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544 Sentences With "innervated"

How to use innervated in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "innervated" and check conjugation/comparative form for "innervated". Mastering all the usages of "innervated" from sentence examples published by news publications.

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Instead of balling up, the nerves innervated the muscle tissue, which greatly amplified their electrical signal.
They used MAPseq to trace the projections of 591 neurons as they branched out and innervated multiple targets.
Since my muscles aren't innervated properly, balance is difficult, and the slightest of unanticipated weight shifts potentially dangerous.
Which they do because of how wonderful it feels to rub their front-facing, exposed, and richly innervated clitorides (yes, that's the plural of clitoris) together.
For this to happen, though, the patient must spend weeks, or even months, learning to twitch the re-innervated muscles in particular ways to achieve particular outcomes.
"Here, newly innervated muscles can be seen as biological amplifiers of nerve activity which originates back in the spinal cord and in essence contains the idea of motion the brain would like the limb to carry out," Vujaklija explains.
The posterior tongue is innervated by the glosopharyngeal nerve. The muscles of the tongue are innervated by the hypoglossal nerve.
The pectineus is the only adductor muscle that is innervated by the femoral nerve. The other adductor muscles are innervated by the obturator nerve with the exception of a small part of the adductor magnus which is innervated by the tibial nerve.
It is a composite muscle as the adductor and hamstring portions of the muscle are innervated by two different nerves. The adductor portion is innervated by the posterior division of the obturator nerve while the hamstring portion is innervated by the sciatic nerve.
Unlike most of the other facial muscles, which are innervated by the facial nerve (or CN VII), the muscles of mastication are innervated by the trigeminal nerve (or CN V). More specifically, they are innervated by the mandibular branch, or V3. The Mandibular nerve is both sensory and motor.
The styloglossus is innervated by the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) like all muscles of the tongue except palatoglossus which is innervated by the pharyngeal plexus of vagus nerve (CN X).
Like the other thenar muscles, the opponens pollicis is innervated by the recurrent branch of the median nerve. In 20% of the population, opponens pollicis is innervated by the ulnar nerve.
Palatoglossus is the only muscle of the tongue that is not innervated by the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII). It is innervated by the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve (CN X).
The pyramidalis is innervated by the ventral portion of T12.
The platysma is innervated by cervical branch of the facial nerve.
It is innervated by the obturator nerve. Pectineus: originates on the iliopubic eminence and inserts on the caudal femur. It acts to adduct the limb. It is innervated by the obturator nerve. Adductor: originates on the pelvic symphysis and inserts on the lateral femur. It acts to adduct the limb and extend the hip. It is innervated by the obturator nerve.
The depressor septi is innervated by the buccal branch, and sometimes by the zygomatic branch, of the facial nerve. The levator labii superioris alaeque nasi is innervated by zygomatic and superior buccal branches of the facial nerve.
It is innervated by the accessory nerve. Sternohyoideus: originates on the sternum and inserts on the basihyoid bone. Its function is to move the tongue caudally. It is innervated by the ventral branches of the cervical spinal nerves.
It is innervated by the axillary nerve. Infraspinatus: originates on the infraspinatus fossa and inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus. It acts to extend and flex the shoulder joint. It is innervated by the suprascapular nerve.
All of the infrahyoid muscles are innervated by the ansa cervicalis from the cervical plexus (C1-C3) except the thyrohyoid muscle, which is innervated by fibers only from the first cervical spinal nerve travelling with the hypoglossal nerve.
The omohyoid is innervated by a branch of the cervical plexus, the ansa cervicalis, and mostly acts to stabilise the hyoid bone. The inferior belly of the omohyoid is innervated by the three cervical branches (C1-C3) that make up the ansa cervicalis, while the superior belly is innervated by the superior root of ansa cervicalis which contains only fibers from the first cervical spinal nerves (C1).
It is innervated by the radial nerve. Triceps brachii: originates on the caudal border of the scapula and inserts on the olecranon tuber. It acts to extend the elbow and flex the shoulder. It is innervated by the radial nerve. Anconeus: originates on the humerus and inserts on the proximal end of the ulna. It acts to extend the elbow. It is innervated by the radial nerve.
It is innervated by the sciatic nerve. Semitendinosus: originates on the ischiatic tuberosity and inserts on the tibia. It acts to extend the hip, flex the stifle and extend the hock. It is innervated by the sciatic nerve. Semimembranosus: originates on the ischiatic tuberosity and inserts on the femur and tibia. It acts to extend the hip and stifle. It is innervated by the sciatic nerve.
The more dorsal tier is innervated by the ipsilateral retina and the more ventral is innervated by the contralateral retina.Hendry, Stewart H. C.; Reid, R. Clay (2000). "The koniocellular pathway in primate vision". Annual Review of Neuroscience 23, 135.
It is innervated by the deep branch of the ulnar nerve (C8–T1).
It is innervated by the subscapular nerve. Teres major: originates on the scapula and inserts on the teres major tuberosity of the humerus. It acts to flex the shoulder and rotate the arm medially. It is innervated by the axillary nerve.
It is innervated by the cranial gluteal nerve. Deep gluteal: originates on the ischiatic spine and inserts on the greater trochanter. It acts to extend the hip and rotate the pelvic limb medially. It is innervated by the cranial gluteal nerve.
It is innervated by the accessory nerve. Trapezius: originates on the supraspinous ligament and inserts on the spine of the scapula. Its function is to elevate and abduct the forelimb. It is innervated by the accessory nerve. Rhomboideus: originates on the nuchal crest of the occipital bone and inserts on the scapula. Its function is to elevate the forelimb. It is innervated by the ventral branches of the spinal nerves.
It is innervated by the femoral nerve. Ilipsoas: originates on the ilium and inserts on the lesser trochanter. It acts to flex the hip. It is innervated by the femoral nerve. Craniolateral muscles of the leg: Cranial tibial: originates on tibia and inserts on the plantar surfaces of metatarsals 1 and 2. It acts to flex the tarsus and rotates the paw laterally. It is innervated by the peroneal nerve.
Medial pterygoid is innervated by nerve to medial pterygoid (a branch of the mandibular nerve), which also innervates tensor tympani and tensor veli palatini. Unlike the lateral pterygoid and all other muscles of mastication which are innervated by the anterior division of the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve, the medial pterygoid is innervated by the main trunk of the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve (V), before the division.
All the pharyngeal muscles of the fourth and sixth arches are innervated by the superior laryngeal and the recurrent laryngeal branches of the vagus nerve. These muscles include all the muscles of the palate (exception of the tensor veli palatini which is innervated by the trigeminal nerve), all the muscles of the pharynx (except stylopharyngeus which is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve), and all the muscles of the larynx.
It acts to rotate the leg medially. It is innervated by the tibial nerve.
The rectoccygeal muscles are innervated by autonomic nerves associated with the inferior hypogastric plexus.
The Flexor digitorium superficialis muscle is innervated by the median nerve (C7, C8, T1).
The depressor labii inferioris is innervated by the mandibular division of the facial nerve.
The psoas major is innervated by direct branches of the anterior rami off the lumbar plexus at the levels of L1-L3, while the iliacus is innervated by the femoral nerve (which is composed of nerves from the anterior rami of L2-L4).
The external oblique abdominous, internal oblique abdominous muscle and transverse abdominous muscles are similarly innervated.
The parietal pleura is supplied by the intercostal nerves and the phrenic nerve. The costal pleura is innervated by the intercostal nerves. The diaphragmatic portion of the parietal pleura overlies the diaphragm and is innervated by the phrenic nerve in its central portion and by the intercostal nerves in its peripheral portion. The mediastinal portion of the parietal pleura forms the lateral wall of the mediastinum and is innervated by the phrenic nerve.
Another role for these receptors is at the junction of the innervated tissues and the postganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. Here acetylcholine is again used as a neurotransmitter, and muscarinic receptors form the principal receptors on the innervated tissue.
The inferior oblique is innervated by the inferior division of the oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve III).
All three muscles are innervated by the tibial nerve which comprises half of the sciatic nerve.
The splenius capitis muscle is innervated by the posterior ramus of spinal nerves C3 and C4.
It is the only muscle innervated by the superficial branch of the ulnar nerve (C8, T1).
The adductor brevis is innervated dually by the anterior and posterior branches of the obturator nerve.
The gingiva on the palatal aspect of the maxillary teeth is innervated by the greater palatine nerve apart from in the incisor region, where it is the nasopalatine nerve (long sphenopalatine nerve). The gingiva of the lingual aspect of the mandibular teeth is innervated by the sublingual nerve, a branch of the lingual nerve. The gingiva on the facial aspect of the mandibular incisors and canines is innervated by the mental nerve, the continuation of the inferior alveolar nerve emerging from the mental foramen. The gingiva of the buccal (cheek) aspect of the mandibular molar teeth is innervated by the buccal nerve (long buccal nerve).
It is innervated by the radial nerve. Common digital extensor: originates on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and inserts on the distal phalanges. It acts to extend the carpus and joints of the digits 3, 4, and 5. It is innervated by the radial nerve.
Additionally, the tensor veli palatini is innervated by the nerve to tensor veli palatini, a branch of the nerve to the medial pterygoid. Of the five paired skeletal muscles to the soft palate, tensor veli palati is the only muscle not innervated by the pharyngeal plexus.
It is innervated by the radial nerve. Abductor pollicis longus: originates on the ulna and inserts on metacarpal 1. It acts to abduct the digit and extend the carpal joints. It is innervated by the radial nerve. Caudal and medial muscles of forearm: Pronator teres: originates on the medial epicondyle of the humerus and inserts on the medial border of the radius. It acts to rotate forearm medially and flex the elbow. It is innervated by the median nerve.
In heart transplantation, the donor heart is not fully innervated by the nervous system of the recipient.
It is innervated by thyrohyoid branch of C1 nerve. This nerve branches from the first cervical nerve as it joins the hypoglossal nerve (12th Cranial Nerve) for a short distance. This is the only exception in the infrahyoid muscles, or strap muscles, that is not innervated by ansa cervicalis.
It is innervated by the tibial nerve. Superficial digital flexor: originates on the lateral supracondylar tuberosity of the femur and inserts on the tuber calcanei and bases of the middle phalanges. It acts to flex the stifle and extend the tarsus. It is innervated by the tibial nerve.
The vastus lateralis muscle is innervated by the muscular branches of the femoral nerve (L2, L3, and L4).
All of the interosseous muscles of the hand are innervated by the deep branch of the ulnar nerve.
Like the other muscles in the anterior compartment of the thigh, sartorius is innervated by the femoral nerve.
Lingual tonsils are innervated by tonsillar nerves from the tonsilar plexus, formed by the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
The urinary bladder is an unusual structure in that it is autonomically innervated yet functions under voluntary control.
All three heads of the triceps brachii are classically believed to be innervated by the radial nerve. However, a study conducted in 2004 determined that, in 20 cadaveric specimens and 15 surgical dissections on participants, the long head was innervated by a branch of the axillary nerve in all cases.
All dorsal interossei are innervated by the lateral plantar nerve (S2–3). Those in the fourth interosseous space are innervated by the superficial branch and the other by the deep branch. The first and second dorsal interossei muscles additionally receive innervation from the lateral branch of the deep fibular nerve.
London: Elsevier; 2008. p628 Other sources state that the palatoglossus is not innervated by XI hitchhiking on X, but rather it is innervated by IX via the pharyngeal plexus formed from IX and X.Chapter 8 Head and Neck. In: Drake RL, Vogl W, Mitchell AWM, editors. Gray's Anatomy for Students.
The hypaxial muscles are located on the ventral side of the body, often below the horizontal septum in many species (primarily fish and amphibians). In all species, the hypaxial muscles are innervated by the ventral ramus (branch) of the spinal nerves, while the epaxial muscles are innervated by the dorsal ramus.
It is a composite muscle as the short head of the biceps femoris develops in the flexor compartment of the thigh and is thus innervated by common fibular branch of the sciatic nerve (L5, S1), while the long head is innervated by the tibial branch of the sciatic nerve (L5, S1).
Both lungs are innervated primarily by the posterior pulmonary plexus; it accounts for 74–77% of the total innervation.
The superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle is innervated by the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve via the pharyngeal plexus.
It is innervated by the ulnar nerve. Deep digital flexor: originates on the medial epicondyle of the humerus and inserts on the palmar surface of the distal phalanx. It acts to flex the carpus, metacarpophalangeal joints, and the proximal and distal interphalangeal joints of the digits. It is innervated by the median nerve.
Parsonage-Turner involves neuropathy of the suprascapular nerve in 97% of cases, and variably involves the axillary and subscapular nerves. As such, the muscles usually involved are the supraspinatus and infraspinatus, which are both innervated by the suprascapular nerve. Involvement of the deltoid is more variable, as it is innervated by the axillary nerve.
The geniohyoid muscle is innervated by fibres from the first cervical nerve travelling alongside the hypoglossal nerve. Although the first three cervical nerves give rise to the ansa cervicalis, the geniohyoid muscle is said to be innervated by the first cervical nerve, as some of its efferent fibers do not contribute to ansa cervicalis.
The pharyngeal plexus, with fibers from CN IX, CN X, and cranial part of CN XI, innervates all the muscles of the pharynx (except stylopharyngeus, which is innervated directly by a branch of CN IX). This includes the following muscles: palatopharyngeus, palatoglossus, musculus uvulae, the pharyngeal constrictors, salpingopharyngeus plus others. Note that the intrinsic muscles of the larynx are innervated by the vagus nerve but not by the pharyngeal plexus. Instead, they are innervated by the recurrent laryngeal nerve and the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve, branches of the vagus.
These groin muscles adduct the thigh (bring the femur and knee closer to the midline). The groin is innervated by the obturator nerve, with two exceptions: the pectineus muscle is innervated by the femoral nerve, and the hamstring portion of adductor magnus is innervated by the tibial nerve. In the groin, underneath the skin, there are three to five deep inguinal lymph nodes that play a role in the immune system. These can be swollen due to certain diseases, the most common one being a simple infection, and, less likely, from cancer.
It acts to flex, adduct, and abduct the thumb, and is therefore also able to oppose the thumb. The superficial head is innervated by the median nerve, while the deep head is innervated by the ulnar nerve (C8-T1). Due to a common interconnection between the median and ulnar nerves in the hand (Riche-Cannieu interconnection), the median nerve may innervate the flexor pollicis brevis in 35% of people. It is innervated by the ulnar nerve in 50% of people and by both the median and ulnar nerves in 15%.
The hamstrings are innervated by the sciatic nerve, specifically by a main branch of it: the tibial nerve. (The short head of the biceps femoris is innervated by the common fibular nerve). The sciatic nerve runs along the longitudinal axis of the compartment, giving the cited terminal branches close to the superior angle of the popliteal fossa.
It is innervated by the Ulnar nerve in 50% of people and by both the median and ulnar nerves in 15%. The adductor pollicis is typically innervated by the ulnar nerve. There are normal variations. In a Cannieu-Riche anastomosis, fibers from the deep palmar branch of the ulnar nerve innervate the opponens pollicis and/or abductor pollicis brevis.
The first and second lumbricals (the most radial two) are innervated by the median nerve. The third and fourth lumbricals (most ulnar two) are innervated by the ulnar nerve. This is the usual innervation of the lumbricals (occurring in 60% of individuals). However 1:3 (median:ulnar - 20% of individuals) and 3:1 (median:ulnar - 20% of individuals) also exist.
The lumbrical innervation always follows the innervation pattern of the associated muscle unit of flexor digitorum profundus (i.e. if the muscle units supplying the tendon to the middle finger are innervated by the median nerve, the second lumbrical will also be innervated by the median nerve).Last's Anatomy - Regional and Applied, 10th ed. Chummy S. Sinnatamby, pg.
Doty, R. L. (2001). Olfaction. 425. The proportion of olfactory epithelium compared to respiratory epithelium (not innervated, or supplied with nerves) gives an indication of the animal's olfactory sensitivity. Humans have about of olfactory epithelium, whereas some dogs have . A dog's olfactory epithelium is also considerably more densely innervated, with a hundred times more receptors per square centimeter.
As with most of the muscles of the orbit, it is innervated by the inferior division of oculomotor nerve (Cranial Nerve III).
The most medial lumbrical is innervated by the medial plantar nerve while the remaining three lumbricals are supplied by the lateral plantar nerve.
The internal obturator muscle is also innervated by the nerve to internal obturator (L5, S1). Muscles of the gluteal and posterior femoral regions.
The skin of the back is innervated by the dorsal cutaneous branches, as well as the lateral abdominal cutaneous branches of intercostal nerves.
The second pharyngeal arch is innervated by the facial cranial nerve. Muscles that arise from the arch are those involved with facial expression and the posterior digastric muscle. Skeletal structures that originate here are the cervical sinus, Reichert cartilage (stape) the styloid process of the temporal bone, the lesser cornu and the hyoid bone. The third pharyngeal arch is innervated by glossopharyngeal nerve.
The superior laryngeal nerve is a branch of the vagus nerve. It arises from the middle of the inferior ganglion of vagus nerve and in its course receives a branch from the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system. The cricothyroid muscles are innervated by the superior laryngeal nerve. All other intrinsic laryngeal muscles are innervated by the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
The sinoatrial node is richly innervated by the autonomic nervous system, which up or down regulates the spontaneous firing frequency of the pacemaker cells.
In both sexes, it is innervated by the deep or muscular branch of the perineal nerve, which is a branch of the pudendal nerve.
The hindgut is innervated via the inferior mesenteric plexus. Sympathetic innervation is from the Lumbar splanchnic nerves (L1-L2), parasympathetic innervation is from S2-S4.
The transverse abdominal is innervated by the lower intercostal nerves (thoracoabdominal, nerve roots T7-T11), as well as the iliohypogastric nerve and the ilioinguinal nerve.
Peripheral nerve field refers to an area of skin innervated by a single nerve. A peripheral nerve field can also be described as cutaneous nerve distribution. An area innervated by a single dorsal root is called a dermatome. Neurologists rely on maps of dermatomes and peripheral nerve fields to diagnose areas of nerve damage based on somasthetic or proprioceptive deficits in specific dermatomes and peripheral nerve fields.
The opponens pollicis and abductor pollicis brevis are normally innervated by the median nerve. The flexor pollicis brevis has two heads a superficial and a deep. The flexor pollicis brevis (FPB) is typically an ulnar-innervated muscle. Due to a common interconnection between the median and ulnar nerves in the hand (Riche- Cannieu interconnection), the Median nerve may innervate the FPB in 35% of people.
The medial and lateral head of the flexor hallucis brevis is innervated by the medial plantar nerve. Both heads are represented by spinal segments S1, S2.
Following peripheral nerve injury to the ulnar nerve, the AIN is often used as a donor branch to reinnervate the paralysed muscles innervated by the ulnar nerve.
The cremaster muscle is innervated from the genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve. It receives distinctly different innervation and vascular supply in comparison to the internal oblique.
The vast majority of sweat glands in the body are innervated by sympathetic cholinergic neurons.Boron, Walter F., and Emile L. Boulpaep. "Sweating." Medical Physiology. Updated 2nd ed.
The visceral pleura receives its blood supply from the bronchial circulation, which also supplies the lungs. The parietal pleura receives its blood supply from the intercostal arteries, which also supply the overlying body wall. The costal and cervical portions and the periphery of the diaphragmatic portion of the parietal pleurae are innervated by the intercostal nerves. The mediastinal and central portions of the diaphragmatic pleurae are innervated by the phrenic nerves.
It acts to rotate the pelvic limb laterally. It is innervated by the sciatic nerve. Gemelli: originates on the lateral surface of the ischium and inserts on the trochanteric fossa. It acts to rotate the pelvic limb laterally. It is innervated by the sciatic nerve. Quadratus femoris: originates on the ischium and inserts on the intertrochanteric crest. It acts to extend the hip and rotate the pelvic limb laterally.
The extensor carpi radialis longus is a wrist extensor that is innervated by the radial nerve, from spinal roots C6 and C7.Bradley Bowden, Illustrated Atlas of the Skeletal Muscles, 2005 All other major extensor muscles in the superficial layer of the posterior compartment (the extensor digitorum, extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor carpi ulnaris, and extensor digiti minimi) are innervated by the posterior interosseous branch of the radial nerve.
It is perforated by and innervated by the musculocutaneous nerve which arises from the anterior division of the upper (C5, C6) & middle trunks (C7) of the brachial plexus.
There is only one muscle of third pharyngeal arch, the stylopharyngeus. The stylopharyngeus and other structures from the third pharyngeal arch are all innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve.
Likewise, the palatine glands are innervated by the nasopalatine, greater palatine nerve and lesser palatine nerves. The pharyngeal nerve innervates pharyngeal glands. These are all branches of maxillary nerve.
Also, the space normally taken by flight muscles is used to store eggs. However, the halteres have not been reduced and are innervated, thus probably serving as sensory organs.
The elbow is innervated anteriorly by branches from the musculocutaneous, median, and radial nerve, and posteriorly from the ulnar nerve and the branch of the radial nerve to anconeus.
The teeth and the periodontium (i.e. the tissues that support the teeth) are innervated by the maxillary and mandibular divisions of the trigeminal nerve. Maxillary (upper) teeth and their associated periodontal ligament are innervated by the superior alveolar nerves, branches of the maxillary division, termed the posterior superior alveolar nerve, anterior superior alveolar nerve, and the variably present middle superior alveolar nerve. These nerves form the superior dental plexus above the maxillary teeth.
Nowhere in the body is referred pain more well illustrated than in the face, and this is due to the richly and complexly innervated nature of the head and neck.
The intrinsic group are the smaller muscles located within the hand itself. The muscles of the hand are innervated by the radial, median, and ulnar nerves from the brachial plexus.
The Stylopharyngeus is the only muscle in the pharynx innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) through branchial motor fibers that originate in the rostral part of the nucleus ambiguus.
The scapular and circumflex arteries. Rhomboid major labelled at lower left. The rhomboid major, like the rhomboid minor, is innervated by the ventral primary ramus via the dorsal scapular nerve (C5).
Note that the thyrohyoid muscle, which is also an infrahyoid muscle and the geniohyoid muscle which is a suprahyoid muscle are innervated by cervical spinal nerve 1 via the hypoglossal nerve.
It is innervated by the deep fibular nerve, unlike the other peroneal muscles which are innervated by the superficial fibular nerve, since the peroneus tertius is a member of the anterior compartment. Its action is that of weak dorsiflexion of the ankle joint and to evert the foot at the ankle joint. The muscle may be absent in humans; it is seldom found in other primates, a fact that has linked its function to efficient terrestrial bipedalism.
This allows for the selective attention or inattention towards various stimuli. The corticobulbar tract innervates cranial motor nuclei bilaterally with the exception of the lower facial nuclei (which innervates facial muscles below the eyes) and the genioglossus muscle, which are innervated only unilaterally by the contralateral cortex. Among those nuclei that are bilaterally innervated a slightly stronger connection contralaterally than ipsilaterally is observed. The corticobulbar tract directly innervates the nuclei for cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and XII.
The pharyngeal plexus provides sensory innervation of the oropharynx and laryngopharynx from CN IX and CN X. (The nasopharynx above the pharyngotympanic tube and the torus tubarius is innervated by CN V2).
Referred pain is that pain perceived at a site different from its point of origin but innervated by the same spinal segment.Carol Mattson Porth. Pathophysiology:concepts of altered health states. Publisher:Lippincott. Third Edition.
The mandibular prominence is an embryological structure which gives rise to the lower portion of the face. The mandible and lower lip derive from it.chapter23 It is innervated by the mandibular nerve.
As with the other muscles of mastication, control of the temporal muscle comes from the third (mandibular) branch of the trigeminal nerve. Specifically, the muscle is innervated by the deep temporal nerves.
The Adductor hallucis (Adductor obliquus hallucis) arises by two heads—oblique and transverse and is responsible for adducting the big toe. It has two heads, both are innervated by the lateral plantar nerve.
This muscle is the only laryngeal muscle innervated by the superior laryngeal branch of the vagus nerve known as the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve (rather than the recurrent laryngeal nerve).
The sternocleidomastoid is innervated by the accessory nerve of the same side. It supplies only motor fibres. The cervical plexus supplies sensation, including proprioception, from the ventral primary rami of C2 and C3.
The vessels on the arterial side of the microcirculation are called the arterioles, which are well innervated, are surrounded by smooth muscle cells, and are 10-100 μm in diameter. Arterioles carry the blood to the capillaries, which are not innervated, have no smooth muscle, and are about 5-8 μm in diameter. Blood flows out of the capillaries into the venules, which have little smooth muscle and are 10-200 μm. The blood flows from the venules into the veins.
The common fibular nerve innervates the short head of the biceps femoris muscle via a motor branch that exits close to the gluteal cleft. The remainder of the fibular-innervated muscles are innervated by its branches, the deep fibular nerve and superficial fibular nerve. It provides sensory innervation to the skin over the upper third of the lateral aspect of the leg via the lateral sural cutaneous nerve. It gives the aural communicating nerve which joins the sural nerve in the midcalf.
