1000 Sentences With "in solution" | Random Sentence Generator

The decline in solution-focused hearings occurred across most issue areas, including health care.

If patio furniture feels cumbersome, Dr. Deck's built-in solution might be right for you.

His research team at McGill University in Montreal tried to reproduce the process in solution, but failed.

"Fortunately, congestion pricing comes with its own built-in solution," he said, "which is that it raises a ton of money."

Swallowed in solution, the enzymes in my gut would make short shrift of it, plucking off the amino acids like beads off a necklace.

The clever part is that rainwater isn't pure: It contains compounds like ammonium, calcium and sodium, all of which become ions when they're in solution.

It works pretty similarly to the Oculus Rift's built-in solution, routing the headset's cables to one side and providing on-ear headphones that swing into place.

There is no distortion at higher volumes or echoes that sound like a tin can, but I'd still use speakers or headphones over the built-in solution.

As the authors explain, "such experiments may reveal, with unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution, the structure and dynamics of pure liquids and of chemical or biological samples in solution."

Land animals often add carbon and oxygen to convert it into urea, which is far less toxic, and store the result in solution in a bladder, for periodic evacuation.

A driver can see it from 11 degrees of range in the built-in solution, which is much better than the 8 degrees that you typically get from automotive HUDs.

The DMCA's built-in solution, which requires content creators and filmmakers like me to petition for an exemption to this rule every three years, is problematic in its own right.

And so essentially you take the water out, so you don't need fillers and stabilizers and other products that don't add significant value to the consumer but are needed when a product is in solution.

Despite the number of hearings that the Democrats held on the Affordable Care Act, the decline in solution-focused hearings is fairly linear, beginning in the early 1970s when Democrats held consistent majorities in both chambers.

Death can result within 36-72 hours after ingestion (including inhalation in powder or mist form or injected while dissolved in solution) and, due to the lack of an antidote, medical treatment of acute exposure is limited to supportive measures.

In the post-Edward Snowden world, one would think crimes like the one(s) allegedly committed by Paige Thompson wouldn't still be possible — but there is no "drop-in" solution, no secret computer appliance that can stop all insider theft and-or fraud.

From their time with Lazada, the then-Rocket Internet -owned e-commerce site in Southeast Asia that was later bought by Alibaba, Tamburnotti and Ceyrac came to realize that there was no "plug in" solution for shipping in the same way that Stripe and others enable payments online.

Jacques Dubochet of Switzerland's University of Lausanne, Joachim Frank of Columbia University in New York City, and Richard Henderson of the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in England were honored "for developing cryo-electron microscopy for the high-resolution structure determination of biomolecules in solution," said Göran Hansson, Secretary General of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, in announcing the prize in Stockholm.

Triiodide is observed to be a red colour in solution .

In solution, this dimer quickly reverts to the blue monomer.

Returning to the previous example, let's now construct a barrier that is permeable only to sodium ions. Now, only sodium is allowed to diffuse cross the barrier from its higher concentration in solution A to the lower concentration in solution B. This will result in a greater accumulation of sodium ions than chloride ions in solution B and a lesser number of sodium ions than chloride ions in solution A. This means that there is a net positive charge in solution B from the higher concentration of positively charged sodium ions than negatively charged chloride ions. Likewise, there is a net negative charge in solution A from the greater concentration of negative chloride ions than positive sodium ions. Since opposite charges attract and like charges repel, the ions are now also influenced by electrical fields as well as forces of diffusion.

Ion transporters can also be regulated by the concentration of an ion (not necessarily the ion it transfers) in solution. For example, the electron transport chain is regulated by the presence of H+ ions (pH) in solution.

He thus proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions.

It is fluxional in solution, as the result of rapid cis–trans equilibrium.

The diagrams shown are based on an NMR analysis of the protein in solution.

When in solution, this position varies between the two domains suggesting a flexible dumbbell shape.

The anodic current is the flow of electrons into the anode from a species in solution.

It also hydrocrushes and dissolves biodegradable organics in solution to make them suitable for anaerobic digestion.

Tin in solution as stannic or stannous chloride is precipitated as metal by means of zinc.

The structure of the N-domain of RPSA is similar to those of prokaryotic RPS2. The C-domain is intrinsically disordered in solution. The N-domain is monomeric in solution and unfolds according to a three state equilibrium. The folding intermediate is predominant at 37 °C.

Although there is a great deal of information on the utility of these reagents, very little is known regarding the nature of Turbo- Hauser bases in solution. One reason for that lack of information is that (Turbo)-Hauser bases show a complex behaviour in solution. In 2016, Neufeld et al. showed via Diffusion-Ordered Spectroscopy (DOSY) that at room temperature and high concentrations (0.6 M) the solid state structure of dimeric [iPr2NMgCl·LiCl]2 remains in solution.

Copper azide is very explosive and is too sensitive for any practical use unless handled in solution.

Although treated as salts, alkali diphenylphosphides are highly aggregated in solution. They adopt polymeric structures as solids.

The cobaltic salts corresponding to the oxide Co2O3 are generally unstable compounds which exist only in solution.

In the Inorganica Chimica Acta she published an article about the kinetics of palladium ethylenediamine chloride in solution.

Optically active methaneseleninic acid was stable toward racemization in the solid state, although it racemized very rapidly in solution.

In solution mining the salt reaches the surface as brine, from which the water is evaporated leaving salt crystals.

At low temperatures, where an excess of MgCl2 is available MgCl2 co-coordinated species are present in solution, too.

FleXelect oligopools consist of custom oligonucleotides in solution and can be used for in solution target enrichment prior to next generation DNA sequencing. Target enrichment or In solution hybrid selection is a method for genomic selection in an increasing number of applications such as; # Analysis of custom genomic regions of interest (e.g. specific genes, multiple variants and/or complete pathways). # Analysis of Chromosomal translocation # Validation of Single-nucleotide polymorphism or SNPs (typically after whole genome or whole exome studies) # Other research and diagnostic applications (e.g.

Although there is a great deal of information on the utility of these reagents, very little is known regarding the nature of Hauser bases in solution. One reason for that lack of information is that Hauser bases show a complex behaviour in solution. It was proposed that it could be similar to the Schlenk equilibrium of Grignard reagents in ether solution, where more than one magnesium containing species exists.Neufeld, R.: DOSY External Calibration Curve Molecular Weight Determination as a Valuable Methodology in Characterizing Reactive Intermediates in Solution.

The mechanism by which the Lewis pair binds CO₂ in solution. The amount of conjugated Lewis pairs can be measured and reflects the quantity of CO₂ in solution. Inside oscillatory microfluidic tube, the Switchable Hydrophilicity Solvent (SHS) - in this case DBAE - being protonated and becoming hydrophilic. The hydrophilic state contains bound CO₂.

MOCS2A and MOCS2B subunits form dimers in solution. These dimers in turn dimerize to form the tetrameric molybdopterin synthase complex.

Osmolarity is distinct from molarity because it measures osmoles of solute particles rather than moles of solute. The distinction arises because some compounds can dissociate in solution, whereas others cannot. Ionic compounds, such as salts, can dissociate in solution into their constituent ions, so there is not a one- to-one relationship between the molarity and the osmolarity of a solution. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) dissociates into Na+ and Cl− ions. Thus, for every 1 mole of NaCl in solution, there are 2 osmoles of solute particles (i.e.

The next step of the scheme, ion exchange, removes impurities that cause the downstream polymer product to turn yellow. Four ion exchange columns in series are used to remove these impurities, and they are arranged in the following order: # Strong acid cationic exchanger # Strong base anionic exchanger # Strong acid cationic exchanger # Strong base anionic exchanger The first cationic exchanger replaces the divalent cations in solution with hydrogen ions. The first anionic exchanger replaces the anions in solution with hydroxide ions. The second cationic and anionic exchangers further reduce ion levels in solution.

Preparation of nanoparticles by Laser in Solution Laser ablation synthesis in solution (LASiS) is a commonly used method for obtaining colloidal solution of nanoparticles in a variety of solvents. In the LASiS method, nanoparticles are produced during the condensation of a plasma plume formed by the laser ablation of a bulk metal plate dipped in a liquid solution. LASiS is usually considered a top-down physical approach. In the past years, laser ablation synthesis in solution (LASiS) emerged as a reliable alternative to traditional chemical reduction methods for obtaining noble metal nanoparticles (NMNp).

Aggregation-induced emission (AIE) is an abnormal phenomenon that is observed with certain organic luminophores (fluorescent dyes). Most organic compounds have planar structures and higher photoemission efficiencies in solution than in the solid state. Otherwise said, these fluorophores or fluorescent dyes are much more emissive in solution compared to just the solid form, in that the intensity of their emission is greater in solution. However, some organic luminophores have freely-rotating groups (rotational degrees of freedom), when these molecules are excited instead of releasing that energy as light they relax back down through these rotations.

The increase in temperature causes the E. coli proteins to precipitate, while the P. abyssi alkaline phosphatase remains stably in solution.

171 °C) called quinhydrone (C6H6O2•C6H4O2) is formed. This complex dissolves in hot water, where the two molecules dissociate in solution.

The compound is often depicted as a salt, and it often behaves as such, but it is not ionized in solution.

Cyclohexene has been studied extensively by analytical methods. Cyclohexene oxide can be polymerized in solution, catalyzed by a solid acid catalyst.

Support for this associative mechanism is the finding that Me3SnOH exists in solution as the dimer (Me3Sn)2(μ-OH)2.

When dissolved in water, many metallic oxide form alkaline solutions, while many oxides of nonmetals form acidic solutions. For example, sodium oxide in solution forms the strong base sodium hydroxide, while phosphorus pentoxide in solution forms phosphoric acid.Cook 1968, p.506 Oxygenated anions such as chlorates (), perchlorates (), chromates (), dichromates (), permanganates (), and nitrates () are strong oxidizing agents.

Thermoresponsive polymer chains in solution adopt an expanded coil conformation. At the phase separation temperature they collapse to form compact globuli. This process can be observed directly by methods of static and dynamic light scattering.C. Wu, X. Wang, Globule-to-Coil Transition of a Single Homopolymer Chain in Solution, Physical Review Letters, 1998, Volume 80, pp 4092–4094.

Indeed, solid films of the trimer and tetramer will not undergo any chemical change under such irradiation conditions when not in solution.

This could even be characterized in solution by a high-field shifted 11B-NMR signal at −28.8 characteristic of fourfold coordinated boron.

Sodium rhodizonate has the same structure, with slightly more distorted anions (0.113 Å rms) In solution, the rhodizonate anion is not hydrated.

Retinal, a chromophore in rhodopsin. exists in solution as a racemic pair of enantiomers due to the curvature of an achiral polyene chain.

In intelectin homologs where the N-terminal cysteines are absent, the CRD itself may still capable of forming non-covalent oligomer in solution.

In solution, the acid and the hydrogenrhodizonate ion are mostly hydrated, with some of the carbonyl groups >C=O replaced by geminal hydroxyls, .

The tasteable substances must be in solution in order to penetrate the pits and get to the sensitive tips of the taste cells.

This trend is exemplified by the halogens (from smallest to largest: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2). The same increase of dispersive attraction occurs within and between organic molecules in the order RF, RCl, RBr, RI (from smallest to largest) or with other more polarizable heteroatoms.Schneider,Hans-Jörg Dispersive Interactions in Solution Complexes Dispersive Interactions in Solution Complexes Acc. Chem. Res 2015, 48 , 1815–1822.

This occurs during hydration of metal ions, so colourless anhydrous ionic compounds with an anion absorbing in the infrared can become colourful in solution.

The salts and esters are known as fumarates. Fumarate can also refer to the ion (in solution). The trans isomer possesses a dipole moment.

Metals only exist in solution as coordination complexes, it follows then that this class of compounds is useful in a wide variety of ways.

In solution, it has been found that VEK-30, exhibited the canonical fold of a kringle domain, including a lack of regular secondary structure.

In solution, WGA exists mostly as a heterodimer of 38,000 daltons. It is cationic at physiological pH. It contains a Carbohydrate-binding module called CBM18.

The cyclic pentazolium cation () is not known due to its probable antiaromatic character; whereas the open-chained pentazenium cation () is known. Butler et al. first demonstrated the presence of the cyclic in solution through the decomposition of substituted aryl pentazoles at low temperature. The presence of and (held in solution through the interaction with zinc ions) was proven primarily using 15N NMR techniques of the decomposition products.

Caulton concluded the dissociation of a phosphine from RuCl2L4 in solution can be significant.Hoffman, P.R., Caulton, K.G. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1975, 97 (15), 4221-4228.

The final product 10 was found to spontaneously isomerize in solution to the monocyclic amide 11, with a half-life of 28 minutes at room temperature.

A standard enzyme preparation should be run in parallel with an unknown because standardization of DNA preparations and their degree of polymerization in solution is not possible.

Stokes radius is sometimes used synonymously with effective hydrated radius in solution. Hydrodynamic radius, RH, can refer to the Stokes radius of a polymer or other macromolecule.

As the mixture begins to boil, air bubbles are trapped in solution and locked in to place as the material is heated and polymer is burned off.

The production of LLDPE is initiated by transition metal catalysts, particularly Ziegler or Philips type of catalyst. The actual polymerization process can be done either in solution phase or in gas phase reactors. Usually, octene is the comonomer in solution phase while butene and hexene are copolymerized with ethylene in a gas phase reactor. LLDPE has higher tensile strength and higher impact and puncture resistance than does LDPE.

To address the role of PtdIns in the first step of the two-step Na-path sensory transduction process, the conformation of the sodium ion in solution must be appreciated. It cannot exist as a free ion in solution. Upon solvation, the total molecule is ionized and the sodium-ion is immediately hydrated, involving coordination chemistry, to form Na(H2O)n+ where n varies but is most commonly six.

The essential of crystal formation is letting the sample solution to reach the supersaturated state. Supersaturation is defined by McPherson et al. 2014 as “a non-equilibrium condition in which some quantity of the macromolecule in excess of the solubility limit, under specific chemical and physical conditions, is nonetheless present in solution.” The formation of solids in solution, such as aggregation and crystals, favors the re-establishment of equilibrium.

Levitt is best known as the inventor of the composite pulse and composite pulse decoupling sequences in solution NMR. Other contributions to NMR spectroscopy include the development of symmetry-based recoupling and decoupling sequences in solid-state NMR, and the use of long-lived nuclear spin states and singlet states in solution NMR. He is also the author of the textbook Spin Dynamics. Basics of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.

Coordination cages are three-dimensional ordered structures in solution that act as hosts in host–guest chemistry. They are self-assembled in solution from organometallic precursors, and often rely solely on noncovalent interactions rather than covalent bonds. Coordinate bonds are useful in such supramolecular self-assembly because of their versatile geometries. However, there is controversy over calling coordinate bonds noncovalent, as they are typically strong bonds and have covalent character.

Since then, several other Mg salts, less corrosive than chloride, have been reported. One drawback compared to lithium is magnesium's higher charge (+2) in solution, which tends to result in increased viscosity and reduced mobility in the electrolyte. In solution a number of species may exist depending on counter ions/complexing agents – these often include singly charged species (e.g. MgCl+ in the presence of chloride) – though dimers are often formed (e.g.

It is the opposite in an -configuration furanose. Typically, the anomeric carbon undergoes mutarotation in solution, and the result is an equilibrium mixture of α and β configurations.

The free radical generated from the hydrogen abstraction is then terminated by the free radical in solution. This results in a strong pyridinium acid that can initiate polymerization.

Just like non-magnetic oxide nanoparticles, the surface of ferrite nanoparticles is often modified by surfactants, silica, silicones or phosphoric acid derivatives to increase their stability in solution.

The acidity provided by hydrolysis of the cations in solution dissolves this coating, and thus allows the process to run continuously until one of the reagents is exhausted.

Protein NMR gives comparatively lower resolution of protein structure. It is limited to smaller proteins. However, it can provide information about conformational changes of a protein in solution.

Ni(III) converts BrO42− radical to perbromate BrO4−. A solid monoperiodatonickelate salt KNiIO6·0.5H2O dissolves in a potassium hydroxide and potassium periodate solution to yield diperiodatonickelate in solution.

It was formed when water carrying gypsum in solution deposited the mineral in a crack in the rock. A picture of this vein, called "Homestake" formation, is shown below.

Sedimentation equilibrium can be used to determine molecular mass. It forms the basis for an analytical ultracentrifugation method for measuring molecular masses, such as those of proteins, in solution.

Supersaturation may occur. With very insoluble substances, the concentrations in solution are very low and difficult to determine. The methods used fall broadly into two categories, static and dynamic.

This is the opposite of the order of ionic radii for crystals and shows that in solution the smaller ions (Li+) are more extensively hydrated than the larger (Cs+).

It was formed when water carrying gypsum in solution deposited the mineral in a crack in the rock. A picture of this vein, called "Homestake" formation, is shown below.

"Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Fourier Transform Spectroscopy" Ernst's Nobel lecture. (Includes mention of Jeener's suggestion.) Multi- dimensional FT NMR experiments were then further developed into powerful methodologies for studying molecules in solution, in particular for the determination of the structure of biopolymers such as proteins or even small nucleic acids. In 2002 Kurt Wüthrich shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (with John Bennett Fenn and Koichi Tanaka) for his work with protein FT NMR in solution.

Spiro forms of lactones and oxazines are frequently used as leuco dyes, frequently displaying chromism—reversible structural change between forms giving rise to colorless and colored appearances, especially in solution.

Bovine Lactoferricin contains 25 residues, while Human Lactoferricin contains 49 residues. Also, when placed in solution Bovine Lactoferricin forms a β-pleated sheet, while Human Lactoferricin forms a coiled structure.

A range of qualitative and quantitative tests have been developed to detect phosphate ions (PO43-) in solution. Such tests find use in industrial processes, scientific research, and environmental water monitoring.

This can dissolve in an ammoniacal solution. However cobalt sulfide will precipitate if sulfide is formed during a reaction. Sulfoxylate in solution reacts with thiosulfate to form sulfides and sulfites.

This antibiotic is synthesized by a linear nonribosomal peptide synthetase, surfactin synthetase (), and has, in solution, a characteristic "horse saddle" conformation (PDB: ) that explains its large spectrum of biological activity.

Under sufficiently fast magic angle spinning, or in solution- state NMR, the directionally dependent character of the chemical shielding is time-averaged to zero, leaving only the isotropic chemical shift.

The average isoelectric point of H. salinarum proteins is 5.03. These highly acidic proteins are overwhelmingly negative in charge and are able to remain in solution even at high salt concentrations.

TNP-ATP should be stored at −20 degrees Celsius, in the dark, and used under minimal lighting conditions. When in solution, TNP-ATP has a shelf-life of about 30 days.

Maurizio Cossi, Nadia Rega, Giovanni Scalmani, Vincenzo Barone (2003). "Energies, structures, and electronic properties of molecules in solution with the C-PCM solvation model." J. Comput. Chem. 24(6): 669-681.

In solution, reducing monosaccharides exist in equilibrium between their acyclic and cyclic forms with less than 1% in the acyclic form. The open chain form can close to give the pyranose and furanose with both the α- and β-anomers present for each. The equilibrium population of conformers depends on their relative energies which can be determined to a rough approximation using steric and stereoelectronic arguments. It has been shown that cations in solution can shift the equilibrium.

An important implication of encapsulating a molecule at this level is that the guest is prevented from contacting other molecules that it might otherwise react with. Thus the encapsulated molecule behaves very differently from the way it would when in solution. The guest molecule tends to be extremely unreactive and often has much different spectroscopic signatures. Compounds normally highly unstable in solution, such as arynes or cycloheptatetraene, have been successfully isolated at room temperature when molecularly encapsulated.

The idea to make mechanically strong polymeric materials by 1D supramolecular association of small molecules requires a high association constant between the repeating building blocks. In 1997, E.W. “Bert” Meijer reported a telechelic monomer with ureidopyrimidinone termini as a “self-complementary” quadruple hydrogen bonding motif and demonstrated that the resulting supramolecular polymer in chloroform shows a temperature-dependent viscoelastic property in solution. This is the first demonstration that supramolecular polymers, when sufficiently mechanically robust, are physically entangled in solution.

The fungal Ste50p SAM consists of six helices, which form a compact, globular fold. It is a monomer in solution and often undergoes heterodimerisation (and in some cases oligomerisation) of the protein.

Kenneth A. Connors Chemical Kinetics, the study of reaction rates in solution, 1991, VCH Publishers. In addition, a range of differential equations are present in the study of thermodynamics and quantum mechanics.

In most cases mesocrystals form nanoparticles in solution. These nanoparticles aggregate and arrange in crystallographic formation, without any additives. The main causes of this ordering are tensorial polarization forces and dipole fields.

Aqueous methyl cellulose solutions have been used to slow bacterial and protozoal cell motility for closer inspection. Changing the amount of methyl cellulose in solution permits the adjustment of the solution's viscosity.

In contrast, when the redox analyte is in solution and diffuses to/from the electrode, the peak current is proportional to the square root of the scan rate (see: Randles–Sevcik equation).

4 (1982) 145-191. # R. Kaptein, K. Dijkstra, K. Nicolay, Laser photo-CIDNP as a surface probe for proteins in solution, Nature 274 (1978) 293-294. # P.J. Hore, R.W. Broadhurst, Progr. NMR Spec.

Maekawa et al., (2009) p. 230, provides an excellent graph showing the relationship between equilibrium of carbonic acids (H2CO3, HCO3− and CO32−) and pH in solution. Carbonic acid includes both carbonates and bicarbonates.

In Ireland, local number portability was implemented in 2000, using an IN solution with a shared routing database. Partial mobile number portability was introduced in 1997 with full portability becoming available in 2003.

In solution-phase experiments, the silane is dissolved in an anhydrous solvent and placed in contact with the surface; in vapor-phase experiments, only the vapor of the silane reaches the substrate surface.

Free iodine, slowly liberated from the povidone-iodine (PVP-I) complex in solution, kills cells through iodination of lipids and oxidation of cytoplasmic and membrane compounds. This agent exhibits a broad range of microbicidal activity against bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. Slow release of iodine from the PVP-I complex in solution minimizes iodine toxicity towards mammalian cells. PVP-I can be loaded into hydrogels, which can be based on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), and gelatin, or on crosslinked polyacrylamide.

Attempts to produce more concentrated solutions result in the formation of silica gel. Because the concentration of orthosilicic acid in water is so low, the compounds that are present in solution have not been fully characterized. Linus Pauling predicted that silicic acid would be a very weak acid. :Si(OH)4 Si(OH)3O− \+ H+ The situation changed in 2017, when the orthosilicic acid monomer was obtained by hydrogenolysis of tetrakis(benzoyloxy)silane, (Si(OCH2C6H5)4, in solution in dimethylacetamide or related solvents.

Norman Sheppard FRS (16 May 1921 — 10 April 2015) was a chemist and expert on the application of vibrational spectroscopy to molecular structure, in solids, on surfaces, in solution and in the gas phase.

The smallest molecule is the diatomic hydrogen (H2), with a bond length of 0.74 Å. Effective molecular radius is the size a molecule displays in solution. The table of permselectivity for different substances contains examples.

In general, such silsesquioxane trisilanols form discrete dimers in the solid held together by cooperatively enhanced cyclic hydrogen bonded networks. These dimers are retained in solution and a dynamic equilibrium has been elucidated using NMR.

The amount of argon needed for DCP is much less than that needed for ICP. Also, DCP can analyze samples that have a higher percentage of solid in solution than can be handled by ICP.

Sedimentology vol. 45, no. 2, p. 433-446. The ore is localized in solution-collapse (karst) structures where sulfide minerals preferentially replaced some of the carbonate host rocks, dolomite and limestone), of the Presqu'ile Formation.

J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2012 Vol 293 pp309-312.Rahman, I. et al Determination of lead in solution by solid phase extraction, elution, and spectrophotometric detection using 4-(2-Pyridylazo)-resorcinol. Cent. Eur. J. Chem.

Dicarbonyltris(triphenylphosphine)ruthenium(0) or Roper's complex is a ruthenium metal carbonyl. In it, two carbon monoxide ligands and three triphenylphosphine ligands are coordinated to a central ruthenium(0) center. In solution, this compound readily dissociates one of the three phosphine ligands, thereby generating a reactive 16-electron complex that binds or oxidatively adds a variety of substrates such as alkynes, olefins, dihydrogen, and dioxygen. The compound has a trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry and, in solution, exists as a mixture of two isomers that rapidly interconvert.

220-3, Wiley, New York, 1738. There are indirect and rarely used means of using copper ions in solution to form copper(II) chloride. Electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride with copper electrodes produces (among other things) a blue-green foam that can be collected and converted to the hydrate. While this is not usually done due to the emission of toxic chlorine gas, and the prevalence of the more general chloralkali process, the electrolysis will convert the copper metal to copper ions in solution forming the compound.

To capture genomic regions of interest using in-solution capture, a pool of custom oligonucleotides (probes) is synthesized and hybridized in solution to a fragmented genomic DNA sample. The probes (labeled with beads) selectively hybridize to the genomic regions of interest after which the beads (now including the DNA fragments of interest) can be pulled down and washed to clear excess material. The beads are then removed and the genomic fragments can be sequenced allowing for selective DNA sequencing of genomic regions (e.g., exons) of interest.

In such compounds, the efficacy results from the compound in solution, the structures of such solution species are often poorly understood. Medical texts sometimes suggest that free Au+ ions exist in this and related gold(I) compounds, but the Au-thiolate bonding is highly covalent and free gold ions do not exist in solution. Whereas simple gold thiolates are lipophilic, the carboxylate substituents render disodium aurothiomalate soluble in water. Disodium aurothiomalate contains no Au-C bonds, so it is not an organometallic compound in the formal sense.

It is isoelectronic with hydrogen sulfate, . When an organic group is substituted for the anions, organic fluorosulfonates are formed. In solution the fluorosulfate anion is completely ionised. The volume of the ions is 47.8 cm3/mol.

Chemical sedimentary rock forms when mineral constituents in solution become supersaturated and inorganically precipitate. Common chemical sedimentary rocks include oolitic limestone and rocks composed of evaporite minerals, such as halite (rock salt), sylvite, baryte and gypsum.

Trivalent actinides form ionic compounds with COT ligands, this can be examplified by the reaction of americium triiodide with K2COT. :AmI3 + K2(COT) -> KAm(COT)2 This compound is present in solution as the THF adduct.

Nietlishpach D, Bakhmutov VI, Berke H. Deuterium Quadrupole Coupling Constants and Ionic Bond Character in Transition Metal Hydride Complexes from 2H NMR T1 Relaxation Data in Solution. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1993 v. 115, 9191-9195.

Negatively charged surfaces on microbes have a high affinity for cations such as Ca2+ and, though metabolic function, increase saturation of CO2 in solution. In addition, bacterial ureolysis (hydrolysis of urea) increases pH of the solution.

In solution or blended with maltodextrin, it is slightly more stable. Most products containing sucralose add fillers and additional sweetener to bring the product to the approximate volume and texture of an equivalent amount of sugar.

The first X-ray crystal structure that depicted anion–π interactions was reported in 2004. In addition to this being depicted in the solid state, there is also evidence that the interaction is present in solution.

More generally, the fluorescence of CQDs efficiently responds to pH, local polarity, and to the presence of metal ions in solution, which further expands their potential for nanosensing applications, for instance in the analysis of pollutants.

"Free" gadolinium(III), e.g. [GdCl2(H2O)6]+, is toxic, so chelating agents are essential for biomedical applications. Simple monodentate or even bidentate ligands will not suffice because they do not remain bound to Gd3+ in solution.

This is known as the zone of equivalence or equivalence point. When the amount of antigen in solution exceeds the amount of antibody, the amount of precipitation will decrease. This is known as the antigen excess zone.

