its languages. January 14, 2013 saw the first official use of Wikidata: to enable the automatic display of "interlanguage links" within articles on the Hungarian Wikipedia. January 15, 2013, the 12th anniversary of Wikipedia's founding, saw the launch of the new, Wikimedia-hosted Wikivoyage. The lawsuits regarding Wikivoyage between Wikimedia and Internet Brands were settled out of court the next month.
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290x290px A pan-Romance language or Romance interlanguagePosner (1996), p. 344.Not to confuse with the interlanguage of a second language learner. Blanke (1985: 154), dealing with the Slavic equivalent, speaks of "Interslavic language", which avoids the possible confusion. is a codified linguistic variety which synthesizes the variation of the Romance languages and is representative of these as a whole. It can be seen as a standard language proposal for the whole language familyLewaszkiewicz (1977), p. 46.
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Media Lengua was first documented in Salcedo, Cotopaxi about 100 km south of Quito, Ecuador, by Dutch linguist Pieter Muysken during fieldwork on Ecuadorian Kichwa. During Muysken's surveys of the language, he also described other highly relexified varieties of Kichwa, including Amazonian Pidgin, Kichwa-Spanish interlanguage, Saraguro Media Lengua, and Catalangu. A 2011 investigation of Salcedo Media Lengua, however, suggests that the language is no longer spoken by the locals in and around Salcedo Canton.Shappeck, Marco (2011).
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In other words, the lunfardo is an interlanguage variety of the Italian dialects spoken by immigrants in the areas of Buenos Aires and Montevideo. In Argentina, any neologism that reached a minimum level of acceptance is considered, by default, a Lunfardo term. The original slang has been immortalized in numerous tango lyrics. Conde takes the view that the Lunfardo is not so much a dialect but a kind of local language of the Italian immigrants, mixed with Spanish and some French words.
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Béarlachas () is Irish for "anglicism", or words and phrases used in Irish that are influenced by or stem from the English language. The term comes from , the Irish word for the English language, and refers to both simple anglicisms and interlanguage forms. It is a result of bilingualism within a society where there is a dominant, superstrate language (in this case, English) and a minority substrate language with few or no monolingual speakers and a perceived "lesser" status (in this case, Irish).
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Before the interlanguage hypothesis rose to prominence, the principal theory of second-language (L2) development was contrastive analysis. This theory assumed that learners' errors were caused by the difference between their L1 and L2. This approach was deficit-focused, in the sense that speech errors were thought to arise randomly and should be corrected. A further assumption followed that a sufficiently thorough analysis of the differences between learners' first and second languages could predict all of the difficulties they would face.
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Cambridge University Press, p. 108. After Dante, many other people have conceived independently the idea of a common Romance standard language or even a pan-Romance language, and not only the developers of the projects presented here. For example, Romance scholar Rebecca Posner (University of Oxford) declared that "It is not impossible to conceive a Romance interlanguage"Posner (1996), p. 344 and interlinguist Detlev Blanke (Humboldt University of Berlin) spoke of a "Hochromanisch" (in reference to Hochdeutsch, the standard variety of German).
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Micro-processes include attention; working memory; integration and restructuring. Restructuring is the process by which learners change their interlanguage systems; and monitoring is the conscious attending of learners to their own language output. Macro- processes include the distinction between intentional learning and incidental learning; and also the distinction between explicit and implicit learning. Some of the notable cognitive theories of second-language acquisition include the nativization model, the multidimensional model and processability theory, emergentist models, the competition model, and skill-acquisition theories.
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SLA research began as an interdisciplinary field, and because of this, it is difficult to identify a precise starting date. However, two papers in particular, are seen as instrumental to the development of the modern study of SLA: Pit Corder's 1967 essay The Significance of Learners' Errors, and Larry Selinker's 1972 article Interlanguage. The field saw a great deal of development in the following decades. Since the 1980s, SLA has been studied from a variety of disciplinary perspectives, and theoretical perspectives.