All three plantar interosseous muscles are innervated by the lateral plantar nerve. The lateral plantar nerve is a branch from the tibial nerve, which originally branches off the sciatic nerve from the sacral plexus.
It also separates the pleural cavity from the mediastinum. The parietal pleura is innervated by the intercostal nerves and the phrenic nerve. Between the membranes is a fluid-filled space called the pleural space.
Due to the lengths of their necks, the recurrent laryngeal nerve may be up to long, despite its optimal route being a distance of just several inches. The indirect route of this nerve is the result of evolution of mammals from fish, which had no neck and had a relatively short nerve that innervated one gill slit and passed near the gill arch. Since then, the gill it innervated has become the larynx and the gill arch has become the dorsal aorta in mammals.
The glomus type I cells of the carotid body are innervated by the sensory neurons found in the inferior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve. The carotid sinus nerve is the branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve which innervates them. Alternatively, the glomus type I cells of the aortic body are innervated by sensory neurons found in the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve. Centrally the axons of neurons which innervate glomus type I cells synapse in the caudal portion of the solitary nucleus in the medulla.
The physical contractions of the smooth muscle cells can be caused by action potentials in efferent motor neurons of the enteric nervous system, or by receptor mediated calcium influx. These efferent motor neurons of the enteric nervous system are cholinergic and adrenergic neurons. The inner circular layer is innervated by both excitatory and inhibitory motor neurons, while the outer longitudinal layer is innervated by mainly excitatory neurons. These action potentials cause the smooth muscle cells to contract or relax, depending on the particular stimulation the cells receive.
A clinical trial of eslicarbazepine acetate as therapy in persons with diabetic neuropathic pain was prematurely halted.Eslicarbazepine Acetate as Therapy in Diabetic Neuropathic Pain Clinical trials.gov, U.S. National Institutes of Health, July 17, 2014, retrieved 19 January 2016 Etamicastat (BIA 5–453) is a dopamine-β- hydroxylase inhibitor decreasing norepinephrine levels in peripheral sympathetically innervated tissues, without effect in brain tissues of spontaneously hypertensive rats. BIA 5-1058 is another reversible dopamine beta-hydroxylase inhibitor which decreases norepinephrine levels in peripheral sympathetically innervated tissues, without CNS effects.
They have a core of connective tissue. The fungiform papillae are innervated by the seventh cranial nerve, more specifically via the submandibular ganglion, chorda tympani, and geniculate ganglion ascending to the solitary nucleus in the brainstem.
Fazio–Londe disease (FLD), also called progressive bulbar palsy of childhood, is a very rare inherited motor neuron disease of children and young adults and is characterized by progressive paralysis of muscles innervated by cranial nerves.
Muscles responsible for finer, more nuanced movements are innervated by motor pools consisting of higher numbers of individual motor neurons. This principle is highlighted by examining the evolution of the human tongue and hand motor pools.
Nature Reviews Cancer. 2: 201-209. For many years it has been known that bones are innervated with sensory neurons. Yet their exact anatomy remained obscure due to the contrasting physical properties of bone and neural tissue.
Like most flexors of the anterior compartment of the forearm, FCR is innervated by the median nerve, specifically by axons from cervical nerve roots C6 and C7. The muscle receives its blood supply from the ulnar artery.
Traditionally, the axillary nerve is thought to only supply the deltoid and teres minor. However, several studies on cadavers pointed out that the long head of triceps brachii is innervated by a branch of the axillary nerve.
The lateral rotator group is a group of six small muscles of the hip which all externally (laterally) rotate the femur in the hip joint. It consists of the following muscles: Piriformis, gemellus superior, obturator internus, gemellus inferior, quadratus femoris and the obturator externus. All muscles in the lateral rotator group originate from the hip bone and insert on to the upper extremity of the femur. The muscles are innervated by the sacral plexus (L4-S2), except the obturator externus muscle, which is innervated by the lumbar plexus.
The nerve that communicates to the muscles that lift the foot is the peroneal nerve. This nerve innervates the anterior muscles of the leg that are used during dorsi flexion of the ankle. The muscles that are used in plantar flexion are innervated by the tibial nerve and often develop tightness in the presence of foot drop. The muscles that keep the ankle from supination (as from an ankle sprain) are also innervated by the peroneal nerve, and it is not uncommon to find weakness in this area as well.
Dissection of the muscles of the palate from behind. The five muscles of the soft palate play important roles in swallowing and breathing. The muscles are: # Tensor veli palatini, which is involved in swallowing # Palatoglossus, involved in swallowing # Palatopharyngeus, involved in breathing # Levator veli palatini, involved in swallowing # Musculus uvulae, which moves the uvula These muscles are innervated by the pharyngeal plexus via the vagus nerve, with the exception of the tensor veli palatini. The tensor veli palatini is innervated by the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (V3).
It is innervated by the sympathetic system, which acts by releasing noradrenaline, which acts on α1-receptors. page 163 Thus, when presented with a threatening stimuli that activates the fight-or-flight response, this innervation contracts the muscle and dilates the pupil, thus temporarily letting more light reach the retina. The dilator muscle is innervated more specifically by postganglionic sympathetic nerves arising from the superior cervical ganglion as the sympathetic root of ciliary ganglion. From there, they travel via the internal carotid artery through the carotid canal to foramen lacerum.
A motor pool consists of all individual motor neurons that innervate a single muscle. Each individual muscle fiber is innervated by only one motor neuron, but one motor neuron may innervate several muscle fibers. This distinction is physiologically significant because the size of a given motor pool determines the activity of the muscle it innervates: for example, muscles responsible for finer movements are innervated by motor pools consisting of higher numbers of individual motor neurons. Motor pools are also distinguished by the different classes of motor neurons that they contain.
The muscle is innervated by the posterior branch of axillary nerve where it forms a pseudoganglion. A pseudoganglion has no nerve cells but nerve fibres are present. Damage to the fibers innervating the teres minor is clinically significant.
Both the external and internal muscles are innervated by the intercostal nerves (the ventral rami of thoracic spinal nerves), are supplied by the intercostal arteries, and are drained by the intercostal veins. Their fibers run in opposite directions.
As the subcutaneous layer is poorly innervated, pain is less than other needling therapies. FSN is also currently being used successfully to treat non-musculoskeletal conditions; however more research is to be carried out to conclude these findings.
It acts to flex the elbow. It is innervated by the musculocutaneous nerve. Cranial and lateral muscles of antebrachium: Extensor carpi radial: originates on the supracondylar crest and inserts on the metacarpals. It acts to extend the carpus.
Because it is innervated by preganglionic nerve fibers, the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized sympathetic ganglion. Unlike other sympathetic ganglia, however, the adrenal medulla lacks distinct synapses and releases its secretions directly into the blood.
The spindle is innervated by type Ia sensory fiber that go on to synapse with alpha motor neurons, completing the gamma-loop. The parallel pulling keeps muscle spindles taut and readily able to detect minute changes in stretch.
Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and arranged in opposing groups around joints. Muscles are innervated, to communicate nervous energy to, by nerves, which conduct electrical currents from the central nervous system and cause the muscles to contract.
The levator palpebrae superioris receives motor innervation from the superior division of the oculomotor nerve. The smooth muscle that originates from its undersurface, called the superior tarsal muscle is innervated by postganglionic sympathetic axons from the superior cervical ganglion.
Proprioception of the head stems from the muscles innervated by the trigeminal nerve, where the GSA fibers pass without synapsing in the trigeminal ganglion (first-order sensory neuron), reaching the mesencephalic tract and the mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve.
The mylohyoid muscle is innervated by a branch of the mandibular nerve, the inferior alveolar nerve. The mylohyoid nerve is a branch of the inferior alveolar nerve. The mylohyoid nerve emerges to give motor supply to the mylohyoid muscle.
The opponens digiti minimi muscle serves to flex and laterally rotate the 5th metacarpal about the 5th carpometacarpal joint, as when bringing the little finger and thumb into opposition. It is innervated by the deep branch of the ulnar nerve.
Dorsomedial SCN is mainly innervated by the core and also by other hypothalamic areas. Lastly, its output is mainly to the subparaventricular zone and dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus which both mediate the influence SCN exerts over circadian regulation of the body.
Like all muscles of facial expression, the risorius is innervated by the facial nerve (CN VII). The specific branch is debated, with some sources giving marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve and others giving buccal branch of the facial nerve.
It acts to flex the carpus, metacarpophalangeal and proximal interphalangeal joints of the digits. It is innervated by the median nerve. Flexor carpi ulnar: originates on the olecranon and inserts on the accessory carpal bone. It acts to flex the carpus.
Pronator quadratus: originates on surfaces of the radius and ulna. It acts to pronate the paw. It is innervated by the median nerve. Caudal muscles of the thigh: Biceps femoris: originates on the ischiatic tuberosity and inserts on the patellar ligament.
It is also innervated and vascular. Juvenile and adult swimbladders exhibit key differences. Juveniles tend to have thicker and "gelatinous" walls with more spherical cells. Adults on the other hand have a less gelatinous appearance and a constitutively open lumen.
The intermediate group is also known as respiratory group as it may serve a respiratory function. It is composed of serratus posterior superior and serratus posterior inferior. Like the superficial group, it is innervated by anterior rami of spinal nerves.
The opponens pollicis originates on the tubercle of the trapezium and the flexor retinaculum. It is inserted onto the radial side of the first metacarpal. It opposes the thumb and assists in adduction. It is innervated by the median nerve.
The mandibular (lower) teeth and their associated periodontal ligament are innervated by the inferior alveolar nerve, a branch of the mandibular division. This nerve runs inside the mandible, within the inferior alveolar canal below the mandibular teeth, giving off branches to all the lower teeth (inferior dental plexus). The oral mucosa of the gingiva (gums) on the facial (labial) aspect of the maxillary incisors, canines and premolar teeth is innervated by the superior labial branches of the infraorbital nerve. The posterior superior alveolar nerve supplies the gingiva on the facial aspect of the maxillary molar teeth.
The nerve of the anterior compartment of thigh is the femoral nerve. Innervation for the quadriceps muscles come from the posterior division of the femoral nerve, while the anterior division (which contains cutaneous as well as muscular components) gives a lateral and a medial branch, the second being responsible for the innervation of the sartorius muscle. The iliacus and the psoas major and psoas minor muscles, sometimes considered part of the anterior compartment, do not share the same innervation. Whereas the iliacus is innervated by the femoral nerve, the psoas is innervated by ventral rami of L1-L3.
This, coupled with the humidity and filtration provided by the conchae, helps to carry more scent molecules towards the higher, and very narrow regions of the nasal airways, where olfaction nerve receptors are located. The superior conchae completely cover and protect the nerve axons piercing through the cribriform plate (a porous bone plate that separates the nose from the brain) into the nose. Some areas of the middle conchae are also innervated by the olfactory bulb. All three pairs of conchae are innervated by pain and temperature receptors, via the trigeminal nerve (or, the fifth cranial nerve).
Crutch paralysis is a form of paralysis which can occur when either the radial nerve or part of the brachial plexus, containing various nerves that innervate sense and motor function to the arm and hand, is under constant pressure, such as by the use of a crutch. This can lead to paralysis of the muscles innervated by the compressed nerve. Generally, crutches that are not adjusted to the correct height can cause the radial nerve to be constantly pushed against the humerus. This can cause any muscle that is innervated by the radial nerve to become partially or fully paralyzed.
A complete oculomotor nerve palsy will result in a characteristic down and out position in the affected eye. The eye will be displaced outward "exotropia" and displaced downward "hypotropia"; outward because the lateral rectus (innervated by the sixth cranial nerve) maintains muscle tone in comparison to the paralyzed medial rectus. The eye will be displaced downward, because the superior oblique (innervated by the fourth cranial or trochlear nerve), is unantagonized by the paralyzed superior rectus, inferior rectus and inferior oblique. The affected individual will also have a ptosis, or drooping of the eyelid, and mydriasis (pupil dilation).
Extrafusal muscle fibers are the skeletal standard muscle fibers that are innervated by alpha motor neurons and generate tension by contracting, thereby allowing for skeletal movement. They make up the large mass of skeletal muscle tissue and are attached to bone by fibrous tissue extensions (tendons). Each alpha motor neuron and the extrafusal muscle fibers innervated by it make up a motor unit. The connection between the alpha motor neuron and the extrafusal muscle fiber is a neuromuscular junction, where the neuron's signal, the action potential, is transduced to the muscle fiber by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
As in the brainstem, higher segments of the spinal cord contain α-MNs that innervate muscles higher on the body. For example, the biceps brachii muscle, a muscle of the arm, is innervated by α-MNs in spinal cord segments C5, C6, and C7, which are found rostrally in the spinal cord. On the other hand, the gastrocnemius muscle, one of the muscles of the leg, is innervated by α-MNs within segments S1 and S2, which are found caudally in the spinal cord. Alpha motor neurons are located in a specific region of the spinal cord's gray matter.
CN III), which may affect the parasympathetic input to the eye on the side of the affected nerve, causing the pupil of the affected eye to dilate and fail to constrict in response to light as it should. Pupillary dilation often precedes the somatic motor effects of CN III compression called oculomotor nerve palsy or third nerve palsy. This palsy presents as deviation of the eye to a "down and out" position due to loss of innervation to all ocular motility muscles except for the lateral rectus (innervated by abducens nerve (a.k.a. CN VI) and the superior oblique (innervated by trochlear nerve a.k.a.
It is innervated by the deep branch of the radial nerve. The deep branch then becomes the posterior interosseous nerve upon exiting the supinator muscle. Its nerve roots are primarily from C6, with some C5 involvement. There is also possible additional C7 innervation.
The abductor pollicis longus muscle is innervated by the posterior interosseous nerve, which is a continuation of the deep branch of the radial nerve after it passes through the supinator muscle. The posterior interosseous nerve is derived from spinal segments C7 & C8.
Biperiden has an atropine-like blocking effect on all peripheral structures which are parasympathetic-innervated (e.g. cardiovascular and visceral organs). It also has a prominent central blocking effect on M1 receptors. Biperiden does also act as FIASMA (functional inhibitor of acid sphingomyelinase).
It acts to extend the hip and abduct the limb. It is innervated by the caudal gluteal nerve. Middle gluteal: originates on the ilium and inserts on the greater trochanter. It acts to abduct the hip and rotate the pelvic limb medially.
Despite its name, the extensor carpi ulnaris is innervated by the posterior interosseous nerve (C7 and C8), the continuation of the deep branch of the radial nerve. It would therefore be paralyzed in an injury to the posterior cord of the brachial plexus.
The influx of cations causes the neuron to depolarize, transmitting signals similar to those that would be transmitted if the innervated tissue were being burned or damaged. This stimulation is followed by desensitization and analgesia, in part because the nerve endings die from calcium overload.
The adductor pollicis is innervated by the deep branch of the ulnar nerve (C8–T1). Between the oblique and transverse heads is a thin fibrous arcade which the nerve passes as it traverses the palm laterally. The nerve is accompanied by the deep palmar arch.
Situated between the incus and the inner ear, the stapes transmits sound vibrations from the incus to the oval window, a membrane-covered opening to the inner ear. The stapes is also stabilized by the stapedius muscle, which is innervated by the facial nerve.
As the salpingopharyngeus is used to open the eustachian tubes to equalize pressure in the middle ear, the muscle can easily be stimulated by swallowing. The salpingopharyngeus is innervated by the vagus nerve via the pharyngeal plexus, and irrigated by the ascending pharyngeal artery.
The tensor veli palatini is supplied by the medial pterygoid nerve, a branch of mandibular nerve, the third branch of the trigeminal nerve - the only muscle of the palate not innervated by the pharyngeal plexus, which is formed by the vagal and glossopharyngeal nerves.
All of the pharyngeal muscles that come from the first pharyngeal arch are innervated by the mandibular divisions of the trigeminal nerve. These muscles include all the muscles of mastication, the anterior belly of the digastric, the mylohyoid, tensor tympani, and tensor veli palatini.
All of the pharyngeal muscles of the second pharyngeal arch are innervated by the facial nerve. These muscles include the muscles of facial expression, the posterior belly of the digastric, the stylohyoid muscle, the auricular muscle and the stapedius muscle of the middle ear.
Langley severed the SCG above the T1 portion, causing a loss of reflexes. When left to their own accord, the fibers reinnervated the SCG and the initial autonomic reflexes were recovered, though there was limited recovery of pineal gland function. When Langley severed the connections between the SCG and the T1–T5 region of the spinal cord and replaced the SCG with a different one, the SCG was still innervated the same portion of the spinal cord as before. When he replaced the SCG with a T5 ganglion, the ganglion tended to be innervated by the posterior portion of the spinal cord (T4–T8).
In both cases the sixth cranial nerve nucleus and nerve was absent, and the lateral rectus muscle was innervated by the inferior division of the third or oculomotor nerve. This misdirection of nerve fibres results in opposing muscles being innervated by the same nerve. Thus, on attempted abduction, stimulation of the lateral rectus via the oculomotor nerve will be accompanied by stimulation of the opposing medial rectus via the same nerve; a muscle which works to adduct the eye. Thus, co-contraction of the muscles takes place, limiting the amount of movement achievable and also resulting in retraction of the eye into the socket.
However, the monophyletic theory of arthropod origins has since decisively gained the upper hand, which raises the problem of head homology once more. The classical view was that the chelicerae were homologous to the second antennae of crustaceans (i.e., they are innervated from the tritocerebrum), a view based partly on the fact that the chelicerae were innervated from the same ganglion that innervates the labrum, which is the tritocerebrum in crustaceans and insects. Given that there are apparently no appendages in front of the chelicerae, the implication was that the deuterocerebrum had been lost in chelicerates (the protocerebrum innervates the eyes in both groups in this view).
The brains of onychophorans (velvet worms) have been recently re-investigated and have been shown to possess two unusual features. First, although the mouth is ventral, as is the case in euarthropods, it is innervated from three different places; the sides, the posterior, and by a nerve that originates dorsally, and passes anteriorly down to curve back to the front of the mouth. This set of innervation makes sense if the mouth of onychophorans was originally terminal and has been bent downwards. Second, the antennae of the onychophorans appear to be innervated from in front of the eyes; which in euarthropod terms implies a protocerebral (or potentially even more anterior) innervation.
The human fetus moves throughout its entire development. Fetal movement refers to motion of a fetus caused by its own muscle activity. Locomotor activity begins during the late embryological stage and changes in nature throughout development. Muscles begin to move as soon as they are innervated.
The pharyngeal plexus is a network of nerve fibers innervating most of the palate and pharynx. (Larynx, which is innervated by superior and recurrent laryngeal nerve from vagus nerve (CN X), is not included) It is located on the surface of the middle pharyngeal constrictor muscle.
The spleen is innervated by the splenic plexus, which connects a branch of the celiac ganglia to the vagus nerve. The underlying central nervous processes coordinating the spleen's function seem to be embedded into the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis, and the brainstem, especially the subfornical organ.
The epitrochleoanconeus is a short striated muscle which originates on the posterior surface of the medial epicondyle of the humerus. The muscle runs over the ulnar nerve, forms an arch over the cubital tunnel and inserts on the olecranon. It is innervated by the ulnar nerve.
The depressor anguli oris (triangularis) is a facial muscle associated with frowning. It originates from the mandible and inserts into the angle of the mouth. The muscle is innervated by the marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve and receives its blood supply from the facial artery.
The caudate is highly innervated by dopamine neurons that originate from the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). The SNc is located in the midbrain and contains cell projections to the caudate and putamen, utilizing the neurotransmitter dopamine. There are also additional inputs from various association cortices.
All of these muscles are situated in the posterior half of the forearm (posterior is when it is in its standard anatomical position). Also, the brachioradialis, anconeus, triceps brachii and extensor carpi radialis longus are all innervated by muscular branches of the radial nerve in the arm.
Saladin, Kenneth (2007). Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. McGraw Hill. p. 544-546 The amount of cortex devoted to any given body region is not proportional to that body region's surface area or volume, but rather to how richly innervated that region is.
The extensor digitorum muscle (also known as extensor digitorum communis) is a muscle of the posterior forearm present in humans and other animals. It extends the medial four digits of the hand. Extensor digitorum is innervated by the posterior interosseous nerve, which is a branch of the radial nerve.
In the human body, the adductor longus is a skeletal muscle located in the thigh. One of the adductor muscles of the hip, its main function is to adduct the thigh and it is innervated by the obturator nerve. It forms the medial wall of the femoral triangle.
Some sources state that the palatoglossus is innervated by fibers from the cranial part of the accessory nerve (CN XI) that travel via the pharyngeal plexus.Section 3, Chapter 35 - Neck and Upper Aerodigestive Tract - Pharynx. In: Standring, S, editors. Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 39th Edition.
Latissimus dorsi: originates on thoracolumbar fascia and inserts on the teres major tuberosity of the humerus. Its function is to flex the shoulder joint. It is innervated by the thoracodorsal nerve. Serratus ventralis: originates on the transverse processes of the last 5 cervical vertebrae and inserts on the scapula.
It acts to extend and stabilize the shoulder joint. It is innervated by the suprascapular nerve. Medial muscles of the scapula and shoulder: Subscapularis: originates on the subscapular fossa and inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus. It acts to rotate the arm medially and stabilize the joint.
External obturator: originates on the pubis and ischium and inserts on the trochanteric fossa. It acts to rotate the pelvic limb laterally. It is innervated by the obturator nerve. Cranial muscles of the thigh: Quadriceps femoris: originates on the femur and the ilium and inserts on the tibial tuberosity.
It acts to flex the tarsus and rotate the paw medially. It is innervated by the peroneal nerve. Caudal muscles of the leg: Gastrocnemius: originates on the supracondylar tuberosities of the femur and inserts on the tuber calcanei. It acts to extend the tarsus and flex the stifle.
Deep digital flexor: originates on the fibular and inserts on the plantar surface of the distal phalanges. It acts to flex the digits and extend the tarsus. It is innervated by the tibial nerve. Popliteus: originates on the lateral condyle of the femur and inserts on the tibia.
The superior oblique muscle, or obliquus oculi superior, is a fusiform muscle originating in the upper, medial side of the orbit (i.e. from beside the nose) which abducts, depresses and internally rotates the eye. It is the only extraocular muscle innervated by the trochlear nerve (the fourth cranial nerve).
The superficial group, also known as the appendicular group, is primarily associated with movement of the appendicular skeleton. It is composed of trapezius, latissimus dorsi, rhomboid major, rhomboid minor and levator scapulae. It is innervated by anterior rami of spinal nerves, reflecting its embryological origin outside the back.
PNECs are innervated airway epithelial cells that are particularly focused at airway junction points. These cells can produce serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, as well as polypeptide products. Cytoplasmic processes from the pulmonary neuroendocrine cells extend into the airway lumen where they may sense the composition of inspired gas.
However, vibrissae are different from other hair structures because they grow from a special hair follicle incorporating a capsule of blood called a blood sinus which is heavily innervated by sensory nerves. The mystacial macrovibrissae are shared by a large group of land and marine mammals (see images), and it is this group that has received by far the most scientific study. The arrangement of these whiskers is not random: they form an ordered grid of arcs (columns) and rows, with shorter whiskers at the front and longer whiskers at the rear (see images). In the mouse, gerbil, hamster, rat, guinea pig, rabbit, and cat, each individual follicle is innervated by 100–200 primary afferent nerve cells.
Their secretion is mainly mucous in nature and have many functions such as coating the oral cavity with saliva. Problems with dentures are sometimes associated with minor salivary glands if there is dry mouth present (see further discussion). The minor salivary glands are innervated by the seventh cranial or facial nerve.
The semimembranosus is innervated by the tibial part of the sciatic nerve. The sciatic nerve consists of the anterior divisions of ventral nerve roots from L4 through S3. These nerve roots are part of the larger nerve network–the sacral plexus.Saladin, Kenneth S. Anatomy & Physiology: the unity of form and function.
Often these elements are innervated. To date, the functional role for the DCS is unknown also if several hypotheses have been advanced. Questions remain about the role of the diffuse chemosensory system in control of complex functions (e.g. airway surface liquid secretion) and about the involvement of chemoreceptors in respiratory diseases.
The palps are paired and innervated structures that tend to be located ventrally and laterally. They are often associated with the mouth and may have a feeding or sensory function. Tentacular cirri can be any sort of elongated, forward (anterior) facing cirri and can occasionally be found on the prostomium.
Sternothyoideus: originates on the first coastal cartilage and inserts on the thyroid cartilage. Its function is also to move the tongue caudally. It is innervated by the ventral branches of the cervical spinal nerves. Omotransversarius: originates on the spine of the scapula and inserts on the wing of the atlas.
Its function is to support the trunk and depress the scapula. It is innervated by the ventral branches of the cervical spinal nerves. Intrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb: Deltoideus: originates on the acromial process of the scapula and inserts on the deltoid tuberosity. It acts to flex the shoulder.
Along with the other three muscles of mastication (temporalis, medial pterygoid, and lateral pterygoid), the masseter is innervated by the anterior division of the mandibular division (V3) of the trigeminal nerve. The innervation pathway is: gyrus precentralis > genu capsula interna > nucleus motorius nervi trigemini > nervus trigeminus > nervus mandibularis > musculus masseter.