CMC is determined by establishing inflection points for pre- determined surface tension of surfactants in solution. Plotting the inflection point against the surfactant concentration will provide insight into the critical micelle concentration by showing stabilization of phases.

The first is inertial effects. The inertia in laminar flow can cause cross streamline migration of particles in solution. The inertial effects are related to the Reynold's number. Another effect is viscoelastic focusing in non-Newtonian fluids.

It is prepared by treating potassium dichromate with potassium hydroxide. In solution, the behavior of potassium and sodium dichromates are very similar. When treated with lead(II) nitrate, it gives an orange-yellow precipitate, lead(II) chromate.

This pKa value is close to that of acetic acid. Below a pH of 4.7, the protonated hydroperoxyl radical will dominate in solution while at pH above 4.7 the superoxide radical anion will be the main species.

With ketones and aldehydes, it condenses to give the hydrazones: :CH3C6H4SO2NHNH2 \+ R2C=O → CH3C6H4SO2NHN=CR2 \+ H2O Upon heating in solution, it degrades, releasing diimide (N2H2), a useful reducing agent. Triisopropylbenzenesulfonylhydrazide is far more useful for this reaction.

Regrelor is structurally similar to AMP, just like ticagrelor. Regrelor has 4 hydrogen bond donors and 11 acceptors. It is produced as a disodium salt. The two sodium atoms bind the negatively charged phosphate moiety in solution.

Electron microscope image of canine parvovirus isolated using buoyant density centrifugation Buoyant density centrifugation (also isopycnic centrifugation or equilibrium density-gradient centrifugation) uses the concept of buoyancy to separate molecules in solution by their differences in density.

Off-resin cyclization is a solid-phase synthesis of key intermediates, followed by the key cyclization in solution phase, the final deprotection of any masked side chains is also carried out in solution phase. This has the disadvantages that the efficiencies of solid-phase synthesis are lost in the solution phase steps, that purification from by-products, reagents and unconverted material is required, and that undesired oligomers can be formed if macrocycle formation is involved. The use of pentafluorophenyl esters (FDPP, PFPOH) and BOP-Cl are useful for cyclising peptides.

A Job plot, otherwise known as the method of continuous variation or Job's method, is a method used in analytical chemistry to determine the stoichiometry of a binding event. The method is named after Paul Job and is also used in instrumental analysis and advanced chemical equilibrium texts and research articles. Job first published his method in 1928, while studying the associations of ions in solution. By plotting the UV absorbance of a solution of against the mole fraction of , he produced a graph which provided information about the equilibrium complexes present in solution.

In 2002, Kurt Wuthrich won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in solution, demonstrating how the 2D NOE method (NOESY) can be used to constrain the three-dimensional structures of large biological macromolecules.. Professor Anil Kumar was the first to apply the two- dimensional Nuclear Overhauser Effect (2D-NOE now known as NOESY) experiment to a biomolecule, which opened the field for the determination of three- dimensional structures of biomolecules in solution by NMR spectroscopy.

Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA+ H+ \+ A. In solution there exists an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant K is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [H2O] means the concentration of H2O. The acid dissociation constant Ka is generally used in the context of acid-base reactions.

Ions in an aqueous solutions display ion specific behavior that has been commonly exemplified by the Hofmeister series. Stemming from observations by Franz Hofmeister in the 1870s with egg white lysozyme, lyotropic effects led to a classification of ions on their abilities to salt in or salt out proteins. Because of the positive charge of lysozyme, the original series turned out to be different that the series for most proteins. Thus, the series can change depending on the protein in solution and the concentrations of the ions in solution.

Newborn human infants also demonstrate preferences for high sugar concentrations and prefer solutions that are sweeter than lactose, the sugar found in breast milk. Sweetness appears to have the highest taste recognition threshold, being detectable at around 1 part in 200 of sucrose in solution. By comparison, bitterness appears to have the lowest detection threshold, at about 1 part in 2 million for quinine in solution. In the natural settings that human primate ancestors evolved in, sweetness intensity should indicate energy density, while bitterness tends to indicate toxicity.

They were far more impressed, and Ostwald even came to Uppsala to persuade Arrhenius to join his research team. Arrhenius declined, however, as he preferred to stay in Sweden-Norway for a while (his father was very ill and would die in 1885) and had received an appointment at Uppsala. In an extension of his ionic theory Arrhenius proposed definitions for acids and bases, in 1884. He believed that acids were substances that produce hydrogen ions in solution and that bases were substances that produce hydroxide ions in solution.

A stability constant (formation constant, binding constant) is an equilibrium constant for the formation of a complex in solution. It is a measure of the strength of the interaction between the reagents that come together to form the complex. There are two main kinds of complex: compounds formed by the interaction of a metal ion with a ligand and supramolecular complexes, such as host–guest complexes and complexes of anions. The stability constant(s) provide the information required to calculate the concentration(s) of the complex(es) in solution.

Thus, the flow of groundwater can be sufficient to transport the particles. Nanoparticles then can remain suspended in solution longer to establish an in situ treatment zone.Zhang, W.; Cao, J.; Elliot, D. (2005). Iron nanoparticles for site remediation.

Caesium tungstate or cesium tungstate is an inorganic chemical compound that is notable for forming a very dense liquid in solution. The solution is used in diamond processing, since diamond sinks in it, whereas most other rocks float.

After being placed onto the substrate, a source of heat is applied to evaporate all undesired liquid. While the liquid is evaporating, the particles that were once in solution adhere to each other, thus forming a thin film.

Hydrazine is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is a simple pnictogen hydride, and is a colorless and flammable liquid with an ammonia- like odor. Hydrazine is highly toxic unless handled in solution as e.g., hydrazine hydrate ().

Human PNMT forms dimers in solution. When PNMT crystals are grown in non-reducing solutions, two disulfide bonds form between cysteines 48 and 139 on opposite chains. This dimerization has no effect on the catalytic activity of the enzyme.

Other alcoholic or non- alcoholic drinks, carbonated or non-carbonated, may be housed in a keg as well. Carbonated drinks are generally kept under pressure in order to maintain carbon dioxide in solution, preventing the beverage from becoming flat.

Colloidal platinum NPs protected by Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) were synthesised and their catalytic properties measured. It was determined that they were more active in solution and inactive when phase separated due to its solubility being inversely proportional to temperature.

However some are known to exist as dimers or tetramers in solution. Eleven crystal structures for this superfamily have been determined thus far, six of which are likely oligomers. Two distinct dimers and one tetrameric arrangement has been documented.

H. Kuhn: Viscosity, sedimentation, and diffusion of long-chain molecules in solution as determined by experiments on large scale models. J. Colloid Sci. 5:331 (1950). Polyene: potential energy (troughs of the nuclear shells neglected) and π-electron density.

The basic property of fluorescence are extensively used, such as a marker of labelled components in cells (fluorescence microscopy) or as an indicator in solution (Fluorescence spectroscopy), but other additional properties, not found with radioactivity, make it even more extensively used.

Metallotolerants are extremophiles that are able to survive in environments with a high concentration of dissolved heavy metals in solution. Metallotolerants may be found in environments containing arsenic, cadmium, copper, and zinc. Known metallotolerants include Ferroplasma sp. and Cupriavidus metallidurans.

For laboratory organic synthesis, many organolithium reagents are commercially available in solution form. These reagents are highly reactive, and are sometimes pyrophoric. Like its inorganic compounds, almost all organic compounds of lithium formally follow the duet rule (e.g., BuLi, MeLi).

Two types of photochemical systems operate via photocatalysis. One uses semiconductor surfaces as catalysts. In these devices the semiconductor surface absorbs solar energy and acts as an electrode for water splitting. The other methodology uses in-solution metal complexes as catalysts.

Mineralogical Magazine, Vol.54, 637–644. which facilitates the chemical reactions to precipitate any calcium carbonate remaining in solution as a stalagmite and micro-gours. This chemical reaction creating calthemites, is different from that which creates speleothems in limestone caves.

In a related experiment, a crystal suspension of a racemic amino acid derivative continuously stirred, results in a 100% crystal phase of one of the enantiomers because the enantiomeric pair is able to equilibrate in solution (compare with dynamic kinetic resolution).

The highest resolution structure is from Salmonella typhimurium (1.7 A), with PDB ID 3na5. In addition, biochemical studies have shown that PGM from S. typhimurium is a dimer in solution based on analytical ultracentrifugation and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS).

1,3-Cyclohexanedione is produced by semi-hydrogenation of resorcinol: :C6H4(OH)2 \+ H2 → C6H8O2 1,3-Cyclohexanedione exists in solution as the enol. It reacts under acid catalysis with alcohols to 3-alkoxyenones. :Enolization of 1,3-cyclohexanedione. Its pKa is 5.26.

Electrolysis in an aqueous solution is a similar process as mentioned in electrolysis of water. However, it is considered to be a complex process because the contents in solution have to be analyzed in half reactions, whether reduced or oxidized.

The Robinsons found that, at different ratios of anthocyanins to copigments, the copigments had different effects and they postulated that this was due to the copigments breaking up the anthocyanin complexes, which they observed when they were in solution together.

The resulting fermentation generates CO2 that is trapped in the bottle, remaining in solution and providing natural carbonation. Bottle-conditioned beers may be either filled unfiltered direct from the fermentation or conditioning tank, or filtered and then reseeded with yeast.

1,4-Dioxotetralin and its aromatized tautomer 1,4-naphthalenediol coexist in equal abundance in solution. The isomerization of cyclohexadienones gives the aromatic tautomer phenol. Isomerization of 1,4-naphthalenediol at 200 °C produces a 2:1 mixture with its keto form, 1,4-dioxotetralin.

Richens, p. 544. The solvation number of mercury(II) is most likely to be 6.Richens, p. 555. The bis aqua structure of the mercury(I) ion,[(H2O)-Hg-Hg-(OH2]+, found in solid compounds, is also found in solution.

At pH 7, glucose exists in solution in cyclic hemiacetal form as 63.6% β-D-glucopyranose and 36.4% α-D-glucopyranose, the proportion of linear and furanose form being negligible. The glucose oxidase binds specifically to β-D-glucopyranose and does not act on α-D-glucose. It is able to oxidise all of the glucose in solution because the equilibrium between the α and β anomers is driven towards the β side as it is consumed in the reaction. Glucose oxidase catalyzes the oxidation of β-D-glucose into D-glucono-1,5-lactone, which then hydrolyzes to gluconic acid.

At lower temperatures PNIPA orders itself in solution in order to hydrogen bond with the already arranged water molecules. The water molecules must reorient around the nonpolar regions of PNIPA which results in a decreased entropy. At lower temperatures, such as room temperature, the negative enthalpy term (\Delta H ) from hydrogen bonding effects dominates the Gibbs free energy, \Delta G = \Delta H - T \Delta S \,, causing the PNIPA to absorb water and dissolve in solution. At higher temperatures, the entropy term (\Delta S ) dominates, causing the PNIPA to release water and phase separate which can be seen in the following demonstration.

MeAN can undergo electropolymerization, if it is submitted to electroreduction at metallic cathodes in an organic anhydrous medium, for example; acetonitrile. There are two types of polymers that can be obtained at the end of the synthesis; a physisorbed polymer and a grafted polymer. The mechanism accounting for the non-grafted polymer is pretty well understood: it proceeds via the formation of a radical anion (the product of reduction of the vinylic monomer), which dimerizes in solution because of a radical–radical coupling mechanism (RRC) to deliver a di-anion acting as the initiator of a polymerization reaction in solution.

Ed. 2007, 46, 8342–8356. It is therefore of immense importance to understand the progression from solution to the nucleus to the crystal structures, in other terms, how the entropy dominated situation in solution converts to an enthalpy driven one in the crystals through the nucleation step. As the nucleus is difficult to identify, the approaches made towards this end can be generally divided into two categories. The first type centers on the studies in solution through various spectroscopic techniques to understand the structure of the assembly in the solution and these studies give an idea about the initial stages of crystallization.

As the Fenton reaction depends on the simultaneous presence (in solution) of dissolved Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions, its kinetics are influenced by the respective solubilities of both species as a direct-function of the solution's pH. As Fe3+ is about 100 times less soluble than Fe2+ in natural water at near-neutral pH, the ferric ion concentration is the limiting factor for the reaction rate. The reaction only proceeds rapidly under acidic conditions. At high pH, under alkaline conditions, the reaction slows down due to precipitation of Fe(OH)3, lowering the concentration of the Fe3+ species in solution.

Mass spectrometry of proteins requires that the proteins in solution or solid state be turned into an ionized form in the gas phase before they are injected and accelerated in an electric or magnetic field for analysis. The two primary methods for ionization of proteins are electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI). In electrospray, the ions are created from proteins in solution, and it allows fragile molecules to be ionized intact, sometimes preserving non-covalent interactions. In MALDI, the proteins are embedded within a matrix normally in a solid form, and ions are created by pulses of laser light.

Other structural factors that influence the magnitude of the acid dissociation constant include inductive effects, mesomeric effects, and hydrogen bonding. Hammett type equations have frequently been applied to the estimation of pKa. The quantitative behaviour of acids and bases in solution can be understood only if their pKa values are known. In particular, the pH of a solution can be predicted when the analytical concentration and pKa values of all acids and bases are known; conversely, it is possible to calculate the equilibrium concentration of the acids and bases in solution when the pH is known.

This technique relies upon the accurate measurement of heat changes that follow the interaction of protein molecules in solution, without the need to label or immobilize the binding partners, since the absorption or production of heat is an intrinsic property of virtually all biochemical reactions. ITC provides information regarding the stoichiometry, enthalpy, entropy, and binding kinetics between two interacting proteins. Microscale thermophoresis (MST), is a new method that enables the quantitative analysis of molecular interactions in solution at the microliter scale. The technique is based on the thermophoresis of molecules, which provides information about molecule size, charge and hydration shell.

C: Microdialysis Protein crystals are almost always grown in solution. The most common approach is to lower the solubility of its component molecules very gradually; if this is done too quickly, the molecules will precipitate from solution, forming a useless dust or amorphous gel on the bottom of the container. Crystal growth in solution is characterized by two steps: nucleation of a microscopic crystallite (possibly having only 100 molecules), followed by growth of that crystallite, ideally to a diffraction-quality crystal. The solution conditions that favor the first step (nucleation) are not always the same conditions that favor the second step (subsequent growth).

Acid strength refers to the tendency of an acid, symbolised by the chemical formula HA, to dissociate into a proton, H+, and an anion, A−. The dissociation of a strong acid in solution is effectively complete, except in its most concentrated solutions. :HA → H+ \+ A− Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl), perchloric acid (HClO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). A weak acid is only partially dissociated, with both the undissociated acid and its dissociation products being present, in solution, in equilibrium with each other. :HA H+ \+ A−. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) is an example of a weak acid.

The Helmholtz model, while a good foundation for the description of the interface does not take into account several important factors: diffusion/mixing in solution, the possibility of adsorption on to the surface and the interaction between solvent dipole moments and the electrode.

There appear to be no reports about the stability of sterigmatocystin, other than in solution, where it is similar to the aflatoxins. There is one report that phosphine gas significantly depresses the formation of sterigmatocystin when cereals are inoculated with A. versicolor.

Once electrical potential is applied, impure lead at the anode dissolves and plates onto the cathode, leaving the majority of the impurities in solution. This is a high-cost process and thus mostly reserved for refining bullion containing high percentages of impurities.

The FlexArrayer is an in-house custom oligonucleotide synthesis instrument. The FlexArrayer facilitates high troughput synthesis of FleXelect oligopools for in-solution target enrichment as well as custom microarray production. The FlexArrayer is also applicable for array based re-sequencing.SM Carr et al.

Calcium bentonite is a useful adsorbent of ions in solution,Lagaly G., 1995. Surface and interlayer reactions: bentonites as adsorbents. pp. 137–144, in Churchman, G.J., Fitzpatrick, R.W., Eggleton R.A. Clays Controlling the Environment. Proceedings of the 10th International Clay Conference, Adelaide, Australia.

Deuterium oxide is often used instead of water when collecting FTIR spectra of proteins in solution. H2O creates a strong band that overlaps with the amide I region of proteins. The band from D2O is shifted away from the amide I region.

Yousif has published many new reactions of Lawesson's reagent. Prof T. B. Rauchfuss, who is in the United States did some very important work on Lawesson's reagent. He did the 31P NMR experiment which proved that Lawesson's reagent could form the dithiophosphine ylides in solution.

Often these phenomena can be avoided by reducing the concentration of the complex in solution. Neither these physical state changes involve a chemical reaction mechanism but they are worth mentioning here since the resulting data is at times confused with some chemical reaction mechanisms.

He used NMR spectroscopy to study rate of change of Grignard reagents and the structure of Grignard reagents in solution. He also studied spin-spin coupling in a variety of organic compounds, using density matrix calculations to examine the spin systems that NMR analyses detect.

BCl3 is an aggressive reagent that can form hydrogen chloride upon exposure to moisture or alcohols. The dimethyl sulfide adduct (BCl3SMe2), which is a solid, is much safer to use, when possible, but H2O will destroy the BCl3 portion while leaving dimethyl sulfide in solution.

Moreover, the optical rotation of a compound may be non-linearly dependent on its enantiomeric excess because of aggregation in solution. For these reasons other methods of determining the enantiomeric ratio, such as gas chromatography or HPLC with a chiral column, are generally preferred.

The increased charge increases the hydrophilicity of gliadins, causing them to stretch out in solution. Deamidation of 20% of glutamine side chains to glutamate suffices to generate a soluble product. This renders gluten soluble enough without alcohol to mix with other products like milk.

Most of the time, the lake is stable and the remains in solution in the lower layers. However, over time, the water becomes supersaturated, and if an event such as an earthquake or landslide occurs, large amounts of may suddenly come out of solution.

The two developers have markedly different character. Glycin is slower-acting, but much longer-lasting in solution. Glycin is rarely used as a developing agent, primarily because it is expensive. In its dry form, it also has limited shelf life compared to Metol and Phenidone.

In the solid state, the unsolvated compound is dimeric, with two potassium and two nitrogen atoms forming a square. This compound is soluble in hydrocarbon solvents and conducts electricity poorly in solution and in the melt. This is attributed to very strong ion pairing.

Hypochlorites are generally unstable and many compounds exist only in solution. Lithium hypochlorite LiOCl, calcium hypochlorite Ca(OCl)2 and barium hypochlorite Ba(ClO)2 have been isolated as pure anhydrous compounds. All are solids. A few more can be produced as aqueous solutions.

Make a two-point Arrhenius plot for each faculty member, evaluating ΔH‡ and ΔS‡. Examine the plot of ΔH‡ against ΔS‡ for evidence of an isokinetic relationship.Connors, K. A. Chemical kinetics : the study of reaction rates in solution; VCH: New York, N.Y., 1990; 383.

The first NMR spectrum of a stable carbocation in solution was published by Doering et al. in 1958. It was the heptamethylbenzenium ion, made by treating hexamethylbenzene with methyl chloride and aluminium chloride. The stable 7-norbornadienyl cation was prepared by Story et al.

There is a pH- dependent Z to E isomer switch that occurs in both pulvinate moieties, which yields four stereoisomeric forms (E/E, E/Z, Z/Z, Z/E). These stereoisomers may have a widely differing ability to form complexes with Cs+ in solution.

Cerilliant innovated Snap-N-Shoot ready-to-use reference standards in solution, pioneered DEA-exempt preparations of controlled substances in solution, was the first to offer certified isotope-labeled drug reference standards, and the first to develop critical metabolites, impurities, and degradants of certain drugs and environmental contaminants. In 2000, Radian's parent, URS Corporation, made the decision to divest the division. Cerilliant was formed following the purchase of the division by private investors. Cerilliant provides catalog and custom products and services including Certified Solution Standards, Certified Spiking Solutions, custom organic synthesis of neat reference materials as well as independent analytical certifications and custom packaging of client reference standards.

Microwave digestion is a common technique used by elemental scientists to dissolve heavy metals in the presence of organic molecules prior to analysis by inductively coupled plasma, atomic absorption, or atomic emission measurements. This technique is usually accomplished by exposing a sample to a strong acid in a closed vessel and raising the pressure and temperature through microwave irradiation. This increase in temperature and pressure of the low pH sample medium increases both the speed of thermal decomposition of the sample and the solubility of heavy metals in solution. Once these heavy metals are in solution, it is possible to quantify the sample through elemental techniques.

In 1935, state engineer Alfred Merritt Smith wrote about Steamboat Springs: “Geologically, the springs are among the most interesting in the world, for they demonstrate in a striking way how mineral veins and deposits are formed. The hot water is constantly depositing silica, gold, silver, mercury, antimony, and other minerals and metals, which it holds in solution. The silica is held in solution as a jelly-like colloid, and upon the evaporation of the water is deposited as translucent gelatinous silica, which on the surface is gradually dehydrated to become amorphous white sinter. In cracks and crevices, the silica becomes banded chalcedony, or even quartz.

As in any chromatography, equilibrium is established between molecules of a given kind bound to the matrix and those of the same kind free in solution. Because the number of binding sites is finite, when the concentration of molecules free in solution is large relative to the dissociation constant for the sites, those sites will mostly be filled. This results in a downward-curvature in the plot of bound vs free solute, in the simplest case giving a Langmuir isotherm. A molecule with a high affinity for the matrix (the displacer) will compete more effectively for binding sites, leaving the mobile phase enriched in the lower- affinity solute.

Heteroarm polymers have been shown to aggregate into particularly interesting supramolecular formations such as stars, segmented ribbons, and core-shell-corona micellar assemblies depending on their arms' solubility in solution, which can be affected by changes in temperature, pH, solvent, etc. These self-assembly properties have implications for solubility of the whole star polymers themselves and for other solutes in solution. For Heteroarm polymers, increasing the molecular weight of soluble chains increases the overall solubility of the star. Certain Heteroarm star-block polymers have been shown to stabilize water-organic solvent emulsions, while others have demonstrated the ability to increase the solubility of inorganic salts in organic solutions.

As the Haber–Weiss reaction depends on the presence of both Fe3+ and Fe2+ in solution, its kinetics is influenced by the respective solubilities of both species whose are directly function of the solution pH. As Fe3+ is about 100 times less soluble than Fe2+ in natural waters at near- neutral pH, the ferric ion concentration is the limiting factor for the reaction rate. The reaction can only proceed with a fast enough rate under sufficiently acidic conditions. At high pH, under alkaline conditions, the reaction considerably slows down because of the precipitation of Fe(OH)3 which notably lowers the concentration of the Fe3+ species in solution.

Steps of 321x321px X-ray crystallography is one of the more efficient and important methods for attempting to decipher the three dimensional configuration of a folded protein. To be able to conduct X-ray crystallography, the protein under investigation must be located inside a crystal lattice. To place a protein inside a crystal lattice, one must have a suitable solvent for crystallization, obtain a pure protein at supersaturated levels in solution, and precipitate the crystals in solution. Once a protein is crystallized, x-ray beams can be concentrated through the crystal lattice which would diffract the beams or shoot them outwards in various directions.

Parida, S. K.; Dash, S.; Patel, S.; Mishra, B. K. Adsorption of organic molecules on silica surface. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2006, 121, 77-110. More specifically, the mechanisms involved in adsorption include ion exchange (replacement of counter ions adsorbed from the solution by similarly charged ions), ion pairing (adsorption of ions from solution phase onto sites on the substrates that carry the opposite charge), hydrophobic bonding (non-polar attraction between groups on the substrate surface and molecules in solution), polarization of p-electrons polar interactions between partially charged sites on the substrate surface and molecules carrying opposite partial charges in solution, and covalent bonds.

A bridging ligand links two or more metal centers. Virtually all inorganic solids with simple formulas are coordination polymers, consisting of metal ion centres linked by bridging ligands. This group of materials includes all anhydrous binary metal ion halides and pseudohalides. Bridging ligands also persist in solution.

In vivo, adrenochrome is synthesized by the oxidation of epinephrine. In vitro, silver oxide (Ag2O) is used as an oxidizing agent.MacCarthy, Chim, Ind. Paris 55,435(1946) In solution, adrenochrome is pink and further oxidation of the compound causes it to polymerize into brown or black melanin compounds.

Most simple metallated compounds are commercially available in both the solid and solution phases, with solution phase metallated compounds available in a wide range of solvents and concentrations. These compounds may also be created in the laboratory as an in situ synthetic intermediate or separately in solution.

The bismuth phosphate would then be precipitated as a by product, leaving the plutonium behind in solution. This step was then repeated in the third step. The plutonium was reduced again by adding ferrous ammonium sulfate. Bismuth nitrate and phosphoric acid were added and bismuth phosphate precipitated.

1884 was also the year when Svante Arrhenius submitted his PhD theses in which he advocated the existence of ions in solution, and defined acids as hydronium ion donors and bases as hydroxide ions donors. For that work, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1903.

These conformation types are distinguished by the number of atoms in the hydrogen-bonded ring that is formed in solution; 8-helix, 10-helix, 12-helix, 14-helix, and 10/12-helix have been reported. Generally speaking, β-peptides form a more stable helix than α-peptides.

1 Chemists often refer to them as "pillarenes"Tan, L.-L.; Zhang, Y.; Li, B.; Wang, K.; Zhang, S. X.-A.; Tao, Y.; Yang, Y.-W. Selective Recognition of "Solvent" Molecules in Solution and the Solid State by 1,4-Dimethoxypillar[5]arene Driven by Attractive Forces.

983 Sodium Potassium tartrate is also important in the food industry. It is a common precipitant in protein crystallography and is also an ingredient in the Biuret reagent which is used to measure protein concentration. This ingredient maintains cupric ions in solution at an alkaline pH.

Tranilast is an analog of a metabolite of tryptophan, and its chemical name is 3′,4′-dimethoxycinnamoyl) anthranilic acid (N-5′). It is almost insoluble in water, easily soluble in dimethylsulfoxide, soluble in dioxane, and very slightly soluble in ether. It is photochemically unstable in solution.

Bromophenol blue is also used as a dye. At neutral pH, the dye absorbs red light most strongly and transmits blue light. Solutions of the dye, therefore, are blue. At low pH, the dye absorbs ultraviolet and blue light most strongly and appears yellow in solution.

Twiss & Moores 2000, p. 394 Diffusion creep can also be simultaneous with pressure solution. Pressure solution is, like Coble creep, a mechanism in which material moves along grain boundaries. While in Coble creep the particles move by "dry" diffusion, in pressure solution they move in solution.

Tetraiodonickelate is a complex ion of nickel with four iodide atoms [NiI4]2− arranged in a tetrahedron. [NiI4]2− is red in solution. This colour is due to absorption around 530 nm and below 450 nm. Maximum light transmission is around 620 nm, which is red.

In accordance with Henry's Law, the excess CO2 dissolved in the drink comes out of solution. Eventually it reaches a new dynamic equilibrium state, with a much lower partial pressure of CO2 in the headspace and thus a much lower amount of CO2 held in solution.

ILK1 is linked to hyperosmotic stress sensitivity. ILK1 reduced salt stress in seedlings placed in solution with increased concentrations of salt. ILK1 concentrations remain fairly constant throughout development regardless of a high salt exposure. Previously, it was believed that K+ accumulation was reduced in increased salt concentration.

Schwille, P.; Myer-Almes, F.J.; Rigler, R. Dual-color fluorescence cross- correlation spectroscopy for multicomponent diffusional analysis in solution. (1997) Biophys. J. 72, 1878-1886. It is essentially an extension of the fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) procedure by utilizing two differentially colored molecules, instead of one.

Cyanuric acid can be viewed as the cyclic trimer of the elusive species cyanic acid, HOCN. The ring can readily interconvert between two structures via keto–enol tautomerism. The triol tautomer, which may have aromatic character, predominates in solution. The hydroxyl (-OH) groups assume phenolic character.