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Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar (1930) describes a simplified English based upon a vocabulary of 850 words, IV. The Times of India Guide to Basic English (1938) sought to develop Basic English as an international auxiliary language, an interlanguage. Richards' travels, especially in China, effectively situated him as the advocate for an international program, such as Basic English. Moreover, at Harvard University, to his international pedagogy, the instructor I. A. Richards began to integrate the available new media for mass communications, especially television.
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Little evidence of interference from the learner's first language has been found; it appears that learners use pronouns based entirely on their inferences about target language structure. Studies on the acquisition of word order in German have shown that most learners begin with a word order based on their native language. This indicates that certain aspects of interlanguage syntax are influenced by the learners' first language, although others are not. Research on the sequence of acquisition of words is exhaustively reviewed by Nation (2001).
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In pursuit of the last goal, it conducted parallel studies of these languages, with comparative studies of national languages, under the direction of scholars at American and European universities. It also arranged conferences with proponents of these IALs, debating features and goals of their representative languages. With a "concession rule" that required participants to make a certain number of concessions, early debates at IALA sometimes grew from heated to explosive. At the Second International Interlanguage Congress, held in Geneva in 1931, IALA began to break new ground.
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Hartmut Traunmüller: Conversational Maxims and Principles of Language Planning PERILUS XII, pp 25-47, Department of Linguistics, Stockholm University, 1991. Most publications in the field of interlinguistics are, however, not so constructive, but rather descriptive, comparative, historic, sociolinguistic, or concerned with translation by humans or machines. As for Esperanto, which is the most widely used constructed interlanguage, there is a relatively abundant literature about the language itself and its philology (see Esperantology). Only a few of the many constructed languages have been applied practically to any noteworthy extent.
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More precisely, she is interested in linguistic theory as a model of mental competence and performance. Her approach is comparative and considers issues ranging from the relation between the lexicon and syntax to the prosody and syntax of focus. Zubizarreta has also conducted empirical research into issues dealing with second language acquisition, focusing on the mental grammar of the learners as they develop interlanguage. Her most recent work explores person-related phenomena from a semantic perspective in different languages, including the use of person features in Paraguayan Guaraní.
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A sign on the wall surrounding the Tiger Hill Pagoda warning tourists not to climb up. The English word Chinglish is a portmanteau of Chinese and English. The Chinese equivalent is Zhōngshì Yīngyǔ (). Chinglish can be compared with other interlanguage varieties of English, such as Britalian (from Italian), Czenglish (from Czech), Denglisch (German), Dunglish (Dutch), Franglais (French), Greeklish (Greek), Manglish (Malaysia), Runglish (Russian), Spanglish (Spanish), Swenglish (Swedish), Hunglish (Hungarian), Hebglish (Hebrew), Engrish (Japanese), Hinglish (Hindi), Konglish (Korean), Taglish (Tagalog), Bislish (Visayan), Singlish (in Singapore), Ponglish (Polish) and Tinglish (Thai).
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Typological universals are principles that hold for all the world's languages. They are found empirically, by surveying different languages and deducing which aspects of them could be universal; these aspects are then checked against other languages to verify the findings. The interlanguages of second-language learners have been shown to obey typological universals, and some researchers have suggested that typological universals may constrain interlanguage development. The theory of universal grammar was proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, and has enjoyed considerable popularity in the field of linguistics.
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With a "concession rule" that required participants to make a certain number of concessions, early debates at IALA sometimes grew from heated to explosive. At the Second International Interlanguage Congress, held in Geneva in 1931, IALA began to break new ground; 27 recognized linguists signed a testimonial of support for IALA's research program. An additional eight added their signatures at the third congress, convened in Rome in 1933. That same year, Herbert N. Shenton and Edward L. Thorndike became influential in IALA's work by authoring key studies in the interlinguistic field.