The fourth intercostal nerve is innervated by cutaneous slowly-adapting and rapidly-adapting mechanoreceptors, especially by ones densely-packed under the areola; innervation subsequently triggers oxytocin release, which, when in the peripheral bloodstream, causes myoepithelial cell contraction and lactation: this is an example of a non- nerve-innervation muscular reflex.
Acting via the Achilles tendon, the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles cause plantar flexion of the foot at the ankle. This action brings the sole of the foot closer to the back of the leg. The gastrocnemius also flexes the leg at the knee. Both muscles are innervated by the tibial nerve.
Some of them have an apical tuft of rigid microvilli (brush cells). Other elements have secretory exocrine granules and others may have endocrine differentiation. Often these elements are innervated. In the upper respiratory system the SCCs are contacted by the sensory endings of trigeminal nerve fibers (SubP and CGRP immunoreactive).
The superficial peroneal nerve innervates the peroneus longus and peroneus brevis muscles and the skin over the antero-lateral aspect of the leg along with the greater part of the dorsum of the foot (with the exception of the first web space, which is innervated by the deep peroneal nerve).
Amphids (Greek: amphi, around, double) are innervated invaginations of cuticle in nematodes. They are usually found in the anterior (head) region of the animal, at the base of the lips. Amphids are the principal olfactosensory organs of nematodes. Each amphid is made up of 12 sensory neurons with ciliated dendrites.
Further investigation revealed that the hagfish did have a true innervated heart. The hagfish circulatory system also consists of multiple accessory pumps throughout the body, which are considered auxiliary “hearts”. Hagfish are the only known vertebrates with osmoregulation isosmotic to their external environment. Hypothetically, they excrete ions in bile salts.
Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2012. 1260-264. Print. Sympathetic postganglionic neurons typically secrete norepinephrine and are named sympathetic adrenergic neurons; however, the sympathetic postganglionic neurons that innervate sweat glands secrete acetylcholine and hence are termed sympathetic cholinergic neurons. Sweat glands, piloerector muscles, and some blood vessels are innervated by sympathetic cholinergic neurons.
Furthermore, the actin cytoskeleton in the neck of the spine compartmentalizes the LTP induced response to the innervated dendritic spine, which leads to the specificity of LTP.Meng, Y., Zhang, Y., Tregoubov, V., Janus, C., Cruz, I., et al. (2002). Abnormal spine morphology and enhanced LTP in LIMK1 knockout mice. Neuron, 35:121-133.
Recent experiments in mice monitoring claustrocortical axonal activity to changing visual stimuli suggest the claustrum signals stimulus changes. Interestingly although claustrocortical input to visual cortical areas were engaged, the strongest responses measured were in higher-order regions of the cortex, this included the anterior cingulate cortex which is densely innervated by claustral projection.
The muscles of the posterior compartment of the forearm are innervated by the radial nerve and its branches. The radial nerve arises from the posterior cord of the plexus. The somatomotor fibers of the radial nerve branch from the main radial nerve at the level of the radial groove of the humerus.
Cranial muscles of the arm: Biceps brachia: originates on the supraglenoid tubercle and inserts on the ulnar and radial tuberosities. It acts to flex the elbow and extend the shoulder. It is innervated by the musculocutaneous nerve. Brachialis: originates on the lateral surface of humerus and inserts on the ulnar and radial tuberosities.
Extensor carpi ulnar: originates on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and inserts on the metacarpal 5 and the accessory carpal bone. It acts to abduct and extend the carpal joint. It is innervated by the radial nerve. Supinator: originates on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and inserts on the radius.
Medial muscles of the thigh: Sartorius: originates on the ilium and inserts on the patella and tibia. It acts to flex the hip and both flex and extend the stifle. It is innervated by the femoral nerve. Gracilis: originates on the pelvic symphysis and inserts on the cranial border of the tibia.
The SCO is innervated by many systems, the most common of which is associated with the serotonergic system. The serotonergic system influences water and sodium intake. During water deprivation it will also reduce its innervation to the SCO. The reduction of input to the SCO causes a marked decrease in RF production.
Whereas piriform cortex is innervated mostly randomly, projections to the anterior olfactory nucleus and amygdala retain some topographic order. Finally, mitral cell axons also make intrabulbar connections to granule cells and in the mouse olfactory system they project selectively to granule cells underlying the second ipsilateral homotypic (expressing the same olfactory receptor) glomerulus.
As intrafusal muscle fibers, nuclear chain fibers are innervated by both sensory afferents and motor efferents. The afferent innervation is via type Ia sensory fibers and type II sensory fibers. These project to the nucleus proprius in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Efferent innervation is via static γ motor neurons.
Breaking the humerus and deep puncture wounds can also cause the condition. Posterior interosseus palsy is distinguished from radial nerve palsy by the preservation of elbow extension. Symptoms vary depending on the severity and location of the trauma; however, common symptoms include wrist drop (the inability to extend the wrist upward when the hand is palm down); numbness of the back of the hand and wrist, specifically over the first web space which is innervated by the radial nerve; and inability to voluntarily straighten the fingers or extend the thumb, which is performed by muscles of the extensor group, all of which are primarily innervated by the radial nerve. Loss of wrist extension is due to paralysis of the posterior compartment of forearm muscles; although the elbow extensors are also innervated by the radial nerve, their innervation is usually spared because the compression occurs below, distal, to the level of the axillary nerve, which innervates the long head of the triceps, and the upper branches of the radial nerve that innervate the remainder of the Triceps.. Saturnine neuropathy can also be a cause of radial neuropathy (radial palsy).
In cases of motor neuron neurapraxia, symptoms consist of flaccid paralysis of the muscles innervated by the injured nerve or nerves. Symptoms are often transient and only last for a short period of time immediately following the injury. However, in severe cases of neurapraxia, symptoms can persist for weeks or months at a time.
The superior rectus muscle is a muscle in the orbit. It is one of the extraocular muscles. It is innervated by the superior division of the oculomotor nerve (Cranial Nerve III). In the primary position (looking straight ahead), the superior rectus muscle's primary function is elevation, although it also contributes to intorsion and adduction.
These areas are important because they stimulate the presynaptic preterminals in cortical neurons. Also, this stimulation to the brain can not be studied on healthy human subjects. The upper facial muscle ME responses could not be innervated by TMS and the low threshold of blink reflexes often interferes with the nature of corticobulbar influences.
Some species of octopuses, including O. vulgaris, also have a duct that runs from the gonadal space into the branchial pericardium. Wells theorized that this duct, which is highly vascularized and innervated, may enable the reabsorption of important metabolites from the ovisac fluid of pregnant females by directing this fluid into the renal appendages.
There are two types of intrafusal muscle fibers: nuclear bag and nuclear chain fibers. They bear two types of sensory ending, known as annulospiral and flower-spray endings. Both ends of these fibers contract but the central region only stretches and does not contract. They are innervated by gamma motor neurons and beta motor neurons.
It acts to extend the shoulder joint during weight bearing and flexes the shoulder when there is no weight. It is innervated by the caudal pectoral nerves. Sternocephalicus: originates on the sternum and inserts on the temporal bone of the head. Its function is to move the head and neck from side to side.
Teres minor: originates on the infra glenoid tubercle on the scapula and inserts on the teres minor tuberosity of the humerus. It acts to flex the shoulder and rotate the arm laterally. It is innervated by the axillary nerve. Supraspinatus: originates on the supraspinous fossa and inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus.
The levator veli palatini () is the elevator muscle of the soft palate in the human body. During swallowing, it contracts, elevating the soft palate to help prevent food from entering the nasopharynx. It is innervated via the pharyngeal plexus. The levator veli palatini (Levator palati) is a thick, rounded muscle situated lateral to the choanæ.
The Inferior pharyngeal constrictor, the thickest of the three constrictors, arises from the sides of the cricoid and thyroid cartilage. Similarly to the superior and middle pharyngeal constrictor muscles, it is innervated by the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X), specifically, by branches from the pharyngeal plexus and by neuronal branches from the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
Composite or hybrid muscles have more than one set of fibers that perform the same function, and are usually supplied by different nerves for different set of fibers. For example, the tongue itself is a composite muscle made up of various components like longitudinal, transverse, horizontal muscles with different parts innervated having different nerve supply.
It is innervated by the median nerve (C8 and T1). The flexor pollicis brevis is a two-headed muscle. The superficial head arises on the flexor retinaculum, while the deep head originates on three carpal bones: the trapezium, trapezoid, and capitate. The muscle is inserted onto the radial sesamoid bone of the metacarpophalangeal joint.
As part of the medial compartment of the thigh, the adductor longus is innervated by the anterior division (sometimes the posterior division) of the obturator nerve. The obturator nerve exits via the anterior rami of the spinal cord from L2, L3, and L4.Saladin, Kenneth S. Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. 5th ed.
Motor function is supplied by the accessory nerve. Sensation, including pain and the sense of joint position (proprioception), travel via the ventral rami of the third (C3) and fourth (C4) cervical nerves. Since it is a muscle of the upper limb, the trapezius is not innervated by dorsal rami despite being placed superficially in the back.
The haptoral innervations of P. trachuri is asymmetrical. The clamps are innervated from the main haptoral nerve. Among the Gastrocotylidae, P. trachuri is unique by the asymmetrical positions of the prehaptoral ganglia. The clamp-side prehaptoral ganglion is situated close to the anteriormost clamps, while the nonclamp side prehaptoral ganglion is situated near the terminal lappet.
Acetylcholine receptor subunit gamma is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CHRNG gene. For background information on the acetylcholine receptor (AChR), see CHRNA1 (MIM 100690). Two forms of AChR are found in mammalian skeletal muscle cells. The mature form is predominant in innervated adult muscle and the embryonic form is present in fetal and denervated muscle.
It arises from tendinous fibers from the lateral two-thirds of the superior nuchal line of the occipital bone and from the mastoid process of the temporal and ends in the epicranial aponeurosis. The occipitalis muscle is innervated by the facial nerve and its function is to move the scalp back. The muscles receives blood from the occipital artery.
It is by the sensory information from these two intrafusal fiber types that an individual is able to judge the position of their muscle, and the rate at which it is changing. Intrafusal muscle fibers are not to be confused with extrafusal muscle fibers, which contract, generating skeletal movement and are innervated by alpha motor neurons.
It is connected to two different neuronal ganglia, one with three bipolar neurons and the other with tens of neurons that also supplies other insect sensory organs located in the leg. Most of the subgenual organ is innervated by this major ganglion, except for the more proximal part. There is also an intermediary organ and a tympanal organ.
Hair plates typically consist of several dozen individual sensory hairs. Each hair is innervated by a single sensory neuron (see schematic cross-section). Hair plates are often positioned next to folds within the cuticle, so that hairs are deflected during joint movement. Hair plates are located on different body parts, including the legs, the neck, and the antennae.
Cross-section of a campaniform sensillum. Each sensillum is embedded in a cuticular socket and innervated by a single sensory neuron. The neuron is excited when strain in the cuticle deforms the socket edges (collar) and indents the flexible cuticular dome (cap). Top panel: Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of campaniform sensilla on the tarsus of Drosophila melanogaster.
In this regard what research has been done shows considerable variation between species; in A lineatus, these neuromasts are considered the supraorbital line, and are innervated by ramus opthalmicus superficialis.Müller and Schwartz, 1982, cited in Coombs S., Görner P., and Münz H. eds. The Mechanosensory Lateral Line: Neurobiology and Evolution (New York: Springer-Verlag New York Inc., 1989), pp.
Transverse superficial pectoral: originates on the second and third sternebrae and inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus. It also adducts the limb and prevents the limb from being abducted during weight bearing. It is innervated by the cranial pectoral nerves. Deep pectoral: originates on the ventral sternum and inserts on the lesser tubercle of the humerus.
Coracobrachialis: originates on the coracoid process of the scapula and inserts on the crest of the lesser tubercle of the humerus. It acts to adduct, extend and stabilize the shoulder joint. It is innervated by the musculocutaneous nerve. Caudal muscles of brachium: Tensor fasciae antebrachium: originates on the fascia covering the latissimus dorsi and inserts on the olecranon.
Flexor carpi radial: originates on the medial epicondyle of the humerus and inserts on the palmar side of metacarpals 2 and 3. It acts to flex the carpus. It is innervated by the median nerve. Superficial digital flexor: originates on the medial epicondyle of the humerus and inserts on the palmar surface of the middle phalanges.
Lateral muscles of the pelvis: Tensor fasciae latae: originates on the tuber coxae of the ilium and inserts on the lateral femoral fascia. It acts to flex the hip and extend the stifle. It is innervated by the cranial gluteal nerve. Superficial gluteal: originates on the lateral border of the sacrum and inserts on the 3rd trochanter.
A sympatholytic (or sympathoplegic) drug is a medication that opposes the downstream effects of postganglionic nerve firing in effector organs innervated by the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). They are indicated for various functions; for example, they may be used as antihypertensives. They are also used to treat anxiety, such as generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder and PTSD.
The common criteria of any hamstring muscles are: # Muscles should originate from ischial tuberosity. # Muscles should be inserted over the knee joint, in the tibia or in the fibula. # Muscles will be innervated by the tibial branch of the sciatic nerve. # Muscle will participate in flexion of the knee joint and extension of the hip joint.
The middle pharyngeal constrictor is a fan-shaped muscle located in the neck. It is one of three pharyngeal constrictors. Similarly to the superior and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscles, the middle pharyngeal constrictor is innervated by a branch of the vagus nerve through the pharyngeal plexus. The middle pharyngeal constrictor is smaller than the inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle.
However, Terminologia Anatomica currently classifies it as a single muscle, and also includes the temporoparietalis muscle as part of the epicranius. The occipitofrontalis muscle receives blood from several arteries. The frontal belly receives blood from the supraorbital and supratrochlear arteries, while the occipital belly receives blood from the occipital artery. The occipitofrontalis muscle is innervated by the facial nerve.
When non-motor cerebral cortex excites the striate body, the caudate and putamen specifically inhibit neurons in the globus pallidus and subthalamus. This specific disinhibition enables movement initiation, by releasing excitatory thalamic neurons. ; Ventral striatum Functionally strongly associated with emotional and motivational aspects of behavior. Strongly innervated by dopaminergic fibers from the ventral tegmental area (VTA).
The CA3 of the hippocampus plays an especially important role in the encoding and retrieval of spatial memories. The CA3 is innervated by two afferent paths known as the perforant path (PPCA3) and the dentate gyrus (DG)-mediated mossy fibers (MFs). The first path is regarded as the retrieval index path while the second is concerned with encoding.
It molds the stylopharyngeus muscle and forms the skeletal structures of the greater horn and lower portion of body hyoid bone. The fourth and sixth arches are innervated by the vagus cranial nerve. Both arches will fuse to form the laryngeal cartilages. The fifth cartilage does not appear to have any contribution to adult anatomy and disappears.
The imaging is highly sensitive and specific. Iobenguane concentrates in presynaptic terminals of the heart and other autonomically innervated organs. This enables the possible non-invasive use as an in vivo probe to study these systems. Large doses of the compound have been used in trials to selectively administer radiotherapy to malignant pheochromocytomas as well as neuroblastomas.
Tarlov cysts often enlarge over time, especially if the sac has a check valve type opening. They are differentiated from other meningeal and arachnoid cysts because they are innervated and diagnosis can in cases be demonstrated with subarachnoid communication. Tarlov perineural cysts have occasionally been observed in patients with Marfan syndrome, Ehlers–Danlos syndrome, and Loeys–Dietz syndrome.
The upper (superior) subscapular nerve is the first branch of the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. It innervates the superior portion of the subscapularis. The inferior portion of the subscapularis is innervated by the lower subscapular nerve. The upper subscapular nerve contains axons from the ventral rami of the fifth (C5) and sixth (C6) cervical nerves.
Once the compression has relieved, regeneration of axons from the lesion site begins. This time though, only 50% of the set of axons that innervate the orbicularis oris successfully reinnervate the original site. The other half aberrantly branched off and innervated the orbicularis oculi(eye muscle). Thus, when the patient purses their lips, the ipsilateral eye will squint.
F-waves are evoked by strong electrical stimuli (supramaximal) applied to the skin surface above the distal portion of a nerve. This impulse travels both in orthodromic fashion (towards the muscle fibers) and antidromic fashion (towards the cell body in the spinal cord) along the alpha motor neuron. As the orthodromic impulse reaches innervated muscle fibers, a strong direct motor response (M) is evoked in these muscle fibers, resulting in a primary compound muscle action potential (CMAP). As the antidromic impulse reaches the cell bodies within the anterior horn of the motor neuron pool by retrograde transmission, a select portion of these alpha motor neurons, (roughly 5-10% of available motor neurons), 'backfire' or rebound. This antidromic ‘backfiring’ elicits an orthodromic impulse that follows back down the alpha motor neuron, towards innervated muscle fibers.
The serratus anterior is innervated by the long thoracic nerve (Nerve of Bell), a branch of the brachial plexus. The long thoracic nerve travels inferiorly on the surface of the serratus. The nerve is especially vulnerable during certain types of surgery (for example, during lymph node clearance from the axilla (e.g., in case of axillary dissection in a surgery for breast cancer)).
The medial rectus muscle is a muscle in the orbit. As with most of the muscles of the orbit, it is innervated by the inferior division of the oculomotor nerve (Cranial Nerve III). This muscle shares an origin with several other extrinsic eye muscles, the anulus tendineus, or common tendon. It is shorter but stronger than the other orbital recti muscles.
The inferior oblique muscle or obliquus oculi inferior is a thin, narrow muscle placed near the anterior margin of the floor of the orbit. The inferior oblique is an extraocular muscle, and is attached to the maxillary bone (origin) and the posterior, inferior, lateral surface of the eye (insertion). The inferior oblique is innervated by the inferior branch of the oculomotor nerve.
More recently, it is becoming clear what types of nerves innervated which sections of bone.Mach, D. Rogers, S. Sabino, M. Luger, N. Schwei, M. Pomonis, J. Keyser, C. Clohisy, D. Adams, D. O’leary, P. Mantyh, P. (2002). Origins of skeletal pain: Sensory and sympathetic innervation of the mouse femur. Neuroscience. 113(1):155-166.Falk S, Uldall M, Heegaard AM. (2012).
Generally, the TUI requires pressure or presence with a switch located outside of the printed paper. Not to be confused with electronic paper endeavors, the TUI requires the printed pages to act as a template or overlay to a switch array. By interacting with the switch through touch or presence, an action is innervated. The switching sensor cross-references with a database.
The zygomaticus major is a muscle of the human body. It is a muscle of facial expression which draws the angle of the mouth superiorly and posteriorly to allow one to smile. Like all muscles of facial expression, the zygomatic major is innervated by the facial nerve (the seventh cranial nerve), more specifically, the buccal and zygomatic branches of the facial nerve.
The levator anguli oris (caninus) is a facial muscle of the mouth arising from the canine fossa, immediately below the infraorbital foramen. It elevates angle of mouth medially. Its fibers are inserted into the angle of the mouth, intermingling with those of the zygomaticus, triangularis, and orbicularis oris. Specifically, the levator anguli oris is innervated by the buccal branches of the facial nerve.
Unlike arachnids with book lungs (scorpions, most spiders and several others), harvestmen and most other purely tracheate arachnids lack extensive arterial branching and well-defined venous sinuses. The circulatory system consists mainly of a dorsal tubular heart with anterior and posterior aortae. The heart is innervated by a cardiac ganglion. Myofibrils are mostly arranged circularly and constrict the heart during systole.
Intrafusal muscle fibers are skeletal muscle fibers that serve as specialized sensory organs (proprioceptors) that detect the amount and rate of change in length of a muscle.Casagrand, Janet (2008) Action and Movement: Spinal Control of Motor Units and Spinal Reflexes. University of Colorado, Boulder. They constitute the muscle spindle and are innervated by both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) fibers.
Long digital extensor: originates from the extensor fossa of the femur and inserts on the extensor processes of the distal phalanges. It acts to extend the digits and flex the tarsus. It is innervated by the peroneal nerve. Peroneus longus: originates on both the tibia and fibula and inserts on the 4th tarsal bone and the plantar aspect of the metatarsals.
Pronator quadratus is a square shaped muscle on the distal forearm that acts to pronate (turn so the palm faces downwards) the hand. As it is on the anterior side of the arm, it is innervated by a branch of the median nerve, the anterior interosseous nerve (roots C8 and T1 with T1 being primary). Arterial blood comes via the anterior interosseous artery.
The posterior compartment of the arm is also known as the "extensor compartment", as its main action is extension. The muscles of this compartment are the triceps brachii and anconeus muscle and these are innervated by the radial nerve. Their blood supply is from the profunda brachii. The triceps brachii is a large muscle containing three heads a lateral, medial, and middle.
The transverse muscle of tongue (transversus linguae) is an intrinsic muscle of the tongue. It consists of fibers which arise from the median fibrous septum and pass lateralward to be inserted into the submucous fibrous tissue at the sides of the tongue. The transverse lingual muscle is innervated by cranial nerve XII, the hypoglossal. This muscle functions to narrow and elongate the tongue.
The arm is divided by a fascial layer (known as lateral and medial intermuscular septa) separating the muscles into two osteofascial compartments: the anterior and the posterior compartments of the arm. The fascia merges with the periosteum (outer bone layer) of the humerus. The anterior compartment contains three muscles: biceps brachii, brachialis and coracobrachialis muscles. They are all innervated by the musculocutaneous nerve.
Tensor fasciae latae is innervated by the superior gluteal nerve, L5 and S1. At its origins of the anterior rami of L4, L5, and S1 nerves, the superior gluteal nerve exits the pelvis via greater sciatic foramen superior to the piriformis. The nerve also courses between the gluteus medius and minimus. The superior gluteal artery also supplies the tensor fasciae latae.
A queen caste does not exist in Diacamma. Unique to this genus, all workers emerge from cocoons with a pair of tiny innervated thoracic appendages (gemmae) that are homologous with wings. Mutilation leads to a permanent change in lifetime trajectory, because workers lacking gemmae never mate. This is unlike other queenless ants where workers establish a dominance hierarchy to regulate reproduction.
Each koniocellular layer is innervated by the same retina part as the M or P layer dorsal to the respective K layer. Thus, the LGN contains six koniocellular layers. K1, K4 and K6 receive contralateral retinal inputs, and K3 and K5 receive ipsilateral retinal input. K2 receives input from both retinae but the input from the two eyes is relayed in separate tiers.
It is recorded using surface electrodes. This is representative of the sum of the surface detected motor unit action potentials from muscles innervated by that nerve. Surface-detected motor unit action potential (SMUAP) size is the contribution of individual motor units. The way of finding the average size of these action potentials depends on the method used, as described below.
The labrum is a flap-like structure that lies immediately in front of the mouth in almost all extant euarthropods, the general exception being provided by the probable chelicerate-relatives the pycnogonids. It has proved to be by far the most controversial of all arthropod head structures. It is innervated in crustaceans and insects from the tritocerebrum, i.e. the back of the brain.
The cheeks () constitute the area of the face below the eyes and between the nose and the left or right ear. "Buccal" means relating to the cheek. In humans, the region is innervated by the buccal nerve. The area between the inside of the cheek and the teeth and gums is called the vestibule or buccal pouch or buccal cavity and forms part of the mouth.
The muscles of the nose are a subgroup of the muscles of facial expression. They are involved in respiration and facial expression. The muscles of the nose include the procerus, nasalis, depressor septi nasalis, levator labii superioris alaeque nasalis, and the orbicularis oris of the mouth. As are all of the facial muscles, the muscles of the nose are innervated by the facial nerve and its branches.
The vulva has a major role to play in the reproductive system. It provides entry to, and protection for the uterus, and the right conditions in terms of warmth and moisture that aids in its sexual and reproductive functions. The external organs of the vulva are richly innervated and provide pleasure when properly stimulated. The mons pubis provides cushioning against the pubic bone during intercourse.
Facial nerve paralysis is a common problem that involves the paralysis of any structures innervated by the facial nerve. The pathway of the facial nerve is long and relatively convoluted, so there are a number of causes that may result in facial nerve paralysis. The most common is Bell's palsy, a disease of unknown cause that may only be diagnosed by exclusion of identifiable serious causes.
Fasciae were traditionally thought of as passive structures that transmit mechanical tension generated by muscular activities or external forces throughout the body. An important function of muscle fasciae is to reduce friction of muscular force. In doing so, fasciae provide a supportive and movable wrapping for nerves and blood vessels as they pass through and between muscles. Fascial tissues are frequently innervated by sensory nerve endings.
In the abdominal ganglion has seven central motor neurons been found that also produce movements of the siphon. LDS1, LDS2, LDS3, RDS, LBS1, LBS2, and LBS3 control contraction and constriction of the siphon. The siphon is additionally innervated by about 30 peripheral motor neurons. Kandel and colleagues used preparations of Aplysia californica where individuals were restrained in small aquariums in a manner that the gill was exposed.