Structural isomerism occurs when the bonds are themselves different. Four types of structural isomerism are recognized: ionisation isomerism, solvate or hydrate isomerism, linkage isomerism and coordination isomerism. # Ionisation isomerism – the isomers give different ions in solution although they have the same composition. This type of isomerism occurs when the counter ion of the complex is also a potential ligand. For example, pentaamminebromocobalt(III) sulphate [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4 is red violet and in solution gives a precipitate with barium chloride, confirming the presence of sulphate ion, while pentaamminesulphatecobalt(III) bromide [Co(NH3)5SO4]Br is red and tests negative for sulphate ion in solution, but instead gives a precipitate of AgBr with silver nitrate.Huheey, James E., Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed., Harper & Row 1983), p.524–5 # Solvate or hydrate isomerism – the isomers have the same composition but differ with respect to the number of molecules of solvent that serve as ligand vs simply occupying sites in the crystal. Examples: [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 is violet colored, [CrCl(H2O)5]Cl2·H2O is blue-green, and [CrCl2(H2O)4]Cl·2H2O is dark green.

At -78.5 °C methyldiborane disproportionates slowly first to diborane and 1,1-dimethyldiborane. In solution methylborane is more stable against disproportionation than dimethylborane. :2MeB2H5 1,1-Me2B2H4 \+ B2H6 K=2.8 Me=CH3. By reacting methyldiborane with ether, dimethylether borine is formed (CH3)2O.BH3 leaving methylborane which rapidly dimerises to 1,2-dimethyldiborane.

Sci Technol. 1989, 23, 832-838 Above the CMC, the solubility of the surfactant within the aqueous solution has been exceeded. The energy required to keep the surfactant in solution no longer is the lowest energy state. To decrease free energy of the system the surfactant is precipitated out.

Organogallium compounds are also less reactive than organoaluminum compounds. They do form stable peroxides. These alkylgalliums are liquids at room temperature, having low melting points, and are quite mobile and flammable. Triphenylgallium is monomeric in solution, but its crystals form chain structures due to weak intermolecluar Ga···C interactions.

Simply-stated, it involves coupling of the electron spin with the orbital angular momentum of non-circular orbits. In addition, the presence of paramagnetic species in solution enhances intersystem crossing.Douglas A. Skoog, F. James Holler, and Timothy A. Nieman. Principles of Instrumental Analysis, 5th Ed. Brooks/Cole, 1998.

Reactions involving fluorenylidene proceed through either the triplet or singlet state carbene, and the products formed depend on the relative concentration of spin states in solution, as influenced by experimental conditions. The rate of intersystem crossing is determined by the temperature and concentration of specific spin- trapping agents.

Her PhD work was under the direction of Sir James Walker. She worked on verifying the Stokes-Einstein law for diffusion in solution. She studied how viscosity and temperature affected the diffusion of iodine in various solutions. The work was published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society.

So far not many structures of Turbo-Hauser bases are known. Generally, they show a complex temperature and concentration dependent behaviour in solution.Neufeld, R.: DOSY External Calibration Curve Molecular Weight Determination as a Valuable Methodology in Characterizing Reactive Intermediates in Solution. In: eDiss, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen. 2016.

In the presence of a cationic photoinitiator photopolymer SU-8 forms networks with other polymers in solution. Basic scheme shown below. SU-8 photopolyermization SU-8 is an example of an intramolecular photopolymerization forming a matrix of cross-linked material. Negative resists can also be made using co-polymerization.

In the event that you have two different monomers, or oligomers, in solution with multiple functionalities it is possible for the two to polymerize and form a less soluble polymer. Manufacturers also use light curing systems in OEM assembly applications such as specialty electronics or medical device applications.

Uranyl sulfate in solution is readily photochemically reduced to uranium(IV) sulfate. The photoreduction is carried out in the sun and requires the addition of ethanol as a reducing agent. Uranium(IV) crystallizes or is precipitated by ethanol in excess. It can be obtained with different degrees of hydration.

Tris(o-tolyl)phosphine is an organophosphorus compound with the formula P(C6H4CH3)3. It is a white, water-insoluble solid that is soluble in organic solvents. In solution it slowly converts to the phosphine oxide. As a phosphine ligand, it has a wide cone angle of 194°.

Alkyl and aryl copper complexes aggregate both in crystalline form and in solution. Aggregation is especially evident for charge-neutral organocopper compounds, i.e. species with the empirical formula (RCu), which adopt cyclic structures. Since each copper center requires at least two ligands, the organic group is a bridging ligand.

Hexafluorophosphoric acid is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula (also written ). This strong Brønsted acid features a non-coordinating anion, hexafluorophosphate (). It is formed from the reaction of hydrogen fluoride with phosphorus pentafluoride. Like many strong acids, hexafluorophosphoric acid is not isolable but is handled only in solution.

Graphene can be created by cutting open carbon nanotubes. In one such method multi-walled carbon nanotubes are cut open in solution by action of potassium permanganate and sulfuric acid. In another method graphene nanoribbons were produced by plasma etching of nanotubes partly embedded in a polymer film.

Two cyanostars can be threaded onto a phosphate diester structure, forming a rotaxane. Because they have a high affinity for the central phosphate group only when it is in its anionic form, there is a substantial and reversible structural change in response to acid–base changes in solution.

The latter is also popular e.g. in NMR spectroscopic investigations of hydrogen bonds in solution and the solid state. Both intra- and intermolecular structural elements can be investigated e.g. via deuterium REDOR (an established solid state NMR pulse sequence to measure dipolar couplings between deuterons and other spins).

Murexide in its dry state has the appearance of a reddish purple powder, slightly soluble in water. In solution, its color ranges from yellow in strong acidic pH through reddish-purple in weakly acidic solutions to blue-purple in alkaline solutions. The pH for titration of calcium is 11.3.

The DNA is non-uniformly bent and also contains twist defects. The twist of free B-form DNA in solution is 10.5 bp per turn. However, the overall twist of nucleosomal DNA is only 10.2 bp per turn, varying from a value of 9.4 to 10.9 bp per turn.

Optodes can apply various optical measurement schemes such as reflection, absorption, evanescent wave, luminescence (fluorescence and phosphorescences), chemiluminescence, surface plasmon resonance. By far the most popular methodology is luminescence. Luminescence in solution obeys the linear Stern–Volmer relationship. Fluorescence of a molecule is quenched by specific analytes, e.g.

Nitrous acid (molecular formula ) is a weak and monoprotic acid known only in solution, in the gas phase and in the form of nitrite () salts. Nitrous acid is used to make diazonium salts from amines. The resulting diazonium salts are reagents in azo coupling reactions to give azo dyes.

Neither the parent sulfonic acid nor the parent sulfurous acid have been isolated or even observed, although the monoanion of these hypothetical species exists in solution as an equilibrium mixture of tautomers: HS(=O)2(O⊖)⇌S(=O)(OH)(O⊖). Salts or esters of sulfonic acids are called sulfonates.

The general structure of these copolymers in solution is not yet well established. The composition can be determined by gel permeation chromatography(GPC) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Generally the composition has a narrow polydispersity index (PDI) and the molecular weight increases with time as the polymer forms.

In the case of HIV-1 integrase, the residues are Asp64, Asp116, and Glu152. This domain is also well conserved during evolution. The HIV-1 catalytic domain appears dimeric in solution and in crystal structures. The vast surface area of the dimer interface indicates that it is biologically significant.

Figure 3. CNTs of various diameters separated within a centrifuge tube. Each distinct diameter results in a different color. The preparation of CNT thin films for TCFs is composed of three steps: the CNT growth process, putting the CNTs in solution, and, finally, creation of the CNT thin film.

JHU37160 and JHU37152 have been marketed commercially as novel DREADD ligands, active in vivo, with high potency and affinity for hM3Dq and hM4Di DREADDs. Diihydrochloride salts of DREADDs ligands that are water-soluble (but with differing stabilities in solution) have also been commercially developed (see for aqueous stability).

Boric acid predominates in solution below pH 9 Boric acid buffers against rising pH in swimming pools Boric acid in equilibrium with its conjugate base the borate ion is widely used (in the concentration range 50 - 100 ppm boron equivalents) as a primary or adjunct pH buffer system in swimming pools. Boric acid is a weak acid, with pK (the pH at which buffering is strongest because the free acid and borate ion are in equal concentrations) of 9.24 in pure water at 25 °C. But apparent pK is substantially lower in swimming pool or ocean waters because of interactions with various other molecules in solution. It will be around 9.0 in a salt-water pool.

The Schlenk equilibrium, named after its discoverer Wilhelm Schlenk, is a chemical equilibrium taking place in solutions of Grignard reagentsGrignard Reagents: New Developments H. G. Richey (Editor) and Hauser bases Neufeld, R.: DOSY External Calibration Curve Molecular Weight Determination as a Valuable Methodology in Characterizing Reactive Intermediates in Solution. In: eDiss, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen. 2016. :2 RMgX MgX2 \+ MgR2 The process described is an equilibrium between two equivalents of an alkyl or aryl magnesium halide on the left of the equation and on the right side, one equivalent of the dialkyl or diaryl magnesium compound and magnesium halide salt. Organomagnesium halides in solution also form dimers and higher oligomers, especially at high concentration.

Given the overwhelming abundance of liquid water found in biological systems and the high prevalence of dissolved ionic species, understanding the behavior of ions in solution is critical. Ions in solution must overcome not only the preferred entropic state of disordered water molecules in order to form a solvation shell, but also the powerful hydrogen bonding interactions found between water molecules. Attraction between the solute ion and water increases with the solute’s electric charge and decreases with its radius. Hydration number estimates are not limited to integer values (for instance, estimates for sodium include 4, 4.6, 5.3, 5.5, 5.6, 6, 6.5, and 8), with some of the spread of estimated values being due to differing detection methods.

Lactic acid is chiral such that (R)-lactic acid and (S)-lactic acid exist. Furthermore, these enantiomers do not racemize readily. Thus, formation of lactide from two equivalents of lactic acid gives rise to three stereoisomers: All three stereosiomers undergo epimerisation in the presence of organic and inorganic bases in solution.

They are viewed as derivatives of "tantalic acid", hypothetic compounds with the formulas Ta2O5·nH2O or HTaO3). Examples of such tantalates are lithium tantalate (LiTaO3), lutetium tantalate (LuTaO4) and lead scandium tantalate (PST or Pb(ScxTa1-x)O3. Polyoxometallates containing tantalum provide examples of discrete tantalum oxides that exist in solution.

Higher flux in the membrane causes decreasing concentration at the upstream membrane/solution interface, and increasing concentration at the downstream interface (b). Concentration gradients gives rise to diffusion transport, which increases the total flux in solution and decreases the flux in the membrane. In steady state, J_1^s=J_1^m.

There are also a variety of stable conformers due to the rotation of single bonds in the N-pyridylmethylamino group. The E-conformer is more stable than the Z-conformer and assumed to be the active form. In solution, two different E-conformers exist which slowly change into each other.

Simple deprotonation with sodium hydroxide liberates free (S)-alcohol. In the meanwhile the (R)-alcohol remains in solution unaffected and is recycled back to the racemic mixture by epimerization with hydrochloric acid in toluene. This process is known as RRR synthesis in which the R's stand for Resolution-Racemization-Recycle.

Bicarbonate is deprotonated by Glu296, although in solution, this proton transfer is unlikely as the pKa of bicarbonate is 10.3. The enzyme apparently manipulates the pKa to facilitate the deprotonation of bicarbonate. The pKa of bicarbonate is decreased by its interaction with positively charged side chains of Arg338 and Arg292.

Alginate, carboxymethylcellulose, polyacrylic acid, tannic acid and polyphosphates can form extended networks between protein molecules in solution. The effectiveness of these polyelectrolytes depend on the pH of the solution. Anionic polyelectrolytes are used at pH values less than the isoelectric point. Cationic polyelectrolytes are at pH values above the pI.

In-solution capture. Microarrays contain single- stranded oligonucleotides with sequences from the human genome to tile the region of interest fixed to the surface. Genomic DNA is sheared to form double-stranded fragments. The fragments undergo end-repair to produce blunt ends and adaptors with universal priming sequences are added.

Blood plasma is the liquid component of whole blood, and makes up approximately 55% of the total blood volume. It is composed primarily of water with small amounts of minerals, salts, ions, nutrients, and proteins in solution. In whole blood, red blood cells, leukocytes, and platelets are suspended within the plasma.

Crystal formation requires two steps: nucleation and growth. Nucleation is the initiation step for crystallization. At the nucleation phase, protein molecules in solution come together as aggregates to form a stable solid nucleus. As the nucleus forms, the crystal grows bigger and bigger by molecules attaching to this stable nucleus.

At 15K there are somewhere between 1010 and 1011 molecules of nitrogen per cm3 of liquid hydrogen. At the boiling point of hydrogen the amount in solution is 10−8 molar fraction. At 32.5 K the molar concentration of dissolved N2 in close to critical H2 is 7.0×10−6.

Vapour density of dried mercurous chloride, H. Brereton Baker M.A., J. Chem. Soc., Trans., 1900, 77, 646, The presence of units in the solid state was first determined in 1926 using X-ray diffraction. The presence of the metal-metal bond in solution was confirmed using Raman spectroscopy in 1934.

Stopped-flow equipment at a biochemistry research laboratory. Stopped-flow is a lab technique for studying fast chemical reactions. A stopped-flow instrument is a rapid mixing device used to study the chemical kinetics of fast reactions in solution. The solutions are first forced from syringes into a mixing chamber.

Solution- phase synthesis refers to techniques that grow nanowires in solution. They can produce nanowires of many types of materials. Solution-phase synthesis has the advantage that it can produce very large quantities, compared to other methods. In one technique, the polyol synthesis, ethylene glycol is both solvent and reducing agent.

PAA is also formed naturally in the environment through a series of photochemical reactions involving formaldehyde and photo-oxidant radicals. Peracetic acid is always sold in solution as a mixture with acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide to maintain its stability. The concentration of the acid as the active ingredient can vary.

The structure reveals an ordered alpha-helical conformation between Glu-9 and Lys-20. The N-terminus is also well structured with a turn resembling that of a classical beta-turn. The 13C dynamics clearly show that motilin tumbles slowly in solution, with a correlation time characteristic of a large object.

Because this bond is fragile, the dithionite anion dissociates in solution into the [SO2]− radical anion, as has been confirmed by EPR spectroscopy. It is also observed that 35S undergoes rapid exchange between S2O42− and SO2 in neutral or acidic solution, consistent with the weak S-S bond in the anion.

Silicate anions in solution react with molybdate anions yielding yellow silicomolybdate complexes. In a typical preparation, monomeric orthosilicate was found to react completely in 75 seconds; dimeric pyrosilicate in 10 minutes; and higher oligomers in considerably longer time. In particular, the reaction is not observed with suspensions of colloidal silica.

For a pure substance in solution, if the color and path length are fixed and the specific rotation is known, the observed rotation can be used to calculate the concentration. This usage makes a polarimeter a tool of great importance to those trading in or using sugar syrups in bulk.

Moses, D. High Quantum Efficiency Luminescence from a Conducting Polymer in Solution: a Novel Laser Dye. Synth. Met. 1993. 22, 55-57. Polyphenylene vinylene is capable of electroluminescence, leading to applications in polymer-based organic light emitting diodes. PPV was used as the emissive layer in the first polymer light-emitting diodes.

Poppe L, Dabrowski J, von der Lieth CW, Koike K, Ogawa T. Three-dimensional structure of the oligosaccharide terminus of globotriaosylceramide and isoglobotriaosylceramide in solution. A rotating-frame NOE study using hydroxyl groups as long-range sensors in conformational analysis by 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Eur. J. Biochem. 1990 Apr 30;189(2):313-25.

The consideration of the solvent effect has been shown to be crucial in order to effectively describe the vibrational coupling in solution, since the solvent modify both vibrational frequencies, transition probabilities and couplings. Computer simulations can reveal the spectral signatures arising from solvent degrees of freedom and their change upon water reorganization.

In solution this equilibrium between carbonate, bicarbonate, carbon dioxide and carbonic acid changes constantly to the changing temperature and pressure conditions. In the case of metal ions with insoluble carbonates, such as CaCO3, formation of insoluble compounds results. This is an explanation for the buildup of scale inside pipes caused by hard water.

In addition to these direct interactions, solvents can play a dominant indirect role in driving molecular recognition in solution. The host and guest involved in molecular recognition exhibit molecular complementarity. Exceptions are molecular containers,Cram, D. J.; Cram, J. M. Container molecules and their guests; Royal Society of Chemistry: Cambridge, 1997. including e.g.

Once the normal faulting has occurred, the kerogen becomes cracked, allowing coalification to take place. Pyrite present in the system would be removed from the beds and transported by the hydrothermal fluids as the iron(II) cation with dissolved sulfur in solution. This is the source of iron in the hydrothermal fluid.

Solutions containing the hydroxide ion attack glass. In this case, the silicates in glass are acting as acids. Basic hydroxides, whether solids or in solution, are stored in airtight plastic containers. The hydroxide ion can function as a typical electron-pair donor ligand, forming such complexes as tetrahydroxoaluminate/tetrahydroxidoaluminate [Al(OH)4]−.

Figure 1. A diagram of the UBact Pup homolog. Phyre2 server was used to predict the structure of the UBact Pup homolog from the bacterium Methylacidiphilum infernorum. Given the similarity to Pup, the prediction of a structure is doubtful, as Pup is proven to be instrinsically disordered in solution (see text for references).

DOTAP is a cationic surfactant and is able to form stable cationic liposomes in solution, these readily absorb DNA and other negatively charged organic compounds. The DNA laden liposomes can then be added directly to cell culture medium, where they will combine with the cell membrane and release their payload into the cell.

Like EcoRI, EcoRV forms a homodimer in solution before binding and acting on its recognition sequence. Initially the enzyme binds weakly to a non-specific site on the DNA. It randomly walks along the molecule until the specific recognition site is found. EcoRV has a high specificity for its target DNA sequence.

Iron artifacts from the sea in particular are susceptible to rapid deterioration when exposed to an oxygen-rich environment like air. Chlorides from the seawater penetrate the iron on the molecular level. When in solution, these chlorides present no real problem. However, when exposed to air, they slowly dry in crystal form.

Structure of povidone-iodine complex. Povidone-iodine is a chemical complex of the polymer povidone (polyvinylpyrrolidone) and triiodide (I3-). It is soluble in cold and mild-warm water, ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and glycerol. Its stability in solution is much greater than that of tincture of iodine or Lugol's solution.

In solution, the peptides fold to form an anti-parallel β-strand with the structure stabilized by two cysteine bridges formed among the four cysteine residues. Recent studies suggest that protegrins can bind to lipopolysaccharide, a property that may help them to insert into the membranes of gram-negative bacteria and permeabilize them.

Humic acids are precipitated from this solution by adjusting the pH to 1 with hydrochloric acid, leaving the fulvic acids in solution. This is the operational distinction between humic and fulvic acids. Humin is insoluble in dilute alkali. The alcohol-soluble portion of the humic fraction is, in general, named ulmic acid.

Warmuth et al. (2009) determined the x-ray structure of the C-terminal domain of a CCC from the archaeon Mehanosarcina acetivorans (). It shows a novel fold of a regulatory domain, distantly related to universal stress proteins. The protein forms dimers in solution, consistent with the proposed dimeric organization of eukaryotic CCC transporters.

This complex could be isolated as solid crystals which were soluble in ether and remained stable in solution at room temperature for several days. Phenyllithium is able to stabilize phenylsodium in a ratio as high as 1:24 Li:Na, although this produces an insoluble mass which could be still used for reactions.

Potassium metal can react violently with water producing potassium hydroxide (KOH) and hydrogen gas. :2 K (s) + 2 (l) → 2 KOH (aq) + ↑ (g) A reaction of potassium metal with water. Hydrogen is produced, and with potassium vapor, burns with a pink or lilac flame. Strongly alkaline potassium hydroxide is formed in solution.

Therefore, large amounts of water had to be treated before the mine could finally be flooded. The uranium extracted in this cleaning process was sold to an American company in solution form. The total production of uranium from the mine water treatment between 1991 and 2008 can be estimated to be 1,000 t.

Methyl violet 2B (IUPAC name: N-(4-(bis(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)methylene)cyclohexa-2,5-dien-1-ylidene)methanaminium chloride) is a green powder which is soluble in water and ethanol but not in xylene. It appears yellow in solution of low pH (~0.15) and changes to violet with pH increasing toward 3.2.

Previous attempts at purification of insulin attempted to keep the insulin in solution and precipitate out the contaminating proteins. Walden found that if he adjusted the pH to produce the maximum precipitation, the precipitate contained highly purified insulin. His process yielded insulin that was 10 to 100 times more pure than previous batches.

Light scattering and nephelometry are methods for the determination of the cloudiness of a solution (i.e.: insoluble particles in a solution). A light beam passes through the sample and the light is scattered by the suspended particles. The measured forward scattered light indicates the amount of the insoluble particles present in solution.

A polymer's architecture affects many of its physical properties including solution viscosity, melt viscosity, solubility in various solvents, glass-transition temperature and the size of individual polymer coils in solution. A variety of techniques may be employed for the synthesis of a polymeric material with a range of architectures, for example living polymerization.

For uncharged species, the activity coefficient γ0 mostly follows a "salting-out" model: log10 γ0 = bI where I stands for ionic strength. #Assume that the activity coefficients are all equal to 1. This is acceptable when all concentrations are very low. #For equilibria in solution use a medium of high ionic strength.

Arsenic acid is the chemical compound with the formula H3AsO4. More descriptively written as AsO(OH)3, this colorless acid is the arsenic analogue of phosphoric acid. Arsenate and phosphate salts behave very similarly. Arsenic acid as such has not been isolated, but is only found in solution, where it is largely ionized.

This enables the ratio, transmittance, to be obtained. For quantitative measurements transmittance is converted to absorbance which is proportional to the solute concentration according to Beer's law. This makes possible the quantitative determination of the amount of a substance in solution. The user could also switch between phototubes without removing the sample holder.

Oxidative addition and reductive elimination are invoked in many catalytic processes both in homogeneous catalysis (i.e., in solution) such as the Monsanto process and alkene hydrogenation using Wilkinson's catalyst. It is often suggested that oxidative addition-like reactions are also involved in mechanisms of heterogeneous catalysis, e.g. hydrogenation catalyzed by platinum metal.

A bare proton, , cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals because of its unstoppable attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except at the high temperatures associated with plasmas, such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of atoms and molecules, and will remain attached to them. However, the term 'proton' is sometimes used loosely and metaphorically to refer to positively charged or cationic hydrogen attached to other species in this fashion, and as such is denoted "" without any implication that any single protons exist freely as a species. To avoid the implication of the naked "solvated proton" in solution, acidic aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely fictitious species, termed the "hydronium ion" ().

The name comes not from the popular fruit flavorings but from the fact that the acid in the mixture — which was then sourced from either citrus fruit (citric acid) or grapes (tartaric acid) — forms further salts such monosodium citrate in solution with the carbonates or tartrates. "Fruit salt" thus refers both to the fruit-derived salts formed in solution and metonymically to the mixture as a whole. ad for Eno's 'Fruit Salt' In 1852, the British pharmacist James Crossley Eno started selling such a fruit salt mixture from his pharmacy in the port city of Newcastle upon Tyne. Eno gave away his mixture to seafarers at the port, and in this way the name Eno became associated with fruit salts around the world.

Interactions that can be detected are usually classified into two kinds. There are through-bond and through-space interactions, the latter being a consequence of dipolar couplings in solid- state NMR and of the nuclear Overhauser effect in solution NMR. Experiments of the nuclear Overhauser variety may be employed to establish distances between atoms, as for example by 2D-FT NMR of molecules in solution. Although the fundamental concept of 2D-FT NMR was proposed by Jean Jeener from the Free University of Brussels at an international conference, this idea was largely developed by Richard Ernst who won the 1991 Nobel prize in Chemistry for his work in FT NMR, including multi-dimensional FT NMR, and especially 2D-FT NMR of small molecules.

Sergeyev was one of many scientists present when Kulagina attempted to use her energy to stop the beating of a frog's heart floating in solution. He said that she focused intently on the heart and apparently made it beat faster, then slower, and using extreme intent of thought, stopped it.Moss, Thelma (1979). The Body Electric.

Difluoroacetic acid is a chemical compound with formula CHF2COOH. It is a dihalogenocarboxylic acid, specifically a structural analog of acetic acid with two of three hydrogen atoms on the alpha carbon replaced with fluorine atoms. In solution, it dissociates to form difluoroacetate ions. Difluoroacetic acid can also be used as direct C-H difluoromethylating reagent.

Mimosa and chestnut tannin extracts reacted with hexamine in solution. By C. Peña, K. De La Caba, A. Retegi, C. Ocando, J. Labidi and J. M. Echeverria. Mondragon. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Volume 96, issue 2 (May 2009), p. 515–521. Chestnut extracts were evaluated through several biochemical assays showing evident antioxidant properties.

Molybdate chrome pigments are speciality but commercially available pigments. Molybdate (usually in the form of potassium molybdate) is also used in the analytical colorimetric testing for the concentration of silica in solution, called the molybdenum blue method. Additionally, it is used in the colorimetric determination of phosphate quantity in association with the dye malachite green.

In general on alkaline electrophoresis in order of increasing mobility are hemoglobins A2, E=O=C, G=D=S=Lepore, F, A, K, J, Bart's, N, I, and H. In general a sickling test (sodium bisulfite) is performed on abnormal hemoglobins migrating in the S location to see if the red cells precipitate in solution.

It is commercially available as a solution in mixed hexanes, usually at a concentration of about 2 M for laboratory use or 33% for industrial use. As for BuLi, the structure and formula for HxLi are often depicted as a monomer. Like all organolithium compounds, it exists as clusters in solution and as a solid..

In their normal states, metals cannot be taken into any organism. They must be dissolved as an ion in solution to be mobile in an organism.Misra V., Tiwari A., Shukla B. & Seth C.S. (2009) Effects of soil amendments on the bioavailability of heavy metals from zinc mine tailings. Environmental Monitoring Assessment 155, 467–475.

Even under optimal conditions about 60-70% of the original organic matter remains in solution. Bioaugmentation with selectively enriched acidogenic consortia to enhance H2 production was also reported (Venkata Mohan, et al., 2007b). Generation and accumulation of soluble acid metabolites causes a sharp drop in the system pH and inhibits the H2 production process.

Hydroxyl radical probing gel showing bands at positions and dots indicating strength of protection. As hydroxyl radicals are short-lived in solution, they need to be generated upon experiment. This can be done using H2O2, ascorbic acid, and Fe(II)-EDTA complex. These reagents form a system that generates hydroxyl radicals through Fenton chemistry.

In solution, lead(II) hydroxide is a somewhat weak base, forming lead(II) ion, Pb2+, under weakly acidic conditions. This cation hydrolyzes and, under progressively increasing alkaline conditions, forms Pb(OH)+, Pb(OH)2(aqueous), Pb(OH)3−, and other species, including several polynuclear species, e.g., Pb4(OH)44+, Pb3(OH)42+, Pb6O(OH)64+.

KMnO4 forms orthorhombic crystals with constants: a = 910.5 pm, b = 572.0 pm, c = 742.5 pm. The overall motif is similar to that for barium sulfate, with which it forms solid solutions."Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry" Brauer, E., Ed.; Academic: New York, 1963. In the solid (as in solution), each MnO4− centres are tetrahedral.

By the permeabilization of the cellular membrane, the cell stops to exist as a living, defined organism, leaving only the mitochondria as still functional structures. Unlike whole-animal respirometry, mitochondrial respirometry takes place in solution, i.e. the sample is suspended in a medium. Today mitochondrial respirometry is mainly performed with a closed-chamber approach.