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In their 1977 article "Filters and Control", Chomsky and Howard Lasnik extended this to view markedness as part of a theory of 'core grammar': A few years later, Chomsky describes it thus: Some generative researchers have applied markedness to second-language acquisition theory, treating it as an inherent learning hierarchy which reflects the sequence in which constructions are acquired, the difficulty of acquiring certain constructions, and the transferability of rules across languages.Eckman, F. R. (1991). "The Structural Conformity Hypothesis and the Acquisition of Consonantal Clusters in the Interlanguage of Learners". Studies in Second Language Acquisition 13(1), 23–41.
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Those who bring a Chomskyan perspective to second-language acquisition typically regard variability as nothing more than performance errors, and not worthy of systematic inquiry. On the other hand, those who approach it from a sociolinguistic or psycholinguistic orientation view variability as an inherent feature of the learner's interlanguage. In these approaches, a learner's preference for one linguistic variant over another can depend on social (contextual) variables such as the status or role of the person the learner is speaking to. Preference can also be based on linguistic variables such as the phonological environment or neighboring features marked for formality or informality.
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On 22 January 2013, the Italian Wikipedia became the fifth language edition of Wikipedia to exceed 1 million articles, while the Russian and Spanish Wikipedias gained their millionth articles on 11 and 16 May respectively. On 15 July the Swedish and on 24 September the Polish Wikipedias gained their millionth articles, becoming the eighth and ninth Wikipedia editions to do so. On 27 January, the main belt asteroid 274301 was officially renamed "Wikipedia" by the Committee for Small Body Nomenclature. The first phase of the Wikidata database, automatically providing interlanguage links and other data, became available for all language editions in March 2013.
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As teachers become aware of the features of learner language produced by their students, they can refine their pedagogical intervention to maximize interlanguage development. If one wishes to acquire a language in a classroom setting only, one needs to consider the category language one wishes to acquire; the category of the desired language will determine how many hours or weeks to devote to study. There are three main categories of languages. Category I languages are “cognate languages” like French, Spanish, and Swedish; category II languages are Finnish, Russian, and Vietnamese; category III languages are Arabic, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean.
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Neither is it limited to any particular domain of language; language transfer can occur in grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, discourse, and reading. Language transfer often occurs when learners sense a similarity between a feature of a language they already know and a feature of the interlanguage they have developed. If this happens, the acquisition of more complicated language forms may be delayed in favor of simpler language forms that resemble those of the language the learner is familiar with. Learners may also decline to use some language forms at all if they are perceived as being too distant from their first language.
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In one co-authored work describing a study conducted of five Hong Kong speakers of English, it was concluded, controversially, as they conceded, that HKE was at most an emergent variety and perhaps no more than a "learner interlanguage". In the Dynamic Model of Postcolonial Englishes, it has been classified as in the third phase, that of Nativisation,Schneider, E. W. (2007), Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. but more recently it has been shown that many young people are happy to identify themselves as speakers of Hong Kong English, so it may be regarded as progressing into the fourth phase, that of Endonormative Stabilisation.
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More specifically, the rabbits adopt formal Lapine and the other animals employ a Lapine Foreigner Talk that Corder describes as "a reduced code or incipient pidgin". He further notes that the general rules of "Foreigner Talk" are well- established in societies even among natives who have never communicated with a foreigner. Corder attributes the learning of the rules of "Foreigner Talk" to its use within native-speaker-oriented literature and other media as a proxy for interlanguage. Because Lapine is presented in the novels as Standard English, Lapine Foreigner Talk is essentially English Foreigner Talk with a Lapine gloss and thus provides an example of linguistic enculturation for children who read the books.
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At the time the term "multi-competence" was coined, SLA research often relied on comparing an L2 user to native speakers of the L2 using methods of error analysis. The "errors" are usually defined by deviations from language norms and/or grammar rules. L2 users can also be measured based on how well they imitate typical native speakers. SLA research has suggested a bidirectional influence exists between a bilingual's L1 and L2. The foundational linguistic skills acquired during L1 learning are also utilized during L2 learning, meaning pre-existing L1 knowledge influences incoming L2 knowledge. Going in the other direction, an L2 user's interlanguage can also influence their L1 knowledge, a process known as "reverse transfer".