The larynx is innervated by branches of the vagus nerve on each side. Sensory innervation to the glottis and laryngeal vestibule is by the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. The external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve innervates the cricothyroid muscle. Motor innervation to all other muscles of the larynx and sensory innervation to the subglottis is by the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
Von Ebner's glands secrete lingual lipase, beginning the process of lipid hydrolysis in the mouth. These glands empty their serous secretion into the base of the moats around the foliate and circumvallate papillae. This secretion presumably flushes material from the moat to enable the taste buds to respond rapidly to changing stimuli. Von Ebner's glands are innervated by cranial nerve IX, the glossopharyngeal nerve.
Extrafusal muscle fibers are not to be confused with intrafusal muscle fibers, which are innervated by sensory nerve endings in central noncontractile parts and by gamma motor neurons in contractile ends and thus serve as a sensory proprioceptor. Extrafusal muscle fibers can be generated in vitro (in a dish) from pluripotent stem cells through directed differentiation. This allows study of their formation and physiology.
Mechanical testing covers a wide range of tests, which can be divided broadly into two types: # those that aim to determine a material's mechanical properties, independent of geometry.Siri, S., Maier, F., Chen, L., Santos, S., Pierce, D.M., Feng, B., 2019, "Differential biomechanical properties of mouse distal colon and rectum innervated by the splanchnic and pelvic afferents", American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol. 316, issue.
It is innervated by the pharyngeal plexus. The vascular supply to the laryngopharynx includes the superior thyroid artery, the lingual artery and the ascending pharyngeal artery. The primary neural supply is from both the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves. The vagus nerve provides an auricular branch also termed "Arnold's nerve" which also supplies the external auditory canal, thus laryngopharyngeal cancer can result in referred ear pain.
In humans and other vertebrates, smells are sensed by olfactory sensory neurons in the olfactory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium is made up of at least six morphologically and biochemically different cell types. The proportion of olfactory epithelium compared to respiratory epithelium (not innervated, or supplied with nerves) gives an indication of the animal's olfactory sensitivity. Humans have about of olfactory epithelium, whereas some dogs have .
The aryepiglottic muscle is an intrinsic muscle of the larynx. The muscle originates from the muscular process of arytenoid cartilage and inserts to the aryepiglottic fold and lateral border of epiglottis. Aryepiglottic muscle is innervated by the inferior laryngeal nerve, a branch of the recurrent laryngeal nerve (a branch of the vagus nerve). The muscle adducts arytenoid cartilages and acts as a sphincter on laryngeal inlet.
Cervicogenic headache originates from disorders of the neck, including the anatomical structures innervated by the cervical roots C1–C3. Cervical headache is often precipitated by neck movement and/or sustained awkward head positioning. It is often accompanied by restricted cervical range of motion, ipsilateral neck, shoulder, or arm pain of a rather vague non-radicular nature or, occasionally, arm pain of a radicular nature.
This neuron density far exceeds that measured in other mammals, and even exceeds the motor pool size for many muscles in the human body: biceps brachii, for example, is innervated by a motor pool that averages 441.5 motor neurons in size.Baker, Todd Adam. A Biomechanical Model of the Human Tongue for Understanding Speech Production and Other Lingual Behaviors. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI, 2008. 41-46. Print.
Macrovibrissae and supraorbital vibrissae of Phoca vitulina. A chinchilla with large macrovibrissae. Whiskers or vibrissae (; singular: vibrissa; ) are a type of mammalian hair that are typically characterised, anatomically, by their long length, large and well-innervated hair follicle, and by having an identifiable representation in the somatosensory cortex of the brain. They are specialised for tactile sensing (other types of hair operate as more crude tactile sensors).
If the post-synaptic cell is a sensory neuron, then an increased firing rate in that neuron will transmit the signal to the central nervous system for integration. Whereas, if the post- synaptic cell is a connective pillar cell or a vascular smooth muscle cell, then the serotonin will cause vasoconstriction and previously unused lamellae will be recruited through recruitment of more capillary beds, and the total surface area for gas exchange per lamella will be increased. In fish, the hypoxic signal is carried up to the brain for processing by the glossopharyngeal (cranial nerve IX) and vagus (cranial nerve X) nerves. The first branchial arch is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX); however all four arches are innervated by the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X). Both the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves carry sensory nerve fibres into the brain and central nervous system.
Injury in this nerve causes paralysis (as always) to the muscles innervated by it, most importantly deltoid muscle. This muscle is the main abductor of the shoulder joint from 18 to 90 degrees (from 0 to 18 by supraspinatus). Injury can result in a reduction in shoulder abduction. So a test can be applied to a patient with injury of axillary nerve by trying to abduct the injured shoulder against resistance.
The statocyst consists of a sac-like structure containing a mineralised mass (statolith) and numerous innervated sensory hairs (setae). The statolith's inertia causes it to push against the setae when the animal accelerates. Deflection of setae by the statolith in response to gravity activates neurons, providing feedback to the animal on change in orientation and allowing balance to be maintained. In other words, the statolith shifts as the animal moves.
In rare cases when these nerves are also affected, cervical nerve branches can be used. The use of a free muscle transfer is again indicated. The nerve that initially innervated the free muscle transfer is then connected to the provided branches of the motor donor nerve. In Moebius- like syndrome the CFNG is performed, as the facial nerve on the affected side does not have a strong enough motor function.
Pigment cells that exhibit fluorescence are called fluorescent chromatophores, and function somatically similar to regular chromatophores. These cells are dendritic, and contain pigments called fluorosomes. These pigments contain fluorescent proteins which are activated by K+ (potassium) ions, and it is their movement, aggregation, and dispersion within the fluorescent chromatophore that cause directed fluorescence patterning. Fluorescent cells are innervated the same as other chromatophores, like melanophores, pigment cells that contain melanin.
Anconeus is innervated by a branch of the radial nerve (cervical roots 7 and 8) from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus called the nerve to the anconeus. The somatomotor portion of radial nerve innervating anconeus bifurcates from the main branch in the radial groove of the humerus. This innervation pattern follows the rules of innervation of the musculature of the posterior forearm (extensor) compartment by the radial nerve.
Marcus Gunn phenomenon is an autosomal dominant condition with incomplete penetrance, in which nursing infants will have rhythmic upward jerking of their upper eyelid. This condition is characterized as a synkinesis: when two or more muscles that are independently innervated have either simultaneous or coordinated movements. Common physiologic examples of synkineses occur during sucking, chewing, or conjugate eye movements. There are also several abnormal cranial nerve synkineses, both acquired and congenital.
It is obtained by striking with a finger or a hammer a point that is approximately 2 cm in front of the lobe of the ear and about 1 cm below the zygomatic process. Response occurs in the form of ipsilateral contraction of some or all of the muscles innervated by the facial nerve. The effect is the lateral deviation of the labial and nasal fold toward the stimulated side.
The receptor cells located in the semicircular ducts are innervated by the eighth cranial nerve, the vestibulocochlear nerve (specifically the vestibular portion). The crista ampullaris itself is a cone-shaped structure, covered in receptor cells called "hair cells". Covering the crista ampullaris is a gelatinous mass called the cupula. Upon angular acceleration (rotation), the endolymph within the semicircular duct deflects the cupula against the hair cells of the crista ampullaris.
This highly sensitive organ is innervated primarily by the trigeminal nerve, and thought to be manipulated by about 40–60,000 muscles. Because of this muscular structure, the trunk is so strong that elephants can use it for lifting about 3% of their own body weight. They use it for smelling, touching, feeding, drinking, dusting, producing sounds, loading, defending and attacking. Elephants sometimes swim underwater and use their trunks as snorkels.
The zygomaticus minor is a muscle of facial expression. It originates from zygomatic bone and continues with orbicularis oculi on the lateral face of the levator labii superioris and then inserts into the outer part of the upper lip. It draws the upper lip backward, upward, and outward and is used in smiling. Like all muscles of facial expression, it is innervated by the facial nerve (CN VII).
They are innervated by proprioreceptors that detect the stretch in extensor muscles when the flexors are contracted. They then fire phasically or tonically. It then excites the motor neurons in the fast extensor muscles while directly exciting an inhibitory neuron that prevents contractions in the FF muscles. The hair cells detect the resulting movement caused by the tail flip when activated, they would fire and excite the fast extensor motor neurons.
The main nerve centre of a cestode is a cerebral ganglion in its scolex. Nerves emanate from the ganglion to supply the general body muscular and sensory endings, with two lateral nerve cords running the length of the strobila. The cirrus and vagina are innervated, and sensory endings around the genital pore are more plentiful than in other areas. Sensory function includes both tactoreception (touch) and chemoreception (smell or taste).
Juvenile birds have a scaly appearance, and are generally darker. Feather colors are generally believed to be relatively static, changing only by small amounts over periods of months. However, a recent study argues that since feathers are neither innervated nor vascularized, color changes must be caused by external stimuli. Researchers analyzed the ways in which feathers of iridescent mourning doves responded to stimulus changes of adding and evaporating water.
When the sphincter pupillae contract, the iris decreases or constricts the size of the pupil. The dilator pupillae, innervated by sympathetic nerves from the superior cervical ganglion, cause the pupil to dilate when they contract. These muscles are sometimes referred to as intrinsic eye muscles. The sensory pathway (rod or cone, bipolar, ganglion) is linked with its counterpart in the other eye by a partial crossover of each eye's fibers.
This connection carries motor axons which innervate some of the usually ulnar nerve innervated intrinsic muscles. This inconstant pattern of connection can serve as explanation for a difficult or challenging differential diagnosis. In one study, the MGA was found in 22.9% of cadaver specimens, while another found the incidence at ~11% . This relatively high incidence demonstrates the necessity for healthcare specialists to factor the MGA into their diagnoses.
Heartbeats originate in nervous tissue; innervated muscle cells cause the heart to contract when stimulated by nerve impulses. The cardiac ganglion, which consists of nine neurons, attaches to the dorsal wall of the heart. The anterior neurons innervate the heart, whereas the other posterior neurons make synaptic contact with those anterior neurons. The posterior neuron acts as the pacemaker but also functions as the cellular oscillator and the central pattern generator.
The tip of the trunk of African elephants has two finger-like processes. The trunk is a prehensile elongation of its upper lip and nose. This highly sensitive organ is innervated primarily by the trigeminal nerve, and thought to be manipulated by about 40–60,000 muscles. Because of this muscular structure, the trunk is so strong that elephants can use it for lifting about 3% of their own body weight.
The following is a list of the muscles in the dog, along with their origin, insertion, action and innervation. Extrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb and related structures: Descending superficial pectoral: originates on the first sternebrae and inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus. It both adducts the limb and also prevents the limb from being abducted during weight bearing. It is innervated by the cranial pectoral nerves.
The posterior portion also splits in the vertical dimension, and the area between the split continues posteriorly and is referred to as the retrodiscal tissue. Unlike the disc itself, this piece of connective tissue is vascular and innervated, and in some cases of anterior disc displacement, the pain felt during movement of the mandible is due to the condyle compressing this area against the articular surface of the temporal bone.
The acini are surrounded, sometimes incompletely, by a row of myoepithelial cells. Animal studies suggest that the ducts of Wolfring glands have a tortuous course and open onto the palpebral conjunctiva. Like the main lacrimal gland, the accessory lacrimal glands are also densely innervated, but they lack parasympathetic innervation. These glands are exocrine glands, responsible for the basal (unstimulated) secretion of the middle aqueous layer of the tear film.
The labium is innervated by the sub-esophageal ganglia.Insect MouthpartsInsect mouthparts - Amateur Entomologists' Society (AES)Structure and function of insect mouthparts In the honey bee, the labium is elongated to form a tube and tongue, and these insects are classified as having both chewing and lapping mouthparts. The wild silk moth (Bombyx mandarina) is an example of an insect that has small labial palpi and no maxillary palpi.
A motor unit is made up of a motor neuron and the skeletal muscle fibers innervated by that motor neuron's axonal terminals. Groups of motor units often work together to coordinate the contractions of a single muscle; all of the motor units within a muscle are considered a motor pool. The concept was proposed by Charles Scott Sherrington. All muscle fibers in a motor unit are of the same fiber type.
The ventricles are more richly innervated by sympathetic fibers than parasympathetic fibers. Sympathetic stimulation causes the release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline) at the neuromuscular junction of the cardiac nerves. This shortens the repolarization period, thus speeding the rate of depolarization and contraction, which results in an increased heart rate. It opens chemical or ligand-gated sodium and calcium ion channels, allowing an influx of positively charged ions.
The VLPO is in turn innervated by neurons from several components of the ascending arousal system. The VLPO is activated by the endogenous sleep- promoting substances adenosine and prostaglandin D2. The VLPO is inhibited during wakefulness by the arousal-inducing neurotransmitters norepinephrine and acetylcholine. The role of the VLPO in sleep and wakefulness, and its association with sleep disorders – particularly insomnia and narcolepsy – is a growing area of neuroscience research.
Compared with nonhuman primates, humans have significantly enhanced control of breathing, enabling exhalations to be extended and inhalations shortened as we speak. While we are speaking, intercostal and interior abdominal muscles are recruited to expand the thorax and draw air into the lungs, and subsequently to control the release of air as the lungs deflate. The muscles concerned are markedly more innervated in humans than in nonhuman primates.MacLarnon, A. M. (1993).
Passing through the first tendon compartment, it inserts to the base of the first metacarpal bone. A part of the tendon reaches the trapezium, while another fuses with the tendons of the extensor pollicis brevis and the abductor pollicis brevis. Except for abducting the hand, it flexes the hand towards the palm and abducts it radially. It is innervated by the deep branch of the radial nerve (C7-C8).
The muscle is inserted onto the ulnar sesamoid bone of the metacarpophalangeal joint. It adducts the thumb, and assists in opposition and flexion. It is innervated by the deep branch of the ulnar nerve (C8-T1). The first dorsal interosseous, one of the central muscles of the hand, extends from the base of the thumb metacarpal to the radial side of the proximal phalanx of the index finger.
The deltoid muscle is usually innervated by the fifth and sixth cervical nerve roots and is therefore often functional in patients with tetraplegia, though the triceps muscle, which is innervated by the seventh cervical root, is paralysed. Because of the location at the back of the arm, the posterior part of the deltoid muscle can give strength in the same direction as the triceps muscle and is therefore theoretically a good donor to regain elbow extension. Not only the direction of the strength provided by the donormuscle is important, Smith et al. showed that the matching between the original functional properties of the donor and recipient muscles affects the outcome of the transfer.Principles of tendon transfers to the hand; Smith RJ, Hastings H, AAOS Instructional Course Lectures 1993;21:129– 149How musculotendon architecture and joint geometry affect the capacity of muscle to move and exert force on objects: a review with application to arm and forearm tendon transfer design; Zajac FE, J Hand Surg 1992;17A:799–804.
The arrector pili muscles are small muscles attached to hair follicles in mammals. Contraction of these muscles causes the hairs to stand on end, known colloquially as goose bumps. Each arrector pili is composed of a bundle of smooth muscle fibres which attach to several follicles (a follicular unit), and is innervated by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. The contraction of the muscle is then involuntary–stresses such as cold, fear etc.
The flexor hallucis longus muscle (FHL) is one of the three deep muscles of the posterior compartment of the leg that attaches to the plantar surface of the distal phalanx of the great toe. The other deep muscles are the flexor digitorum longus and tibialis posterior; the tibialis posterior is the most powerful of these deep muscles. All three muscles are innervated by the tibial nerve which comprises half of the sciatic nerve.
For example, humans, cats, ferrets, and macaques all have fairly well defined columns, while squirrel monkeys have quite variable columns. There is even variation in expression in individuals of the same species and in different parts of the cortex of the same individual. The columns are innervated by input from the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) into cortical layer 4 and have mostly reciprocal projections to many other parts of the visual cortex.
The trunk is a prehensile elongation of the upper lip and nose. Short tactile hair grows on the trunk, which has two finger-like processes on the tip. This highly sensitive organ is innervated primarily by the trigeminal nerve, and thought to be manipulated by about 40–60,000 muscles. Because of this muscular structure, the trunk is so strong that elephants can use it for lifting about 3% of their own body weight.
Motor NCS Motor NCS are obtained by stimulating a motor nerve and recording at the belly of a muscle innervated by that nerve. The CMAP is the resulting response, and depends on the motor axons transmitting the action potential, status of the neuromuscular junction, and muscle fibers. The CMAP amplitudes, motor onset latencies, and conduction velocities are routinely assessed and analyzed. As with sensory NCS, conduction velocity is calculated by dividing distance by time.
The exact mechanism of action in parkinsonian syndromes is not precisely understood, but it is known that trihexyphenidyl blocks efferent impulses in parasympathetically innervated structures like smooth muscles (spasmolytic activity), salivary glands, and eyes (mydriasis). In higher doses direct central inhibition of cerebral motor centers may contribute. In very high doses central toxicity as seen in atropine overdose is noted. It binds to the M1 muscarinic receptor and possibly the dopamine receptor.
The cartilages of the top five ribs join with the sternum at the sternocostal joints. The right and left clavicular notches articulate with the right and left clavicles, respectively. The costal cartilage of the second rib articulates with the sternum at the sternal angle making it easy to locate. The transversus thoracis muscle is innervated by one of the intercostal nerves and superiorly attaches at the posterior surface of the lower sternum.
Tympanal organs are specialized hearing organs that have evolved in at least seven different orders of insects. They consist of a tympanal membrane backed by an air-filled space and are innervated by a chordotonal organ. Tympanal organs detect air- borne vibrations and are used to detect predators, prey, and potential mates and rivals. They can be found in a variety of locations on the body, including the abdomen, wing base, metathorax, and ventral prosternum.
In all cases, the facial pit is innervated by the trigeminal nerve. In crotalines, information from the pit organ is relayed to the nucleus reticularus caloris in the medulla via the lateral descending trigeminal tract. From there, it is relayed to the contralateral optic tectum. In boas and pythons, information from the labial pit is sent directly to the contralateral optic tectum via the lateral descending trigeminal tract, bypassing the nucleus reticularus caloris.
The blade may be hollow or solid depending on the species. The base is connected to the underlying cytoplasm. Rostellum is innervated by a single bilateral pair of ganglia, which provide motor innervation of the anterior canal, and the circular muscles of the rostellar capsule; this connection controls the protrusion and retraction movements. The tegument lining the anterior canal and covering the apical rostellum is syncytial and continuous with the tegument of the scolex proper.
Midbrain dopaminergic neurons play a critical role in multiple brain functions, and abnormal signaling through dopaminergic pathways has been implicated in several major neurologic and psychiatric disorders. One well studied target for the actions of dopamine is DARPP32. In the densely dopamine- and glutamate-innervated rat caudate-putamen, DARPP32 is expressed in medium-sized spiny neurons that also express dopamine D1 receptors. The function of DARPP32 seems to be regulated by receptor stimulation.
When the embryo is 42 days old, the mesenchymal arches can be recognized with its corresponding cranial nerve. The first pharyngeal arch forms maxillary and mandibular processes. It is innervated by the trigeminal nerve and molds muscles related to mastication such as temporal, masseter, medial, lateral, pterygoid bones, tensor palati, and tensor tympani. This arch originates maxillar and mandibular prominences, part of the temporal bone and Meckel's cartilage (malleus and incus) as skeletal structures.
A robotic Leg attaches to an individual who has had a lower extremity amputation—of a portion of a leg or foot. Doctors and technicians measure the remaining limb structure and of the person’s prosthesis to ideally fit the robotic leg.How Prosthetic Limbs Work After they attach the robotic leg, they embed the sensors in the robotic leg that measure the electrical activity created by re-innervated muscle contraction, and existing thigh muscle.
The scalene muscles are a group of three pairs of muscles in the lateral neck, namely the anterior scalene, middle scalene, and posterior scalene. They are innervated by the fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical spinal nerves (C4-C6). The anterior and middle scalene muscles lift the first rib and bend the neck to the same side; the posterior scalene lifts the second rib and tilts the neck to the same side. The muscles are named .
The cornea lacks blood vessels and is among the most densely innervated structures of the human body. Corneal nerves are responsible for maintaining the anatomical and functional integrity of the cornea, conveying tactile, temperature and pain sensations, playing a role in the blink reflex, in wound healing and in the production and secretion of tears.B.S. Shaheen, M. Bakir, and S. Jain, Corneal nerves in health and disease. Surv Ophthalmol 59 (2014) 263-85.
A single taste bud is innervated by several afferent nerves, while a single efferent fiber innervates several taste buds. Fungiform papillae are present on the anterior portion of the tongue while circumvallate papillae and foliate papillae are found on the posterior portion of the tongue. The salivary glands are responsible for keeping the taste buds moist with saliva. A single taste bud is composed of four types of cells, and each taste bud has between 30 and 80 cells.
The growth cone is necessary for the construction of neural pathways. Although pioneer axons and follower axons both possess growth cones, there are several morphological differences related to the function of pioneer axons. The structure of the growth cone changes whenever an axon reaches a territory not previously innervated, or if a choice in direction is required. Mainly, the lamellipodium increase in size and extend numerous filopodia in order to collect as much sensory information as possible.
Conventionally, axonal segments of motor neurons previously depolarized by preceding antidromic impulses enter a hyperpolarized state, disallowing the travel of impulses along them. However, these same axonal segments remains excitable or relatively depolarized for a sufficient period of time, allowing for rapid antidromic backfiring, and thus the continuation of the orthodromic impulse towards innervated muscle fibers. This successive orthodromic stimulus then evokes a smaller population of muscle fibers, resulting in a smaller CMAP known as an F-wave.
There are five sensory organs innervated by the vestibular nerve; three semicircular canals (Horizontal SCC, Superior SCC, Posterior SCC) and two otolith organs (Saccule and Utricle). Each semicircular canal (SSC) is a thin tube that doubles in thickness briefly at a point called osseous ampullae. At their center-base each contains an ampullary cupula. The cupula is a gelatin bulb connected to the stereocilia of hair cells, affected by the relative movement of the endolymph it is bathed in.
The plantaris muscle is innervated by the tibial nerve, a branch of the sciatic nerve in the sacral plexus. Signaling for contraction begins in the frontal lobe of the brain with the pre-central gyrus (primary motor cortex). Upper motor neurons are stimulated and send a signal through the internal capsule and down the corticospinal tract. Decussation of the lateral corticospinal tract occurs in the medullary pyramids, then the fibers continue down the contralateral side of the spinal cord.
The Chvostek sign () is a clinical sign of hypocalcemia which consist of twitching of muscles innervated by facial nerve. It refers to an abnormal reaction to the stimulation of the facial nerve. When the facial nerve is tapped in front of the tragus, the facial muscles on the same side of the face will contract momentarily (typically a twitch of the nose or lips), because of hypocalcemia (i.e. from hypoparathyroidism, pseudohypoparathyroidism, hypovitaminosis D), with resultant hyperexcitability of nerves.
Genioglossus is the fan-shaped extrinsic tongue muscle that forms the majority of the body of the tongue. Its arises from the mental spine of the mandible and its insertions are the hyoid bone and the bottom of the tongue. The genioglossus is innervated by the hypoglossal nerve, as are all muscles of the tongue except for the palatoglossus. Blood is supplied to the sublingual branch of the lingual artery, a branch of the external carotid artery.
Along the thorax and abdomen the dermatomes are like a stack of discs forming a human, each supplied by a different spinal nerve. Along the arms and the legs, the pattern is different: the dermatomes run longitudinally along the limbs. Although the general pattern is similar in all people, the precise areas of innervation are as unique to an individual as fingerprints. An area of skin innervated by a single nerve is called a peripheral nerve field.
Calcium imaging studies in the colon have shown that ICC-MY is innervated by nitrergic and cholinergic nerve terminals, though the nature of the contacts has not been well defined. ICC-IM is located in between the smooth muscle cells. Enteric nerves have been reported to make synaptic contacts with ICC-IM. These contacts include areas of electron dense lining on the inner aspect of the varicosity membrane without any postsynaptic density on the membrane of ICC.
A single motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates are called a motor unit. For example, the rectus femoris contains approximately 1 million muscle fibers, which are controlled by around 1000 motor neurons. Activity in the motor neuron causes contraction in all of the innervated muscle fibers so that they function as a unit. Increases in action potential frequency (spike rate) in the motor neuron cause increases in muscle fiber contraction, up to the maximal force.
This bridge is a shorter distance for axonal growth than the original route. Once the axon has innervated both sites, it continues growing in a retrograde direction (toward the injury site) to innervate other affected NMJs. PSCs have a large role in creating growth scaffolds from one injured NMJ to another. These PSC bridges are seen in vivo following complement-mediated injury in a murine model, showing that this role of PSCs are present in mammalian NMJs.
The pituitary gland is divided into two sections: the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary. The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary's hormone secretion by sending trophic hormones down the hypothalamohypophysial portal system. For example, thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulates the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone by the anterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary is innervated by the hypothalamus; the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin are synthesized by neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus and stored at the nerves' ends in the posterior pituitary.
Each campaniform sensillum consists of a flexible dome, which is embedded in a socket within the cuticle and innervated by the dendrites of a single bipolar sensory neuron (see schematic cross-section). Campaniform sensilla are often oval-shaped with long axes of about 5-10 µm (see SEM). Distribution of groups of campaniform sensilla on a stick insect leg (anterior view). The inset shows a top view of the two groups on the dorsal trochanter (G3 and G4).