Normally these two different types of molecules would phase separate in solution, for the same reason that water and oil do not mix. By chemically grafting the ligands onto the silica particles, this effect is counteracted. The effect is a coating that shows an equal dislike for both water-based and oil-based paints.Bayer MaterialScience.

For example, the intracellular fluid and extracellular can be hyperosmotic, but isotonic – if the total concentration of solutes in one compartment is different from that of the other, but one of the ions can cross the membrane (in other words, a penetrating solute), drawing water with it, thus causing no net change in solution volume.

Green olives may be treated industrially with ferrous gluconate (0.4 wt. %) to change their color to black. Gluconate, an edible oxidation product of glucose, is used as non-toxic reactant to maintain Fe2+ in solution. When in contact with polyphenols, the ferrous ions form a black complex, giving the final color of the treated olives.

In solution, the sulfate ion dissociates rapidly. Being widely available, vanadyl sulfate is a common precursor to other vanadyl derivatives, such as vanadyl acetylacetonate: :[V(O)(H2O)4]SO4 \+ 2 C5H8O2 \+ Na2CO3 → [V(O)(C5H7O2)2] + Na2SO4 \+ 5 H2O + CO2 In acidic solution, oxidation of vanadyl sulfate gives yellow-coloured vanadyl(V) derivatives. Reduction, e.g.

Dilute solutions dissociate according to the following equilibrium: :PCl5 \+ Cl− At higher concentrations, a second equilibrium becomes more prevalent: :2 PCl5 \+ The cation and the anion are tetrahedral and octahedral, respectively. At one time, PCl5 in solution was thought to form a dimeric structure, P2Cl10, but this suggestion is not supported by Raman spectroscopic measurements.

Many substances dissolve congruently (i.e. the composition of the solid and the dissolved solute stoichiometrically match). However, some substances may dissolve incongruently, whereby the composition of the solute in solution does not match that of the solid. This solubilization is accompanied by alteration of the "primary solid" and possibly formation of a secondary solid phase.

An Iodophor is a preparation containing iodine complexed with a solubilizing agent, such as a surfactant or povidone (forming povidone-iodine). The result is a water-soluble material that releases free iodine when in solution. Iodophors are prepared by mixing iodine with the solubilizing agent; heat can be used to speed up the reaction.

Like other hydrocarbons, methane is a very weak acid. Its pKa in DMSO is estimated to be 56. It cannot be deprotonated in solution, but the conjugate base is known in forms such as methyllithium. A variety of positive ions derived from methane have been observed, mostly as unstable species in low-pressure gas mixtures.

3-Methylenecyclopropene, also called methylenecyclopropene or triafulvene, is a hydrocarbon with chemical formula 44. It is a colourless gas that polymerizes readily as a liquid or in solution but is stable as a gas.W. E. Billups , Long Jin Lin , Edward W. Casserly "Synthesis of Methylenecyclopropene" J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1984, volume 106, pp 3698–3699.

Dipyrrin is unstable above −40 °C. However, its acts as a base, and its chloride [] [] is sufficiently stable in solution. The so-called BODIPY dyes can be obtained by reacting 2,2'-dipyrromethene or its derivatives with boron trifluoride-diethyl ether complex (·) in the presence of triethylamine or 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU).

Cleland currently holds two U.S. patents, one for the invention of a new method for detecting and measuring the size of nanoparticles in solution;"High throughput label free nanoparticle detection and size assay", J.-L. Fraikin and A. N. Cleland, inventors; U.S. Patent Number 8,901,914 this patent is the basis of a new commercial venture.

The equilibrium, between the gas as a separate phase and the gas in solution, will by Le Châtelier's principle shift to favour the gas going into solution as the temperature is decreased (decreasing the temperature increases the solubility of a gas). When a saturated solution of a gas is heated, gas comes out of solution.

This process requires the polymer to be soluble in organic solvents. The process worksby first dissolving the polymers in solution. The solution is then placed on a glass plate and the plate is submerged in a liquid coagulation medium. During the transfer process, some solvent evaporation occurs, but mostly on the surface of the membrane.

In solution an association constant of 8600 M−1 is measured based on changes in NMR chemical shifts. Tacrine bound to acetylcholinesterase (PDB 1ACJ). A pi stacking interaction between tacrine (blue) and Trp84 (red) is proposed. Pi stacking is prevalent in protein crystal structures, and also contributes to the interactions between small molecules and proteins.

The phenomenon in which organic luminophores show higher photoluminescence efficiency in the aggregated state than in solution is called aggregation-induced emission enhancement (AIEE). Some luminophores, e.g., diketopyrrolopyrrole-based and sulfonamide-based luminophores, only display enhanced emission upon entering the crystalline state. That is, these luminophores are said to exhibit crystallization-induced emission enhancement (CIEE).

At extremely low temperatures, the superfluid phase, rich in helium-4, can contain up to 6% of helium-3 in solution. This makes the small-scale use of the dilution refrigerator possible, which is capable of reaching temperatures of a few millikelvins.Wilks, p. 244. Superfluid helium-4 has substantially different properties from ordinary liquid helium.

Structure of co- crystals. The oxalamide host is shown in red and diiodobutadiyne in blue. PIDA is synthesized from diiodobutadiyne via 1,4 topochemical polymerization. In order to meet the geometric requirements for polymerization, a host–guest strategy is used by combining a host molecule and diiodobutadiyne in solution and allowing co-crystallization to occur.

Reaction rates can be independent of temperature (non-Arrhenius) or decrease with increasing temperature (anti- Arrhenius). Reactions without an activation barrier (e.g., some radical reactions), tend to have anti Arrhenius temperature dependence: the rate constant decreases with increasing temperature. Many reactions take place in solution and the properties of the solvent affect the reaction rate.

Oxidation of gallane gives Ga(OH)3, gallium(III) hydroxide. Unsolvated gallane is in chemical equilibrium with digallane(6), being the dominant species with increasing temperature. Due to this equilibrium, gallane and digallane(6) are often considered to be chemically equivalent. Reactions requiring gallane as opposed to digallane(6), must be carried out in solution.

One of the main methods of pinpointing a NOTCH2 mutation that leads to HCS is through whole genome sequencing. This is then followed by exome capture by means of in-solution hybridization. The exome part of the genome consists of exons. Parallel sequencing follows the hybridization, which results in about 3.5 Gb of sequence data.

Bubble formation occurs in the blood or other tissues. One of the hypothetical loci of bubble nucleation is in crevices in macromolecules. A solvent can carry a supersaturated load of gas in solution. Whether it will come out of solution in the bulk of the solvent to form bubbles will depend on a number of factors.

It is also used as a primary standard for calibrating pH meters because, besides the properties just mentioned, its pH in solution is very stable. It also serves as a thermal standard in thermogravimetric analysis Smalley, I.J.,Lill,G.O.,Bentley,S.P.,Wood,D.R. 1977. Thermogravimetry of potassium hydrogen phthalate and its use as a thermal standard.

In this situation, a fixed amount of drug is in solution inside the microcapsule. The concentration difference between the inside and the outside of the capsule decreases continually as the drug diffuses. Nevertheless, there are some other mechanisms that may take place in the liberation of the encapsulated material. These include, biodegradation, osmotic pressure, diffusion, etc.

Haidinger, W.(1831): On the Parasitic Formation of Mineral Species, depending on Gradual Changes, which take place in the Interior of Minerals, while their External Form remains the same. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol.11, pp.73-113. A solution of magnesium sulfate would convert calcium carbonate into dolomite plus calcium sulfate in solution.

The compound is usually available as the monohydrate, a white, odorless, crystalline powder. The solid contains separate sodium cations and glutamate anions in zwitterionic form, −OOC-CH()-()2-COO−. In solution it dissociates into glutamate and sodium ions. MSG is freely soluble in water, but it is not hygroscopic and is insoluble in common organic solvents (such as ether).

The triiodide ion is the simplest polyiodide; several higher polyiodides exist. In solution, it appears yellow in low concentrations, and brown at higher concentrations. The triiodide ion is responsible for the well-known blue-black color which arises when iodine solutions interact with starch. Iodide does not react with starch; nor do solutions of iodine in nonpolar solvents.

In solution, it can ionize, producing the lactate ion . Compared to acetic acid, its pKa is 1 unit less, meaning lactic acid is ten times more acidic than acetic acid. This higher acidity is the consequence of the intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the α-hydroxyl and the carboxylate group. Lactic acid is chiral, consisting of two enantiomers.

The structure of porous membrane is related to the characteristics of the interacting polymer and solvent, components concentration, molecular weight, temperature, and storing time in solution. The thicker porous membranes sometimes provide support for the thin dense membrane layers, forming the asymmetric membrane structures. The latter are usually produced by a lamination of dense and porous membranes.

At very low amphiphile concentration, the molecules will be dispersed randomly without any ordering. At slightly higher (but still low) concentration, above the CMC, self-assembled amphiphile aggregates exist as independent entities in equilibrium with monomeric amphiphiles in solution, but with no long ranged orientational or positional (translational) order. As a result, phases are isotropic (i.e. not liquid crystalline).

The DERA monomer contains a TIM α/β barrel fold, consistent with other Class I aldolases. The structure of DERAs across many organisms: DERAs from Escherichia coli and Aeropyrum pernix shares 37.7% sequence identity with DERA from Thermus thermophilus HB8. The reaction mechanism is also conserved between DERAs. In solution, DERAs are found in homodimers or homotetramers.

The chemical reaction exhibited between wine and copper to produce verdigris may be related to wine's own oxidation process. Another method, used in the early nineteenth century, had to do with reacting copper sulfate solution with solutions of lead, barium, or calcium acetate. Their sulfates are insoluble, forming precipitates and leaving the copper acetate in solution.

It remains stable in solution over pH range 5-7. Strong acids cause hydrolysis and loss of viscosity and alkalies in strong concentration also tend to reduce viscosity. It is insoluble in most hydrocarbon solvents. The viscosity attained is dependent on time, temperature, concentration, pH, rate of agitation and particle size of the powdered gum used.

Zinc toxicity is a medical condition involving an overdose on, or toxic overexposure to, zinc. Such toxicity levels have been seen to occur at ingestion of greater than 50 mg of zinc. Excessive absorption of zinc can suppress copper and iron absorption. The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to bacteria, plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish.

Grote–Hynes theory is a theory of reaction rate in a solution phase. This rate theory was developed by James T. Hynes with his graduate student Richard F. Grote in 1980. It is based on the generalized Langevin equation (GLE). This theory introduced the concept of frequency dependent friction for chemical rate processes in solution phase.

Cementation is a type of precipitation, a heterogeneous process in which ions are reduced to zero valence at a solid metallic interface. The process is often used to refine leach solutions. Cementation of copper is a common example. Copper ions in solution, often from an ore leaching process, are precipitated out of solution in the presence of solid iron.

Typically, the mixture of "compound A" and "impurity B" is dissolved in the smallest amount of hot solvent to fully dissolve the mixture, thus making a saturated solution. The solution is then allowed to cool. As the solution cools the solubility of compounds in solution drops. This results in the desired compound dropping (recrystallizing) from solution.

Micellar solubilization is widely utilized, e.g. in laundry washing using detergents, in the pharmaceutical industry, for formulations of poorly soluble drugs in solution form,Jain A, Ran Y, Yalkowsky S, "Effect of pH-Sodium Lauryl Sulfate Combination on Solubilization of PG-300995 (an Anti-HIV Agent): A Technical Note." AAPS PharmSciTech. 2004; 5(3): article 45.

Clathrate hydrates were discovered in 1810 by Humphry Davy. Clathrates were studied by P. Pfeiffer in 1927 and in 1930, E. Hertel defined "molecular compounds" as substances decomposed into individual components following the mass action law in solution or gas state. In 1945, H. M. Powell analyzed the crystal structure of these compounds and named them clathrates.

Coagulation is one of the most important physio-chemical reactions used in water treatment. Ions (heavy metals) and colloids (organic and inorganic) are mostly held in solution by electrical charges. The addition of ions with opposite charges destabilizes the colloids, allowing them to coagulate. Coagulation can be achieved by a chemical coagulant or by electrical methods.

Another synthetic route uses the Speeter-Anthony tryptamine synthesis starting from 4-hydroxyindole. Psilocin is relatively unstable in solution due to its phenolic hydroxy (-OH) group. In the presence of oxygen it readily forms bluish and dark black degradation products. Similar products are also formed under acidic conditions in the presence of oxygen and Fe3+ ions (Keller's reagent).

The circular supercoiled plasmids' strands will stay relatively closely aligned and will renature correctly. Therefore, the genomic DNA will form an insoluble aggregate and the supercoiled plasmids will be left in solution. This can be followed by phenol extraction to remove proteins and other molecules. Then the DNA can be subjected to ethanol precipitation to concentrate the sample.

When the solvent is water and the gas is air, the value of α is 1.49 × 104. The effect of changes in solution density and solution compressibility are additive and reinforce the phenomenon, causing a significant decrease in the velocity of sound and, therefore, a significant decrease in the frequency of sound passing through an aerated solution.

Like crabgrass, glechoma's root has a tough-to-remove ball (un-belied by its delicate wide leaves). There are no biological control agents to help to reduce its spread in North America. Commercial herbicides containing triclopyr are used to control glechoma. Glechoma is also unusually sensitive to boron, and can be killed by applying borax (sodium tetraborate) in solution.

1976, 41, 1879. A useful indicator for the progress of lateral lithiations is the color of the reaction mixture. Benzyllithium compounds range in color from red to deep purple, and in many cases the lack of a color change upon addition of an organolithium reagent to the substrate may indicate the presence of an undesired proton source in solution.

In computational chemistry, a solvent model is a computational method that accounts for the behavior of solvated condensed phases. Solvent models enable simulations and thermodynamic calculations applicable to reactions and processes which take place in solution. These include biological, chemical and environmental processes. Such calculations can lead to new predictions about the physical processes occurring by improved understanding.

For example the value of log K ≈ -6 has been estimated for hydrogen chloride in aqueous solution at room temperature. Therefore, a chemical compound may behave as a strong acid in solution when its concentration is low and as a weak acid when its concentration is very high. Sulphuric acid is an example of such a compound.

1H NMR spectrum of 1,1'-dimethylnickelocene, illustrating the dramatic chemical shifts observed in some paramagnetic compounds. The sharp signals near 0 ppm are from solvent.Köhler, F. H., "Paramagnetic Complexes in Solution: The NMR Approach," in eMagRes, 2007, John Wiley. Roughly, the magnitude of A indicates the extent to which the unpaired spin resides on the nucleus.

Further, after determining the equilibrium constant, we can determine what complexes (ratio of A and B) are present in solution. In addition, the peak of the Job Plot corresponds to the mole fraction of ligands bound to a molecule, which is important for studying ligand field theory. An early work of I. Ostromisslensky describes essentially this approach.

In the "crossover" step, the lanthanum fluoride process was used. Lanthanum salts and hydrogen fluoride were added again and lanthanum fluoride was precipitated, while hexavalent plutonium was left in solution. This removed lanthanides like cerium, strontium and lanthanum, that bismuth phosphate could not. The plutonium was again reduced with oxalic acid and the lanthanum fluoride process was repeated.

In chemistry, hydronium (hydroxonium in traditional British English) is the common name for the aqueous cation , the type of oxonium ion produced by protonation of water. It is the positive ion present when an Arrhenius acid is dissolved in water, as Arrhenius acid molecules in solution give up a proton (a positive hydrogen ion, ) to the surrounding water molecules ().

In solution the dimeric form is present; the ratio of dimerisation is strongly dependent on the polarity of the solvent. Polar and protic solvents interact with the hydrogen bonds and more monomer is formed. Hydrophobic effects in non-polar solvents lead to a predominance of the dimer. The ratio of the tautomeric forms is also dependent on the solvent.

Nitronium perchloratoborate (NO2B(ClO4)4)can be formed by reacting nitronium perchlorate with boron trichloride in solution. Similarly ammonium perchlorate reacts with BCl3 forming ammonium perchloratoborate. The metal perchloratoborates can also be formed from the metal perchlorate dissolved in anhydrous perchloric acid reacting with boron trichloride. Another way is to react a metal chloridoborate (MBCl4) with perchloric acid.

In solution, it gets rid of the hydrogen peroxide and produces small bubbles that help to clean the contacts. After a couple of hours, the hydrogen peroxide is stabilized and what is left is a saline solution. At this point, it is safe to use the contacts. After extended use, the platinum coated disk must be replaced.

When used for medicinal purposes, the iron complex is polymerized and the sucrose molecules combined to form a larger polysaccharide. The number of polymerizations does not have to be the same as the number of sucrose molecules in the polysaccharide. Structure of iron sucrose. Sucrose molecule is black, and iron complex and ions in solution are red.

For example, to precipitate iron as the hydroxide, we dissolve urea in the sample. Heating of the solution generates hydroxide ions from the hydrolysis of urea. Hydroxide ions are generated at all points in solution and thus there are no sites of concentration. We can also adjust the rate of urea hydrolysis and thus control the hydroxide generation rate.

The concept is similar to that of steric stabilization of colloids. Polymer chains are grafting to a surface via covalent bonding or adsorption. The solubility of these polymers stems from the high conformational entropy of polymer chains in solution. The Χ (Chi) parameter is used to determine whether a polymer will be soluble in a given solution.

Sachiko Kodama (born 1970) is a Japanese artist. She is best known for her artwork using ferrofluid, a dark colloidal suspension of magnetic nano- particles dispersed in solution which remains strongly magnetic in its fluid. By controlling the fluid with a magnetic field, it is formed to create complex 3-dimensional shapes as a "liquid sculpture".

This light that is released can be absorbed by other molecules in solution to give rise to molecular translations and rotations, which gives rise to the classical understanding of heat. In an exothermic reaction, the energy needed to start the reaction is less than the energy that is subsequently released, so there is a net release of energy.

Poligeenan is produced by the harsh acid degradation of carrageenan. Carrageenan in solution is processed at low pH (~1.0) and high temperature () for up to six hours until the weight-average molecular weight (Mw) has been reduced to the range 10,000 – 20,000 daltons (10-20 kDa). The resulting poligeenan solution is neutralized and spray dried to a fine powder.

The device is used to determine the color of liquids. A sample is put in a glass tube. The tube is inserted in the comparator and compared with a series of coloured glass discs until the nearest possible match is found. Among other things, the device is used to determine the concentration of certain chemicals in solution.

Studies have concluded that diamond nanoparticles are similar to carbon nanotubes and upon being treated with surfactants, the stability and biocompatibility of both carbon nanotubes and the nanodiamonds in solution greatly increase. In addition, the ability to surface functionalize nanodiamonds of small diameters provides various possibilities for diamond nanoparticles to be utilized as biolabels with potentially low cytotoxicity.

This method begins with alignment of homologous genes, followed by identification of regions of polymorphism. Next the top strand of the gene is divided into small degenerate oligonucleotides. The bottom strand is also digested into oligonucleotides to serve as scaffolds. These fragments are combined in solution are top strand oligonucleotides are assembled onto bottom strand oligonucleotides.

Spermidine synthase is an enzyme () that catalyzes the transfer of the propylamine group from S-adenosylmethioninamine to putrescine in the biosynthesis of spermidine. The systematic name is S-adenosyl 3-(methylthio)propylamine:putrescine 3-aminopropyltransferase and it belongs to the group of aminopropyl transferases. It does not need any cofactors. Most spermidine synthases exist in solution as dimers.

As a food additive it is used as a preservative under the E number E226. Along with other antioxidant sulfites, it is commonly used in preserving wine, cider, fruit juice, canned fruit and vegetables. Sulfites are strong reducers in solution, they act as oxygen scavenger antioxidants to preserve food, but labeling is required as some individuals might be hypersensitive.

This compound may be prepared by reacting tetrakis(dimethylamino)diboron with pinacol in acidic conditions. The B-B bond length is 1.711(6) Å.C.Kleeberg, A.G.Crawford, A.S.Batsanov, P.Hodgkinson, D.C.Apperley, Man Sing Cheung, Zhenyang Lin, T.B.Marder "Spectroscopic and Structural Characterization of the CyNHC Adduct of B2pin2 in Solution and in the Solid State" J. Org. Chem. 2012, vol. 77, pp. 785.

The non-magnetic character of zinc and its lack of color in solution delayed discovery of its importance to biochemistry and nutrition. This changed in 1940 when carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that scrubs carbon dioxide from blood, was shown to have zinc in its active site. The digestive enzyme carboxypeptidase became the second known zinc-containing enzyme in 1955.

Unlike either glgX, however, treX exists as a dimer and tetramer in solution. TreX's oligomeric form seems to play a significant role in altering both enzyme shape and function. Dimerization is thought to stabilize a "flexible loop" located close to the active site. This may be key to explaining why treX (and not glgX) shows glucosyltransferase activity.

The solution of Alcian blue is a skin sensitiser and corrosive (partly due to the acidic pH needed to maintain it unhydrolyzed in solution) and harmful by skin absorption. Most vendor MSDS (Material safety datasheet) mention that effect of ingestion not known or target organ not known. However some do mention that potential target organs are teeth and kidneys.

The oligosaccharides are O-linked both with and without sialic acid. Electron microscope measurements show that the lubricin molecule is a partially extended flexible rod and, in solution, occupies a smaller spatial domain than would be expected from structural predictions. The large glycosylated region (i. e mucin domain) of lubricin makes it a water-soluble synovial fluid protein.

The alkali metal hypochlorites decrease in stability down the group. Anhydrous lithium hypochlorite is stable at room temperature; however, sodium hypochlorite has not be prepared drier than the pentahydrate (NaOCl·(H2O)5). This is unstable above 0 °C; although the more dilute solutions encountered as household bleach possesses better stability. Potassium hypochlorite (KOCl) is known only in solution.

Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. The therapeutic approach was inspired by Michael J. Lambert’s research regarding the use of consumer feedback during the therapeutic process with the Outcome Questionnaire 45.2 (OQ) and is designed to be a briefer method to measure therapeutic outcome.Gillaspy, J.A., Murphy, J.J. (2012). Incorporating outcome and session rating scales in solution-focused brief therapy.

The ionic mechanism of oxidative addition is similar to the SN2 type in that it involves the stepwise addition of two distinct ligand fragments. The key difference being that ionic mechanisms involve substrates which are dissociated in solution prior to any interactions with the metal center. An example of ionic oxidative addition is the addition of hydrochloric acid.

Phenolphthalein is slightly soluble in water and usually is dissolved in alcohols for use in experiments. It is a weak acid, which can lose H+ ions in solution. The phenolphthalein molecule is colorless, and the phenolphthalein ion is pink. When a base is added to the phenolphthalein, the equilibrium shifts, leading to more ionization as H+ ions are removed.

Atomic resolution image of a CdSe nanoparticle. Production of cadmium selenide by arrested precipitation in solution is performed by introducing alkylcadmium and trioctylphosphine selenide (TOPSe) precursors into a heated solvent under controlled conditions. :Me2Cd + TOPSe → CdSe + (byproducts) CdSe nanoparticles can be modified by production of two phase materials with ZnS coatings. The surfaces can be further modified, e.g.

Formation of authigenic silicate clays through reverse weathering was shown to be thermodynamically favorable during studies of Amazon delta sediments. Primary controls on the formation of authigenic silicate clays are on the supply of reactants in solution. Areas of limited biogenic opal, metal hydroxides (e.g. aluminate (Al(OH)4−)), or dissolved cations limit production of authigenic silicate clays.

Molecular capsules are chemical scaffolds designed to capture and hold a guest molecule (see molecular encapsulation). Szumna and coworkers developed a novel molecular capsule with a chiral interior. This capsule is made of two halves, like a plastic easter egg (Figure 6). Salt bridge interactions between the two halves cause them to self-assemble in solution (Figure 7).

The production of benzylpenicillin involves fermentation, recovery and purification of the penicillin. The fermentation process of the production of benzylpencillin creates the product. The presence of the product in solution inhibits the reaction and reduces the product rate and yield. Thus, in order to obtain the most product and increase the rate of reaction, it is continuously extracted.

G. Evans, M. Polanyi, "Some applications of the transition state method to the calculation of reaction velocities, especially in solution", Trans. Faraday Soc., 1935, 31, 875-894, published the founding papers on transition state theory, formulating what is now known as the "Eyring equation" which opened up a new era in the study of chemical kinetics.

Dihydroxymethylidene is a chemical compound with formula C(OH)2. It is an unstable tautomer of formic acid. There is no evidence that this compound exists in solution, but the molecule has been detected in the gas phase.Schreiner, Peter R.; Reisenauer, Hans Peter "Spectroscopic identification of dihydroxycarbene" Angewandte Chemie International Edition (2008), volume 47, 7071-7074.

A compound which is a weak acid in water may become a strong acid in DMSO. Acetic acid is an example of such a substance. An extensive bibliography of pKa values in solution in DMSO and other solvents can be found at Acidity–Basicity Data in Nonaqueous Solvents. Superacids are strong acids even in solvents of low dielectric constant.

Chlorine azide is extremely sensitive. It may explode, sometimes even without apparent provocation; it is thus too sensitive to be used commercially unless first diluted in solution. Chlorine azide reacts explosively with 1,3-butadiene, ethane, ethene, methane, propane, phosphorus, silver azide, and sodium. On contact with acid, chlorine azide decomposes, evolving toxic and corrosive hydrogen chloride gas.

The enzymatic mechanism of influenza virus sialidase has been studied by Taylor et al., shown in Figure 1. The enzyme catalysis process has four steps. The first step involves the distortion of the α-sialoside from a 2C5 chair conformation (the lowest-energy form in solution) to a pseudoboat conformation when the sialoside binds to the sialidase.

Hydrolysis is a chemical weathering process that may affect silicate and carbonate minerals. An example of such a reaction in which water reacts with a silicate mineral is the following: :Mg2SiO4 \+ 4 H2O ⇌ 2 Mg(OH)2 \+ H4SiO4 :olivine (forsterite) + water ⇌ brucite + silicic acid This reaction can result in the complete dissolution of the original mineral, if enough water is available in the system and if the reaction is thermodynamically favorable. At ambient temperature, water is weakly dissociated in H+ and OH– but carbon dioxide readily dissolves in water forming carbonic acid which is an important weathering agent. :Mg2SiO4 \+ 4 CO2 \+ 4 H2O ⇌ 2 Mg2+ \+ 4 HCO3− \+ H4SiO4 :olivine (forsterite) + carbon dioxide + water ⇌ magnesium and bicarbonate ions in solution + silicic acid in solution This hydrolysis reaction is much more common.

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) is a treatment where the animal is placed in a chamber that is pressurized and filled with 100% oxygen. This high-pressure environment increases the amount of oxygen carried in solution within the blood, thereby delivering a significantly greater amount to tissues.Tibbles PM, Edelsberg JS. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:1642–8.

Sodium manganate is the inorganic compound with the formula Na2MnO4. This deep green solid is a rarely encountered analogue of the related salt K2MnO4. Sodium manganate is rare because it cannot be readily prepared from the oxidation of manganese dioxide and sodium hydroxide. Instead this oxidation stops at the level of Na3MnO4, and this Mn(V) salt is unstable in solution.

It is soluble in water, changing the water color to deep orange or orangish-red. In solution copiapite is very acidic. In high concentrations a negative pH can occur, as reported in waters draining from Richmond Mine at Iron Mountain, California. Copiapite can easily be distinguished from native sulfur because it does not give off an odor when dissolved in water.

HRMAS is usually applied to solutions and gels where there is some internal molecular motion, but the dipole-dipole interactions are insufficiently averaged by such motion. Under these conditions, HRMAS can dramatically average out the dipole-dipole broadening and result in spectra similar to high resolution NMR. This permits the kind of quantitative analysis of components practiced in solution NMR, e.g.