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Stalling is the inventor of the Stalling Chinese Character Phonetic Transcription System (思道林汉字音标) which is available as an iPhone app called Pinying, which won the Outstanding Inventor Award from the Ronnie K Irani Center for the Creation of Economic Wealth in 2016. Stalling also created the English Jueju form of poetry and oversees the English Jueju prize held in conjunction with the Newman Prize for Chinese Literature. Stalling has given two TEDx Talks on interlanguage invention and his work was featured in an exhibition entitled “Poetics of Invention” at the University of Oklahoma Bizzell Memorial Library from 2017-2018 and at the University of Missouri Kansas City Library from 2018-2019.
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Second-language acquisition (SLA), second-language learning or L2 (language 2) acquisition, is the process by which people learn a second language. Second- language acquisition is also the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. The field of second-language acquisition is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics, but also receives research attention from a variety of other disciplines, such as psychology and education. A central theme in SLA research is that of interlanguage, the idea that the language that learners use is not simply the result of differences between the languages that they already know and the language that they are learning, but that it is a complete language system in its own right, with its own systematic rules.
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As second-language acquisition began as an interdisciplinary field, it is hard to pin down a precise starting date. However, there are two publications in particular that are seen as instrumental to the development of the modern study of SLA: (1) Corder's 1967 essay The Significance of Learners' Errors, and (2) Selinker's 1972 article Interlanguage. Corder's essay rejected a behaviorist account of SLA and suggested that learners made use of intrinsic internal linguistic processes; Selinker's article argued that second-language learners possess their own individual linguistic systems that are independent from both the first and second languages. In the 1970s the general trend in SLA was for research exploring the ideas of Corder and Selinker, and refuting behaviorist theories of language acquisition.
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Attention is another characteristic that some believe to have a role in determining the success or failure of language processing. Richard Schmidt states that although explicit metalinguistic knowledge of a language is not always essential for acquisition, the learner must be aware of L2 input in order to gain from it.. In his “noticing hypothesis,” Schmidt posits that learners must notice the ways in which their interlanguage structures differ from target norms. This noticing of the gap allows the learner's internal language processing to restructure the learner's internal representation of the rules of the L2 in order to bring the learner's production closer to the target. In this respect, Schmidt's understanding is consistent with the ongoing process of rule formation found in emergentism and connectionism.
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Virginia Yip received her B.A. in linguistics at the University of Texas at Austin and her Ph.D. from the University of Southern California. She is the author of Interlanguage and Learnability: from Chinese to English (Benjamins) and co-author of a series of works on Cantonese grammar published by Routledge: Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar (which has been translated into Japanese), Basic Cantonese and Intermediate Cantonese. She and her team have created the Hong Kong Bilingual Child Language Corpus, the first longitudinal bilingual corpus in which Cantonese is represented along with English, and the largest multimedia bilingual corpus in the Child Language Data Exchange System (CHILDES) based at Carnegie Mellon University. Yip is married to linguist Stephen Matthews from the University of Hong Kong.
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Mitigated speech is a linguistic term describing deferential or indirect speech inherent in communication between individuals of perceived High Power Distance which has been in use for at least two decades with many published references.Ng, Sik H. and Bradac, James J. : Power in Language: Verbal Communication and Social Influence (Language and Language Behavior) Sage Publications, Inc (May 25, 1993)Robinson, William Peter and Tajfel, Henri: Social Groups and Identities Routledge (1996) Retrieved 2009-03-30Kasper, Gabriele and Blum-Kulka, Shoshana: Interlanguage Pragmatics Oxford (1993). Retrieved 2009-03-30O'Hare, D., and Roscoe, S. Flightdeck performance - the human factor. Ames: Iowa State University Press (1990) The term was popularized by Malcolm Gladwell in his book, Outliers, where he defines mitigated speech as "any attempt to downplay or sugarcoat the meaning of what is being said".