The sternocleidomastoid muscle is one of the largest and most superficial cervical muscles. The primary actions of the muscle are rotation of the head to the opposite side and flexion of the neck. The sternocleidomastoid is innervated by the accessory nerve. It is given the name sternocleidomastoid because it originates at the manubrium of the sternum (sterno-) and the clavicle (cleido-), and has an insertion at the mastoid process of the temporal bone of the skull.
In pit vipers, the heat pit consists of a deep pocket in the rostrum with a membrane stretched across it. Behind the membrane, an air-filled chamber provides air contact on either side of the membrane. The pit membrane is highly vascular and heavily innervated with numerous heat-sensitive receptors formed from terminal masses of the trigeminal nerve (terminal nerve masses, or TNMs). The receptors are therefore not discrete cells, but a part of the trigeminal nerve itself.
The odour from sweat is due to bacterial activity on the secretions of the apocrine sweat glands, a distinctly different type of sweat gland found in human skin. Eccrine glands are innervated by the sympathetic nervous system, primarily by cholinergic fibers whose discharge is altered primarily by changes in deep body temperature (core temperature), but by adrenergic fibers as well. The glands on palms and soles do not respond to temperature but secrete at times of emotional stress.
Regardless of their final innervation, the nerves that reach the thenar muscles arise from the C8 and T1 roots, pass through the lower trunk of the plexus, and then through the medial cord of the plexus. The ulnar nerve is exclusively responsible for the innervations of the hypothenar eminence. Both nerves contribute to the innervations of the midpalmar group. Print. The muscles in this location are usually innervated by the recurrent branch of the median nerve.
Free nerve endings, many of which act as nociceptors, innervate the bones, ligaments, and muscles of the TMJ. The fibrocartilage that overlays the TMJ condyle is not innervated and is avascular in healthy TMJs. When bone tissue, ligaments, or muscles become inflamed or injured, sensory signals are relayed along small-diameter primary afferent nerve fibers that form the trigeminal nerve. Signals are directed through the trigeminal nerve and modulated by neuronal cell bodies in the trigeminal ganglion.
Sensation of the outer surface of the tympanic membrane is supplied mainly by the auriculotemporal nerve, a branch of the mandibular nerve (cranial nerve V3), with contributions from the auricular branch of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X), the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII), and possibly the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX). The inner surface of the tympanic membrane is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve.Drake, Richard L., A. Wade Vogl, and Adam Mithcell. Gray's Anatomy For Students.
It was formerly used to treat disorders, such as chronic hypertension, of the peripheral nervous system, which is innervated only by the sympathetic nervous system. The non-specificity of this treatment led to discontinuing its use. The use of inhaled hexamethonium, an unapproved drug, in a normal volunteer during a medical study is believed to have caused or contributed to her death in light of the presence of abnormal "ground glass opacities" on her chest X-ray.
The sternum is a long, flat bone that forms the front of the rib cage. The cartilages of the top seven ribs (the true ribs) join with the sternum at the sternocostal joints. The costal cartilage of the second rib articulates with the sternum at the sternal angle making it easy to locate. The transversus thoracis muscle is innervated by one of the intercostal nerves and superiorly attaches at the posterior surface of the lower sternum.
Together with turtles, the tuatara has the most primitive hearing organs among the amniotes. There is no eardrum and no earhole, they lack a tympanum, and the middle ear cavity is filled with loose tissue, mostly adipose (fatty) tissue. The stapes comes into contact with the quadrate (which is immovable), as well as the hyoid and squamosal. The hair cells are unspecialised, innervated by both afferent and efferent nerve fibres, and respond only to low frequencies.
The extensor pollicis longus originates on the dorsal side of the ulna and the interosseous membrane. Passing through the third tendon compartment, it is inserted onto the base of the distal phalanx of the thumb. It uses the dorsal tubercle on the lower extremity of the radius as a fulcrum to extend the thumb and also dorsiflexes and abducts the hand at the wrist. It is innervated by the deep branch of the radial nerve (C7-C8).
Damage to nerve roots can cause paresis and paralysis of the muscle innervated by the affected spinal nerve. It can also cause pain and numbness in the corresponding dermatome. A common cause of damage to the nerve roots are lesions in the spine, such as prolapse of the nucleus pulposus, spinal tuberculosis, cancer, inflammation, spinal tabes. Root pain syndromes, known colloquially as radiculitis, sciatica are one of the most common symptoms caused by damage to the nerve root.
The flexor digiti minimi brevis, like other hypothenar muscles, is innervated by the deep branch of the ulnar nerve. The ulnar nerve arises from the spinal nerve levels C8-T1. The spinal roots of C8 and T1 then merge to form the lower trunk, anterior division, medial cord, and finally produce the ulnar nerve. The ulnar nerve has a superficial and deep branch, but it is the deep branch that innervates the flexor digiti minimi brevis.
The lacrimal gland is innervated by the lacrimal nerve, which is the smallest branch of the ophthalmic nerve, itself a branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). After the lacrimal nerve branches from the ophthalmic nerve it receives a communicating branch from the zygomatic nerve. This communicating branch carries postganglionic parasympathetic axons from the pterygopalatine ganglion. The lacrimal nerve passes anteriorly in the orbit and through the lacrimal gland providing parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation to it.
Approximately 140 days after the stimulation began, qualitative changes in behavior emerged. There were longer periods of eye opening and increased responses to command stimuli as well as higher scores on the JFK coma recovery scale (CRS). Functional object use and intelligible verbalization was also observed. The observed improvements in arousal level, motor control, and consistency of behavior could be a result of direct activation of frontal cortical and basal ganglia systems that were innervated by neurons within the thalamic association nuclei.
Each somite has 3 divisions, sclerotome (which forms vertebrae), dermatome (which forms skin), and myotome (which forms muscle). The myotome is divided into two sections, the epimere and hypomere, which form epaxial and hypaxial muscles, respectively. The only epaxial muscles in humans are the erector spinae and small intervertebral muscles, and are innervated by the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves. All other muscles, including those of the limbs are hypaxial, and inervated by the ventral rami of the spinal nerves.
This may lead to several symptoms such as incomplete eye closure with or without exposure keratitis, oral incompetence, poor articulation, dental caries, drooling, and a low self-esteem. This is because the different branches innervate the frontalis muscle, orbicularis oculi and oris muscles, lip elevators and depressors, and the platysma. The elevators of the upper lip and corner of the mouth are innervated by the zygomatic and buccal branches. When these branches are paralysed, there is an inability to create a symmetric smile.
The pronator teres is innervated by the median nerve. To stimulate the pronator teres, a signal begins in the precentral gyrus in the brain and goes down through the internal capsule. It continues down the corticospinal tracts through the capsule, midbrain, and pons where it arrives at the medullar pyramids. Once at the pyramids, the corticospinal tracts decussate and the signal goes down the lateral corticospinal tract until it reaches the ventral horns of C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1.
Each of the neurotrophins mentioned above promotes neurite outgrowth. NGF/TrkA signaling regulates the advance of sympathetic neuron growth cones; even when neurons received adequate trophic (sustaining and nourishing) support, one experiment showed they did not grow into relating compartments without NGF. NGF increases the innervation of tissues that receive sympathetic or sensory innervation and induces aberrant innervation in tissues that are normally not innervated. NGF/TrkA signaling upregulates BDNF, which is transported to both peripheral and central terminals of nocireceptive sensory neurons.
The term "hand of benediction" refers to damage of the median nerve. However, the name is misleading as the patients with this median nerve problem usually can flex all fingers except for the index finger. The index finger is still extended at the metacarpophalangeal joint (MCP joint) when the ulnar nerve innervated muscles (the interossei muscles) are still working. The index finger is not flexed at the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) and distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints, which looks like a pointing finger.
Cnidarians are generally thought to have no brains or even central nervous systems. However, they do have integrative areas of neural tissue that could be considered some form of centralization. Most of their bodies are innervated by decentralized nerve nets that control their swimming musculature and connect with sensory structures, though each clade has slightly different structures. These sensory structures, usually called rhopalia, can generate signals in response to various types of stimuli such as light, pressure, and much more.
The response is displayed in a cathode ray tube (CRT) or through the video monitor of a computer. The stimulation as well as the recording are carried out by disc electrodes taped to the skin, and the technician may use electrically conducting gel or paste to bolster the signals being input and output. Alternatively, the recording electrodes may also be used to pick up the electrical activity of a muscle innervated by that nerve. In such instances electroneuronography is closely related to electromyography.
The obliquus capitis superior muscle () is a small muscle in the upper back part of the neck and is one of the suboccipital muscles and part of the suboccipital triangle. It arises from the lateral mass of the atlas bone. It passes superiorly and posteriorly to insert into the lateral half of the inferior nuchal line on the external surface of the occipital bone. The muscle is innervated by the suboccipital nerve, the dorsal ramus of the first spinal nerve.
The labrum is innervated in crustaceans and insects from the tritocerebrum (the back of the brain). However, in development, its embryonic primordium often appears at the anterior of the head and migrates backwards towards its adult position. Furthermore, it often appears as a bilobed structure, with a set of muscles, nerves and gene expression in many ways similar to that of an appendage. This evidence has been used to suggest that the labrum is in fact a highly reduced appendage.
In the cave cricket Troglophilus neglectus the subgenual organ is fairly simple and is associated with an intermediary organ. Both are innervated either by one or two nerves, depending on the individual animal. In the splay-footed cricket Comicus calcaris, the subgenual organ is associated with a crista acustica homolog and an intermediary organ. This organ system is not suitable for hearing sounds, but it is possible that this organ system formed through reduction of a previously existing hearing organ.
All three organs are innervated by the same nerve and the subgenual organ of this genus has the largest number of nerve cells of all Ensifera without tympana. In the heelwalker Karoophasma biedouwense, the subgenual organ is associated with four additional organs containing scolopidia, a trait shared with Mantophasmatodea. Between 15 and 30 scolopidial cells make up the subgenual organ, more in the hind limbs. They form a fan-like structure branching out from the anterior side of the limb.
Eigenmannia virescens is a weakly electric fish which produces continuous electric discharges. Weakly electric fish generate electric fields for the purpose of object location and communication. They have a specialized electric sense made up of tuberous and ampullary electroreceptors located over the skin surface and innervated by the electrosensory lateral line. Just like in the visual system of toads, the electrosensory system of weakly electric fish extracts features from behaviorally relevant stimuli and uses these representations to perform further processing.
Nerve fiber innervation is much denser for inner hair cells than for outer hair cells. A single inner hair cell is innervated by numerous nerve fibers, whereas a single nerve fiber innervates many outer hair cells. Inner hair cell nerve fibers are also very heavily myelinated, which is in contrast to the unmyelinated outer hair cell nerve fibers. The region of the basilar membrane supplying the inputs to a particular afferent nerve fibre can be considered to be its receptive field.
The opaline gland is a structure resembling a bundle of grapes attached to a central canal which is composed of epithelial cells. Synthesis of the opaline substance happens in the opaline vesicles themselves, as there are only opaline vesicles and muscle cells in the opaline gland. The gland is innervated by three separate motor neurons, and is composed of single large cells and vesicle cells, all of which have enlarged nucleus. These cells are inclosed in an external layer of muscle.
This nerve may be involved by the glomus jugulare tumour. Laryngeal cancer can present with pain behind the ear and in the ear - this is a referred pain through the vagus nerve to the nerve of Arnold. In a small portion of individuals, the auricular nerve is the afferent limb of the Ear-Cough or Arnold Reflex. Physical stimulation of the external acoustic meatus innervated by the auricular nerve elicits a cough, much like the other cough reflexes associated with the vagus nerve.
The deltoid is innervated by the axillary nerve. The axillary nerve originates from the anterior rami of the cervical nerves C5 and C6, via the superior trunk, posterior division of the superior trunk, and the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. Studies have shown that there are seven neuromuscular segments to the deltoid muscle. Three of these lie in the anatomical anterior head of the deltoid, one in the anatomical middle head, and three in the anatomical posterior head of the deltoid.
The muzzle begins at the stop, just below the eyes, and includes the dog's nose and mouth. In the domestic dog, most of the upper muzzle contains organs for detecting scents. The loose flaps of skin on the sides of the upper muzzle that hang to different lengths over the mouth are called 'flews'. The muzzle is innervated by one of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves, which start in the brain and emerge through the skull to their target organs.
Although angiogenesis and the establishment of a functional blood supply is a key feature in the maintenance and maturation of a regenerating tissue, positive responses to pulp sensitivity tests such as cold or EPT have been reported in some of the published cases. This indicates that a space that was previously vacant (debrided root canal) may become populated with an innervated tissue supported by vascularity. Taken together, the core concepts of tissue engineering distinguish a regenerative treatment paradigm from a revascularization philosophy.
The level of vascularization in the pineal gland is high. It receives a large supply of blood from branches of the posterior choroidal arteries that derive from cerebral arteries in the posterior mesencephalon. The pineal gland is innervated by fibers from the peripheral parasympathetic and sympathetic systems, in addition to fibers from the central nervous system. The most important set of fibers involved are the unmyelinated postganglionic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglia, which also form the bilateral nervi conarii.
Chronaxie from 0.1–0.2 ms in innervated muscle changed to 0.5–1 ms within one to two days after denervation (i.e., after Wallerian degeneration of the nerve) and progressively increased to about 20 ms during the following month. Chronaxie remained at this level up to 6 months postsciatectomy (Mid-term denervation stage in the rat model: from 2 to 6 months sciatectomy). Afterwards, the twitch contraction became questionably palpable and thus chronaxie increased to much longer values (from 50 ms to infinitum, i.e.
It has two muscular rings or sphincters in its wall, one at the top and one at the bottom. The lower sphincter helps to prevent reflux of acidic stomach content. The esophagus has a rich blood supply and venous drainage. Its smooth muscle is innervated by involuntary nerves (sympathetic nerves via the sympathetic trunk and parasympathetic nerves via the vagus nerve) and in addition voluntary nerves (lower motor neurons) which are carried in the vagus nerve to innervate its striated muscle.
The esophagus is innervated by the vagus nerve and the cervical and thoracic sympathetic trunk. The vagus nerve has a parasympathetic function, supplying the muscles of the esophagus and stimulating glandular contraction. Two sets of nerve fibers travel in the vagus nerve to supply the muscles. The upper striated muscle, and upper esophageal sphincter, are supplied by neurons with bodies in the nucleus ambiguus, whereas fibers that supply the smooth muscle and lower esophageal sphincter have bodies situated in the dorsal motor nucleus.
There is still a great deal of disagreement about its innervation and its embryonic origin. In a review, it was reported that the muscle was innervated by the external or internal thoracic nerves in 55% of the cases, by the intercostal nerves in 43% of the cases, while the remaining cases were supplied by both nerves. However, innervation by the pectoral nerves has also been reported. This appears to indicate that the sternalis is not always derived from the same embryonic origin.
The extensor pollicis brevis originates on the ulna distal to the abductor pollicis longus, from the interosseus membrane, and from the dorsal side of the radius. Passing through the first tendon compartment together with the abductor pollicis longus, it is attached to the base of the proximal phalanx of the thumb. It extends the thumb and, because of its close relationship to the long abductor, also abducts the thumb. It is innervated by the deep branch of the radial nerve (C8-T1).
"Emotions are contagious" is one of the formulas on which Krause bases his investigations. He studies in detail which muscles are innervated in which affect, that in turn determines the facial expressions of the examinee. Accurate knowledge of the involved facial muscles – Krause calls it the "pattern of innervation" – allows to identify which emotion is brought into a communicative situation, such as in a conversation, a lecture or a discussion. Not always is this expression conscious or desired or intended by the person.
Chelicerate head structures differ considerably from those of mandibulates (i.e. insects, crustaceans and myriapods); they possess eyes and a single pair of grasping appendages innervated from the brain, plus a labrum-like structure. Behind the mouth lies another pair of mouthparts, the pedipalps, and behind them lie the series of walking limbs. In chelicerates, the leg-bearing segments are fused with the anterior segments to form a prosoma, so that in living arthropods a distinct head only exists in mandibulates.
When a motor unit fires, the impulse (called an action potential) is carried down the motor neuron to the muscle. The area where the nerve contacts the muscle is called the neuromuscular junction, or the motor end plate. After the action potential is transmitted across the neuromuscular junction, an action potential is elicited in all of the innervated muscle fibers of that particular motor unit. The sum of all this electrical activity is known as a motor unit action potential (MUAP).
In 1926 he retired from clinical medicine, dedicating himself to comparative studies on the eyes of various animal species. In 1940 he became a member of the Académie de Médecine. In 1896 he described a neurological disorder characterized by exophthalmos, diplopia, and anaesthesia in regions innervated by the trigeminal nerve, occurring with a traumatic collapse of the superior orbital fissure. At the time he referred to the condition as "sphenoidal fissure syndrome", later to be known as "Rochon-Duvigneaud's syndrome".
There are two types of muscle that control the size of the iris: the iris sphincter, composed of circularly arranged muscle fibers, and the iris dilator, composed of radially arranged muscle fibers. The sphincter is innervated by (signaled by nerves of) the parasympathetic nervous system, and the dilator by the sympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic stimulation of the adrenergic receptors causes the contraction of the radial muscle and subsequent dilation of the pupil. Conversely, parasympathetic stimulation causes contraction of the circular muscle and constriction of the pupil.
The exposed mucous membranes of the lips, the anal mucous membrane, and the external genital organs form the most densely innervated parts of the body. Though there is no specific categorization, both “free” nerve endings and unencapsulated nerve endings of myelinated axons are found within the dermis of those areas. The cornea, one of the other exposed mucous membranes, contains “free” nerve endings served by nonmyelinated axons. The conjunctiva contains a less dense distribution of “free” nerve endings that are served by both myelinated and unmyelinated axons.
It is the only muscle supplied by the abducens nerve, cranial nerve VI. The abducens nerve exits the brainstem from the pons- medullary junction, and travels through the superior orbital fissure to innervate the lateral rectus muscle. The lateral rectus muscle is innervated through the tectospinal tract. This tract begins in the tectum region of the midbrain, and crosses to the contralateral side of the midbrain. The tectospinal tract descends through the brainstem to the upper spinal cord, but goes no further than the neck.
This phenomenon is especially pronounced when going from supine to upright positions, such as getting out of bed in the morning. It is also worsened by extreme climates due to loss of fluid through excessive sweating. The inability to maintain normal blood pressure makes it difficult for people with DβH deficiency to exercise (exercise intolerance). Males with DβH deficiency may experience retrograde ejaculation, a discharge of semen backward into the bladder due to dysmotility of their smooth muscle, which as innervated by the ANS.
The fasciculus connected with the axis is the largest, and is chiefly muscular in structure. The semispinalis thoracis (or semispinalis dorsi) muscle consists of thin, narrow, fleshy fasciculi, interposed between tendons of considerable length. It arises by a series of small tendons from the transverse processes of the sixth to the tenth thoracic vertebrae, and is inserted, by tendons, into the spinous processes of the upper four thoracic and lower two cervical vertebrae. The semispinalis muscles are innervated by the dorsal rami of the cervical spinal nerves.
The orbit and its contents in 20-22 mm embryos of the North American actinopterygian Amia calva L., with particular reference to the evolutionary significance of an aberrant, nonocular, orbital muscle innervated by the oculomotor nerve and notes on the metameric character of the head in craniates. Zoologica Scripta, 6, 127–183. According to Bjerring, this holds both for the distribution and composition of cranial nerves,Bjerring, H. C. (1970). Nervus tenuis, a hitherto unknown cranial nerve of the fourth metamere. Acta Zoologica, 51, 107-114.Bjerring.
Therefore, neither length nor tension is likely to remain the same in muscles that contract during locomotor activity. In vertebrates, skeletal muscle contractions are neurogenic as they require synaptic input from motor neurons to produce muscle contractions. A single motor neuron is able to innervate multiple muscle fibers, thereby causing the fibers to contract at the same time. Once innervated, the protein filaments within each skeletal muscle fiber slide past each other to produce a contraction, which is explained by the sliding filament theory.
Single-unit smooth muscle, or visceral smooth muscle is a type of smooth muscle found in the uterus, gastro-intestinal tract, and the bladder. In SUVSM, a single smooth muscle cell in a bundle is innervated by an autonomic nerve fiber. An action potential can be propagated through neighbouring muscle cells due to the presence of many gap junctions between the cells. Due to this property, SUVSM bundles form a syncytium that contracts in a coordinated fashion (such as uterine muscles do during childbirth).
In the carpenter ant Camponotus ligniperda, the subgenual organ has the form of a deformed sphere. On one end attachment cells connect it to the cuticle; on the other it is innervated by the tibial nerve. The organ has the shape of a cavity surrounded with a monocellular membrane that is heavily folded on the inside. Sensilla extend into the cavity, each containing one neuron with associated dendrites, cilia and glial cells within a lymphatic cavity that is connected to the cavity of the subgenual organ.
Frontal sinus. Frontal sinuses are rarely symmetrical and the septum between them frequently deviates to one or other side of the middle line. Their average measurements are as follows: height 28 mm, breadth 24 mm, depth 20 mm, creating a space of 6-7 ml.University of Texas Medical Branch The mucous membrane in this sinus is innervated by the supraorbital nerve, which carries the postganglionic parasympathetic nerve fibers for mucous secretion from the ophthalmic nerve and supplied by the supraorbital artery and anterior ethmoidal artery.
A ventricular septal defect (VSD) is a defect in the ventricular septum, the wall dividing the left and right ventricles of the heart. The extent of the opening may vary from pin size to complete absence of the ventricular septum, creating one common ventricle. The ventricular septum consists of an inferior muscular and superior membranous portion and is extensively innervated with conducting cardiomyocytes. The membranous portion, which is close to the atrioventricular node, is most commonly affected in adults and older children in the United States.
Duane syndrome is most probably a miswiring of the eye muscles, causing some eye muscles to contract when they shouldn't and other eye muscles not to contract when they should. Alexandrakis and Saunders found that in most cases the abducens nucleus and nerve are absent or hypoplastic, and the lateral rectus muscle is innervated by a branch of the oculomotor nerve. This view is supported by the earlier work of Hotchkiss et al. who reported on the autopsy findings of two patients with Duane's syndrome.
The disease was first recognized by French neurologist, Guillaume Duchenne in 1860 and termed, “labioglossolaryngeal paralysis”.Fawcett 2000 In 1859, Wachsmuth changed the name to progressive bulbar palsy. In 1869, Charcot studied the involvement of the corticospinal tracts and with Joffroy, who noted the loss of the bulbar motor nuclei, discovered the similarities to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). It was observed that a distinction from ALS was fatigue that predominated in muscles innervated by lower cranial nerve nuclei, rather than the upper motor neurons.
One of the key functions of the larynx is phonation, the production of sound. Phonation requires the vocal cords to be adducted (positioned towards the midline) so that they can meet and vibrate together as air is expelled between them. Physiologically, the glottis is closed by intrinsic laryngeal muscles such as the lateral cricoarytenoid, thyroarytenoid, and interarytenoid muscles. These muscles act on the arytenoid cartilages at the posterior ends of the vocal cords and are innervated by the left and right recurrent laryngeal nerves.
Anterior (at top) and posterior (at bottom) compartments The anterior compartment of the arm is also known as the flexor compartment of the arm as its main action is that of flexion. The anterior compartment is one of the two anatomic compartments of the upper arm, the other being the posterior compartment. The anterior compartment contains three muscles; the biceps brachii, the brachialis and the coracobrachialis. These muscles are all innervated by the musculocutaneous nerve which arises from the fifth and sixth and seventh cervical spinal nerves.
The celiac ganglion is part of the sympathetic prevertebral chain possessing a great variety of specific receptors and neurotransmitters such as catecholamines, neuropeptides, and nitric oxide and constitutes a modulation center in the pathway of the afferent and efferent fibers between the central nervous system and the ovary. The main preganglion neurotransmitter of the celiac ganglion is acetylcholine, yet the celiac ganglion-mesenteric complex also contain α and β adrenergic receptors and is innervated by fibers of adrenergic nature that come from other preaortic ganglia.
When a motor neuron is activated, all of the muscle fibers innervated by the motor neuron are stimulated and contract. The activation of one motor neuron will result in a weak but distributed muscle contraction. The activation of more motor neurons will result in more muscle fibers being activated, and therefore a stronger muscle contraction. Motor unit recruitment is a measure of how many motor neurons are activated in a particular muscle, and therefore is a measure of how many muscle fibers of that muscle are activated.
Neural circuits implicated in depression include those involved in the generation and regulation of emotion, as well as in reward. Abnormalities are commonly found in the lateral prefrontal cortex whose putative function is generally considered to involve regulation of emotion. Regions involved in the generation of emotion and reward such as the amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and striatum are frequently implicated as well. These regions are innervated by a monoaminergic nuclei, and tentative evidence suggests a potential role for abnormal monoaminergic activity.