Barium acetate is generally produced by the reaction of acetic acid with barium carbonate:Barium acetate , hillakomem.com, retrieved 30 June 2009 :BaCO3 \+ 2CH3COOH → (CH3COO)2Ba + CO2 \+ H2O The reaction is performed in solution and the barium acetate crystallizes out. Alternatively, barium sulfide can be used: :BaS + 2CH3COOH → (CH3COO)2Ba + H2S Again, the solvent is evaporated off and the barium acetate crystallized.

This is true for ideal solutions only, as occasionally ion pairing occurs in solution. At a given instant a small percentage of the ions are paired and count as a single particle. Ion pairing occurs to some extent in all electrolyte solutions. This causes the measured van 't Hoff factor to be less than that predicted in an ideal solution.

Another monomer whose homo- and co-polymers exhibit LCST behavior in solution is 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate. The LCST depends on the polymer preparation and in the case of copolymers, the monomer ratios, as well as the hydrophobic or hydrophilic nature of the polymer. To date, over 70 examples of non-ionic polymers with an LCST in aqueous solution have been found.

Common oxidation states of gold include +1 (gold(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 (gold(III) or auric compounds). Gold ions in solution are readily reduced and precipitated as metal by adding any other metal as the reducing agent. The added metal is oxidized and dissolves, allowing the gold to be displaced from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.

Due to the large difference in electronegativity between the carbon atom and the lithium atom, the C-Li bond is highly ionic. Owing to the polar nature of the C-Li bond, organolithium reagents are good nucleophiles and strong bases. For laboratory organic synthesis, many organolithium reagents are commercially available in solution form. These reagents are highly reactive, and are sometimes pyrophoric.

One example of such a compound is MoS2Cl3. Unlike selenium chlorides and bromides, selenium iodides have not been isolated, as of 2008, although it is likely that they occur in solution. Diselenium diiodide, however, does occur in equilibrium with selenium atoms and iodine molecules. Some tellurium halides with low valences, such as Te2Cl2 and Te2Br2, form polymers when in the solid state.

The site of a well can be selected by a hydrogeologist, or groundwater surveyor. Water may be pumped or hand drawn. Impurities from the surface can easily reach shallow sources and contamination of the supply by pathogens or chemical contaminants needs to be avoided. Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment before being potable.

Depending on the situation, polyelectrolytes can function as either flocculants or deflocculants. In order to stabilize emulsion, deflocculant polyelectrolytes are required. When repulsive forces between particles overcome the intermolecular forces in solution and the loose flocculated aggregates separate, deflocculation occurs. As opposed to the loose and easily separated sediments formed in flocculation, sediments formed in deflocculation are tightly packed and difficult to redisperse.

After electrolysis, potassium fluoride remains in solution. :2 HF2− → H2↑ + F2↑ + 2 F− The modern version of the process uses steel containers as cathodes, while blocks of carbon are used as anodes. The carbon electrodes are similar to those used in the electrolysis of aluminium. An earlier version of fluorine production process, by Moissan, uses platinum group metal electrodes and carved fluorite containers.

The isohydric principle has special relevance to in vivo biochemistry where multiple acid/ base pairs are in solution. The simplifying isohydric principle gives two important concepts. First, all of the buffers in a multiple-buffered system contribute to pH of the system. Secondly, the pH (at equilibrium) can be calculated from an individual buffer system regardless of other buffers present.

In all three spectroscopic methods, the sample usually needs to be present in solution, which may present problems during forensic examination because it necessarily involves sampling solid from the object to be examined. In FTIR, three types of samples can be analyzed: solution (KBr), powder, or film. A solid film is the easiest and most straight forward sample type to test.

Heme A (or haem A) is a heme, a coordination complex consisting of a macrocyclic ligand called a porphyrin, chelating an iron atom. Heme A is a biomolecule and is produced naturally by many organisms. Heme A, often appears a dichroic green/red when in solution, is a structural relative of heme B, a component of hemoglobin, the red pigment in blood.

Bitter is a generally negative flavor, though its method of action is unknown. It has the characteristic of accustomed enjoyment. Sweet taste signals the presence of carbohydrates in solution. Since carbohydrates have a very high calorie count (saccharides have many bonds, therefore much energy), they are desirable to the human body, which evolved to seek out the highest calorie intake foods.

Vibronic spectra of diatomic molecules in the gas phase have been analyzed in detail.Hollas, pp. 210–228 Vibrational coarse structure can sometimes be observed in the spectra of molecules in liquid or solid phases and of molecules in solution. Related phenomena including photoelectron spectroscopy, resonance Raman spectroscopy, luminescence, and fluorescence are not discussed in this article, though they also involve vibronic transitions.

Unlike indole, isoindoles exhibit noticeable alternation in the C-C bond lengths, which is consistent with their description as pyrrole derivatives fused to a butadiene. In solution, the 2H-isoindole tautomer predominates. It resembles a pyrrole more than a simple imine. The degree to which the 2H predominates depends on the solvent, and can vary with the substituent in substituted isoindoles.

The opposite side is then contacted with a microfluidic flow system. The contact with the flow system creates channels across which reagents can be passed in solution. This side of the glass sensor chip can be modified in a number of ways, to allow easy attachment of molecules of interest. Normally it is coated in carboxymethyl dextran or similar compound.

A cloned enzyme donor immunoassay (CEDIA) is a competitive homogenous enzyme immunoassay. This assay makes use of two component fragments of an enzyme which are each individually inactive. Under the right conditions in solution these fragments can spontaneously reassemble to form the active enzyme. For use in biochemical assays one of the enzyme fragments is attached to an analyte of interest.

3,3′,5,5′-Tetramethylbenzidine or TMB is a chromogenic substrate used in staining procedures in immunohistochemistry as well as being a visualising reagent used in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA).Sigma Aldrich Catalog Entry for 3,3′,5,5′-Tetramethylbenzidine TMB is a white solid that forms a pale blue-green liquid in solution with ethyl acetate. TMB is degraded by sunlight and by fluorescent lights.

Selenous acid is analogous to sulfurous acid, but it is more readily isolated. Selenous acid is easily formed upon the addition of selenium dioxide to water. As a crystalline solid, the compound can be seen as pyramidal molecules that are interconnected with hydrogen bonds. In solution it is a diprotic acid:Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. .

Electrolysis requires minerals to be present in solution. Tap, well, and ground water contains various minerals, some of which are alkaline while others are acidic. Water above a pH of 7.0 is considered alkaline; below 7.0 it is acidic. The requirement is that there must be ions in the water to conduct electricity for the water electrolysis process to occur.

A particular notable contribution of Prof. Rode's research is the development and application of hybrid quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical simulation techniques, focusing on a broad range of problems in solution chemistry. In 2004 an improved technique known as quantum mechanical charge field molecular dynamics explicitly aimed at the treatment of solvated systems has been developed in Prof. Rode's research group.

Finally, there must only be only one complex in solution which predominates over all others under the conditions of the experiment. This requirement means that only systems with high association constants, or systems in which only one stoichiometry can form, are suitable for analysis by Job plot. As such, the use of the Job plot in supramolecular chemistry has been advised against.

The NOE is particularly important in the assignment of NMR resonances, and the elucidation and confirmation of the structures or configurations of organic and biological molecules. The two-dimensional NOE experiment (NOESY) is an important tool to identify stereochemistry of proteins and other biomolecules in solution, whereas in solid form crystal x-ray diffraction must be used to identify the stereochemistry.

Hyperfine Interactions, volume 70, issue 1, pages 1095–1098. The anhydrous salt is orange-yellow and dissolves in water to give a red solution. Crystals of the dihydrate []·2 are golden yellow in color. Potassium ferrooxalate is believed to be formed when the related compound potassium ferrioxalate [] is decomposed by light in solution (a common method of actinometry) or heated above 296 °C.

PASS 1 always outputs 1, whatever the input. YES outputs a 1 when the input is 1 and NOT is the inverse YES – it outputs a 0 when the input is 1. An example of a YES logic gate is the molecular structure shown below. A "1" output is given only when sodium ions are present in solution ("1" input).

S-layer proteins have the natural capability to self-assemble into regular monomolecular arrays in solution and at interfaces, such as solid supports, the air-water interface, lipid films, liposomes, emulsomes, nanocapsules, nanoparticles or micro beads. S-layer crystal growth follows a non-classical pathway in which a final refolding step of the S-layer protein is part of the lattice formation.

The chemical formula of iron sucrose is C12H29Fe5Na2O23. The iron sucrose molecule is a polymer with two main molecules; sucrose (chemical formula C12H22O11) and an iron (III) hydroxide (Na2Fe5O8•3(H2O)). These two components are in solution together, but are not bound to one another. Iron sucrose is a type II complex, with two oxygen atoms bonded to each iron atom.

The protein NMR structure of maurotoxin, illustrating the fluctuations in the protein's native state in solution. The protein backbone is shown in red, the alpha carbons of the eight cysteine residues in green, and the disulfide bridges in yellow. Compare the disulfide bond connectivity to HsTx1 below. The protein NMR structure of HsTx1, a scorpion toxin with a canonical disulfide bond connectivity.

The best known polycation of mercury is , in which mercury has a formal oxidation state of +1. The ion was perhaps the first metal-metal bonded species confirmed. The presence of the ion in solution was shown by Ogg in 1898.A. Ogg; Zeitschrift Physische Chemie 27, 285 (1898) In 1900, Baker showed the presence of HgCl dimers in the vapour phase.

The pyrithione ligands, which are formally monoanions, are chelated to Zn2+ via oxygen and sulfur centers. In the crystalline state, zinc pyrithione exists as a centrosymmetric dimer (see figure), where each zinc is bonded to two sulfur and three oxygen centers. In solution, however, the dimers dissociate via scission of one Zn-O bond. This compound was first described in the 1930s.

Neptunium has five ionic oxidation states ranging from +3 to +7 when forming chemical compounds, which can be simultaneously observed in solutions. It is the heaviest actinide that can lose all its valence electrons in a stable compound. The most stable state in solution is +5, but the valence +4 is preferred in solid neptunium compounds. Neptunium metal is very reactive.

Rubrene, like other polycyclic aromatic molecules, undergoes redox reactions in solution. It oxidizes and reduces reversibly at 0.95 V and −1.37 V, respectively vs SCE. When the cation and anion are co-generated in an electrochemical cell, they can combine with annihilation of their charges, but producing an excited rubrene molecule that emits at 540 nm. This phenomenon is called electrochemiluminescence.

Sodium perxenate, Na4XeO6, can be used for the analytic separation of trace amounts of americium from curium. The separation involves the oxidation of Am3+ to Am4+ by sodium perxenate in acidic solution in the presence of La3+, followed by treatment with calcium fluoride, which forms insoluble fluorides with Cm3+ and La3+, but retains Am4+ and Pu4+ in solution as soluble fluorides.

Crude oil becomes heavy after considerable degradation, after entrapment and during devolatilization. Degradation occurs through chemical and biological processes when oil reservoirs become contaminated by bacteria through subsurface water. The bacteria then break down some crude oil components into heavy components, making it more viscous. Water carries away low molecular weight hydrocarbons in solution form since they are more soluble.

The two other fluorine atoms are attached by shorter bonds (168 pm), with an F-Se-F bond angle of 100.6°. In solution at low concentrations this monomeric structure predominates, but at higher concentrations evidence suggests weak association between SeF4 molecules leading to a distorted octahedral coordination around the selenium atom. In the solid the selenium center also has a distorted octahedral environment.

This fluid lipid bilayer cross section is made up entirely of phosphatidylcholine. The three main structures phospholipids form in solution; the liposome (a closed bilayer), the micelle and the bilayer. The lipid bilayer (or phospholipid bilayer) is a thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules. These membranes are flat sheets that form a continuous barrier around all cells.

Robert Guillaumont began his research in 1959 on the chemistry of protactinium in solution. He showed that the electronic filling of the 5f underlay begins for this element. The UV absorption spectrum of Pa4+ is typical of a 5f16d1 transition (Pa atom: 5f26d17s2). Together with his collaborators, he extended his methodology for studying the behaviour of radioelements in imponderable quantities to other actinides.

LD is very similar to Circular Dichroism (CD), but with two important differences. (i) CD spectroscopy uses circularly polarized light whereas LD uses linearly polarized light. (ii) In CD experiments molecules are usually free in solution so they are randomly oriented. The observed spectrum is then a function only of the chiral or asymmetric nature of the molecules in the solution.

Like most organic dyes they are susceptible to degradation by oxygen and free radicals. Incorporation of the dyes into a polymer matrix, adding a stabilizer, or providing a barrier to oxygen and chemicals by other means prolongs their lifetime.G. Baillet, G. Giusti et R. GuglielmettiComparative photodegradation study between spiro[indoline-oxazine] and spiro[indoline-pyran] derivatives in solution, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem.

The mixture is then cooled to 70 °C and diluted with ten times its volume of cold water, so that any remaining monazite sinks to the bottom while the rare earths and thorium remain in solution. Thorium may then be separated by precipitating it as the phosphate at pH 1.3, since the rare earths do not precipitate until pH 2\.

Mosander first separated yttria into three fractions, all named for the ore: yttria, erbia, and terbia. "Terbia" was originally the fraction that contained the pink color, due to the element now known as erbium. "Erbia" (containing what we now call terbium) originally was the fraction that was essentially colorless in solution. The insoluble oxide of this element was noted to be tinged brown.

Tin resists corrosion from water, but can be attacked by acids and alkalis. Tin can be highly polished and is used as a protective coat for other metals. A protective oxide (passivation) layer prevents further oxidation, the same that forms on pewter and other tin alloys. Tin acts as a catalyst when oxygen is in solution and helps to accelerate the chemical reaction.

Pinocytosis ("cell drinking") is essentially the same process, the difference being that the substances ingested are in solution and not visible under the microscope. Phagocytosis and pinocytosis are both undertaken in association with lysosomes which complete the breakdown of the material which has been engulfed. Salmonella is able to survive and reproduce in the vacuoles of several mammal species after being engulfed.

It is most often administered orally as either sodium solution or tablet, however can also be given by intravenous injection. Tablets contain either 30 mg or 50 mg of butabarbital sodium, or 30 mg/5mL with 7% alcohol/vol in solution. For preoperative sedation, adults are administered 50–100 mg 60-90min prior to surgery, with varying doses for pediatric and geriatric patients.

Information obtained on the nature of ions in solution varies with the nature of the experimental method used. Some methods reveal properties of the cation directly, others reveal properties that depend on both cation and anion. Some methods supply information of a static nature, a kind of snapshot of average properties, others give information about the dynamics of the solution.

Although zinc is an essential requirement for good health, excess zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc suppresses copper and iron absorption. The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish. The Free Ion Activity Model is well-established in the literature, and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms.

As each colour and intensity of colour has a unique wavelength, beads can easily be differentiated based on their wavelength intensity. Microspheres are readily suspendable in solution and exhibit favorable kinetics during an assay. Similar to flat microarrays (e.g. DNA microarray), an appropriate receptor molecule, such as DNA oligonucleotide probes, antibodies, or other proteins, attach themselves to the differently labeled microspheres.

At room temperature, water solutions of urea are prone to same decomposition reaction in the presence of urease. The isomerization of urea in solution at room temperature without catalysts is a slow process (taking days to reach equilibrium), and freshly prepared, unheated solutions had negligible carbamylation rates. Urea reacts with alcohols to form urethanes. Urea reacts with malonic esters to make barbituric acids.

The difference from conventional immunoassays is that, the capture ligands are covalently attached to the surface of the biochip in an ordered array rather than in solution. In sandwich assays an enzyme-labelled antibody is used; in competitive assays an enzyme-labelled antigen is used. On antibody-antigen binding a chemiluminescence reaction produces light. Detection is by a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera.

Wheat flour is composed of six main groups, carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes, lipids, minerals and vitamins. Flour is added to tomato soup to increase its viscosity. The starch in the flour acts as a gelling agent and increases the viscosity of the product. When starch granules found in the flour are heated in solution they become less ordered and begin to gel.

The theory of thermoresponsive polymer (similarly, microgels) begins in the 1940s with work from Flory and Huggins who both independently produced similar theoretical expectations for polymer in solution with varying temperature. The effects of external stimuli on particular polymers were investigated in the 1960s by Heskins and Guillet. They established 32 °C as the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) for poly(N-isopropylacrylamide).

For cancer therapy, research has suggested that manipulation of ELPs, through the addition of functional groups, can enable the ELP to conjugate with cytotoxic drugs. Also, ELPs may be able to function as polymeric scaffolds, which promote tissue regeneration. This capacity of ELPs has been studied particularly in the context of bone growth. ELPs can be engineered to recognize specific proteins in solution.

In what has been described as "primary efflorescence," the water is the invader and the salt was already present internally. Some people describe a reverse process, where the salt is originally present externally and is then carried inside in solution, as "secondary efflorescence." However, others would give this latter phenomenon another name entirely. Efflorescences can occur in natural and built environments.

In solution or crystal, Der f 1 is a monomer. Der f 1 has been shown to express polymorphism, with at least two haplotypes observed in different regions. Der f 1 can be inhibited by chestnut cystatin, which is thought to stem from the presence of the amino acid Gln152 (instead of Der p 1's Arg151) near the enzyme's active site.

Cif belongs to the α/β hydrolase family of proteins. Its structure was determined by X-ray crystallography and consists of the canonical α/β hydrolase fold with a cap domain, which it uses to constitutively homo-dimerize in solution. The active site is buried in the interior of the protein at the interface between the α/β hydrolase core and the cap.

Molybdenum (Mo) is the most abundant transition element in solution in the sea (mostly as dianionic molybdate ion) and in living organisms, its abundance in the Earth's crust is quite low. Therefore, the use of Mo by living organisms seems surprising at first glance. Archaea, bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, including humans, require molybdenum. It is also found in over 50 different enzymes.

Hydration numbers can be determined using a variety of different experimental methods. These include Raman spectroscopy, neutron and X-ray scattering, luminescence, and NMR. Hydration numbers can change depending on whether the species is locked into a crystalline lattice form or free flowing in solution. The apparent hydration number of a species can vary depending on which experimental method was used.

Employment of scavenger resins has become increasingly popular in solution-phase combinatorial chemistry. Used primarily in the synthesis of medicinal drugs, solution-phase combinatorial chemistry allows for the creation of large libraries of structurally related compounds. When purifying a solution, many approaches can be taken. In general chemical synthesis laboratories, a number of traditional techniques for purification are used as opposed to the employment of scavenger resins.

Anomerization is the process of conversion of one anomer to the other. For reducing sugars, anomerization is referred to as mutarotation and occurs readily in solution and is catalyzed by acid and base. This reversible process typically leads to an anomeric mixture in which eventually an equilibrium is reached between the two single anomers. The ratio of the two anomers is specific for the regarding sugar.

This protein domain is thought to have a SH3-like barrel structure. Additionally, the structure of a hypothetical protein in this family has been solved and it forms a beta sheet structure with a terminating alpha helix. HspQ forms a stable homodimer in solution and can form homomultimers consisting of about four monomers. The theoretical molecular mass of the HspQ protein were calculated to be 11.8 kDa.

The Krafft temperature is the temperature at which the CMC can be achieved. This temperature determines the relative solubility of surfactant in an aqueous solution. This is the minimum temperature the solution must be at to allow the surfactant to precipitate into aggregates. Below this temperature no level of solubility will be sufficient to precipitate aggregates due to minimal movement of particles in solution.

To go in-depth with the analyses and confirm the thesis, the researchers conducted further experiments and computational analysis. They performed a whole-genome target array and in-solution hybridization capture using probes that include the modern S. enterica genome differences and using S. Paratyphi C as reference. The hybridization was successful for the ten positive samples, while the other samples resulted negative for the ancient DNA.

When the fungus/bacteria is added to solution, protein biomass is released into the solution. Electron donating residues such as tryptophan and tyrosine reduce silver ions in solution contributed by silver nitrate. These methods have been found to effectively create stable monodisperse nanoparticles without the use of harmful reducing agents. A method has been found of reducing silver ions by the introduction of the fungus Fusarium oxysporum.

NOBIN is prepared by oxidative cross coupling of 2-naphthol and 2-naphthylamine. The oxidative source is metal ions in solution such as Fe2+ or a Cu2+ amine complex. Once racemic NOBIN is produced, it needs to be resolved. One method for this is the use of camphorsulfonic acid, in which the basic group of NOBIN is used to form a diastereomeric salt of one enantiomer.

Neuraminic acid anomeric configuration The alpha-anomer is the form that is found when sialic acid is bound to glycans. However, in solution, it is mainly (over 90%) in the beta-anomeric form. A bacterial enzyme with sialic acid mutarotase activity, NanM, that is able to rapidly equilibrate solutions of sialic acid to the resting equilibrium position of around 90% beta/10% alpha has been discovered.

Paul John Flory (June 19, 1910 – September 9, 1985) was an American chemist and Nobel laureate who was known for his work in the field of polymers, or macromolecules. He was a leading pioneer in understanding the behavior of polymers in solution, and won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 "for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of macromolecules".

Syphilitic infection leads to the production of nonspecific antibodies that react to cardiolipin. This reaction is the foundation of “nontreponemal” assays such as the VDRL (Venereal Disease Research Laboratory) test and Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) test. Both these test are flocculation type tests that use an antigen-antibody interaction. The complexes remain suspended in solution and therefore visible due to the lipid based antigens.

Penneman, pp. 25–26 The +6 oxidation state has only been reported once in solution in 1978, as the curyl ion (): this was prepared from the beta decay of americium-242 in the americium(V) ion . Failure to obtain Cm(VI) from oxidation of Cm(III) and Cm(IV) may be due to the high Cm4+/Cm3+ ionization potential and the instability of Cm(V).

Metals can be heat treated to alter the properties of strength, ductility, toughness, hardness or resistance to corrosion. Common heat treatment processes include annealing, precipitation hardening, quenching, and tempering. The annealing process softens the metal by allowing recovery of cold work and grain growth. Quenching can be used to harden alloy steels, or in precipitation hardenable alloys, to trap dissolved solute atoms in solution.

The hydrocarbon in solution was described as having an extremely foul odor. Due to the high steric strain present in benzvalene, the pure compound (~71 kcal/mol higher in energy than benzene) easily detonates, for example by scratching. The compound converts to benzene with a chemical half-life of approximately 10 days. This symmetry- forbidden transition is believed to take place through a diradical intermediate.

The dermatan sulfate side chains of decorin aggregate in solution, and this behavior can assist with the assembly of the collagen fibrils. When decorin molecules are bound to a collagen fibril, their dermatan sulfate chains may extend and associate with other dermatan sulfate chains on decorin that is bound to separate fibrils, therefore creating interfibrillar bridges and eventually causing parallel alignment of the fibrils.

Purple acid phosphatases (PAPs) () are metalloenzymes that hydrolyse phosphate esters and anhydrides under acidic condition. In their oxidised form, PAPs in solution are purple in colour. This is due to the presence of a dinuclear iron centre, to which a tyrosine residue is connected via a charge transfer. This metallic centre is composed of Fe3+ and M, where M is Fe3+, Zn2+, Mg2+ or Mn2+.

They must also be heated hot enough for all of the alloys to be in solution; after forming, the material must be quickly cooled to .Degarmo, pp. 116–117. Cold-worked microalloyed steels do not require as much cold working to achieve the same strength as other carbon steel; this also leads to greater ductility. Hot-worked microalloyed steels can be used from the air-cooled state.

LeMessurier and Hills published a paper in 1965 on A thermodynamic approach arising from a study on Torres Strait diving techniques which suggests that decompression by conventional models results in bubble formation which is then eliminated by re-dissolving at the decompression stops, which is slower than elimination while still in solution, thus indicating the importance of minimising bubble phase for efficient gas elimination.

The molecules absorbed through the plasma membrane tend to be smaller than 5,000 Da, so only simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and other small molecules can be taken up following digestion. The molecules are taken up in solution. In some cases, the molecules are processed by enzymes located within the cell wall. For instance, sucrose inverters have been localized in walls of yeasts.

250x250px Tryptophan 7-halogenase is a 538-residue, 61-kDa protein. In solution, a number of homologues exist as homodimers. The enzyme has two main binding sites: one for FAD and one for tryptophan. Note that the FAD is supplied by a separate flavin reductase which may be a general enzyme recruited from metabolism or a specific enzyme encoded in the relevant biosynthetic gene cluster.

Crystal structure analysis of the first phosphatase domain of PTPkappa demonstrates that it shares many conformational features with PTPmu, including an unhindered open conformation for the catalytically important WPD loop, and a phosphate binding loop for the active-site cysteine (Cys1083). PTPkappa exists as a monomer in solution, with the caveat that dimers of PTPkappa are observed depending on the nature of the buffer used.

Iodine is used in chemistry as an indicator for starch. When starch is mixed with iodine in solution, an intensely dark blue colour develops, representing a starch/iodine complex. Starch is a substance common to most plant cells and so a weak iodine solution will stain starch present in the cells. Iodine is one component in the staining technique known as Gram staining, used in microbiology.

In 1950, Franklin was granted a three-year Turner & Newall Fellowship to work at King's College London. In January 1951, she started working as a research associate in the Medical Research Council's (MRC) Biophysics Unit, directed by John Randall.Maddox, p. 124. She was originally appointed to work on X-ray diffraction of proteins and lipids in solution, but Randall redirected her work to DNA fibresWilliams, p. 282.

Methyllithium is the simplest organolithium reagent with the empirical formula CH3Li. This s-block organometallic compound adopts an oligomeric structure both in solution and in the solid state. This highly reactive compound, invariably used as a solution in ethers, is a reagent in organic synthesis as well as organometallic chemistry. Operations involving methyllithium require anhydrous conditions, because the compound is highly reactive toward water.

They are surrounded by bundles of living cells known as leptoids which carry sugars and other nutrients in solution. The hydroids are analogous to the tracheids of vascular plants but there is no lignin present in the cell walls to provide structural support. Hydroids have been found in some fossilised plants from the Rhynie chert, including Aglaophyton, where they were initially mistaken for xylem tracheids.

Repeated application of liquid hog manure in excess to crop needs can have detrimental effects on soil phosphorus status. Also, application of biosolids may increase available phosphorus in soil. In poorly drained soils or in areas where snowmelt can cause periodic waterlogging, reducing conditions can be attained in 7–10 days. This causes a sharp increase in phosphorus concentration in solution and phosphorus can be leached.

Shriver & Atkins inorganic chemistry. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press The result of the rate law is that at high concentrations of Y, the rate approximates k[M]tot while at low concentrations the result is kKE[M]tot[Y]. The Eigen-Fuoss equation shows that higher values of KE (and thus a faster pre-equilibrium) are obtained for large, oppositely- charged ions in solution.

Static light scattering allows monitoring of the sizes of the species in solution. Since proteins typically aggregate upon denaturation (or form fibrils) the detected species size will go up. This is label-free and independent of specific residues in the protein or buffer composition. The only requirement is that the protein actually aggregates/fibrillates after denaturation and that the protein of interest has been purified.

PG-X, later known as prostacyclin, is 30 times more potent than any other then-known anti- aggregatory agent. In 1976, Vane and fellow researchers Salvador Moncada, Ryszard Gryglewski, and Stuart Bunting published the first paper on prostacyclin in Nature. The collaboration produced a synthesized molecule, which was named epoprostenol. But, as with native prostacyclin, the epoprostenol molecule is unstable in solution and prone to rapid degradation.

Dichlorine heptoxide reacts with primary and secondary amines in carbon tetrachloride solution to yield perchloric amides: :2 + → 2 + :2 + → 2 + It also reacts with alkenes to give alkyl perchlorates. For example, it reacts with propene in carbon tetrachloride solution to yield isopropyl perchlorate and 1-chloro-2-propyl perchlorate. Dichlorine heptoxide is a strongly acidic oxide, and in solution it forms an equilibrium with perchloric acid.