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Some theorists and researchers have contributed to the cognitive approach to second-language acquisition by increasing understanding of the ways L2 learners restructure their interlanguage knowledge systems to be in greater conformity to L2 structures. Processability theory states that learners restructure their L2 knowledge systems in an order of which they are capable at their stage of development.. For instance, In order to acquire the correct morphological and syntactic forms for English questions, learners must transform declarative English sentences. They do so by a series of stages, consistent across learners. Clahsen proposed that certain processing principles determine this order of restructuring.. Specifically, he stated that learners first, maintain declarative word order while changing other aspects of the utterances, second, move words to the beginning and end of sentences, and third, move elements within main clauses before subordinate clauses.
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The first linguistic system to be affected by first language attrition is the lexicon. The lexical-semantic relationship usually starts to deteriorate first and most quickly, driven by Cross Linguistic Interference (CLI) from the speaker's L2, and it is believed to be exacerbated by continued exposure to, and frequent use of, the L2. Evidence for such interlanguage effects can be seen in a study by Pavlenko (2003, 2004) which shows that there was some semantic extension from the L2, which was English, into the L1 Russian speakers' lexicons. In order to test for lexical attrition, researchers used tests such as picture naming tasks, where they place a picture of an item in front of the participant and ask them to name it, or by measuring lexical diversity in the speaker's spontaneous speech (speech that is unprompted and improvised).
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Processability Theory is now a mature theory of grammatical development of learners' interlanguage. It is cognitively founded (hence applicable to any language), formal and explicit (hence empirically testable), and extended, having not only formulated and tested hypotheses about morphology, syntax and discourse-pragmatics, but having also paved the way for further developments at the interface between grammar and the lexicon and other important modules in SLA. Among the most important SLA theories recently discussed in Van Patten (2007), no other can accommodate such a variety of phenomena or seems able to offer the basis for so many new directions. Ten years have gone by since Pienemann’s first book-length publication on PT in 1998; and before that, it took almost two decades to mould into PT the initial intuition by the ZISA team that the staged development of German word order could be explained by psycholinguistic constraints universally applicable to all languages (Pienemann 1981; Clahsen, Meisel & Pienemann 1983).
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Michael Sharwood Smith (born 1942), Emeritus Professor of Languages at Heriot- Watt University & Honorary Professorial Fellow at the University of Edinburgh, is a researcher into multilingualism and the acquisition of non-native languages, a branch of developmental linguistics and cognitive science. He is a founding editor of Second Language Research, successor to the Interlanguage Studies Bulletin. Together with John Truscott of National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan he has developed a new theoretical platform for studying language development and language use called the MOGUL Framework (Modular Growth and Use of Language) which explains language development as a by- product of processing albeit constrained by the modular architecture of the mind. His research interests have included theoretical issues concerning the way in which second languages are represented in the mind and how they interact, language attrition, the role of consciousness in language learning and also applications of linguistics such as the design of pedagogical grammars.
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There is considerable interest in supplementing published research with approaches that engage language teachers in action research on learner language in their own classrooms.. As teachers become aware of the features of learner language produced by their students, they can refine their pedagogical intervention to maximize interlanguage development.. Horwitz summarises findings of SLA research, and applies to L2 teaching some principles of L2 acquisition honed from a vast body of relevant literature.. Like Asher, Horwitz highlights the importance of naturalistic experience in L2, promoting listening and reading practice and stressing involvement in lifelike conversations. She explicitly suggests teaching practices based on these principles; ‘[m]uch class time should be devoted to the development of listening and reading abilities’, and ‘[t]eachers should assess student interests and supply appropriate…materials’.. The ‘audio-lingual’ teaching practices used in the present study are based on principles explicated by Asher and Horwitz; listening featured heavily, closely followed by reading and speaking practice. The vocabulary items taught were deemed relevant for all learners, regardless of age, and, according to Pfeffer, they are among the most commonly used nouns in everyday German language..
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