Dynamic gamma motor neurons innervate the dynamic nuclear bag fibers (bag1 fibers), another type of nuclear bag fiber smaller than the static nuclear bag fibers. This type of gamma motor neuron can enhance the sensitivities of Ia sensory neurons. It is done so because the dynamic nuclear bag fibers, which are innervated by the dynamic gamma motor neurons, receive Ia sensory innervation. Furthermore, the firing of dynamic gamma motor neurons removes the slack in dynamic nuclear bags, bringing Ia fibers closer to the firing threshold.
Muscles which possess more motor units (and thus have greater individual motor neuron innervation) are able to control force output more finely. Motor units are organized slightly differently in invertebrates; each muscle has few motor units (typically less than 10), and each muscle fiber is innervated by multiple neurons, including excitatory and inhibitory neurons. Thus, while in vertebrates the force of contraction of muscles is regulated by how many motor units are activated, in invertebrates it is controlled by regulating the balance between excitatory and inhibitory signals.
Hering's law of equal innervation is used to explain the conjugacy of saccadic eye movement in stereoptic animals. The law proposes that conjugacy of saccades is due to innate connections in which the eye muscles responsible for each eye's movements are innervated equally. The law also states that apparent monocular eye movements are actually the summation of conjugate version and disjunctive (or vergence) eye movements. The law was put forward by Ewald Hering in the 19th century, though the underlying principles of the law date back considerably.
In Neuroscience Online (Section 1, Chapter 7). Therefore, the spread of the signal from the pre-synaptic cell is localized. In homosynaptic plasticity, only neurons that are specifically innervated undergo changes in synaptic plasticity Another type of synaptic plasticity, heterosynaptic plasticity, is not input-specific and differs from homosynaptic plasticity in many mechanisms. In addition to being input-specific, the strengthening of a synapse via homosynaptic plasticity is associative, because it is dependent on the firing of a presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron closely in time.
Under the influence of Shh and other factors, some neurons of the basal plate differentiate into α-MNs. Like other neurons, α-MNs send axonal projections to reach their target extrafusal muscle fibers via axon guidance, a process regulated in part by neurotrophic factors released by target muscle fibers. Neurotrophic factors also ensure that each muscle fiber is innervated by the appropriate number of α-MNs. As with most types of neurons in the nervous system, α-MNs are more numerous in early development than in adulthood.
Dental pulp, which is a richly vascularized and innervated tissue, is enclosed by tissues, such as dentin, which are incapable of expanding. It has terminal blood flow and possesses only small-gauge circulatory access at the apical foramen. All of these characteristics severely constrain the defensive capacity of the pulp tissue when faced with the different aggressions to which it may be subjected.Lopez-Marcos, JF. Aetiology, classification and pathogenesis of pulp and periapical disease, Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal 2004, 9:Suppl, 58-62, 52-7.
If this is confirmed, it would mean the sea spiders are the last surviving (and highly modified) members of an ancient stem group of arthropods that lived in Cambrian oceans. However, a subsequent study using Hox gene expression patterns consistent with a developmental homology between chelicerates and chelifores, with chelifores innervated from a deuterocerebrum that has been rotated forwards; thus, the protocerebral Great Appendage clade does not include the Pycnogonida.Pharyngula Recent work places the Pycnogonida outside the Arachnomorpha as basal Euarthropoda, or inside Chelicerata (based on the chelifore-chelicera putative homology).
Injuries to biceps femoris are more common than to other hamstring muscles. One theory for this is the fact that each of the two heads are innervated by different branches of the sciatic nerve. In states of fatigue or when the muscle is not fully warmed up, uncoordinated firing of the nerves may cause the muscle to contract inappropriately during movement, leading to injury. Biceps femoris tendon avulsion may also be associated with an avulsion fracture which occurs when a piece of the bone is pulled away with the tendon, during forceful contraction.
The sternohyoid muscle is a thin, narrow muscle attaching the hyoid bone to the sternum, one of the paired strap muscles of the infrahyoid muscles serving to depress the hyoid bone. It is innervated by the ansa cervicalis. The muscle arises from the posterior border of the medial end of the clavicle, the posterior sternoclavicular ligament, and the upper and posterior part of the manubrium sterni. Passing upward and medially, it is inserted by short tendinous fibers into the lower border of the body of the hyoid bone.
Using TMS has shown the activation of both hemispheres during facial expression and emotion. However, there have been some discrepancies with the use of this method including differences in observations when using single and multiple needles as well as the areas of where the needles are placed. Using electrical cortical mapping bilateral movements were observed in the lower facial muscles compared to unilateral movements. From anatomic studies on patients with unilateral infarction, motoneurons in the lower facial area were innervated bilaterally; however, there was predominance in contralateral areas of the lower face.
His method allows images of feedback that can produce effects on the voluntary control of motor responses, it involves two central systems: an effector mechanism and feedback loops. There are central systems that are the central sensory integration system and the central motor system. The interaction of both of these systems enables the central motor pathways and a central feedback loop that determine the activity of the effector system when it is innervated by the motor nerve (figure 1). From this pathway, self instruction moves in a pattern that is called a response image.
The lingual nerve supplies general somatic afferent innervation from the mucous membrane of the anterior two-thirds (body) of the tongue, while the posterior one-third (root) is innervated by the glossopharyngeal. It also carries nerve fibers that are not part of the trigeminal nerve, including the chorda tympani nerve of the facial nerve, which provides special sensation (taste) to the anterior 2/3 part of the tongue as well as parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers. The submandibular ganglion is suspended by two nerve filaments from the lingual nerve.
While the heart can function without help from the nervous system, it is highly innervated with autonomic nerves, regulating the heart beat according to demand in a fast manner, prior to hormonal release. The autonomic innervations of the myocardium in diabetic cardiomyopathy are altered and contribute to myocardial dysfunction. Unlike the brain, the peripheral nervous system does not benefit from a barrier protecting it from the circulating levels of glucose. Just like endothelial cells, nerve cells cannot regulate their glucose uptake and suffer the same type of damages listed above.
In contrast, the flagella of female antennae lack these trichoid sensilla projections that make the male antennae appear to be larger and more feather-like. Each trichoid sensilla is innervated by two male specific olfactory receptor cells, with each cell being tuned (most sensitive) to one of two major chemical components of the pheromone. By evolving larger, pheromone-specific receptors in the peripheral olfactory system, male M. sexta have an improved sensitivity to female pheromones that enhances mate detection. 2) There is also a sex difference in the neural basis of pheromone detection.
All of our senses (except smell) access the brain's cerebral cortex via the thalamus, and because the thalamus is highly innervated with the cortex, sensory stimulation can easily influence cortical activity. In order to affect brain (neuronal) activity, sensory stimulation must be within the frequency range of roughly 0.5 to 25 hertz (Hz) . Touch, photic and auditory stimulation are capable of affecting brain wave activity. A large area of skin must be stimulated to affect brainwaves, which leaves both auditory and photic stimulation as the most effective and easiest means of affecting brain activity.
The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) is part of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), more specifically it is part of the sympathetic nervous system, a division of the ANS most commonly associated with the fight or flight response. The ANS is composed of pathways that lead to and from ganglia, groups of nerve cells. A ganglion allows a large amount of divergence in a neuronal pathway and also enables a more localized circuitry for control of the innervated targets. The SCG is the only ganglion in the sympathetic nervous system that innervates the head and neck.
Woman kicking a man in the groin A groin attack is a deliberate attempt to cause pain to the groin area of one's opponent. Often used in self-defense, the technique can be quickly debilitating, due to the large number of sensitive nerve endings in the penis and testicles of males, as well as the highly innervated vulva of females. A sufficiently powerful blow may fracture the pubic bone of the victim, resulting in physical disability. This technique has been popularized as a comedic device in various forms of media.
Stimulation of specialized pain-sensitive nerve fibers (nociceptors) that innervate bone tissue leads to the sensation of bone pain. Bone pain originates from both the periosteum and the bone marrow which relay nociceptive signals to the brain creating the sensation of pain. Bone tissue is innervated by both myelinated (A beta and A delta fiber) and unmyelinated (C fiber) sensory neurons. In combination, they can provide an initial burst of pain, initiated by the faster myelinated fibers, followed by a slower and longer-lasting dull pain initiated by unmyelinated fibers.
This artery supplies blood to the anterior portion of the inferior cerebellum, the middle cerebellar peduncle, and to the facial (CN VII) and vestibulocochlear nerves (CN VIII). Obstruction of the AICA can cause paresis, paralysis, and loss of sensation in the face; it can also cause hearing impairment. Moreover, it could cause an infarct of the cerebellopontine angle. This could lead to hyperacusia (dysfunction of the stapedius muscle, innervated by CN VII) and vertigo (wrong interpretation from the vestibular semi-circular canal's endolymph acceleration caused by alteration of CN VIII).
In most pinnipeds, there is a striated muscle sphincter at the level of the diaphragm around the posterior venacava, innervated by the right phrenic nerve, and located cranial to the large hepatic sinus and inferior vena cava, which is most developed in phocid seals. The function of this sphincter is considered to be regulation of venous return during brachycardia. Some whales also have a sphincter of the vena cava, and some cetaceans have smooth muscle sphincters around the intrahepatic parts of the portal vein. The precise function of these structures is not well understood.
Carotid and aortic bodies are clusters of cells located on the common carotid artery and the aortic arch, respectively. Each of these peripheral chemoreceptors is composed of type I glomus cells and glia-like type II cells. The type-I cells transduce the signals from the bloodstream and are innervated by afferent nerve fibers leading back to (in the carotid body) the carotid sinus nerve and then on to the glossopharyngeal nerve and medulla of the brainstem. The aortic body, by contrast, is connected to the medulla via the vagus nerve.
In addition to completeness of injury, the location of damage on the spinal cord influences how much sexual function is retained or regained after injury. Injuries can occur in the cervical (neck), thoracic (back), lumbar (lower back), or sacral (pelvic) levels. Between each pair of vertebrae, spinal nerves branch off of the spinal cord and carry information to and from specific parts of the body. The location of injury to the spinal cord maps to the body, and the area of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve, is called a dermatome.
The deep transverse perineal muscle (transversus perinei profundus) lies in the perineum, a part of the pelvic floor. It arises from the inferior rami of the ischium and runs to the median plane, where it interlaces in a tendinous raphe with the other deep transverse perineal muscle of the opposite side. The deep transverse perineal muscle is innervated by the pudendal nerve. The function of the muscle is fixation of the perineal body (central tendon of perineum), support of the pelvic floor, expulsion of semen in males and last drops of urine in both sexes.
FEESST is an outpatient procedure involving the passing of a thin flexible scope through the nose to the pharynx. The exam consisting of two parts. First part assesses sensation in the pharynx and airway protection. The airway protection is assessed by sending air-pulses to the throat area that is innervated by the vagus nerve, which is the region of the throat between the top of the vocal folds to the tip of the epiglottis in order to stimulate an airway protective reflex called the laryngeal adductor reflex (LAR).
The graft can be seeded with autologous cells (keratinocytes) in order to accelerate wound closure, however the presence of these cells is not required for regenerating the dermis. Grafting skin wounds with IntegraTM leads to the synthesis of normal vascularized and innervated dermis de novo, followed by re-epithelization and formation of epidermis. Although early versions of the scaffold were not capable of regenerating hair follicles and sweat glands, later developments by S.T Boyce and coworkers led to solution of this problem. The mechanism of regeneration using an active collagen scaffold has been largely clarified.
Compression of the median nerve in the region of the elbow or proximal part of the forearm can cause pain and/or numbness in the distribution of the distal median nerve, and weakness of the muscles innervated by the anterior interosseous nerve: the flexor pollicis longus ("FPL"), the flexor digitorum profundus of the index finger ("FDP IF"), and the pronator quadratus ("PQ").Hartz, C R, R L Linscheid, R R Gramse, and J R Daube. "The pronator teres syndrome: compressive neuropathy of the median nerve." The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery.
Apart from the spinal cord, there are also peripheral nerves of the PNS that synapse through intermediaries or ganglia directly on the CNS. These 12 nerves exist in the head and neck region and are called cranial nerves. Cranial nerves bring information to the CNS to and from the face, as well as to certain muscles (such as the trapezius muscle, which is innervated by accessory nerves as well as certain cervical spinal nerves). Two pairs of cranial nerves; the olfactory nerves and the optic nerves are often considered structures of the CNS.
This nerve, as it courses posteriorly to the condylar head, is frequently injured in temporomandibular joint (TMJ) surgery, causing an ipsilateral paresthesia of the auricle and skin surrounding the ear. It is the main nerve that supplies the TMJ, along with branches of the masseteric nerve and the deep temporal. After a parotidectomy, the nerves from the Auriculotemporal Nerve that previously innervated the parotid gland can reattach to the sweat glands in the same region. The result is sweating along the cheek with the consumption of foods (Frey's syndrome).
Galvanic skin response (GSR) is an outdated term for a more general phenomenon known as [Electrodermal Activity] or EDA. EDA is a general phenomena whereby the skin's electrical properties change. The skin is innervated by the [sympathetic nervous system], so measuring its resistance or conductance provides a way to quantify small changes in the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. As the sweat glands are activated, even before the skin feels sweaty, the level of the EDA can be captured (usually using conductance) and used to discern small changes in autonomic arousal.
Until recently, the labrum generally was considered to be associated with first head segment. However, recent studies of the embryology, gene expression, and nerve supply to the labrum show it is innervated by the tritocerebrum of the brain, which is the fused ganglia of the third head segment. This is formed from fusion of parts of a pair of ancestral appendages found on the third head segment, showing their relationship. Its ventral, or inner, surface is usually membranous and forms the lobe-like epipharynx, which bears mechanosensilla and chemosensilla.
Fig. 1: Two EPSP's innervated in rapid succession sum to produce a larger EPSP or even an action potential in the postsynaptic cell. Coincidence detection relies on separate inputs converging on a common target. Consider a basic neural circuit with two input neurons, A and B, that have excitatory synaptic terminals converging on a single output neuron, C (Fig. 1). If each input neuron's EPSP is subthreshold for an action potential at C, then C will not fire unless the two inputs from A and B are temporally close together.
22 caliber gunshot noise with a peak level of 110 dB SPL. The amplitude of the 500 Hz probe tone was reduced in response to the eliciting stimuli. Time constants for the rate of onset and recovery were measured to be about 113 ms for the tone and 60-69 ms for the gunshot recordings. Examples of the onset and recovery of the acoustic reflex measured with a 350x350pxAs the stapedius muscle is innervated by the facial nerve, a measurement of the reflex can be used to locate the injury on the nerve.
Bands of Büngner are formed when un-innervated Schwann cells proliferate and the remaining connective tissue basement membrane forms endoneurial tubes. Bands of Büngner are important for guiding the regrowing axon. At the neuronal cell body, a process called chromatolysis occurs in which the nucleus migrates to the periphery of the cell body and the endoplasmic reticulum breaks up and disperses. Nerve damage causes the metabolic function of the cell to change from that of producing molecules for synaptic transmission to that of producing molecules for growth and repair.
Two-point discrimination (2PD) is the ability to discern that two nearby objects touching the skin are truly two distinct points, not one. It is often tested with two sharp points during a neurological examination and is assumed to reflect how finely innervated an area of skin is. In clinical settings, two-point discrimination is a widely used technique for assessing tactile perception. It relies on the ability and/or willingness of the patient to subjectively report what they are feeling and should be completed with the patient’s eyes closed.
The trunk is a multipurpose prehensile organ and highly sensitive, innervated by the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve and by the facial nerve. The acute sense of smell uses both the trunk and Jacobson's organ. Elephants use their trunks for breathing, watering, feeding, touching, dusting, sound production and communication, washing, pinching, grasping, defence and offence. The "proboscis" or trunk consists wholly of muscular and membranous tissue, and is a tapering muscular structure of nearly circular cross-section extending proximally from attachment at the anterior nasal orifice, and ending distally in a tip or finger.
Additionally, the nerves are one of few nerves that follow a recurrent course, moving in the opposite direction to the nerve they branch from, a fact from which they gain their name. The recurrent laryngeal nerves supply sensation to the larynx below the vocal cords, gives cardiac branches to the deep cardiac plexus, and branches to the trachea, esophagus and the inferior constrictor muscles. The posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, the only muscles that can open the vocal cords, are innervated by this nerve. The recurrent laryngeal nerves are the nerves of the sixth pharyngeal arch.
The cardioaccelerator center also sends additional fibers, forming the cardiac nerves via sympathetic ganglia (the cervical ganglia plus superior thoracic ganglia T1–T4) to both the SA and AV nodes, plus additional fibers to the atria and ventricles. The ventricles are more richly innervated by sympathetic fibers than parasympathetic fibers. Sympathetic stimulation causes the release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline) at the neuromuscular junction of the cardiac nerves. This shortens the repolarization period, thus speeding the rate of depolarization and contraction, which results in an increased heartrate.
Increased metabolic byproducts associated with increased activity, such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, and lactic acid, plus falling oxygen levels, are detected by a suite of chemoreceptors innervated by the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves. These chemoreceptors provide feedback to the cardiovascular centers about the need for increased or decreased blood flow, based on the relative levels of these substances. The limbic system can also significantly impact HR related to emotional state. During periods of stress, it is not unusual to identify higher than normal HRs, often accompanied by a surge in the stress hormone cortisol.
Deep fascia is less extensible than superficial fascia. It is essentially avascular, but is richly innervated with sensory receptors that report the presence of pain (nociceptors); change in movement (proprioceptors); change in pressure and vibration (mechanoreceptors); change in the chemical milieu (chemoreceptors); and fluctuation in temperature (thermoreceptors). Deep fascia is able to respond to sensory input by contracting; by relaxing; or by adding, reducing, or changing its composition through the process of fascial remodeling. Fascia may be able to contract due to the activity of myofibroblasts which may play a role in wound healing.
Climbing fibers are the name given to a series of neuronal projections from the inferior olivary nucleus located in the medulla oblongata. Image of Parallel fiber These axons pass through the pons and enter the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle where they form synapses with the deep cerebellar nuclei and Purkinje cells. Each climbing fiber will form synapses with 1-10 Purkinje cells. Early in development, Purkinje cells are innervated by multiple climbing fibers, but as the cerebellum matures, these inputs gradually become eliminated resulting in a single climbing fiber input per Purkinje cell.
Like the stapes bone to which it attaches, the stapedius muscle shares evolutionary history with other vertebrate structures. The mammalian stapedius evolved from a muscle called the depressor mandibulae in other tetrapods, the function of which was to open the jaws (this function was taken over by the digastric muscle in mammals). The depressor mandibulae arose from the levator operculi in bony fish, and is equivalent to the epihyoidean in sharks. Like the stapedius, all of these muscles derive from the hyoid arch and are innervated by cranial nerve VII.
These connections can stimulate appetite, satisfaction, and other homeostatic responses that have to do with eating. Distributed throughout the dorsal epithelium of the tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and upper part of the esophagus are taste buds that contain taste cells, which are peripheral receptors involved in gustatory system and react to chemical stimuli. Different sections of the tongue are innervated with the three cranial nerves. The facial nerve (VII) innervates the anterior two- thirds of the tongue, the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) innervates the posterior one-third and the vagus nerve (X) innervates the epiglottis.
The nidopallium is also heavily innervated by dopaminergic neurons from the direction of the brainstem. It is thought that the high concentration of dopamine (a neurotransmitter often involved with motivation, reward circuits and motor control) in this area may contribute to the ability of the NCL to execute higher order cognitive functions. Furthermore, the neural activity of the nidopallium greatly increases when birds are exposed to reward-predicting visual stimuli. This, once more, evidences the considerable presence of dopaminergic neurons in this area, as implied by their stereotypical activation in anticipation of reward-predicting stimuli.
In the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), the presence of an egg in the genital chamber results in an increase of spermathecal contractions. As a result, sperm is released to fertilize the egg. A neural loop (from the VIIIth ganglion through the N2B nerve to N2B2, N2B3, N2B4, and N2B6b nerves) is then activated to direct the sperm to fertilize the egg via muscular contractions. In the Caribbean fruit fly (Anastrepha suspensa), both the spermathecae and their ducts are innervated by an abdominal ganglion located under the first abdominal sternite.
Cranial: The upper and lower jaws are covered with sensory pits, visible as small, black speckles on the skin, the crocodilian version of the lateral line organs seen in fish and many amphibians, though arising from a completely different origin. These pigmented nodules encase bundles of nerve fibers innervated beneath by branches of the trigeminal nerve. They respond to the slightest disturbance in surface water, detecting vibrations and small pressure changes as small as a single drop. This makes it possible for crocodiles to detect prey, danger and intruders, even in total darkness.
During embryonic development the medulla oblongata develops from the myelencephalon. The myelencephalon is a secondary vesicle which forms during the maturation of the rhombencephalon, also referred to as the hindbrain. The bulb is an archaic term for the medulla oblongata and in modern clinical usage the word bulbar (as in bulbar palsy) is retained for terms that relate to the medulla oblongata, particularly in reference to medical conditions. The word bulbar can refer to the nerves and tracts connected to the medulla, and also by association to those muscles innervated, such as those of the tongue, pharynx and larynx.
In general, the olfactory tubercle is located at the basal forebrain of the animal within the medial temporal lobe. Specifically, parts of the tubercle are included in the olfactory cortex and nested between the optic chiasm and olfactory tract and ventral to the nucleus accumbens. The olfactory tubercle consists of three layers, a molecular layer (layer I), the dense cell layer (layer II), and the multiform layer (layer III). Other than the islands of Calleja, which are characteristic of the tubercle, it is also noted for the being innervated by dopaminergic neurons from the ventral tegmental area.
This pattern of weakness due to the input of the motor neurons of the lower facial muscles is often maintained contralateral. The strength of the muscles in the upper region of the face are preserved better than the muscles in the lower face. It was found that in many anatomical studies that cortical input from both hemispheres could reach motoneurons that supply muscles of all aspects of the face. Through the combination of anterograde and retrograde tracing techniques in monkeys it was found that the facial nucleus, which supplies muscles of the lower face are innervated bilaterally.
Cat hindlimb musculoskeletal model with redundant degrees of freedom at muscles (red lines) and joints One of the largest difficulties in motor control is quantifying the exact number of DOFs in the complex neuromuscular system of the human body. In addition to having redundant muscles and joints, muscles may span multiple joints, further complicating the system. Properties of muscle change as the muscle length itself changes, making mechanical models difficult to create and understand. Individual muscles are innervated by multiple nerve fibers (motor units), and the manner in which these units are recruited is similarly complex.
The red-headed krait is an extremely venomous snake, although bites are reported rarely. Krait venom appears to function primarily as a neurotoxin, preventing communication across neuromuscular synapses, causing paralysis and death by asphyxiation because the victims can no longer breathe on their own. When the venom from the red-headed krait takes effect, the most highly innervated muscles are the first to suffer: the muscle that elevates the upper eyelid and the ocular and ciliary muscles controlling the lens. Between 20 minutes and several hours after being bitten, the victim may struggle to keep his or her eyelids open.
This IC receives a signal when a switch is innervated. The firmware located within the IC communicates via Universal Serial Bus (USB) either connected to a cable, or using a wireless protocol adapter to a reference database that can reside on media within a computer or appliance. Upon receipt of the coordinate structure from the firmware, the database correlates the position with a pre-determined link or pathway to digital content or execution command for an application. After correlating the link with the pathway, a signal is sent to retrieve and render the terminal of the path.
ICC are innervated and transmitters reach high enough concentration to activate post-junctional signaling pathways in ICC. If ICC are important intermediaries in motor neurotransmission, then loss of these cells could reduce communication between the enteric nervous system and the smooth muscle syncytium, resulting in reduced neural regulation of motility. In pioneering studies it was shown unequivocally that the innervation of smooth muscles is by varicose nerve terminals. However, it was not until the advent of the electron microscope that we were able to provide us with a comprehensive view of the relationship between these varicose endings and smooth muscle.
Why this suppression sometimes fails is poorly understood, but shingles is more likely to occur in people whose immune systems are impaired due to aging, immunosuppressive therapy, psychological stress, or other factors. Upon reactivation, the virus replicates in neuronal cell bodies, and virions are shed from the cells and carried down the axons to the area of skin innervated by that ganglion. In the skin, the virus causes local inflammation and blistering. The short- and long-term pain caused by shingles outbreaks originates from inflammation of affected nerves due to the widespread growth of the virus in those areas.
The forearm is the part of the body that extends from the elbow to the wrist and is not to be confused with the arm, which extends from the shoulder to the elbow. The extensor muscles in the forearm are the extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor digiti minimi, extensor digitorum, extensor indicis, extensor carpi radialis brevis, and extensor carpi radialis longus. These extensor muscles are supplied by the posterior interosseous nerve, a branch of the radial nerve. Other muscles in the forearm that are innervated by the radial nerve are the supinator, extensor pollicis brevis, extensor pollicis longus and abductor pollicis longus.
Ommatidium: A – cornea, B – crystalline cone, C & D – pigment cells, E – rhabdom, F – photoreceptor cells, G – membrana fenestrata, H – optic nerve Ommatidia of a krill. The compound eyes of arthropods like insects, crustaceans and millipedes are composed of units called ommatidia (singular: ommatidium). An ommatidium contains a cluster of photoreceptor cells surrounded by support cells and pigment cells. The outer part of the ommatidium is overlaid with a transparent cornea. Each ommatidium is innervated by one axon bundle (usually consisting of 6–9 axons, depending on the number of rhabdomeres) and provides the brain with one picture element.