It has since been found in Gabon. Skeletocutis diluta has effused-reflexed fruit bodies, meaning they are crust-like with a margin that is extended and bent backwards. It has small allantoid (sausage- shaped) spores measuring 3.1–3.5 by 0.5–0.8 μm. It features a dimitic hyphal system (containing both generative and skeletal hyphae), but the skeletal hyphae dissolve in solution of potassium hydroxide.

Eventually, the polymer domain size will be greater than the carrier diffusion length, which lowers performance. Even though the nanoparticle bandgap can be tuned, it needs to be matched with the corresponding polymer. The 2.0 eV bandgap of CdSe is larger than an ideal bandgap of 1.4 for absorbance of light. The nanoparticles involved are typically colloids, which are stabilized in solution by ligands.

At very high pH values, where PDMAEMA is uncharged while PAA is highly charged, the Janus nanoparticles were very stable in solution. However, below a pH of 4, when PAA is uncharged and PDMAEMA is positively charged, they formed finite clusters. At intermediate pH values, they found that the Janus nanoparticles were unstable due to dipolar interaction between the positively and negatively charged hemispheres.

Each cell consists of an electrode and an electrolyte with ions that undergo either oxidation or reduction. An electrolyte is a substance containing free ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium. Because they generally consist of ions in solution, electrolytes are also known as ionic solutions, but molten electrolytes and solid electrolytes are also possible. They are sometimes referred to in abbreviated jargon as lytes.

In chemistry, homogeneous catalysis is catalysis in a solution by a soluble catalyst. Homogeneous catalysis refers to reactions where the catalyst is in the same phase as the reactants, principally in solution. In contrast, heterogeneous catalysis describes processes where the catalysts and substrate are in distinct phases, typically solid-gas, respectively. The term is used almost exclusively to describe solutions and implies catalysis by organometallic compounds.

People with cystine stones should consume 5 to 7 liters a day. The rationale behind alkalizing the urine is that cystine tends to stay in solution and causes no harm. In order to alkalize the urine, sodium bicarbonate has been used. One must be careful in alkalizing their urine because it could lead to other forms of stones in process of preventing cystine stones.

That is why racemates are optically inactive, as they nullify their clockwise and counter clockwise optical activities. The optical rotation is proportional to the concentration of the optically active substances in solution. Polarimeters may therefore be applied for concentration measurements of enantiomer-pure samples. With a known concentration of a sample, polarimeters may also be applied to determine the specific rotation when characterizing a new substance.

Actinium trifluoride can be produced either in solution or in solid reaction. The former reaction is carried out at room temperature, by adding hydrofluoric acid to a solution containing actinium ions. In the latter method, actinium metal is treated with hydrogen fluoride vapors at 700 °C in an all-platinum setup. Treating actinium trifluoride with ammonium hydroxide at 900–1000 °C yields oxyfluoride AcOF.

Potassium tert-butoxide crystallises from tetrahydrofuran/pentane at −20 °C as [tBuOK·tBuOH]∞, which consists of infinite one-dimensional chains linked by hydrogen bonding. Sublimation of [tBuOK·tBuOH]∞ affords the tetramer [tBuOK]4, which adopts a cubane-like structure. Mild Lewis basic solvents such as THF and diethyl ether do not break up the tetrameric structure, which persists in the solid, in solution and even in the gas phase.

DAP is used as a fertilizer. When applied as plant food, it temporarily increases the soil pH, but over a long term the treated ground becomes more acidic than before upon nitrification of the ammonium. It is incompatible with alkaline chemicals because its ammonium ion is more likely to convert to ammonia in a high-pH environment. The average pH in solution is 7.5–8.

The incompatibility between the blocks also affects the solution behavior of these copolymers and their adsorption behavior on various surfaces. Block are able to self-assemble in selective solvents, to form micelles among other structures.Hamley, I.W. "Block Copolymers in Solution" – Wiley, 2005. In thin films, block are of great interest as masks in the lithographic patterning of semiconductor materials for applications in high density data storage.

Hard carbon particles (much larger than the ore particle sizes) can be mixed with the ore and cyanide solution mixture. The gold cyanide complex is adsorbed onto the carbon until it comes to an equilibrium with the gold in solution. Because the carbon particles are much larger than the ore particles, the coarse carbon can then be separated from the slurry by screening using a wire mesh.

The addition compounds are stable in solution. It can be concluded from IR-spectroscopy and proton NMR data that no dissociation occurs in silicon tetraazide and 2,2'-bipyridine or for example 1,10-phenanthroline. The bis(triphenylphosphino)iminiumhexaazidosilicate salt ((PPN)2Si(N3)6) on the other hand is relatively stable. the compound melts at 214 °C and shows in the DSC measurement at 250 °C a reaction.

A practical application of free silicon tetraazide is unlikely due to the high instability. In solution the compound has potential uses as raw material for nitrogen-rich materials. One application as reagent in the manufacture of polyolefins has been patented.Nomura, M.; Tomomatsu, R.; Shimazaki, T.: EP 206 034 (1985) pdf-Download The stabilized adducts can serve as energetic compounds as a replacement for lead azide.

Guanidine exists protonated, as guanidinium, in solution at physiological pH. Guanidinium chloride (also known as guanidine hydrochloride) has chaotropic properties and is used to denature proteins. Guanidinium chloride is known to denature proteins with a linear relationship between concentration and free energy of unfolding. In aqueous solutions containing 6 M guanidinium chloride, almost all proteins lose their entire secondary structure and become randomly coiled peptide chains.

If acetophenone and benzaldehyde are put together in the presence of aqueous NaOH, only one product is formed: 450px This occurs because benzaldehyde lacks any enolizable protons, so it cannot form an enolate, and the benzaldehyde is much more electrophilic than any unenolized acetophenone in solution. Therefore, the enolate formed from acetophenone will always preferentially attack the benzaldehyde over another molecule of acetophenone.Clayden, Jonathan. Organic Chemistry.

Its salts and minerals are important chemical reagents and industrial chemicals, mainly used in the production of hydrogen fluoride for fluorocarbons. Fluoride is classified as a weak base since it only partially associates in solution, but concentrated fluoride is corrosive and can attack the skin. Fluoride is the simplest fluorine anion. In terms of charge and size, the fluoride ion resembles the hydroxide ion.

Nutrilite Double X was tested by ConsumerLab.com in their Multivitamin and Multimineral Supplements Review of 38 of the leading multivitamin/multimineral products sold in the U.S. and Canada. Double X passed ConsumerLab's test, which included testing of selected index elements, their ability to disintegrate in solution per United States Pharmacopeia guidelines, lead contamination threshold set in California Proposition 65, and meeting FDA labeling requirements.

Salt is shed by dropping the leaves. It can live in up to 30 ppm Boron in solution, compared to most plants which can tolerate only about 1-5 ppm. As with other desert climate members of the genus Atriplex, it uses water conserving C4 photosynthesis, and it removes salts by having bladders in the leaves that keep the salt from the plant cells.

The reading obtained from the magnetic beads bound to the target which is captured by the antibodies on the membrane is used to quantify the target compound in solution. Also, because it is so similar in methodology to ELISA or Western Blot the experiments for MIA can be adapted to use the same detection if the researcher wants to quantify their data in a similar manner.

Although one methyl group is only attached to the thorium atom (Th–C distance 257.1 pm) and the other six connect the lithium and thorium atoms (Th–C distances 265.5–276.5 pm) they behave equivalently in solution. Tetramethylthorium, , is not known, but its adducts are stabilised by phosphine ligands. Some coordination complexes with carboxylates and acetylacetonates are also known, although these are not organothorium compounds.

Creatine ( or ) is an organic compound with the nominal formula (H2N)(HN)CN(CH3)CH2CO2H. This species exists in various modifications (tautomers) in solution. Creatine is found in vertebrates where it facilitates recycling of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of the cell, primarily in muscle and brain tissue. Recycling is achieved by converting adenosine diphosphate (ADP) back to ATP via donation of phosphate groups.

The purest copper is obtained by an electrolytic process, undertaken using a slab of impure copper as the anode and a thin sheet of pure copper as the cathode. The electrolyte is an acidic solution of copper sulphate. By passing electricity through the cell, copper is dissolved from the anode and deposited on the cathode. However impurities either remain in solution or collect as an insoluble sludge.

This means that a sodium ion in an electric field of 1 V/m would have an average drift velocity of . Such values can be obtained from measurements of ionic conductivity in solution. Electrical mobility is proportional to the net charge of the particle. This was the basis for Robert Millikan's demonstration that electrical charges occur in discrete units, whose magnitude is the charge of the electron.

The overall rate constant for the SRL cleavage reaction is second order (k2/K1/2 of 108M-1s-1). This means the reaction rate is directly proportional to the concentrations of the reactant squared. The rate does not appear to be dependent on physical steps, i.e. the two molecules being able to locate each other in solution is not a factor in how quickly they react.

In addition to household vinegar, it is mainly produced as a precursor to polyvinyl acetate and cellulose acetate. It is classified as a weak acid since it only partially dissociates in solution, but concentrated acetic acid is corrosive and can attack the skin. Acetic acid is the second simplest carboxylic acid (after formic acid). It consists of a methyl group attached to a carboxyl group.

It is used widely as an acidifier, as a flavoring and a chelating agent. A citrate is a derivative of citric acid; that is, the salts, esters, and the polyatomic anion found in solution. An example of the former, a salt is trisodium citrate; an ester is triethyl citrate. When part of a salt, the formula of the citrate anion is written as or .

Bog ore Bog iron is a form of impure iron deposit that develops in bogs or swamps by the chemical or biochemical oxidation of iron carried in solution. In general, bog ores consist primarily of iron oxyhydroxides, commonly goethite (FeO(OH)). Iron-bearing groundwater typically emerges as a spring. The iron is oxidized to ferric hydroxide upon encountering the oxidizing environment of the surface.

The Brønsted–Lowry definition applies to other solvents, such as dimethyl sulfoxide: the solvent S acts as a base, accepting a proton and forming the conjugate acid SH+. :HA + S A− \+ SH+. In solution chemistry, it is common to use H+ as an abbreviation for the solvated hydrogen ion, regardless of the solvent. In aqueous solution H+ denotes a solvated hydronium ion rather than a proton.

The color of the dye is pH-dependent. In aqueous solution, its color will vary from a deep blue in alkaline or weakly acidic medium to a yellow–orange in stronger acidic conditions. It is useful as a pH indicator for the range 0.8–3.0. The structure is also redox- sensitive, changing from a reduced yellow form to an oxidized red form in solution.

This can lead to relatively dramatic pH shifts when there are shifts in solution temperature. Sodium chloride concentration may vary from 100 to 200 mM, tris concentration from 5 to 100 mM and pH from 7.2 to 8.0. A common formulation of TBS is 150 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6. TBS can also be prepared by using commercially made TBS buffer tablets or pouches.

Weak bases and weak acids are generally weak electrolytes. In an aqueous solution there will be some CH3COOH and some CH3COO− and H+. A strong electrolyte is a solute that exists in solution completely or nearly completely as ions. Again, the strength of an electrolyte is defined as the percentage of solute that is ions, rather than molecules. The higher the percentage, the stronger the electrolyte.

Dry lake beds that very rarely fill with water are sometimes used as locations for air bases, for similar reasons. Examples include Groom Lake at Area 51 in Nevada, and Edwards Air Force Base (originally known as Muroc Dry Lake) in California. Brines from the subsurface of dry lakes are often exploited for valuable minerals in solution. See, for example Searles Dry Lake and Lithium resources.

Aqueous vanadate (V) compounds undergo various self-condensation reactions. Depending on pH, major vanadate anions in solution include VO2(H2O)42+, VO43−, V2O73−, V3O93−, V4O124−, and V10O266−. The anions often reversibly protonate. Decavanadate forms according to this equilibrium: :H3V10O283− ⇌ H2V10O284− \+ H+ :H2V10O284− ⇌ HV10O285− \+ H+ :HV10O285−(aq) ⇌ V10O286− \+ H+ The structure of the various protonation states of the decavanadate ion has been examined by 51V NMR spectroscopy.

Lehn and coworkers in Helv. Chim. Acta, 2003, 86, 1598–1624. Dynamic view of an alpha-beta foldamer In chemistry, a foldamer is a discrete chain molecule or oligomer that folds into a conformationally ordered state in solution. They are artificial molecules that mimic the ability of proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides to fold into well-defined conformations, such as helices and β-sheets.

It is possible for dicofol to enter surface waters when soil erosion occurs. Breakdown in water: Dicofol degrades in water or when exposed to UV light at pH levels above 7. Its half-life in solution at pH 5 is 47 to 85 days. Because of its very high absorption coefficient (Koc), dicofol is expected to adsorb to sediment when released into open waters.

In physical gels unlike covalently linked gels the polymers chains are not covalently linked together. That means that the gel could re-dissolve in a good solvent under some conditions. Thermoresponsive physical gels, also sometimes called thermoresponsive injectable gels have been used in Tissue Engineering. This involves mixing at room temperature the thermoresponsive polymer in solution with the cells and then inject the solution to the body.

Flowstone formations are curtain-like formations that flow along the sides of caverns or passages. They are the most common formation found in "solution caves" in limestone, such as Cave of the Winds. Sometimes called draperies or curtains, they are formed over thousands of years as the mineral-rich water flows over surfaces leaving calcite behind. The rarest and most delicate formations are called helictites.

For instance, carbonate has a great effect upon the diagram for uranium. (See diagrams at right). The presence of trace amounts of certain species such as chloride ions can also greatly affect the stability of certain species by destroying passivating layers. In addition, changes in temperature and concentration of solvated ions in solution will shift the equilibrium lines in accordance with the Nernst equation.

The actual boiling in solution is usually done in a copper container, with the piece to be coloured suspended in some way, for example in a bamboo basket. The final colour can depend on the duration of the boiling period - suaka, for example, may advance from a light brown after 2-4 hours, to orange-brown after 6 hours, to red towards 10 hours.

While at Varian, Dr. Hyde and his colleagues extended the technique of electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR), which had been introduced by G. Feher Feher, G., Observation of Nuclear Magnetic Resonances via the Electron Spin Resonance Line. Phys. Rev., 103:834-835, 1956 for the study of donors in silicon, to the liquid phase,Hyde, J. S., ENDOR of a free radical in solution.

Monosaccharides which contain an aldehyde group are known as aldoses, and those with a ketone group are known as ketoses. The aldehyde can be oxidized via a redox reaction in which another compound is reduced. Thus, aldoses are reducing sugars. Sugars with ketone groups in their open chain form are capable of isomerizing via a series of tautomeric shifts to produce an aldehyde group in solution.

Monomers capable of forming single, double, triple or quadruple hydrogen bonding has been utilized for making supramolecular polymers, and increased association of monomers obviously possible when monomers have maximum number of hydrogen bonding donor/acceptor motifs. For instance, ureidopyrimidinone-based monomer with self-complementary quadruple hydrogen bonding termini polymerized in solution, accordingly with the theory of conventional polymers and displayed a distinct viscoelastic nature at ambient temperatures.

The cornerstone of treatment is administration of free water to correct the relative water deficit. Water can be replaced orally or intravenously. Water alone cannot be administered intravenously (because of osmolarity issues leading to rupturing of red blood cells in the bloodstream), but rather can be given intravenously in solution with dextrose (sugar) or saline (salt). However, overly rapid correction of hypernatremia is potentially very dangerous.

Urea phosphate is a fertilizer having NPK formula 17-44-0. It is soluble in water, and produces a strongly acidic solution. Urea phosphate is sometimes added to blends which contain calcium nitrate, magnesium nitrate and potassium nitrate to produce water-soluble formulas such as 15-5-15 and 13-2-20. The acidity of urea phosphate allows Ca, Mg and P to co-exist in solution.

Abragam A., et al., « Première observation d'une structure antiferromagnétique nucléaire par diffraction neutronique », C.R. Acad. Sci., b 286, (1978), p. 311-314 Finally, he studied and developed magnetic relaxation under radiofrequency irradiation of molecules in solution, which led to a general method for determining local mobility in large molecules in solution, in particular biomolecules.Desvaux H. and Goldman M., « A new NMR method for measuring the rotational correlation time of molecules in the liquid state », Mol. Phys., 81, (1994), p. 955-974 In shorter studies, he has also demonstrated different diffusion rates of the same ions at different crystalline sites in single crystalsGoldman M. and Shen L., « Spin-spin relaxation in LaF3 », Phys. Rev., 144, (1966), p. 321-331, studied the fractal structure of polymers by magnetic relaxationTabti T., et al., « Relaxation without spin diffusion in fractal systems: polymers in glassy solutions », J. Chem. Phys.

The ocean contains 57 trace elements in salts and other forms and dissolved in solution. In the past, most economic analyses concluded that mining the ocean for trace elements would be unprofitable, in part because of the energy required to pump the water. Mining generally targets minerals that occur in high concentrations, and can be extracted easily, such as magnesium. With OTEC plants supplying water, the only cost is for extraction.

A strong electrolyte is a solution/solute that completely, or almost completely, ionizes or dissociates in a solution. These ions are good conductors of electric current in the solution. Originally, a "strong electrolyte" was defined as a chemical that, when in aqueous solution, is a good conductor of electricity. With a greater understanding of the properties of ions in solution, its definition was replaced by the present one.

Tisdall and Oades (1982) found that iron and aluminum hydrous oxides (or sesquioxides) can act as a cementing agents to form aggregates >100 μm, this effect becomes more pronounced in soil containing >10% sesquioxides. Sesquioxides act as stabilizing agents for aggregates because iron and aluminum in solution act as flocculants (i.e., bridging cations between negatively charged soil particles), and sesquioxides have potential to precipitate as gel on clay particles (Amézketa, 1999).

Thundereggs are found in flows of rhyolite lava. They form in the lava from the action of water percolating through the porous rock carrying silica in solution. The deposits lined and filled the cavity, first with a darker matrix material, then an inner core of agate or chalcedony. The various colors come from differences in the minerals found in the soil and rock that the water has moved through.

Preservative food additives can be antimicrobial—which inhibit the growth of bacteria or fungi, including mold—or antioxidant, such as oxygen absorbers, which inhibit the oxidation of food constituents. Common antimicrobial preservatives include calcium propionate, sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, sulfites (sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen sulfite, etc.), and EDTA. Antioxidants include butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Other preservatives include formaldehyde (usually in solution), glutaraldehyde (insecticide), ethanol, and methylchloroisothiazolinone.

Nearly every metal ion and quaternary ammonium ions can form a salt with flourosulfate. Different ways to make these salts include treating a metal chloride with anhydrous fluorosulfuric acid, which releases hydrogen chloride gas. Double decomposition methods with a metal sulfate with barium fluorosulfate, or a metal chloride with silver fluorosulfate, leave the metal salt in solution. The fluorosulfate anion is weakly coordinating, and is difficult to oxidise.

A future nanocar with a synthetic molecular motor has been developed by Jean-Francois Morin et al. It is fitted with carborane wheels and a light-powered helicene synthetic molecular motor. Although the motor moiety displayed unidirectional rotation in solution, light-driven motion on a surface has yet to be observed. Mobility in water and other liquids can be also realized by a molecular propeller in the future.

It has been shown in a spectrophotometric study for patients with thalassemia, that indicaxanthin can reduce perferryl-Hb generated in solution from met-Hb and hydrogen peroxide, more effectively than either trolox (a vitamin E derivative) or vitamin C, possibly interfering with perferryl-Hb, a reactive intermediate in the hydroperoxide-dependent Hb degradation. Indicaxanthin in antioxidant studies was more effective than Trolox at scavenging the ABTS cation radical.

The Dockerin domain has two in- tandem repeats of a non-EF hand calcium binding motif. Each motif is characterized by a loop-helix structure. The three-dimensional structure of dockerin has been determined in solution,; as well as in complex with Cohesin.; There are three types of Dockerin domains: I, II and III which bind to Cohesin Type I, Cohesin Type II and Cohesin Type III respectively.

Although all hexoses have similar structures and share some general properties, each enantiomer pair has its own chemistry. Fructose is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. The two enantiomers of each pair generally have vastly different biological properties. 2-Ketohexoses are stable over a wide pH range, and with a primary pKa of 10.28, will only deprotonate at high pH, so are marginally less stable than aldohexoses in solution.

In biochemistry, the molar attenuation coefficient of a protein at depends almost exclusively on the number of aromatic residues, particularly tryptophan, and can be predicted from the sequence of amino acids. Similarly, the extinction coefficient of nucleic acids at 260 nm can be predicted given the nucleotide sequence. If the molar attenuation coefficient is known, it can be used to determine the concentration of a protein in solution.

StAR-related lipid transfer protein 10 (STARD10) or PCTP-like protein is a lipid transfer protein that in humans is encoded by the STARD10 gene. The protein derives its name from the fact that the molecule contains a START domain. As part of the StarD2 subfamily, StarD10 can transport the lipids phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine between membranes in solution. Casein kinase II phosphorylates the protein on its serine at position 184.

Curium ions in solution almost exclusively assume the oxidation state of +3, which is the most stable oxidation state for curium.Penneman, p. 24 The +4 oxidation state is observed mainly in a few solid phases, such as CmO2 and CmF4. Aqueous curium(IV) is only known in the presence of strong oxidizers such as potassium persulfate, and is easily reduced to curium(III) by radiolysis and even by water itself.

Rotational correlation time (\tau_c) is the average time it takes for a molecule to rotate one radian. In solution, rotational correlation times are in the order of picoseconds. For example, the \tau_c = 1.7 ps for water, and 100 ps for a pyrroline nitroxyl radical in a DMSO-water mixture. Rotational correlation times are employed in the measurement of microviscosity (viscosity at the molecular level) and in protein characterization.

Other factors that increases the rate of oxidation includes increasing pH and increased sodium carbonate concentration. The reaction rate eventually levels off due to the maximum formation of the product within the oxidation process. Quinaldine red also has the ability to fluoresce. Free quinaldine red does not fluoresce in solution when it is not bound to anything, making quinaldine red only visible by fluorescence when it is bound to something.

A method of etching of CdTe nanocrystals which removes Cd from the surface of the nano-structures via attack by tetrafluoroborate anions has been reported in the literature. While the presence of Cd-F surface bonds and dissociation of Cd from the surface of the nano-structures are clear from the investigation, complex formation of Cd with BF4− in solution was not discussed though may be inferred from the spectrophotometric results.

In SVET the probe vibrates in Z. During vibration it measures the current at different positions from the sample surface. This allows a map of local current density to be produced. SVET measures the currents associated with a sample in solution with natural electrochemical activity, or which is biased to force electrochemical activity. In both cases the current radiates into solution from the active regions of the sample.

Specific ion Interaction Theory (SIT theory) is a theory used to estimate single-ion activity coefficients in electrolyte solutions at relatively high concentrations. It does so by taking into consideration interaction coefficients between the various ions present in solution. Interaction coefficients are determined from equilibrium constant values obtained with solutions at various ionic strengths. The determination of SIT interaction coefficients also yields the value of the equilibrium constant at infinite dilution.

In solution chemistry, it is usual to use H+ as an abbreviation for the solvated hydrogen ion, regardless of the solvent. In aqueous solution H+ denotes a solvated hydronium ion.The bare proton does not exist in aqueous solution. It is a very strong acid and combines the base, water, to form the hydronium ion :H+ \+ H2O → H3O+ The hydronium ion forms various weak complexes by hydrogen bonding with more water molecules.

The history of fire extinguisher The original foam was a mixture of two powders and water produced in a foam generator. It was called chemical foam because of the chemical action to create it. In general, the powders used were sodium bicarbonate and aluminium sulfate, with small amounts of saponin or liquorice added to stabilise the bubbles. Hand-held foam extinguishers used the same two chemicals in solution.

A model has been suggested in which PRC1 is likely to be a flexible molecule both in solution and on single microtubules but becomes more rigid when the microtubule-binding domains are restricted with antiparallel microtubule filament crosslinking, seen at the spindle midzone. The overall structure of the PRC1 homodimer is reminiscent of actin-bundling proteins, and this process of microtubule filament crosslinking is similar to that of actin.

The volume is dedicated to Thomas Osborne, 4th Duke of Leeds, who was one of Charleton's patients. It contains case histories, and argues that part of the reputation of the Bath waters as a cure for palsy was due to the large number of cases of paralysis from lead poisoning who arrived with useless limbs; and were cured by abstinence from cider having lead in solution, and by frequent bathing.

The intermediate domain links the apical and equatorial domains and transfers allosteric information between them. The GroEL oligomer is a tetradecamer, cylindrically shaped, that is organised in two heptameric rings stacked back to back. Each GroEL ring contains a central cavity, known as the `Anfinsen cage', that provides an isolated environment for protein folding. The identical 10 kDa subunits of GroES form a dome-like heptameric oligomer in solution.

The constricted nature of the interior of the molecular complex strongly favors compact molecular conformations of the substrate protein. Free in solution, long-range, non-polar interactions can only occur at a high cost in entropy. In the close quarters of the GroEL complex, the relative loss of entropy is much smaller. The method of capture also tends to concentrate the non-polar binding sites separately from the polar sites.

Coupling of two amino acids in solution. The unprotected amine of one reacts with the unprotected carboxylic acid group of the other to form a peptide bond. In this example, the second reactive group (amine/acid) in each of the starting materials bears a protecting group. In organic chemistry, peptide synthesis is the production of peptides, compounds where multiple amino acids are linked via amide bonds, also known as peptide bonds.

Grasses and shrubs can be preserved in solution or dried to then be added to the diorama. Ground debris, such as leaf litter, is collected on site and soaked in wallpaper paste for preservation and presentation in the diorama. Water is simulated using glass or plexiglass with ripples carved on the surface. For a diorama to be successful, the foreground and background must merge, so both artists have to work together.

The increased demand for faster and easy-to-use protein separation tools has accelerated the evolution of IEF towards in-solution separations. In this context, a multi-junction IEF system was developed to perform fast and gel-free IEF separations. The multi-junction IEF system utilizes a series of vessels with a capillary passing through each vessel. Part of the capillary in each vessel is replaced by a semipermeable membrane.

PYP was first discovered in 1985. A recently (2016) developed chemogenetic system named FAST (Fluorescence-Activating and absorption Shifting Tag) was engineered from PYP to specifically and reversibly bind a series of hydroxybenzylidene rhodanine (HBR) derivatives for their fluorogenic properties. Upon interaction with FAST, the fluorogen is locked into a fluorescent conformation unlike when in solution. This new protein labelling system is used in a variety of microscopy and cytometry setups.

Heat denaturation of DNA, also called melting, causes the double helix structure to unwind to form single stranded DNA. When DNA in solution is heated above its melting temperature (usually more than 80 °C), the double- stranded DNA unwinds to form single-stranded DNA. The bases become unstacked and can thus absorb more light. In their native state, the bases of DNA absorb light in the 260-nm wavelength region.

Oh is only insignificantly higher, indicating that the minimum on the energy surface is very shallow. 129Xe and 19F NMR spectroscopy indicates that in solution the compound assumes a tetrameric structure: four equivalent xenon atoms are arranged in a tetrahedron surrounded by a fluctuating array of 24 fluorine atoms that interchange positions in a "cogwheel mechanism". Six polymorphs of are known. including one that contains XeF ions with bridging F ions.

Methylrhenium trioxide serves as a heterogeneous catalyst for a variety of transformations. Supported on Al2O3/SiO2, it catalyzes olefin metathesis at 25 °C. In solution, MTO catalyses for the oxidations with hydrogen peroxide. Terminal alkynes yield the corresponding acid or ester, internal alkynes yield diketones, and alkenes give epoxides. MTO also catalyses the conversion of aldehydes and diazoalkanes into an alkene,Hudson, A. “Methyltrioxorhenium” Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis.

Esterification reaction of citrate and glutathione Thioesters exhibit electrosteric repulsive forces due to amine functional groups and their size, which prevents aggregation. These electrostatic repulsive forces are weakened by counterions in solution, such as Ca2+ found in seawater. Ca2+ ions are naturally found in seawater due to the weathering of calcareous rocks, and allow for dissolution of the oxide-coated particle at low electrolyte concentrations.Li X, Lenhart J, Walker H (2010).

Environmental Science, 1. Of the potential species formed in seawater, such as Ag2S and Ag2CO3, AgCl is the most thermodynamically favored due to its stability, solubility, and the abundance of Cl− in seawater. Research has shown that partially oxidized nanoparticles may be more toxic than those that are freshly prepared. It was also found that Ag dissolutes more in solution when the pH is low and bleaching has occurred.

Salt can also be added, in solution, to coloured clay slips and can be sprinkled onto biscuit ware in protective, ceramic containers called saggars. A related technique, soda firing, substitutes soda ash and/or sodium bicarbonate for common salt. Whilst the application method is a little different, the alternatives need to be sprayed into the kiln, results are similar to salt glazing but for subtle differences in texture and colour.

The alkali metal hydroxides form white crystals that are hygroscopic and readily soluble in water, generating large amounts of heat upon dissolution. The solubility increases down the column as the alkali metal ions become larger and the lattice enthalpies decrease. All alkali metal hydroxides are strong bases, meaning that they dissociate completely in solution to give ions. As strong bases, alkali hydroxides are highly corrosive and are used in cleaning products.

With many carbon-hydrogen bonds near Ta, analogues of pentamethyltantalum are susceptible to alpha elimination. Excess methyllithium reacts to yield higher coordinated methyl tantalum ions [Ta(CH3)6]− and [Ta(CH3)7]2−. Pentamethyltantalum in solution forms stable insoluble complex material when mixed with dmpe (CH3)2PCH2CH2P(CH3)2. With nitric oxide it gives a white coloured dimer with formula {TaMe3[ON(Me)NO]2}2 (Me=CH3).

Recently the compound has found use as a mineral stain for wood and other substances. The mechanism of this action involves the application of a metal salt (such as iron(II) chloride) and the zinc peroxide to the substrate material (wood or wood-like material, i.e. bamboo, paper, cloths, and cellulose products). The metal salt is applied in solution and allowed to dry for up to 30 minutes.

Next, zinc peroxide is applied, also in solution. Color change is immediately visible. The two solutions soak into the material, and react, thereby becoming ingrained in the matrix of the substrate. While these stains can produce a variety of colors ranging from a reddish brown to a yellow hue, they are generally used to mimic the look of endangered wood species in cheaper and more commonly available stock.

Submerging the rubber products in an adsorbent bath of amine dye, sodium hydrate, sodium chloride, and sulfuric acid allowed for the dyes to be bound covalently to the rubber matrix. The amines in solution reacted with primary amines in the rubber matrix to form azo dyes on the rubber fibers. This methodology of dyeing rubber was found to be applicable to raw, vulcanized, and other manufactured rubber products.

The three main structures phospholipids form in solution; the liposome (a closed bilayer), the micelle and the bilayer. Self-assembled vesicles are essential components of primitive cells. The second law of thermodynamics requires that the universe move in a direction in which disorder (or entropy) increases, yet life is distinguished by its great degree of organization. Therefore, a boundary is needed to separate life processes from non-living matter.

Electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) is a magnetic resonance technique for elucidating the molecular and electronic structure of paramagnetic species.Kevan, L and Kispert, L. D. Electron Spin Double Resonance Spectroscopy Interscience: New York, 1976. The technique was first introduced to resolve interactions in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra./Kurreck, H.; Kirste, B.; Lubitz, W. Electron Nuclear Double Resonance Spectroscopy of Radicals in Solution VCH Publishers: New York, 1988.

For example, gold nanoparticles appear deep red to black in solution. The often very high surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles provides a tremendous driving force for diffusion, especially at elevated temperatures. Sintering is possible at lower temperatures and over shorter durations than for larger particles. This theoretically does not affect the density of the final product, though flow difficulties and the tendency of nanoparticles to agglomerate do complicate matters.

These are formed when rainwater - a weak carbonic acid capable of dissolving limestone - percolates through it via the grykes and joints underground. This means the limestone is pervious. As this happens the limestone is dissolved and removed in solution. Caverns are often found below the surface in the limestone and as the lime-rich water finds its way underground it begins to drip from the roof of the cavern.

As of 1994 he became professor emeritus of chemistry at the University of Illinois. Ted Brown published extensively on alkyl lithium reagents in solution in the 1960s. His work in the 1970s includes contributions on metal carbonyl complexes, metal carbonyl radicals, molecular orbital theory, and Nuclear quadrupole resonance. He has researched and published extensively in the areas of inorganic chemistry, organometallic chemistry, chemical kinetics and mechanisms of reactions.

The four phosphorus atoms are at the corners of a tetrahedron surrounding the palladium(0) center. This structure is typical for four-coordinate 18 e− complexes. The corresponding complexes Ni(PPh3)4 and Pt(PPh3)4 are also well known. Such complexes reversibly dissociate PPh3 ligands in solution, so reactions attributed to Pd(PPh3)4 often in fact arise from Pd(PPh3)3 or even Pd(PPh3)2.

Chromatography can be used to separate protein in solution or denaturing conditions by using porous gels. This technique is known as size exclusion chromatography. The principle is that smaller molecules have to traverse a larger volume in a porous matrix. Consequentially, proteins of a certain range in size will require a variable volume of eluent (solvent) before being collected at the other end of the column of gel.

A buffer solution contains an acid and its conjugate base or a base and its conjugate acid. Addition of the conjugate ion will result in a change of pH of the buffer solution. For example, if both sodium acetate and acetic acid are dissolved in the same solution they both dissociate and ionize to produce acetate ions. Sodium acetate is a strong electrolyte, so it dissociates completely in solution.

Scheme of the colloidal probe technique for direct force measurements in the sphere-plane and sphere-sphere geometries. The colloidal probe technique is commonly used to measure interaction forces acting between colloidal particles and/or planar surfaces in air or in solution. This technique relies on the use of an atomic force microscope (AFM). However, instead of a cantilever with a sharp AFM tip, one uses the colloidal probe.

In electrospray ionization, a liquid is pushed through a very small, charged and usually metal, capillary. This liquid contains the substance to be studied, the analyte, dissolved in a large amount of solvent, which is usually much more volatile than the analyte. Volatile acids, bases or buffers are often added to this solution too. The analyte exists as an ion in solution either in its anion or cation form.

Electrorefining technology converting spent commercial nuclear fuel into metal. Electrowinning, also called electroextraction, is the electrodeposition of metals from their ores that have been put in solution via a process commonly referred to as leaching. Electrorefining uses a similar process to remove impurities from a metal. Both processes use electroplating on a large scale and are important techniques for the economical and straightforward purification of non-ferrous metals.

Mattousi studied physics at the University of Tunis El Manar, which he completed with honours in 1982. He completed his doctoral research at the Université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie, where he studied mesomorphic polymers in solution. On completing his PhD, Mattousi was made a research associate at the Collège de France. He moved to the United States in 1987, first joining University of Massachusetts Amherst, then Carnegie Mellon University.

Diffusion control is rare in the gas phase, where rates of diffusion of molecules are generally very high. Diffusion control is more likely in solution where diffusion of reactants is slower due to the greater number of collisions with solvent molecules. Reactions where the activated complex forms easily and the products form rapidly are most likely to be limited by diffusion control. Examples are those involving catalysis and enzymatic reactions.

Aromatic amino acids absorb ultraviolet light at a wavelength above 250 nm and produce fluorescence. This characteristic is used in quantitative analysis, notably in determining the concentrations of these amino acids in solution. This achieved through the utilization of a UV spectrophotomer and the Beer-Lambert Law equation. Most proteins will have an absorption maximum at 280 nm due to the presence of aromatic amino acids in their primary structure.

Some materials that have been analyzed crystallographically, such as proteins, do not occur naturally as crystals. Typically, such molecules are placed in solution and allowed to slowly crystallize through vapor diffusion. A drop of solution containing the molecule, buffer, and precipitants is sealed in a container with a reservoir containing a hygroscopic solution. Water in the drop diffuses to the reservoir, slowly increasing the concentration and allowing a crystal to form.

1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid (systematic name 3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrrole-2-carboxylic acid) is a cyclic imino acid. Its conjugate base and anion is 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C). In solution, P5C is in spontaneous equilibrium with glutamate-5-semialdhyde (GSA). The stereoisomer (S)-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (also referred to as L-P5C) is an intermediate metabolite in the biosynthesis and degradation of proline and arginine.

Portable Micro-X-ray fluorescence machine A few minerals are chemical elements, including sulfur, copper, silver, and gold, but the vast majority are compounds. The classical method for identifying composition is wet chemical analysis, which involves dissolving a mineral in an acid such as hydrochloric acid (). The elements in solution are then identified using colorimetry, volumetric analysis or gravimetric analysis. Since 1960, most chemistry analysis is done using instruments.

Liposomes that contain low (or high) pH can be constructed such that dissolved aqueous drugs will be charged in solution (i.e., the pH is outside the drug's pI range). As the pH naturally neutralizes within the liposome (protons can pass through some membranes), the drug will also be neutralized, allowing it to freely pass through a membrane. These liposomes work to deliver drug by diffusion rather than by direct cell fusion.

In 1969, one such method was performed by Mary Lou Pardue and Joseph G. Gall at the Yale University through radioactivity where it involved the hybridization of a radioactive test DNA in solution to the stationary DNA of a cytological preparation, which is identified as autoradiography.Pardue, Mary Lou, and Joseph G Hall. “Molecular Hybridization of Radioactive DNA to the DNA of Cytological Preparations.” Kline Biology Tower, Yale University, 13 Aug. 1969.

After chilling the bottles, the neck is frozen, and the cap removed. This process is called disgorgement. The pressure in the bottle forces out the ice containing the lees, some wine from previous vintages as well as additional sugar (') is added to maintain the level within the bottle and, importantly, adjust the sweetness of the finished wine and then the bottle is quickly corked to maintain the carbon dioxide in solution. .

The X-ray crystal structures of trypanothione reductase enzymes from several trypanosomatids species have been solved, including those from Crithidia fasciculata, Leishmania infantum, Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi. The structures reveal that trypanothione reductase forms homodimers in solution with each of the two individual subunits comprising an FAD-binding domain, an NADPH-binding domain and an interface domain. Examples of trypanothione reducatse inhibitors include 5-Nitro-Imidazole, Febrifugine, Imipramine and Benzoxaborole.

MCPO is synthesized by reacting methyl salicylate with oxalyl chloride in a solution of THF and pyridine: :391x391px Pyridine reacts with HCl produced forming the THF insoluble pyridine hydrochloride salt. Water is then added to the solution to dissolve the precipitated pyridine HCl and decrease the solubility of the MCPO in solution, causing it to precipitate. The MCPO precipitate is then filtered and washed with water to remove contaminants.

Triphenylphosphine dichloride is usually prepared fresh by the addition of chlorine to triphenylphosphine. :Ph3P + Cl2 → Ph3PCl2 Both reagents are typically used in solution to ensure the correct stoichiometry. Ph3PCl2 can also be obtained by the reaction of iodobenzene dichloride (PhICl2) and triphenylphosphine.Carle, M. S., Shimokura, G. K. and Murphy, G. K. (2016), Iodobenzene Dichloride in the Esterification and Amidation of Carboxylic Acids: In-Situ Synthesis of Ph3PCl2. Eur.

Isotope effect seen on single molecule at RSC.org This is a phenomenon that has been found by researchers in the United Kingdom during experiments done in September 2010. The kinetic isotope effect, where the rate of a reaction is influenced by the presence of an isotopic atom in solution, is an important principle for elucidating reaction mechanisms. This recent finding could open up new methods to study chemical reactions.

Jacques Dubochet (born 8 June 1942) is a retired Swiss biophysicist. He is a former researcher at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg, Germany, and an honorary professor of biophysics at the University of Lausanne in Switzerland. In 2017, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry together with Joachim Frank and Richard Henderson "for developing cryo-electron microscopy for the high-resolution structure determination of biomolecules in solution".

For example, consider three compounds of similar chemical composition: sodium n-butoxide (C4H9ONa), diethyl ether (C4H10O), and n-butanol (C4H9OH). Figure 8. Boiling points of 4-carbon compounds The predominant non-covalent interactions associated with each species in solution are listed in the above figure. As previously discussed, ionic interactions require considerably more energy to break than hydrogen bonds, which in turn are require more energy than dipole–dipole interactions.

Krypton is highly volatile and does not stay in solution in near-surface water, but 81Kr has been used for dating old (50,000–800,000 years) groundwater. 85Kr is an inert radioactive noble gas with a half-life of 10.76 years. It is produced by the fission of uranium and plutonium, such as in nuclear bomb testing and nuclear reactors. 85Kr is released during the reprocessing of fuel rods from nuclear reactors.

Comparison of three-electron bond to the conventional covalent bond The two resonance structures Chlorine dioxide is a neutral chlorine compound. It is very different from elemental chlorine, both in its chemical structure and in its behavior. One of the most important qualities of chlorine dioxide is its high water solubility, especially in cold water. Chlorine dioxide does not hydrolyze when it enters water; it remains a dissolved gas in solution.

The earliest applications were to three- and four-body reactions, but it has been extended to reactions in solution, to condensed matter, to protein folding, and most recently to enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Anderson pioneered the development of the quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) method of simulating the Schrödinger equation. His 1975-76 papers were the first to describe applications of random walk methods to polyatomic systems and many-electron systems.

Monohydrocalcite forms via a Mg-rich amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) precursor. This Mg-rich ACC forms rapidly (seconds) and then transforms to monohydrocalcite via dissolution and reprecipitation, with monohydrocalcite forming via a nucleation-controlled reaction like spherulitic growth. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of Mg in the formation process of monohydrocalcite. The presence of Mg in solution is known to inhibit the formation of vaterite and calcite.

Low-resolution studies shows that STC1 is an anti-parallel homodimer in solution and the cysteine 202 is responsible for its dimerization. All the 5 disulfide bonds of human STC1 are conserved and have the same profile of fish STC. The gene contains a 5' UTR rich in CAG trinucleotide repeats. The encoded protein contains 11 conserved cysteine residues and is phosphorylated by protein kinase C exclusively on its serine residues.

The aluminium aqua ion, [Al(H2O)6]3+ is very well characterized in solution and the solid state. The AlO6 core has octahedral symmetry, point group Oh. The aqua ions of gallium(III), indium(III) and thallium(III) also have a solvation number of 6. The aqua ion of thallium(I) is often assumed to be 6-coordinate, but this assumption is not based on strong experimental evidence.Richens, section 2.4.

Spectroscopic evidence indicates that the two carbonyl groups may be unsymmetrical, in which case the idealized C2v symmetry is reduced to C2. In solution Fe3(CO)12 is fluxional, resulting in equivalencing all 12 CO groups. Overall, it can be appreciated that these three clusters formally arise from condensation of three 16-electron M(CO)4 fragments, akin to the theoretical condensation of three methylene (:CH2) molecules into cyclopropane.

In these systems the organic small molecules are sandwiched between the sheets. In the case of thick inorganic sheets, the inorganic materials act as absorbers, and enhance the stability of the perovskite materials. The organo-metal-halide perovskites created by Karunadasa and her collaborator Michael McGehee can be processed in solution. She believes that through careful chemical design it is possible to determine the fate of photogenerated charge carriers.

She also shown that you can guide light using nanoparticle arrays to create custom nanoplasmonics. This has included laser alignment, which can impart long-range orientational order to molecular layers. In dense molecular assemblies, alignment can become a collective phenomenon with long range translational and orientational order. In polyatomic molecules alignment can be used to control torsional motions, which can impact charge transfer in solution and the solid-state.

Vaporized hydrogen peroxide is a dry gaseous method that has been used as a reliable alternative for aseptic processing isolators, and more recently, for room/facility decontamination. hydrogen peroxide and silver in solution, this is non-toxic, eco-friendly, chlorine-free, non-mutagenic agents.various forms of H2O2 is available, having the concentration of 10% H2O2 with acidic pH and odorless. It is diluted in water and does not cost material.

When bacteria are lysed under alkaline conditions (pH 12.0–12.5) both chromosomal DNA and protein are denatured; the plasmid DNA however, remains stable. Some scientists reduce the concentration of NaOH used to 0.1M in order to reduce the occurrence of ssDNA. After the addition of acetate- containing neutralization buffer the large and less supercoiled chromosomal DNA and proteins precipitate, but the small bacterial DNA plasmids stay in solution.

For molecules in the gas phase, the principal effects are Doppler and pressure broadening. This applies to rotational spectroscopy, Section 4.6, Line shapes and line widths rotational-vibrational spectroscopy and vibronic spectroscopy. For molecules in the liquid state or in solution, collision and proximity broadening predominate and lines are much broader than lines from the same molecule in the gas phase.Clarke, J.H.R, "Band Shapes and Molecular Dynamics in liquids", pp.

Proline, however, is stabilized by multiple non- covalent interactions with this region. The enzyme structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonds, as well as crosslinking sulfide bonds between three pairs of cysteine residues (Cys22-Cys63, Cys56-Cys95, and Cys153-Cys200), analogous to many other papains. While the enzyme exists as a monomer in solution, crystallized zingibain forms tetramers, or dimers of dimers, linked by glycosylation chains on each subunit.

Difluorocarbene is the chemical compound with formula CF2. It has a short half-life, 0.5 and 20 ms, in solution and in the gas phase, respectively.Douglas A Jean Osteraas "Difluorocarbene Modification of Polymer and Fiber Surfaces," Journal of Applied Polymer1969, volume 13, 1523-1535. Although highly reactive, difluorocarbene is an intermediate in the production of tetrafluoroethylene, which is produced on an industrial scale as the precursor to Teflon (PTFE).

Rebek's independent research began in the 1970s, with a method to detect reactive intermediates. This was invented through application of polymer-bound reagents. A precursor for the reactive intermediate was covalently attached to one solid phase while a trap was attached to a second such support. When transfer takes place between the solid phases, it requires the existence of a reactive intermediate, free in solution as shown below.

CCVD can produce coatings with orientation from preferred to epitaxial, and can produce conformal layers less than 10 nm thick. Thus, CCVD technique is a true vapor deposition process for making thin film coatings. The CCVD coating process has the ability to deposit thin films in the open atmosphere using inexpensive precursor chemicals in solution leading to continuous, production-line manufacturing. It does not require post-deposition treatment e.g.

In 1925 he arrived at a correction to the Debye-Hückel theory of electrolytic solutions, to specify Brownian movement of ions in solution, and during 1926 published it. He traveled to Zürich, where Peter Debye was teaching, and confronted Debye, telling him his theory was wrong. He impressed Debye so much that he was invited to become Debye's assistant at the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH), where he remained until 1928.

Drygas is an alcohol-based additive used in automobiles to prevent any water in the fuel from freezing, or to restore combustive power to gasoline spoiled by water. The name Drygas is actually a registered trademarked brand name, owned by Cristy Corporation. It is a liquid that is added into the fuel tank, that absorbs the water and keeps it in solution. Some brands contain methanol and some contain isopropyl alcohol.

Homogeneous catalysis occurs in solution and heterogeneous catalysis occurs when gaseous or dissolved substrates interact with surfaces of solids. Traditionally homogeneous catalysis is considered part of organometallic chemistry and heterogeneous catalysis is discussed in the context of surface science, a subfield of solid state chemistry. But the basic inorganic chemical principles are the same. Transition metals, almost uniquely, react with small molecules such as CO, H2, O2, and C2H4.

Simple polarimeters have been used since this time to measure the concentrations of simple sugars, such as glucose, in solution. In fact one name for D-glucose (the biological isomer), is dextrose, referring to the fact that it causes linearly polarized light to rotate to the right or dexter side. In a similar manner, levulose, more commonly known as fructose, causes the plane of polarization to rotate to the left.

When concentrated solutions of calcium chlorate and potassium chloride are combined, potassium chlorate precipitates: : Ca(ClO3)2 \+ 2 KCl → 2 KClO3 \+ CaCl2 This is the second step of the Liebig process for the manufacture of potassium chlorate. Solutions of calcium chlorate react with solutions of alkali carbonates to give a precipitate of calcium carbonate and the alkali chlorate in solution: : Ca(ClO3)2 \+ Na2CO3 → 2 NaClO3 \+ CaCO3 On strong heating, calcium chlorate decomposes to give oxygen and calcium chloride: : Ca(ClO3)2 → CaCl2 \+ 3 O2 Cold, dilute solutions of calcium chlorate and sulfuric acid react to give a precipitate of calcium sulfate and chloric acid in solution: : Ca(ClO3)2 \+ H2SO4 → 2 HClO3 \+ CaSO4 Contact with strong sulfuric acid can result in explosionsPubChem - Calcium Chlorate: Experimental Properties due to the instability of concentrated chloric acid. Contact with ammonium compounds can also cause violent decomposition due to the formation of unstable ammonium chlorate.

Anhydrous (pure, not in solution) hydrazine being loaded into the MESSENGER space probe. The technician is wearing a safety suit. Hydrazine was first used as a component in rocket fuels during World War II. A 30% mix by weight with 57% methanol (named M-Stoff in the German Luftwaffe) and 13% water was called C-Stoff by the Germans. The mixture was used to power the Messerschmitt Me 163B rocket-powered fighter plane.

The solution of metal, salts and water produced by diagenesis is produced at temperatures between 150 - 350°C. Hydrothermal fluid compositions are estimated to have a salinity of up to 35% NaCl with metal concentrations of 5-15 ppm Zn, Cu, Pb and up to 100ppm Ba and Fe. High metal concentrations are able to be carried in solution because of the high salinity. Generally these formational brines also carry considerable sulfur.

This has attracted wide attention to the approach as an alternative to X-ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy for macromolecular structure determination without the need for crystallization. In 2017, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Jacques Dubochet, Joachim Frank, and Richard Henderson "for developing cryo-electron microscopy for the high-resolution structure determination of biomolecules in solution." Nature Methods also named cryo-EM as the "Method of the Year" in 2016.

This is slower than allowing the gas to be eliminated while it is still in solution, and indicates the importance of minimising bubble phase gas for efficient decompression. M.P. Spencer showed that Doppler ultrasonic methods can detect venous bubbles in asymptomatic divers, and Dr Andrew Pilmanis showed that safety stops reduced bubble formation. In 1981 D.E. Yount described the Varying Permeability Model, proposing a mechanism of bubble formation. Several other bubble models followed.

Unfortunately, the contaminated groundwater that needs to be treated has a pH level that is at or near neutral. Due to this, there are controversies on whether ISCO using Fenton's reagent is really a Fenton reaction. Instead, scientists call these reactions Fenton-like. However, some ISCO vendors successfully apply pH neutral Fenton's reagent by chelating the iron which keeps the iron in solution and mitigates the need for acidifying the treatment zone.

The ore, after being crushed and ground, is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid, evolving carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, and silicon tetrafluoride. The product is then dried and leached with water, leaving the early lanthanide ions, including lanthanum, in solution. The procedure for monazite, which usually contains all the rare earths, as well as thorium, is more involved. Monazite, because of its magnetic properties, can be separated by repeated electromagnetic separation.

In 1874 he demonstrated that an electrolyte has a definite and constant amount of electrical resistance. By observing the dependence of conductivity upon dilution, he could determine the transfer velocities of the ions (charged atoms or molecules) in solution. He used alternating current to prevent the deposition of electrolysis products; this enabled him to obtain very precise results. From 1875 to 1879, he examined numerous salt solutions, acids and solutions of other materials.

The reduction of silver ions into silver nanoparticles has also been achieved using geranium leaves. It has been found that adding geranium leaf extract to silver nitrate solutions causes their silver ions to be quickly reduced and that the nanoparticles produced are particularly stable. The silver nanoparticles produced in solution had a size range between 16 and 40 nm. In another study different plant leaf extracts were used to reduce silver ions.

However, the mechanism of how these additives reverse stereoselectivity is still being debated. There have been some challenges to the Ireland model, as it depicts the lithium species as a monomer in the transition state. In reality, a variety of lithium aggregates are often observed in solutions of lithium enolates, and depending on specific substrate, solvent and reaction conditions, it can be difficult to determine which aggregate is the actual reactive species in solution.

Thexylborane is generated in situ. In solution, it isomerizes over the course several days to the 2,3-dimethyl-1-butyl derivative, shown as the monomer here: :Me2CHCMe2BH2 → Me2CHCH(Me)CH2BH2 Thexylborane allows the atom-economical synthesis of ketones from a pair of alkenes: :Me2CHCMe2BH2 \+ 2 RCH=CH2 → Me2CHCH(Me)CH2B(CH2CH2R)2 :Me2CHCH(Me)CH2B(CH2CH2R)2 \+ CO + H2O → OC(CH2CH2R)2 \+ ... The main point is that the thexyl group does not migrate.

When a sample such as blood or saliva is obtained, the DNA is only a small part of what is present in the sample. Before the DNA can be analyzed, it must be extracted from the cells and purified. There are many ways this can be accomplished, but all methods follow the same basic procedure. The cell and nuclear membranes need to be broken up to allow the DNA to be free in solution.

Liquid fluorocarbons have a very high capacity for holding gas in solution. They can hold more oxygen or carbon dioxide than blood does. For that reason, they have attracted ongoing interest related to the possibility of artificial blood or of liquid breathing. Computer-generated model of nanocrystal of perflubron (red) and gentamicin (white, an antibiotic) Blood substitutes are the subject of research because the demand for blood transfusions grows faster than donations.

Much research has been conducted on self-assembling supramolecular structures, both those that aggregate by aurophilicity alone and those that contain both aurophilic and hydrogen-bonding interactions. An important and exploitable property of aurophilic interactions relevant to their supramolecular chemistry is that while both inter- and intramolecular interactions are possible, intermolecular aurophilic linkages are comparatively weak and easily broken by solvation; most complexes that exhibit intramolecular aurophilic interactions retain such moieties in solution.

Pasteur noticed that crystals of tartrates had small faces. Then he observed that, in racemic mixtures of tartrates, half of the crystals were right-handed and half were left-handed. In solution, the right-handed compound was dextrorotatory, and the left-handed one was levorotatory. Pasteur determined that optical activity related to the shape of the crystals, and that an asymmetric internal arrangement of the molecules of the compound was responsible for twisting the light.

Inks that are visible for a period of time without the intention of being made visible again are called disappearing inks. Disappearing inks typically rely on the chemical reaction between thymolphthalein and a basic substance such as sodium hydroxide. Thymolphthalein, which is normally colorless, turns blue in solution with the base. As the base reacts with carbon dioxide (always present in the air), the pH drops below 10.5 and the color disappears.

The hydrolysis or cleavage of RNA can occur spontaneously, without the presence of a catalyst or enzyme. This process is known as an auto-hydrolysis or a self-cleavage reaction. Spontaneous cleavage in an RNA molecule is much more likely to occur when it is single-stranded. Auto-hydrolysis or self-cleavage reactions take place in basic solutions, where free hydroxide ions in solution can easily deprotonate the 2’ OH of the ribose.

Indirect photolysis in soil has been observed to occur at depths of up to 2 mm due to migration of reactive species; in contrast, direct photolysis (in which the degraded compound itself absorbs light) was restricted to a "photic depth" of 0.2 to 0.4 mm. Like certain minerals, organic matter in solution, as well as particulate organic matter, may act as an indirect catalyst via formation of singlet oxygen which then reacts with other compounds.

By 1981, techniques Moscona developed were used to grow brain cells in solution, with cells in the growth medium forming connections with other neurons.Staff. "New Techniques", Evening Independent, April 15, 1981. Accessed January 26, 2009. Other experiments found that like cells from across species shared common features of their cellular recognition signaling mechanism, in which a mixture of embryonic kidney cells from mice and chickens would form structures combining cells from both species.