The pterygopalatine ganglion (aka Meckel's ganglion, nasal ganglion, SPG or sphenopalatine ganglion) is a parasympathetic ganglion found in the pterygopalatine fossa. It is largely innervated by the greater petrosal nerve (a branch of the facial nerve); and its axons project to the lacrimal glands and nasal mucosa. The flow of blood to the nasal mucosa, in particular the venous plexus of the conchae, is regulated by the pterygopalatine ganglion and heats or cools the air in the nose. It is one of four parasympathetic ganglia of the head and neck, the others being the submandibular ganglion, otic ganglion, and ciliary ganglion.
Some vasoactive chemicals such as vasodilator acetylcholine are known for causing reduced/increased blood flow in the tumours by vasomotor changes. Inadequate blood supply to the tumour cells can cause the cells to be radio-resistant and resulted in reduced accessibility to chemotherapeutic agents. Injuries to nerves of the lower trunk of the brachial plexus (Klumpke's paralysis) and compression of median nerve at the flexor retinaculum of the hand (Carpal Tunnel Syndrome) can cause vasomotor changes at the areas innervated by the nerves. This area of the skin will become warmer because of vasodilation (loss of vasoconstriction).
Illustration highlighting facet joint articulation between two vertebrae The facet joints, (or zygapophysial joints, zygapophyseal, apophyseal, or Z-joints) are a set of synovial, plane joints between the articular processes of two adjacent vertebrae. There are two facet joints in each spinal motion segment and each facet joint is innervated by the recurrent meningeal nerves. The biomechanical function of each pair of facet joints is to guide and limit movement of the spinal motion segment. In the lumbar spine, for example, the facet joints function to protect the motion segment from anterior shear forces, excessive rotation and flexion.
Olfactory information projects predominantly to the ipsilateral hemisphere. Patients with a right hemisphere lesion show left sided neglect in other modalities and fail to respond to the left contralateral nostril, thus the representational theory is supported. It was suggested that since the olfactory sensory pathways to the cerebral hemispheres were not crossed, a neglect should have occurred on the right side if a sensory loss were the cause of neglect. Neglect in olfactory sense is compared with its occurrence in the trigeminal sense, a sense stimulated in the same manner as olfaction (chemically through the nasal passages) but contralaterally innervated.
Similarly, in the case of lumbosacral radiculopathy, a straight leg raise maneuver or a femoral nerve stretch test may demonstrate radiculopathic symptoms down the leg. Deep tendon reflexes (also known as a Stretch reflex) may be diminished or absent in areas innervated by a particular nerve root. Although most cases of radiculopathy are compressive and resolve with conservative treatment within 4-6 weeks, guidelines for managing radiculopathy recommend first excluding possible causes that, although rare, require immediate attention, among them the following. Cauda equina syndrome should be investigated in case of saddle anesthesia, loss of bladder or bowel control, or leg weakness.
The diaphragma sellae or sellar diaphragm is a flat piece of dura mater with a circular hole allowing the vertical passage of the pituitary stalk. It retains the pituitary gland beneath it in the fossa hypophyseos as it almost completely roofs the fossa hypophyseos of the sella turcica, a part of the sphenoid bone. It has a posterior boundary at the dorsum sellae and an anterior boundary at the tuberculum sellae along with the two small eminences (one on either side) called the middle clinoid processes. The diaphragma sellae is innervated by the first division of the cranial trigeminal nerve.
At gestational weeks 19–23, PCD is observed in post-mitotic cells. The prevailing theory explaining this observation is the neurotrophic theory which states that PCD is required to optimize the connection between neurons and their afferent inputs and efferent targets. Another theory proposes that developmental PCD in the nervous system occurs in order to correct for errors in neurons that have migrated ectopically, innervated incorrect targets, or have axons that have gone awry during path finding. It is possible that PCD during the development of the nervous system serves different functions determined by the developmental stage, cell type, and even species.
To some extent the maxillae are more mobile than the mandibles, and the galeae, laciniae, and palps also can move up and down somewhat, in the sagittal plane, both in feeding and in working, for example in nest building by mud-dauber wasps. Maxillae in most insects function partly like mandibles in feeding, but they are more mobile and less heavily sclerotised than mandibles, so they are more important in manipulating soft, liquid, or particulate food rather than cutting or crushing food such as material that requires the mandibles to cut or crush. Like the mandibles, maxillae are innervated by the subesophageal ganglia.
It is innervated by the deep peroneal nerve and acts as both an antagonist and a synergist of the tibialis posterior. However, the most accurate antagonist of the tibialis anterior is the peroneus longus. The tibialis anterior aides in the activities of walking, running, hiking, kicking a ball, or any activity that requires moving the leg or keeping the leg vertical. It functions to stabilize the ankle as the foot hits the ground during the contact phase of walking (eccentric contraction) and acts later to pull the foot clear of the ground during the swing phase (concentric contraction).
Because of the unclear pathogenesis and pathophysiology of Tarlov cysts, there is no consensus on the optimal treatment of symptomatic sacral perineural cysts. Patients often choose to pursue treatment when the progression of neurological deficits seriously impacts their quality of life. Since cysts are innervated, microfenestration and surgical sleeving of the cysts to diminish the amount of accumulated cerebrospinal fluid and decrease compression of the spine and spinal nerves has been successful in a number of patients. The cysts are carefully separated enough from surrounding tissue to be wrapped with fatty tissue or pericardial biomaterial to excise the fluid from the cyst.
A dog's olfactory epithelium is also considerably more densely innervated, with a hundred times more receptors per square centimeter. The sensory olfactory system integrates with other senses to form the perception of flavor. Often, land organisms will have separate olfaction systems for smell and taste (orthonasal smell and retronasal smell), but water-dwelling organisms usually have only one system. Molecules of odorants passing through the superior nasal concha of the nasal passages dissolve in the mucus that lines the superior portion of the cavity and are detected by olfactory receptors on the dendrites of the olfactory sensory neurons.
Coast moles primarily use their noses for sensing their surroundings underground. Eimer's organ is a small, densely innervated sensory structure found in the nose of most talpid moles, including the coast mole, which seems to play a critical role in tactile discrimination and enables it to differentiate between prey items in an environment with little to no visual input. Moles and monotremes appear to have developed this as a convergent structure, using common components of mammalian skin to maximize tactile sensitivity. Air supply in coast mole tunnels may be short on oxygen, but enriched with carbon dioxide from respiration.
Since resting rates are considerably less than this, it becomes evident that parasympathetic stimulation normally slows HR. The cardioaccelerator center also sends additional fibers, forming the cardiac nerves via sympathetic ganglia (the cervical ganglia plus superior thoracic ganglia T1–T4) to both the SA and AV nodes, plus additional fibers to the atria and ventricles. The ventricles are more richly innervated by sympathetic fibers than parasympathetic fibers. Sympathetic stimulation causes the release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline) at the neuromuscular junction of the cardiac nerves. This shortens the repolarization period, thus speeding the rate of depolarization and contraction, which results in an increased heartrate.
An exposed clitoral glans Highly innervated, the glans exists at the tip of the clitoral body as a fibro-vascular cap, and is usually the size and shape of a pea, although it is sometimes much larger or smaller. The clitoral glans, or the entire clitoris, is estimated to have about 8,000 sensory nerve endings. Research conflicts on whether or not the glans is composed of erectile or non- erectile tissue. Although the clitoral body becomes engorged with blood upon sexual arousal, erecting the clitoral glans, some sources describe the clitoral glans and labia minora as composed of non-erectile tissue; this is especially the case for the glans.
Eimer's organs are sensory organs in which the epidermis is modified to form bulbous papillae. First isolated by Theodor Eimer from the European mole in 1871, these organs are present in many moles, and are particularly common in the star-nosed mole, which bears 25,000 of them on its unique tentacled snout. The organs are formed from a stack of epidermal cells, which is innervated by nerve processes from myelinated fibers in the dermis, which form terminal swellings just below the outer keratinized layer of epidermis. They contain a Merkel cell-neurite complex in the epidermis and a lamellated corpuscle in the dermal connective tissue.
Since the suprascapular nerve provides sensory information to 70% of the joint capsule, blocking this nerve can help with post-operative shoulder pain. A nerve stimulator, ultrasound device, or a needle insertion that is 1 cm above the midpoint of the scapular spine can quickly block the suprascapular nerve. Furthermore, blocking the axillary nerve together with the suprascapular nerve can further anesthetize the shoulder joint. The benefit of the suprascapular nerve block is that it avoids blocking motor function to parts of the upper limb innervated by the more inferior roots of the brachial plexus (C8-T1), which thus prevents the phrenic nerve from being blocked.
Target cells affected by a locally released transmitter even though located several hundreds to thousands of nanometers away from the release site are considered as being innervated. The varicose axons were first visualized for adrenergic terminals using fluorescence histochemistry described by Falck and colleagues. These varicose axons resemble strings of beads with varicosities 0.5–2.0 μ in diameter and 1 to 3 μ in length and separated by inter-varicosity axon 0.1 to 0.2 μ in diameter. The varicosities occur at 2–10 μm intervals and it has been estimated that a single adrenergic axon may have over 25,000 varicosities on its terminal part.
Inferior alveolar nerve block (abbreviated to IANB, and also termed inferior alveolar nerve anesthesia or inferior dental block) is a nerve block technique which induces anesthesia (numbness) in the areas of the mouth and face innervated by one of the inferior alveolar nerves which are paired on the left and right side. These areas are the skin and mucous membranes of the lower lip, the skin of the chin, the lower teeth and the labial gingiva of the anterior teeth, all unilaterally to the midline of the side on which the block is administered.Agur, Anne M.R., and Arthur F. Dalley. Grant's Atlas Of Anatomy.
A branch of the median nerve, the anterior interosseous nerve (AIN) can be affected by either direct penetrating injury or compression in a fashion similar to carpal tunnel syndrome. The compression neuropathy is referred to an Anterior Interosseous Syndrome. As might be expected, the symptoms involve weakness in the muscle innervated by the AIN including the flexor digitorum profundus muscle to the index (and sometimes the middle) finger, the flexor pollicis longus muscle to the thumb and the pronator quadratus of the distal forearm. As opposed to carpal tunnel syndrome, the AIN has no sensory fibers and therefore no numbness associated with the Anterior Interosseous Syndrome.
Vestibular duct perilymph vibrations bend organ of Corti outer cells (4 lines) causing prestin to be released in cell tips. This causes the cells to be chemically elongated and shrunk (somatic motor), and hair bundles to shift which, in turn, electrically affects the basilar membrane’s movement (hair-bundle motor). These motors (outer hair cells) amplify the traveling wave amplitudes over 40-fold. The outer hair cells (OHC) are minimally innervated by spiral ganglion in slow (unmyelinated) reciprocal communicative bundles (30+ hairs per nerve fiber); this contrasts inner hair cells (IHC) that have only afferent innervation (30+ nerve fibers per one hair) but are heavily connected.
The axon reflex results in a localized response to only the locally innervated cells of the single neuron where the signal originated. The axon reflex pathway does not include an integration center or synapse that relays communication between neurons in the spinal cord reflex. The stimulus, therefore, is diverted to the effector organ without entering the neuronal cell body and therefore indicates that the axon reflex is not a true reflex where afferent impulses pass through the central nervous system before stimulating efferent neurons. The axon reflex was discovered and was described as "a new type of peripheral reflex" that bypasses the integration center and synapse in the central nervous system.
The internal table of bone is thinner than the external table, and in some areas there is only a thin plate of compact bone with no diploë. Calvarial bones are supplied by endosteal and periosteal sheaths which are innervated by the nociceptors, sensory, sympathetic, and parasympathetic nerves. Horizontal section of the mouse pups showed that the density of nerve fibers was highest in the region of forehead, temples, and the back of head which crossing the frontal, parietal, and interparietal bones. In the calvarial innervation in the adult mouse, CGRP-labeled fibers and peripherin were seen in the sutures, emissary canals, and bone marrow but not in diploe.
Muscle spindles are innervated by both sensory neurons and motor neurons in order to provide proprioception and make the appropriate movements via firing of motor neurons. There are three types of lower motor neurons involved in muscle contraction: alpha motor neurons, gamma motor neurons, and beta motor neurons. Alpha motor neurons, the most abundant type, are used in the actual force for muscle contraction and therefore innervate extrafusal muscle fibers (muscle fibers outside of the muscle spindle). Gamma motor neurons, on the other hand, innervate only intrafusal muscle fibers (within the muscle spindle), whereas beta motor neurons, which are present in very low amounts, innervate both intrafusal and extrafusal muscle cells.
The recurrent laryngeal nerves control all intrinsic muscles of the larynx except for the cricothyroid muscle. These muscles act to open, close, and adjust the tension of the vocal cords, and include the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, the only muscle to open the vocal cords. The nerves supply muscles on the same side of the body, with the exception of the interarytenoid muscle, which is innervated from both sides. The nerves also carry sensory information from the mucous membranes of the larynx below the lower surface of the vocal fold, as well as sensory, secretory and motor fibres to the cervical segments of the esophagus and the trachea.
The hypoglossal nerve is the twelfth cranial nerve, and innervates all the extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the tongue, except for the palatoglossus which is innervated by the vagus nerve. It is a nerve with a solely motor function. The nerve arises from the hypoglossal nucleus in the medulla as a number of small rootlets, passes through the hypoglossal canal and down through the neck, and eventually passes up again over the tongue muscles it supplies into the tongue. The nerve is involved in controlling tongue movements required for speech and swallowing, including sticking out the tongue and moving it from side to side.
A ventral forearm muscle, the flexor pollicis longus originates on the anterior side of the radius distal to the radial tuberosity and from the interosseous membrane. It passes through the carpal tunnel in a separate tendon sheath, after which it lies between the heads of the flexor pollicis brevis. It finally attaches onto the base of the distal phalanx of the thumb. It is innervated by the anterior interosseus branch of the median nerve (C7-C8) Three dorsal forearm muscles act on the thumb: The abductor pollicis longus originates on the dorsal sides of both the ulna and the radius, and from the interosseous membrane.
The position of the mouth and the circum-oesophageal connectives allows a distinction to be made between pre- and post-oral structures; although it should be borne in mind that because structures can move around during development, a pre-oral position of a structure in the adult does not necessarily prove that its developmental origin is from there. The myriapod head is very similar to that of the insects. The crustacean head is broadly similar to that of the insects, but possesses, in addition, a second pair of antennae that are innervated from the tritocerebrum. In place of the labium, crustaceans possess a second pair of maxillae.
Strausfeld finds support for this hypothesis in the presence of a median nerve bundle connecting the labrum to the anterior of the protocerebrum, and the expression of the gene six3 in the labrum has been taken as evidence for its homology with onychophoran antennae (frontal appendages borne from the anterior of the protocerebrum). If the labrum is really an anterior appendage that has migrated to the posterior, then it may be homologous to the "antennae" of onychophorans, which, as discussed below, seem to be innervated from a very anterior part of the brain, i.e. in front of the eyes. It has even been suggested (e.g.
The trilobites are thus, in their view, not stem-group chelicerates, a commonly held view, but rather, stem-group mandibulates. The status of the labrum is not resolved by this theory, but they argue that it the evidence for it being appendiculate is not compelling; thus it does not have to correspond to a well-developed appendage of any Cambrian arthropod. The 2014 description of Lyrarapax poses a challenge for this theorem: assuming that its nervous tissue is correctly identified as such, the great appendages of this radiodont are innervated into the front of the protocerebrum, undermining the suggestion that the great appendages are deuterocerebral.
Maxmen and others recently published a morphologically-based paper that claimed the enigmatic chelifores of extant pycnogonids (sea spiders) are innervated from the protocerebrum, and not from the trito- or deutocerebrum as previously claimed. This would suggest that pycnogonids had uniquely retained a "great appendage" homologue as an appendage, unlike all other euarthropods in which it had been transformed into the labrum (pycnogonids lack a labrum). However, expression data of Hox genes that were published shortly afterwards suggested that the chelifores were deuterocerebral and thus most likely to be homologous to the chelicerae. The pycnogonids are thus neutral with regard to the great appendage theory.
Hagfish are known to have one of the lowest blood pressures among the vertebrates. One of the most primitive types of fluid balance found is among these creatures, whenever a rise in extracellular fluid occurs, the blood pressure rises and this, in turn, is sensed by the kidney, which excretes excess fluid. They also have the highest blood volume to body mass of any chordate, with 17 ml of blood per 100 g of mass. Hagfish - Cronodon The hagfish circulatory system has been of considerable interests to evolutionary biologists, who first believed that the hagfish heart was not innervated like that in jawed vertebrates.
The labial glands are minor salivary glands situated between the mucous membrane and the orbicularis oris around the orifice of the mouth. They are circular in form, and about the size of small peas; their ducts open by minute orifices upon the mucous membrane. Like the parotid and buccal glands, the labial glands are innervated by parasympathetic fibres that arise in the inferior salivatory nucleus, travel with the glossopharyngeal nerve and lesser petrosal nerve to the otic ganglion, where they synapse and then continue to the labial glands. Sympathetic innervation is mediated by postganglionary fibres which arise in the superior cervical ganglion and pass through the otic ganglion without synapsing.
In the research using MRI, researchers imaged couples performing coitus inside an MRI machine. The magnetic resonance images also showed that the penis has the shape of a boomerang, that one third of its length consists of the root of the penis, and that the vaginal walls wrap snugly around it. Moreover, MRI during coitus indicate that the internal part of the clitoris is stimulated by penile- vaginal movements. These studies highlight the role of the clitoris and indicate that what is termed the G-spot may only exist because the highly innervated clitoris is pulled closely to the anterior wall of the vagina when the woman is sexually aroused and during vaginal penetration.
The distal phalanges of the elephant do not directly touch the ground, and are attached to the respective nail/hoof. Distal cushions occupy the spaces between the muscle tendon units and ligaments within the hindfoot, midfoot and forefoot bones on the plantar surface. The distal cushion is highly innervated by sensory structures (Meissner's and Pacinian corpuscles), making the distal foot one of the most sensitive structures of the elephant (more so than its trunk). The cushions of the elephant's foot respond to the requirement to store and absorb mechanical loads when they are compressed, and to distribute locomotor loads over a large area in order to keep foot tissue stresses within acceptable levels.
Besides activation of K+ channels by NO, some authors have suggested that Ca2+-activated Cl− channels, which are active under basal conditions, can be suppressed as part of the post-junctional response to NO. These studies do not exclude the possibility of parallel excitatory neurotransmission to ICC-DMP and smooth muscle cells. Different cells may utilize different receptors and signaling molecules. These findings make the point that ICC are innervated and transmitters reach high enough concentration to activate post-junctional signaling pathways in ICC. There is no reason to assume a priori that responses to neurotransmitters released from neurons and exogenous transmitter substances are mediated by the same cells, receptors or post-junctional (transduction) signaling pathways.
Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is neuropathic pain that occurs due to damage to a peripheral nerve caused by the reactivation of the varicella zoster virus (herpes zoster, also known as shingles). Typically, the nerve pain (neuralgia) is confined to an area of skin innervated by a single sensory nerve, which is known as a dermatome. PHN is defined as dermatomal nerve pain that persists for more than 90 days after an outbreak of herpes zoster affecting the same dermatome. Several types of pain may occur with PHN including continuous burning pain, episodes of severe shooting or electric-like pain, and a heightened sensitivity to gentle touch which would not otherwise cause pain (mechanical allodynia) or to painful stimuli (hyperalgesia).
While early psychophysiologists almost always examined the impact of psychological states on physiological system responses, since the 1970s, psychophysiologists also frequently study the impact of physiological states and systems on psychological states and processes. It is this perspective of studying the interface of mind and body that makes psychophysiologists most distinct. Historically, most psychophysiologists tended to examine the physiological responses and organ systems innervated by the autonomic nervous system. More recently, psychophysiologists have been equally, or potentially more, interested in the central nervous system, exploring cortical brain potentials such as the many types of event-related potentials (ERPs), brain waves, and utilizing advanced technology such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), MRI, PET, MEG, and other neuroimagery techniques.
The labial pit found in boas and pythons lacks the suspended membrane and consists more simply of a pit lined with a membrane that is similarly innervated and vascular, though the morphology of the vasculature differs between these snakes and crotalines. The purpose of the vasculature, in addition to providing oxygen to the receptor terminals, is to rapidly cool the receptors to their thermo-neutral state after being heated by thermal radiation from a stimulus. Were it not for this vasculature, the receptor would remain in a warm state after being exposed to a warm stimulus, and would present the animal with afterimages even after the stimulus was removed. Diagram of the Crotaline pit organ.
Adrenaline (Epinephrine) Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine) Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla are innervated by the splanchnic nerve and secrete adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenaline (norepinephrine), some dopamine, enkephalin and enkephalin-containing peptides, and a few other hormones into the blood stream. The secreted adrenaline and noradrenaline play an important role in the sympathetic nervous system response, commonly called the fight-or-flight response. The enkephalins and enkephalin-containing peptides are related to, but distinct from endogenous peptides named endorphins (which are secreted from the pituitary); all of these peptides bind to opioid receptors and produce analgesic (and other) responses. The hormones are secreted from chromaffin granules; this is where the enzyme dopamine β-hydroxylase catalyses the conversion of dopamine to noradrenaline.
The axillary nerve supplies three muscles in the arm: deltoid (a muscle of the shoulder), triceps (long head) and teres minor (one of the rotator cuff muscles). The axillary nerve also carries sensory information from the shoulder joint, as well as the skin covering the inferior region of the deltoid muscle - the "regimental badge" area (which is innervated by the superior lateral cutaneous nerve branch of the axillary nerve). The posterior cord of the brachial plexus splits inferiorly to the glenohumeral joint giving rise to the axillary nerve which wraps around the surgical neck of the humerus, and the radial nerve which wraps around the humerus anteriorly and descends along its lateral border.
Some years later the station passed to the Società Anonima Ferrovia Napoli–Ottaviano (the current Circumvesuviana), which used it as the terminus of the Naples-Ottaviano line, the first of a vast network. In 1904 the station became the terminus of the line for Torre Annunziata, and in the sixties of that for Baiano. The original traveler building, dating back to the Bourbon era, was demolished in the early seventies and replaced by the current one, built from 1972 to 1975 to a design by Giulio De Luca and Arrigo Marseille. The structure is in reinforced concrete with a cantilevered roof, and exposed concrete beams that protrude up to a certain point, and then become innervated in the roof.
Nanoelectronics and brain science. The development of nanoelectronics-enabled cellular tools underpins Lieber's views on transforming electrical recording and modulation of neuronal activity in brain science. Examples of this work include the integration of arrays of nanowire transistors with neurons at the scale that the brain is wired biologically, mapping functional activity in acute brain slices with high spatiotemporal resolution and a 3D structure capable of interfacing with complex neural networks. He developed macroporous 3D sensor arrays and synthetic tissue scaffold to mimic the structure of natural tissue, and for the first time generated synthetic tissues that can be innervated in 3D, showing that it is possible to produce interpenetrating 3D electronic-neural networks following cell culture.
In February 1869, he presented a thesis entitled “Contributions to the microscopic anatomy of the pancreas,” in which he refers to islands of clear cells throughout the gland, staining differently than the surrounding tissue. He noticed that these areas were more richly innervated, but he could not suggest a function, except for the incorrect hypothesis that they might be lymph nodes. One year before, still as an undergraduate, he analysed epidermal skin cells as part of an open competition organised by Berlin University. The branched skin cells resembling neuron, described in his paper entitled “On the nerves of the human skin,” remained an enigma for over a century before their immunological function and significance were recognised.
The condyle presents an articular surface for articulation with the articular disk of the temporomandibular joint; it is convex from before backward and from side to side, and extends farther on the posterior than on the anterior surface. Its long axis is directed medialward and slightly backward, and if prolonged to the middle line will meet that of the opposite condyle near the anterior margin of the foramen magnum. At the lateral extremity of the condyle is a small tubercle for the attachment of the temporomandibular ligament. The articular surface of the condyle is covered by fibrous tissue, and interfaces with an articular disk (or meniscus) of avascular, non-innervated fibrous tissue (collagen, fibroblasts).
A false positive response occurs when a patient is respondent to sensitivity testing despite a lack of sensory tissue in the tooth that is being tested. Such responses may occur due to innervation of adjacent teeth due to inadequate isolation of the tooth being tested, or in anxious patients who perceive pain despite no sensory stimulus, or in multi- rooted teeth which still have residual pulpal tissue residing in canals. False negative results occurs when innervated teeth do not respond to sensibility testing. Such can occur in individuals who have recently traumatised teeth, teeth with incomplete root development, teeth with heavy restorations or teeth that have significantly reduced pulp size due to production of tertiary or sclerotic dentine.
While this view still has its defenders (notably Colette and Jacques Bitsch), the alternative view that the chelicerae are innervated from the deuterocerebrum has gained ground, based on molecular development in mites and spiders, and neuroanatomy in Limulus. If this is the case, then chelicerates simply have no tritocerebrum, i.e. there is no third supraoesophageal ganglion of the brain; the segment corresponding to it would be the suboesophageal pedipalp one. Such a theory does not, however, immediately account for the same ganglionic innervation of the chelicerae and labrum, although one solution is simply to claim that the labrum itself is not homologous between mandibulates and chelicerates (the view, for example, of Dieter Waloszek and colleagues).
In the acute phase physical and occupational therapists focus on the patient’s respiratory status, prevention of indirect complications (such as pressure sores), maintaining range of motion, and keeping available musculature active. Depending on the Neurological Level of Impairment (NLI), the muscles responsible for expanding the thorax, which facilitate inhalation, may be affected. If the NLI is such that it affects some of the ventilatory muscles, more emphasis will then be placed on the muscles with intact function. For example, the intercostal muscles receive their innervation from T1–T11, and if any are damaged, more emphasis will need to be placed on the unaffected muscles which are innervated from higher levels of the CNS.
In 2008, Südhof moved to Stanford University and is currently the Avram Goldstein Professor in the School of Medicine as well as a Professor of Molecular & Cellular Physiology, Psychiatry, and Neurology. Thomas C. Südhof laid the foundations for his scientific career studying the synapse early while studying the mechanisms of neurotransmitter dependent hormone release from neuroendocrine cells for his doctoral thesis at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry. Südhof described the structure and function of chromaffin cells which are responsible for the release of epinephrine, norepinephrine and endorphins from the medulla of the adrenal gland. Innervated by sympathetic nervous system, chromaffin cells are important in the initiation of the fight-or-flight response of animals when exposed to threatening stimuli.
For this purpose, the star also contains a remarkably specialized epidermis covered entirely by 25,000 small raised domes or papillae of approximately in diameter. These domes, known as Eimer’s organs, are the only type of receptor organs found in the star of the star-nosed mole which proves that the star-like structure has clearly a mechanical functioning. Eimer’s organ is a sensory structure also found in nearly all of the approximately 30 species of mole, however none contains as many as in Condylura. This large amount of specialized receptors makes the star ultrasensitive – about 6 times more sensitive than the human hand, which contains about 17,000 receptors. Each Eimer’s organ is supplied by a number of primary afferents, thus the star is densely innervated.
Women can experience orgasm with vibration to the cervix regardless of level or completeness of injury; the sensation is the same as uninjured women experience. The peripheral nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system that carry messages to the brain (afferent nerve fibers) may explain why people with complete SCI feel sexual and climactic sensations. One proposed explanation for orgasm in women despite complete SCI is that the vagus nerve bypasses the spinal cord and carries sensory information from the genitals directly to the brain. Women with complete injuries can achieve sexual arousal and orgasm through stimulation of the clitoris, cervix, or vagina, which are each innervated by different nerve pathways, which suggests that even if SCI interferes with one area, function might be preserved in others.
The strength of skeletal muscle contractions can be broadly separated into twitch, summation, and tetanus. A twitch is a single contraction and relaxation cycle produced by an action potential within the muscle fiber itself. The time between a stimulus to the motor nerve and the subsequent contraction of the innervated muscle is called the latent period, which usually takes about 10 ms and is caused by the time taken for nerve action potential to propagate, the time for chemical transmission at the neuromuscular junction, then the subsequent steps in excitation-contraction coupling. If another muscle action potential were to be produced before the complete relaxation of a muscle twitch, then the next twitch will simply sum onto the previous twitch, thereby producing a summation.
Juxtacapillary receptors, J-receptors, or pulmonary C-fiber receptors are sensory nerve endings located within the alveolar walls in juxtaposition to the pulmonary capillaries of the lung, and are innervated by fibers of the vagus nerve. Although their functional role is unclear, J-receptors respond to events such as pulmonary edema, pulmonary emboli, pneumonia, congestive heart failure and barotrauma, which cause a decrease in oxygenation and thus lead to an increase in respiration. They may be also stimulated by hyperinflation of the lung as well as intravenous or intracardiac administration of chemicals such as capsaicin. The stimulation of the J-receptors causes a reflex increase in breathing rate, and is also thought to be involved in the sensation of dyspnea, the subjective sensation of difficulty breathing.
Ulnar tunnel syndrome, also known as Guyon's canal syndrome or Handlebar palsy, is caused by entrapment of the ulnar nerve in the Guyon canal as it passes through the wrist. Symptoms usually begin with a feeling of pins and needles in the ring and little fingers before progressing to a loss of sensation and/or impaired motor function of the intrinsic muscles of the hand which are innervated by the ulnar nerve. Ulnar tunnel syndrome is commonly seen in regular cyclists due to prolonged pressure of the Guyon's canal against bicycle handlebars. Another very common cause of sensory loss in the ring and pink finger is due to ulnar nerve entrapment at the cubital tunnel near the elbow, which is known as cubital tunnel syndrome.
Males can be aroused by stimulation to the sides of the glans and penis, upper side of the glans, the foreskin, the front side of the scrotum, the skin between the scrotum and anus perineum, and around the anus. The prostate gland may be stimulated from inside the rectum, such as by anal sex, or by applying pressure on the base of the perineum near the anus. (Last updated/reviewed on 2008-03-28) Men who report the sensation of prostate stimulation often give descriptions similar to females' accounts of G-spot stimulation. The foreskin, which carries the highly innervated ridged band and lower frenular delta, has mucocutaneous end-organs extending from the distal margin to the point where hairy skin starts.cirp.
When changing anatomical sex from male to female, the testicles are removed (castration), and the skin of foreskin and penis is usually inverted, as a flap preserving blood and nerve supplies (a technique pioneered by Sir Harold Gillies in 1951), to form a fully sensitive vagina (vaginoplasty). A clitoris fully supplied with nerve endings (innervated) can be formed from part of the glans of the penis. If the patient has been circumcised (removal of the foreskin), or if the surgeon's technique uses more skin in the formation of the labia minora, the pubic hair follicles are removed from some of the scrotal tissue, which is then incorporated by the surgeon within the vagina. Other scrotal tissue forms the labia majora.
When the mandible is moved into a lateral excursion, the working side condyle (the condyle on the side of the mandible that moves outwards) only performs rotation (in the horizontal plane), while the balancing side condyle performs translation. During actual functional chewing, when the teeth are not only moved side to side, but also up and down when biting of the teeth is incorporated as well, rotation (in a vertical plane) also plays a part in both condyles. The mandible is moved primarily by the four muscles of mastication: the masseter, medial pterygoid, lateral pterygoid and the temporalis. These four muscles, all innervated by V3, or the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve, work in different groups to move the mandible in different directions.
Furthermore, the same study found no connection between fingertip wrinkling and touch sensation. Prior to a 1935 study, the common explanation was based on water absorption in the keratin-laden epithelial skin when immersed in water, causing the skin to expand and resulting in a larger surface area, forcing it to wrinkle. Usually the tips of the fingers and toes are the first to wrinkle because of a thicker layer of keratin and an absence of hairs which secrete the protective oil called sebum. In the 1935 study, however, Lewis and Pickering were studying patients with palsy of the median nerve when they discovered that skin wrinkling did not occur in the areas of the patients' skin normally innervated by the damaged nerve.
Nervous system of a bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with a "brain" at the front The vast majority of existing animals are bilaterians, meaning animals with left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other. All bilateria are thought to have descended from a common wormlike ancestor that appeared in the Ediacaran period, 550–600 million years ago. The fundamental bilaterian body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from mouth to anus, and a nerve cord with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the "brain". Area of the human body surface innervated by each spinal nerve Even mammals, including humans, show the segmented bilaterian body plan at the level of the nervous system.
Tarlov cysts, are type II innervated meningeal cysts, cerebrospinal-fluid- filled (CSF) sacs most frequently located in the spinal canal of the S1-to-S5 region of the spinal cord (much less often in the cervical, thoracic or lumbar spine), and can be distinguished from other meningeal cysts by their nerve- fiber-filled walls. Tarlov cysts are defined as cysts formed within the nerve- root sheath at the dorsal root ganglion. The etiology of these cysts is not well understood; some current theories explaining this phenomenon have not yet been tested or challenged but include increased pressure in CSF, filling of congenital cysts with one-way valves, inflammation in response to trauma and disease. They are named for American neurosurgeon Isadore Tarlov, who described them in 1938.
Restoration creates a facsimile of the prepuce, but specialized tissues removed during circumcision cannot be reclaimed, in particular, the ridged band, an innervated structure encircling the penis along the cusp of the foreskin, which among other functions serves to contract the opening around the glans. Surgical procedures exist to reduce the size of the opening once restoration is complete (as depicted in the image above), or it can be alleviated through a longer commitment to the skin expansion regime to allow more skin to collect at the tip. The circumcision scar becomes hidden as shaft skin begins to fold, mimicking the natural function and appearance of the foreskin. The natural foreskin is composed of smooth dartos muscle tissue (called the peripenic muscle), large blood vessels, extensive innervation, outer skin, and inner mucosa.
Thanks to Holtz and Blaschko it was clear that animals synthesized noradrenaline. What was lacking to attribute a transmitter role to it was proof of its presence in tissues at effective concentrations and not only as a short-lived intermediate. On April 16, 1945, Ulf von Euler of Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm, who had already discovered or co- discovered substance P and prostaglandins, submitted to Nature the first of a series of papers that gave this proof. After many bioassays and chemical assays on organ extracts he concluded that mammalian sympathetically innervated tissues as well as, in small amounts, the brain, but not the nerve- free placenta, contained noradrenaline and that noradrenaline was the sympathin of Cannon and Rosenblueth, the ″physiological transmitter of adrenergic nerve action in mammals″.
Fibres from the ventral motor cortex travel with the corticospinal tract through the internal capsule, but terminate in a number of locations in the midbrain (cortico-mesencephalic tract), pons (Corticopontine tract), and medulla oblongata (cortico-bulbar tract). The upper motor neurons of the corticobulbar tract synapse with interneurons or directly with the lower motor neurons located in the motor cranial nerve nuclei, namely oculomotor, trochlear, motor nucleus of the trigeminal nerve, abducens, facial nerve and accessory and in the nucleus ambiguus to the hypoglossal, vagus and accessory nerves. These nuclei are supplied by nerves from both sides of the brain, with the exception of the parts of the facial nerve that control muscles of the lower face. These muscles are only innervated by nerves from the contralateral (opposite) side of the cortex.
The leading theory has long been that the narwhal tusk serves as a secondary sex character of males, for nonviolent assessment of hierarchical status on the basis of relative tusk size. However, detailed analysis reveals that the tusk is a highly innervated sensory organ with millions of nerve endings connecting seawater stimuli in the external ocean environment with the brain. The rubbing of tusks together by male narwhals is thought to be a method of communicating information about characteristics of the water each has traveled through, rather than the previously assumed posturing display of aggressive male-to-male rivalry. In August 2016, drone videos of narwhals surface-feeding in Tremblay Sound, Nunavut showed that the tusk was used to tap and stun small Arctic cod, making them easier to catch for feeding.
All the oculomotor muscles innervated by the third nerve may be affected, but those that control pupil size are usually well-preserved early on. This is because the parasympathetic nerve fibers within CNIII that influence pupillary size are found on the periphery of the nerve (in terms of a cross-sectional view), which makes them less susceptible to ischemic damage (as they are closer to the vascular supply). The sixth nerve, the abducens nerve, which innervates the lateral rectus muscle of the eye (moves the eye laterally), is also commonly affected but fourth nerve, the trochlear nerve, (innervates the superior oblique muscle, which moves the eye downward) involvement is unusual. Damage to a specific nerve of the thoracic or lumbar spinal nerves can occur and may lead to painful syndromes that mimic a heart attack, gallbladder inflammation, or appendicitis.
First, it is considered to be part of the basal forebrain, the nucleus accumbens, and the amygdaloid nuclei because of its location along the rostral ventral region of the brain, that is, the front-bottom part. Second, it is considered to be part of the olfactory cortex because it receives direct input from the olfactory bulb. Third, it is also considered to be part of the ventral striatum based on anatomy, neurochemical, and embryology data. One of the most striking features of the olfactory tubercle is the closely packed crescent-shape cell clusters, which are located mostly in layer III and sometimes in layer II. These cells clusters, called the islands of calleja, are innervated by dopaminergic projections from the nucleus accumbens and the substantia nigra, suggesting the role that the olfactory tubercle plays in the reward system.
On the basis of their findings, they argued that women may be able to achieve vaginal orgasm via stimulation of the G-spot, because the highly innervated clitoris is pulled closely to the anterior wall of the vagina when the woman is sexually aroused and during vaginal penetration. They assert that since the front wall of the vagina is inextricably linked with the internal parts of the clitoris, stimulating the vagina without activating the clitoris may be next to impossible. In their 2009 published study, the "coronal planes during perineal contraction and finger penetration demonstrated a close relationship between the root of the clitoris and the anterior vaginal wall". Buisson and Foldès suggested "that the special sensitivity of the lower anterior vaginal wall could be explained by pressure and movement of clitoris's root during a vaginal penetration and subsequent perineal contraction".
The location of motor neurons in the anterior horn cells of the spinal column Spinal polio, the most common form of paralytic poliomyelitis, results from viral invasion of the motor neurons of the anterior horn cells, or the ventral (front) grey matter section in the spinal column, which are responsible for movement of the muscles, including those of the trunk, limbs, and the intercostal muscles. Virus invasion causes inflammation of the nerve cells, leading to damage or destruction of motor neuron ganglia. When spinal neurons die, Wallerian degeneration takes place, leading to weakness of those muscles formerly innervated by the now-dead neurons. With the destruction of nerve cells, the muscles no longer receive signals from the brain or spinal cord; without nerve stimulation, the muscles atrophy, becoming weak, floppy and poorly controlled, and finally completely paralyzed.
Its parasympathetic root is derived from the nervus intermedius (a part of the facial nerve) through the greater petrosal nerve. In the pterygopalatine ganglion, the preganglionic parasympathetic fibers from the greater petrosal branch of the facial nerve synapse with neurons whose postganglionic axons, vasodilator, and secretory fibers are distributed with the deep branches of the trigeminal nerve to the mucous membrane of the nose, soft palate, tonsils, uvula, roof of the mouth, upper lip and gums, and upper part of the pharynx. It also sends postganglionic parasympathetic fibers to the lacrimal nerve (a branch of the Ophthalmic nerve, also part of the trigeminal nerve) via the zygomatic nerve, a branch of the maxillary nerve (from the trigeminal nerve), which then arrives at the lacrimal gland. The nasal glands are innervated with secretomotor fibers from the nasal branches.
Nervous system of a bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front The vast majority of existing animals are bilaterians, meaning animals with left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other. All bilateria are thought to have descended from a common wormlike ancestor that appeared in the Ediacaran period, 550–600 million years ago. The fundamental bilaterian body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from mouth to anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a "ganglion") for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the "brain". Area of the human body surface innervated by each spinal nerve Even mammals, including humans, show the segmented bilaterian body plan at the level of the nervous system.
In 2008, they published the first complete 3D sonography of the stimulated clitoris, and republished it in 2009 with new research, demonstrating the ways in which erectile tissue of the clitoris engorges and surrounds the vagina. On the basis of this research, they argued that women may be able to achieve vaginal orgasm via stimulation of the G-spot because the highly innervated clitoris is pulled closely to the anterior wall of the vagina when the woman is sexually aroused and during vaginal penetration. They assert that since the front wall of the vagina is inextricably linked with the internal parts of the clitoris, stimulating the vagina without activating the clitoris may be next to impossible. In their 2009 published study, the "coronal planes during perineal contraction and finger penetration demonstrated a close relationship between the root of the clitoris and the anterior vaginal wall".
The sensory arm is composed of primary visceral sensory neurons found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), in cranial sensory ganglia: the geniculate, petrosal and nodose ganglia, appended respectively to cranial nerves VII, IX and X. These sensory neurons monitor the levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen and sugar in the blood, arterial pressure and the chemical composition of the stomach and gut content. They also convey the sense of taste and smell, which, unlike most functions of the ANS, is a conscious perception. Blood oxygen and carbon dioxide are in fact directly sensed by the carotid body, a small collection of chemosensors at the bifurcation of the carotid artery, innervated by the petrosal (IXth) ganglion. Primary sensory neurons project (synapse) onto “second order” visceral sensory neurons located in the medulla oblongata, forming the nucleus of the solitary tract (nTS), that integrates all visceral information.
Many large and small muscles have relationships with the ligaments of the sacroiliac joint including the piriformis (see “piriformis syndrome”, a condition often related with sacroiliac joint dysfunction), rectus femoris, gluteus maximus and minimus, erector spinae, latissimus dorsi, thoracolumbar fascia, and iliacus. Any of these muscles can be involved or spasm with a painful and dysfunctional sacroiliac joint. The SI joint is a pain-sensitive structure richly innervated by a combination of unmyelinated free nerve endings and the posterior primary rami of spinal segments L2-S3. The wide possibility of innervation may explain why pain originating from the joint can manifest in so many various ways, with different and unique referral patterns (see “referred pain”) for individual patients. Patients with sacroiliac joint dysfunction can also develop tightness and dysfunction in the hamstring, quadriceps, iliotibial tract (see “iliotibial band syndrome”) and hip flexors, including the psoas muscle.
Thalamocortical axons project primarily from the medial geniculate nucleus via the sublenticular region of the internal capsule, and terminate in an organized topographic manner in the transverse temporal gyri. MMGN radiations terminate in specific locations while thalamocortical fibers from the VMGN terminate in nonspecific clusters of cells and form collateral connections to neighboring cells. Research done by staining the brains of macaque monkeys reveals projections from the ventral nucleus mainly terminating in layers IV and IIIB, with some nonspecific clusters of PIR cells terminating in layers I, II, IIIA, and VI. Fibers from the dorsal nuclei were found to project more directly to the primary auditory area, with most axons terminating in layer IIIB. The magnocellular nucleus projected a small amount of PIR cells with axons mainly terminating in layer 1, though large regions of the middle cortical layers were innervated through collaterally connected CIR neurons.
Langley stated that his choice of autonomic was not intended to imply a special degree of independence for the cells at hand, but rather to demarcate a clear departure from previous nomenclature because his hypothesis, while incorporating much previous research, was largely distinct from his predecessors. Langley rejected that the sympathetic nerves possessed a particular relationship to the 'sympathies,' and aptly pointed out that the presence of ganglial nerves in both the spinal cord and cranium made the 'ganglionic' connections of the peripheral nerves a pointless, if not misleading, term. Instead, he noted that the sympathetic neurons that innervated the entire body tended to have opposing functions to the other autonomic neurons of the tectal and bulbo-sacral regions. The latter two, tectal and bulbo-sacral, were grouped together to form the parasympathetic system because they tended to respond in a like manner to various drugs.
At the cellular level, the aorta and the aortic arch are composed of three layers: The tunica intima, which surrounds the lumen and is composed of simple squamal epithelial cells; the tunica media, composed of smooth cell muscles and elastic fibers; and, the tunica adventitia, composed of loose collagen fibers. Innervated by barometric nerve terminals, the aortic arch is responsible for sensing changes in the dilation of the vascular walls, inducing changes in heart rate to compensate for changes in blood pressure. The aorta begins at the level of the upper border of the second sternocostal articulation of the right side, and runs at first upward, backward, and to the left in front of the trachea; then travels backward on the left side of the trachea and finally passes downward on the left side of the body of the fourth thoracic vertebra. At this point the aortic arch continues as the descending aorta.
Its tritocerebral innervation from the rear of the brain has suggested to some workers that, if an appendage, it is the appendage of the segment anterior to the first antenna, but this is disputed by others who argue that the presence of a well- developed appendage in at least crustaceans in this segment (the second antenna, corresponding to the intercalary segment of insects) rules this out. The most obvious choice for this is the segment whose ganglion is the protocerebrum, which in extant Euarthropoda bears no appendage (apart from the eyes). If the labrum really is an anterior appendage that has migrated to the posterior, then it may be homologous to the "antennae" of onychophorans which seem to be innervated from a very anterior part of the brain, in front of the eyes. It has even been suggested that the labrum belongs to an even more obscure segment that lies in front of the ocular one.
The pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve, the principal motor nerve of the pharynx, arises from the upper part of the ganglion nodosum, and consists principally of filaments from the cranial portion of the accessory nerve. It passes across the internal carotid artery to the upper border of the Constrictor pharyngis medius, where it divides into numerous filaments, which join with branches from the glossopharyngeal, sympathetic, and external laryngeal to form the pharyngeal plexus. From the plexus, branches are distributed to the muscles and mucous membrane of the pharynx (except the stylopharyngeus, which is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)) and the muscles of the soft palate, except the Tensor veli palatini, which is supplied by the nerve to tensor veli palatini, a branch of the nerve to medial pterygoid (which itself is a branch of the mandibular nerve - CNV/3). A minute filament descends and joins the hypoglossal nerve as it winds around the occipital artery.
There are two types: autonomic reflex arc (affecting inner organs) and somatic reflex arc (affecting muscles). Autonomic reflexes sometimes involve the spinal cord and some somatic reflexes are mediated more by the brain than the spinal cord. During a somatic reflex, nerve signals travel along the following pathway: # Somatic receptors in the skin, muscles and tendons # Afferent nerve fibers carry signals from the somatic receptors to the posterior horn of the spinal cord or to the brainstem # An integrating center, the point at which the neurons that compose the gray matter of the spinal cord or brainstem synapse # Efferent nerve fibers carry motor nerve signals from the anterior horn to the muscles # Effector muscle innervated by the efferent nerve fiber carries out the response. A reflex arc, then, is the pathway followed by nerves which (a.) carry sensory information from the receptor to the spinal cord, and then (b.) carry the response generated by the spinal cord to effector organs during a reflex action.
By contrast, the hormones of the anterior pituitary gland (the adenohypophysis) are secreted from endocrine cells that, in mammals, are not directly innervated, yet the secretion of these hormones (adrenocorticotrophic hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, prolactin, and growth hormone) remains under the control of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary gland via releasing factors and release-inhibiting factors; these are blood-borne substances [author means via bloodstream and not by the lymphatic system nor air, nor any other modes of transport] released by hypothalamic neurons into blood vessels at the base of the brain, at the median eminence. These vessels, the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal vessels, carry the hypothalamic factors to the anterior pituitary, where they bind to specific receptors on the surface of the hormone-producing cells. For example, the secretion of growth hormone is controlled by two neuroendocrine systems: the growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) neurons and the somatostatin neurons, which stimulate and inhibit secretion, respectively.
In 2008, they published the first complete 3D sonography of the stimulated clitoris, and republished it in 2009 with new research, demonstrating the ways in which erectile tissue of the clitoris engorges and surrounds the vagina, arguing that women may be able to achieve vaginal orgasm via stimulation of the G-spot because the highly innervated clitoris is pulled closely to the anterior wall of the vagina when the woman is sexually aroused and during vaginal penetration. They assert that since the front wall of the vagina is inextricably linked with the internal parts of the clitoris, stimulating the vagina without activating the clitoris may be next to impossible.See here for the 2009 King's College London's findings on the G-spot and page 145 for ultrasound/physiological material with regard to the G-spot. In their 2009 published study, the "coronal planes during perineal contraction and finger penetration demonstrated a close relationship between the root of the clitoris and the anterior vaginal wall".
" They also stated that light "constant pressure on the clitoris produced an initial burst of single unit firing (maximum frequencies 170–255 Hz) followed by rapid adaptation and a sustained firing (maximum 40 Hz), which was maintained during the stimulation" and that further examination of tonic firing "indicate that the clitoris is innervated by mechano-sensitive myelinated afferent fibers in the pudental nerve which project centrally to the region of the dorsal commissure in the L7-S1 spinal cord". The external phenotype and reproductive behavior of 21 freemartin sheep and two male pseudohermaphrodite sheep were recorded with the aim of identifying any characteristics that could predict a failure to breed. The vagina's length and the size and shape of the vulva and clitoris were among the aspects analyzed. While the study reported that "a number of physical and behavioural abnormalities were detected," it also concluded that "the only consistent finding in all 23 animals was a short vagina which varied in length from 3.1 to 7.0 cm, compared with 10 to 14 cm in normal animals.
Functionally, the external ear is served by three (3) ear muscles, the auricularis posterior muscle (rear ear-muscle), the auricularis superior muscle (upper ear-muscle), and the auricularis anterior muscle (front ear-muscle), the most notable of which is the auricularis posterior muscle, which functions to pull the ear backwards, because it is superficially attached to the ponticulus (bridge) of the conchal cartilage, and to the posterior auricular ligament (rear ligament of the ear). The posterior muscle of the ear is composed of 2–3 fascicles (skeletal-muscle fibers contained in perimysium connective tissue), originates from the mastoid process of the temporal bone and is inserted to the lower part of the cranial surface of the concha, where it is surrounded by fibroareolar tissue deep within the temporal fascia. The posterior auricular artery irrigates the ear tissues with small, branch-artery blood vessels (rami). Likewise, the rear muscle of the ear is innervated with fine rami of the posterior auricular nerve, which is a branch of the facial nerve.

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