Banin served in the Israeli Defense Forces as a captain of a Dabur-class boat. Following his military service, in 1986 Banin proceeded on to his academic career, receiving his Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry and physics from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1989. He later received PhD from the Hebrew University, under the supervision of Sanford Ruhman in the field of femtosecond spectroscopy, studying the ultrafast dynamics of triiodide in solution.

A special patch is applied to the surface to be tested, and a specified volume of deionized water is injected under the patch. Any soluble salts present on the surface will dissolve in the water. The fluid is extracted and its conductivity measured. The conductivity of the collected salt solution depends on the volume of water used and its initial conductivity, and the amount of salt in solution depends on the area of the patch.

Therefore, F is constant. What this means is that regardless of the amounts of octane and nonane in solution, the ratio of the ratios of area to concentration will always yield a constant. In practice, a solution containing known amounts of both octane and nonane is injected into a GC and a response factor, F, is calculated. Then a separate solution with an unknown amount of octane and a known amount of nonane is injected.

Paramagnetic nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy refers to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy of paramagnetic compounds.Köhler, F. H., "Paramagnetic Complexes in Solution: The NMR Approach," in eMagRes, 2007, John Wiley. R. S. Drago "Physical Methods in Inorganic Chemistry" 1977, W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia. Although most NMR measurements are conducted on diamagnetic compounds, paramagnetic samples are also amenable to analysis and give rise to special effects indicated by a wide chemical shift range and broadened signals.

The fauna and flora are unique in Lake Hévíz due to the temperature and chemical composition of the water, contains carbonic acid, calcium, magnesium, hydrogen carbonate, reduced sulfuric compounds as well as oxygen in solution. Several species so far can be found only in this lake. Bacteria is the dominant life form in the lake; it is possible that this is a cause of the curative effect. Several taxa can be found here.

However, problems associated with NC photosensitisers include lower stability, as they decompose in the presence of light and oxygen. Metallo-NCs, which lack axial ligands, have a tendency to form H-aggregates in solution. These aggregates are photoinactive, thus compromising the photodynamic efficacy of NCs. Silicon naphthalocyanine attached to copolymer PEG-PCL (poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(ε-caprolactone)) accumulates selectively in cancer cells and reaches a maximum concentration after about one day.

The protein of C11orf54 exists as a monomer in solution. The protein assumes a globular shape of 20 beta strands and 4 alpha helices, containing 9 antiparallel beta strands forming a beta screw region. The β-screw region of C11orf54 has structural similarity to the cyclic adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate (cAMP) binding domain of the regulatory subunit of protein kinase A. A zinc ion is bound to the HxHxxxxxxxxxH motif found in the sequence.

The first stage of the instrument is an ion source where samples are converted to gas phase ions. Many ionization methods similar to those traditionally used for mass spectrometry have been employed for IM-MS depending on the physical state of the analyte. Gas phase samples are typically ionized with thermal desorption, radioactive ionization, corona discharge ionization and photoionization techniques. Electrospray ionization and secondary electrospray ionization (SESI) are common methods for ionizing samples in solution.

Adding NaN3, a toxic substance, also significantly reduces the sequestration rates of the fungal BMOs. Heat treatments revealed that temperatures below 85 °C do not alter the conformation of the Mn(II) oxidase in the BMOs. Freezing the fungal BMOs at -80 °C for 4 weeks did not affect the Mn(II) ability, and the reducible Mn was still dominated in solution. This makes fungal BMOs an effective Mn(II) sequestering material if needed.

The sloping sides are designed to facilitate the identification of the layers. The stopcock-controlled outlet is designed to drain the liquid out of the funnel. On top of the funnel there is a standard taper joint which fits with a ground glass or Teflon stopper. To use a separatory funnel, the two phases and the mixture to be separated in solution are added through the top with the stopcock at the bottom closed.

Materials at the nano scale have unique properties that differ dramatically from the atomic and macro scales. The interface between quantum and classical mechanics is a developing field that remains largely untapped. The Ginger lab has extensively studied the properties of quantum dots with a focus on exciton properties and charge transfer mechanics.Ziffer, Mark E., and Ginger, David S. Spectroscopic Studies of Exciton Electronic Structure and Charge Recombination in Solution Processed Semiconductors for Photovoltaics.

QPNC-PAGE, or quantitative preparative native continuous polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, is a bioanalytical, high-resolution and highly accurate technique applied in biochemistry and bioinorganic chemistry to separate proteins quantitatively by isoelectric point. This standardized variant of native gel electrophoresis is used by biologists to isolate biomacromolecules in solution, for example, active or native metalloproteins in biological samples or properly and improperly folded metal cofactor-containing proteins or protein isoforms in complex protein mixtures.

The human malaria parasites P. falciparum and P. vivax have shown a lineage-specific expansion of proteins with this domain. Of the two PHIST genes in the mouse parasite P. berghei, only one is required for infection. The PHIST domain folds into three long helices (forming a bundle) and two smaller N-terminal helices, and is monomeric in solution. It binds PfEMP1 ATS C-terminus and plays a role in "knob" formation.

However if the pentacene is preoxidized, and the thus formed pentacene-quinone is used as the gate insulator, then the mobility can approach the rubrene values. This pentacene oxidation technique is akin to the silicon oxidation used in the silicon electronics. Polycrystalline tetrathiafulvalene and its analogues result in mobilities in the range 0.1–1.4 cm2/(V·s). However, the mobility exceeds 10 cm2/(V·s) in solution-grown or vapor-transport-grown single crystalline hexamethylene-tetrathiafulvalene (HMTTF).

Rather than starting from "naked" gold ions in solution, template reactions can be used for directed synthesis of clusters. The high affinity of the gold ions to electronegative and (partially) charged atoms of functional groups yields potential seeds for cluster formation. The interface between the metal and the template can act as a stabilizer and steer the final size of the cluster. Some potential templates are dendrimers, oligonucleotides, proteins, polyelectrolytes and polymers.

Although an atomic resolution structure for intact factor H has not yet been determined, low resolution techniques indicate that it may be bent back in solution. Information available to date indicates that CCP modules 1–4 is responsible for the cofactor and decay acceleration activities of factor H, whereas self/non-self discrimination occurs predominantly through GAG binding to CCP modules 7 and/or GAG or sialic acid binding to 19–20.

PVP is soluble in water and other polar solvents. For example, it is soluble in various alcohols, such as methanol and ethanol, as well as in more exotic solvents like the deep eutectic solvent formed by choline chloride and urea (Relin). When dry it is a light flaky hygroscopic powder, readily absorbing up to 40% of its weight in atmospheric water. In solution, it has excellent wetting properties and readily forms films.

The preparation of higher molecular weight polymers with useful properties depends critically on the purity of the vinylene carbonate monomer. Vinylene carbonate can be homopolymerized in bulk, in solution, in suspension and in dispersion using radical initiators such as azobis(isobutyronitrile) (AIBN) or benzoyl peroxide. It can also be copolymerized with other vinyl monomers such as vinyl pyrrolidone or vinyl propionate. Polymerisation von Vinylencarbonat Polyvinylene carbonate is readily soluble in acetone and dimethylformamide.

Lode-gold deposits are intimately associated with orogeny and other plate collision events within geologic history. It is thought that most lode gold deposits are sourced from metamorphic rocks by the dehydration of basalt during metamorphism. The gold is transported up faults by hydrothermal waters and deposited when the water cools too much to retain gold in solution. Intrusive related gold (Lang & Baker, 2001) is generally hosted in granites, porphyry, or rarely dikes.

Aluminium can form an amalgam in solution with mercury. Aluminium amalgam may be prepared by either grinding aluminium pellets or wire in mercury, or by allowing aluminium wire to react with a solution of mercury(II) chloride in water. This amalgam is used as a chemical reagent to reduce compounds, such as the reduction of imines to amines. The aluminium is the ultimate electron donor, and the mercury serves to mediate the electron transfer.

Another possible hazard that the fish may face in this crater lake is outgassing, the emission of "burps" of CO2 formerly held in solution. An episode of this sort is thought to have occurred in 2007, when many deep water fish were found floating on the surface of the lake. As a result of these threats, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the conservation status of this fish as "critically endangered".

Sometimes a particular membrane fraction can be isolated first, such as isolating mitochondria from cells before purifying a protein located in a mitochondrial membrane. A detergent such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) can be used to dissolve cell membranes and keep membrane proteins in solution during purification; however, because SDS causes denaturation, milder detergents such as Triton X-100 or CHAPS can be used to retain the protein's native conformation during complete purification.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is the most applied tool in the study of metal sandwich compounds and organometallic species, giving information on nuclear structures in solution, as liquids, gases, and in the solid state. 1H NMR chemical shifts for paramagnetic organotransition-metal compounds is usually observed between 25 and 40 ppm, but this range is much more narrow for diamagnetic metallocene complexes, with chemical shifts usually observed between 3 and 7 ppm.

In theory, any complexation reaction can be used as a volumetric technique provided that: # The reaction reaches equilibrium rapidly after each portion of titrant is added. # Interfering situations do not arise. For instance, the stepwise formation of several different complexes of the metal ion with the titrant, resulting in the presence of more than one complex in solution during the titration process. # A complexometric indicator capable of locating equivalence point with fair accuracy is available.

The pH of the unknown solution can then be estimated. Obvious disadvantages of this method include its dependency on the colour sensitivity of the human eye, and that unknown solutions that are already coloured cannot be used. The colour change of halochromic substances occur when the chemical binds to existing hydrogen and hydroxide ions in solution. Such bonds result in changes in the conjugated systems of the molecule, or the range of electron flow.

Polymer Solar Cells fabricated from chloronaphthalene (CN) as a co-solvent enjoy a higher efficiency than those fabricated from the more conventional pure chlorobenzene solution. This is because the donor- acceptor morphology changes, which reduces the phase separation between donor polymer and fullerene. As a result, this translates into high hole mobilities. Without co-solvents, large domains of fullerene form, decreasing photovoltaic performance of the cell due to polymer aggregation in solution.

Micrograph of polypropylene Polypropylene is in many aspects similar to polyethylene, especially in solution behaviour and electrical properties. The methyl group improves mechanical properties and thermal resistance, although the chemical resistance decreases. The properties of polypropylene depend on the molecular weight and molecular weight distribution, crystallinity, type and proportion of comonomer (if used) and the isotacticity. In isotactic polypropylene, for example, the methyl groups are oriented on one side of the carbon backbone.

The first structure of SMAD4 bound to DNA was the complex with the palindromic GTCTAGAC motif. Recently, the structures of SMAD4 MH1 domain bound to several 5GC motifs have also been determined. In all complexes, the interaction with the DNA involves a conserved β-hairpin present in the MH1 domain. The hairpin is partially flexible in solution and its high degree of conformational flexibility allows recognition of the different 5-bp sequences.

The supernatant liquid (containing many of the fission products) was separated from the solid. The precipitate was then dissolved in nitric acid before the addition of an oxidant (such as potassium permanganate) to produce PuO22+. The plutonium was maintained in the +6 oxidation state by addition of a dichromate salt. The bismuth phosphate was next re-precipitated, leaving the plutonium in solution, and an iron(II) salt (such as ferrous sulfate) was added.

Graphene oxide sheets are chemically reactive in liquid water, leading them to acquire a small negative charge. The interlayer distance of dried graphite oxides was reported as ~6–7 Å but in liquid water it increases up to 11–13 Å at room temperature. The lattice expansion becomes stronger at lower temperatures. The inter-layer distance in diluted NaOH reached infinity, resulting in dispersion of graphite oxide on single-layered graphene oxide sheets in solution.

It has also been observed to bond well with goethite, ferric oxide colloids, and several clays including kaolinite and smectite. Np(V) does not bond as readily to soil particles in mildly acidic conditions as its fellow actinides americium and curium by nearly an order of magnitude. This behavior enables it to migrate rapidly through the soil while in solution without becoming fixed in place, contributing further to its mobility.Atwood, section 4.

Iron-cementite meta-stable diagram Cast iron's properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants. Next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide and the production of white cast iron. A high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron.

Furthermore, the hydrates condense to give a series of oligomers, some of which remain of uncertain structure. For most applications, the exact nature of the species in solution is inconsequential. At least one hydrate of glyoxal is sold commercially, glyoxal trimer dihydrate: [(CHO)2]3(H2O)2 (CAS 4405-13-4). Other glyoxal equivalents are available, such as the ethylene glycol hemiacetal 1,4-dioxane-trans-2,3-diol (CAS 4845-50-5, m.p.

A transformation efficiency of 1×108 cfu/μg for a small plasmid like pUC19 is roughly equivalent to 1 in 2000 molecules of the plasmid used being transformed. In calcium chloride transformation, the cells are prepared by chilling cells in the presence of (in solution), making the cell become permeable to plasmid DNA. The cells are incubated on ice with the DNA, and then briefly heat-shocked (e.g., at 42 °C for 30–120 seconds).

The more recent developments of vibrational circular dichroism (VCD) techniques for proteins, currently involving Fourier transform (FT) instruments, provide powerful means for determining protein conformations in solution even for very large protein molecules. Such VCD studies of proteins are often combined with X-ray diffraction of protein crystals, FT-IR data for protein solutions in heavy water (D2O), or ab initio quantum computations to provide unambiguous structural assignments that are unobtainable from CD.

Screening charge density of water as calculated by the COSMO method. σ-profile of water; the basic input for COSMO-RS # The liquid state is incompressible # All parts of the molecular surfaces can be in contact with each other # Only pairwise interactions of molecular surface patches are allowed As long as the above assumptions hold, the chemical potential µ in solution can be calculated from the interaction energies of pairwise surface contacts.

Triethylamine molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds with each other but only with water molecules, so in solution they remain associated to water molecules with loss of entropy. The mixing that occurs below 19 °C is due not to entropy but to the enthalpy of formation of the hydrogen bonds. Lower critical solution temperatures also occur in many polymer-solvent mixtures.Cowie, J.M.G. "Polymers: Chemistry and Physics of Modern Materials" (2nd edn, Blackie 1991) p.

In philosophy concerning the most fundamental aspects of the universe, the experts all disagree. It follows that another element of philosophical method, common in the work of nearly all philosophers, is philosophical criticism. It is this that makes much philosophizing a social endeavor. Philosophers offer definitions and explanations in solution to problems; they argue for those solutions; and then other philosophers provide counter arguments, expecting to eventually come up with better solutions.

Simple tetraalkyltitanium compounds however are not typically isolable, owing to the large size of titanium and the electron-deficient nature of its tetrahedral complexes. More abundant and more useful than the simple tetraalkyl compounds are mixed ligand complexes with alkoxide and cyclopentadienyl coligands. Titanium is capable of forming complexes with high coordination numbers. In terms of oxidation states, most organotitanium chemistry, in solution at least, focuses on derivatives of Ti(IV) and Ti(III).

Generally, TdT catalyses the addition of nucleotides to the 3' terminus of a DNA molecule. Unlike most DNA polymerases, it does not require a template. The preferred substrate of this enzyme is a 3'-overhang, but it can also add nucleotides to blunt or recessed 3' ends. Further, TdT is the only polymerase that is known to catalyze the synthesis of 2-15nt DNA polymers from free nucleotides in solution in vivo.

Each molybdenum has local octahedral symmetry and two chlorides bridge between the molybdenum centers. A similar structure is also found for the pentachlorides of W, Nb and Ta. In the gas phase and partly in solution, the dimers partially dissociates to give a monomeric pentahalide. The monomer is paramagnetic, with one unpaired electron per Mo center, reflecting the fact that the formal oxidation state is +5, leaving one valence electron on the metal center.

The term diffusion pressure deficit (DPD) was coined by B.S Meyer in 1938. Originally DPD was described as suction pressure by Renner (1915). It is a reduction in the diffusion pressure of water in solution or cell over its pure state due to the presence of solutes in it and forces opposing diffusion. Diffusion pressure deficit or Diffusion pressure of pure water is maximum and its theoretical value is 1245.69 atm at STP.

As the relaxation mechanisms are generally correlated but contribute to the overall relaxation rate of a given component with different signs, the multiplet components relax with very different overall rates. The TROSY experimentK. Pervushin, R. Riek, G. Wider, and K. Wüthrich (1997). Attenuated T2 relaxation by mutual cancellation of dipole- dipole coupling and chemical shift anisotropy indicates an avenue to NMR structures of very large biological macromolecules in solution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.

This permafrost then releases huge quantities of methane. Methane release can be gaseous, but is also transported in solution by rivers. New Scientist states that "Since existing models do not include feedback effects such as the heat generated by decomposition, the permafrost could melt far faster than generally thought." Analyses of data from an expedition to remote outposts in the Canadian Arctic in 2016 indicated that permafrost is thawing 70 years earlier than predicted.

Quenching poses a problem for non-instant spectroscopic methods, such as laser-induced fluorescence. Quenching is made use of in optode sensors; for instance the quenching effect of oxygen on certain ruthenium complexes allows the measurement of oxygen saturation in solution. Quenching is the basis for Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) assays. Quenching and dequenching upon interaction with a specific molecular biological target is the basis for activatable optical contrast agents for molecular imaging.

Initially, there had been questions of whether the solved DNA structures were artefacts of the X-ray crystallography techniques used. However, the structure of DNA was subsequently confirmed in solution via gel electrophoretic methods and later via solution NMR and AFM indicating that the crystallography process did not distort it. The structure of DNA in complex with nucleosomes, helicases, and numerous other DNA binding proteins also supported its biological relevance in vivo.

Quantitative Analysis of Bulk and Single Molecule Fluorescence Titrations. Soft Matter, 2013,9, 10779-10790, DOI: 10.1039/c3sm52092gwww.usc.es/fotofqm/en/units/single-molecule- fluorescence/concentration-model-surfactants-near-cmc These fit functions are based on a model for the concentrations of monomeric and micellised surfactants in solution, which establishes a well-defined analytical definition of the CMC, independent from the technique. The CMC is the concentration of surfactants in the bulk at which micelles start forming.

In humans, deficiencies in TPI are associated with a progressive, severe neurological disorder called triose phosphate isomerase deficiency. Triose phosphate isomerase deficiency is characterized by chronic hemolytic anemia. While there are various mutations that cause this disease, most include the mutation of glutamic acid at position 104 to aspartic acid. Triose phosphate isomerase is a highly efficient enzyme, performing the reaction billions of times faster than it would occur naturally in solution.

This mechanism (also known as depletion drive) depends on the associated gas of the oil. The virgin reservoir may be entirely semi-liquid but will be expected to have gaseous hydrocarbons in solution due to the pressure. As the reservoir depletes, the pressure falls below the bubble point and the gas comes out of solution to form a gas cap at the top. This gas cap pushes down on the liquid helping to maintain pressure.

In contrast to traditional approaches particular in protein NMR, in which the broad lines associated with protons effectively relegate this nucleus to mixing of magnetization, recent developments of hardware (very fast MAS) and reduction of dipolar interactions by deuteration have made protons as versatile as they are in solution NMR. This includes spectral dispersion in multi-dimensional experiments as well as structurally valuable restraints and parameters important for studying the materials' dynamics.

The pH needs to be compatible with the charged states of these amino acids in order to raise the Tt. Also higher molecular mass ELPs and higher concentrations of ELPs in solution make it much easier for the polymer to form aggregates, in effect lowering the experimental Tt. Yeo, GC; Aghaei‐Ghareh‐Bolagh, B; Brackenreg, EP; Hiob, MA; Lee, P; Weiss, AS. (March 2015). "Fabricated Elastin." Advanced Healthcare Materials. 4(16): 2530-2556.

The actual composition of basic fuchsine tends to somewhat vary by vendor and batch, making the batches differently suitable for different purposes. In solution with phenol (also called carbolic acid) as an accentuator it is called carbol fuchsin and is used for the Ziehl–Neelsen and other similar acid-fast staining of the mycobacteria which cause tuberculosis, leprosy etc.Clark G 1973 Staining Procedures Used by the Biological Stain Commission, 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, pp.

The SDT policy here is that the therapist take it a priori that each client possesses strengths and resources—that they possess enabling abilities, traits, knowledge, values, roles, past successes, and/or positions of leverage. The therapeutic task becomes one, then, of recognizing and utilizing these strengths and resources, not of determining whether or not they exist. This perspective is a mainstay in the therapy of Milton H. Erickson and in solution focused brief therapy.

In chemistry, fractional crystallization is a method of refining substances based on differences in their solubility. It fractionates via differences in crystallization (forming of crystals). If a mixture of two or more substances in solution are allowed to crystallize, for example by allowing the temperature of the solution to decrease or increase, the precipitate will contain more of the least soluble substance. The proportion of components in the precipitate will depend on their solubility products.

Synthetic dyes are found in a wide range of products such as clothes, leather accessories, and furniture. These dyes are commonly used every day. However, a side effect of their widespread use is that up to 12% of these dyes are wasted during the dying process and about 20% of this wastage enters the environment (mainly into water supply). Rauf, M.A.; Ashraf S.S. Fundamental Principles and Application of Heterogeneous Photocatalytic Degradation of Dyes in Solution.

The crystal structure of dermicidin has been solved in solution to reveal a hexameric helix-bundle, mediated by Zn ion binding. This is observed to form a tilted channel in membranes under computational examination by molecular dynamics simulations, and one suggested mechanism of antimicrobial action inferred from this observation is by ion gradient decoupling across biological membranes. This is supported by concurrent observations in experimental studies of a voltage dependent depolarization of lipid bilayers.

One method of spray deposition used for CNT film creation is an ultrasonic nozzle to atomize CNTs in solution to form PEDOT layers. By optimizing spray parameters, including surfactant, drop size (dictated by the ultrasonic nozzle frequency) and solution flow rate, sheet resistance characteristics can be tuned. Due to the ultrasonic vibration of the nozzle itself, this method also provides an additional level of sonification during the spray process for added separation of agglomerated CNTs.

Trends in food science and technology. 16:43-56.Food Science This process lowers the pH of the solution, producing a "sour" taste in the final product. Lactobacillus pontis breaks down sugars that cannot be metabolized by the yeast in the culture, just as many Lactobacillus species do. When wheat flour and water are in solution together, the amylase enzymes present breakdown the starch into maltose, and maltase performs a further breakdown into glucose.

The compound absorbs carbon dioxide (and water vapor) from the air, thus diminishing the alkalinity of the base. :2 + + → 2 + In the solid form, sodium methoxide is polymeric, with sheet-like arrays of Na+ centers, each bonded to four oxygen centers. The structure, and hence the basicity, of sodium methoxide in solution depends on the solvent. It is a significantly stronger base in DMSO where it is more fully ionized and free of hydrogen bonding.

Through collaboration with Javier de Mendoza in 1993, Rebek managed to create a self-assembling capsule. These form reversibly by completely surrounding small molecule targets and have become a versatile tool of modern physical organic chemistry. They exist in solution at equilibrium and under ambient conditions. They act as nanometric reaction chambers, as means to stabilize reagents, as sources of "complexes within complexes" and as spaces where new forms of stereochemistry have been created.

The time period is on the order of a few hours, and disproportionation is faster the higher the temperature. At 0 °C disproportionation takes about a day. At -78.5 °C methyldiborane disproportionates slowly first to diborane and 1,1-dimethyldiborane. In solution methylborane is more stable against disproportionation than dimethylborane. :4(CH3)3B2H3 (CH3)4B2H2 \+ B2H6 K=0.0067. :3B2H2Me4 2 B2H3Me3 \+ 2 BMe3 Dimethylborane is hydrolyzed in water to Dimethylborinic acid (CH3)2BOH.

The molecular geometry can be different as a solid, in solution, and as a gas. The position of each atom is determined by the nature of the chemical bonds by which it is connected to its neighboring atoms. The molecular geometry can be described by the positions of these atoms in space, evoking bond lengths of two joined atoms, bond angles of three connected atoms, and torsion angles (dihedral angles) of three consecutive bonds.

They are bottled with a viable yeast population in suspension. If there is no residual fermentable sugar left, sugar or wort or both may be added in a process known as priming. The resulting fermentation generates CO2 that is trapped in the bottle, remaining in solution and providing natural carbonation. Bottle-conditioned beers may be either filled unfiltered direct from the fermentation or conditioning tank, or filtered and then reseeded with yeast.

PG-X, which later would become known as prostacyclin, was 30 times more potent than any other known anti-aggregatory agent. By 1976, Vane and fellow researcher Salvador Moncada published the first paper on prostacyclin, in the scientific journal Nature. The collaboration produced a synthetic molecule which was given the name epoprostenol. But like native prostacyclin, the structure of the epoprostenol molecule proved to be unstable in solution, prone to rapid degradation.

Since the water is no longer in solution, it can form droplets which can supercool to below 0 °C. If these supercooled droplets collide with a surface they can freeze and may result in blocked fuel inlet pipes. This was the cause of the British Airways Flight 38 accident. Removing all water from fuel is impractical; therefore, fuel heaters are usually used on commercial aircraft to prevent water in fuel from freezing.

Cultured neuronal networks are by definition disembodied cultures of neurons. Thus by being outside their natural environment, the neurons are influenced in ways that are not biologically normal. Foremost among these abnormalities is the fact that the neurons are usually harvested as neural stem cells from a fetus and are therefore disrupted at a critical stage in network development. When the neurons are suspended in solution and subsequently dispensed, the connections previously made are destroyed and new ones formed.

As a transmembrane protein, it can mostly be found on the cell membrane. The LINGO-1 structure has been shown to be highly stable both in its crystal form and in solution, thanks to its leucine-rich repeat Ig-composite fold. Since the tetramer has a very large surface area into the cell membrane, it is thought that this may serve as an efficient and stable binding platform, facilitating the interaction with NgR, p75, TROY complex.

The use of many additional hydrogen bonds has several putative purposes. The stabilization of multiple hydrogen bonds to the enzyme helps overcome the entropic cost of binding. Additionally, the interactions help hold the substrate in a reactive conformation, and the enzyme-catalyzed reaction has near-zero entropy of activation, while typical Claisen rearrangements in solution have very negative entropies of activation. center The use of cation-pi interactions has also been successfully implemented in reactions with synthetic catalysts.

The caldera walls and the larger dome host numerous hydrothermal vents, which send plumes of hot water 750 m up through the water column. It is the most hydrothermally active volcano known in the Kermadec Arc. These hydrothermal vents are also known as hot springs and have created an 8 meter high field of "black smoker" chimneys. These chimneys are created when the hydrothermal fluids hit the cold water and the chemicals in solution are deposited.

Most pentoses and some hexoses are all substrates for D-xylose isomerase. Some examples include: D-ribose, L-arabinose, L-rhanmose, and D-allose. Conversion of glucose to fructose by xylose isomerase was first patented in the 1960s, however, the process was not industrially viable as the enzymes were suspended in solution, and recycling the enzyme was problematic. An immobile xylose isomerase that was fixed on a solid surface was first developed in Japan by Takanashi.

In the context of biochemistry and drug development, a hybridization assay is a type of Ligand Binding Assay (LBA) used to quantify nucleic acids in biological matrices. Hybridization assays can be in solution or on a solid support such as 96-well plates or labelled beads. Hybridization assays involve labelled nucleic acid probes to identify related DNA or RNA molecules (i.e. with significantly high degree of sequence similarity) within a complex mixture of unlabelled nucleic acid molecules.

Precipitation occurs with most antigens because the antigen is multivalent (i.e. has several antigenic determinants per molecule to which antibodies can bind). Antibodies have at least two antigen binding sites (and in the case of Immunoglobulin M there is a multimeric complex with up to 10 antigen binding sites), thus large aggregates or gel-like lattices of antigen and antibody are formed. Experimentally, an increasing amount of antigen is added to a constant amount of antibody in solution.

Anion-exchange chromatography is a process that separates substances based on their charges using an ion-exchange resin containing positively charged groups, such as diethyl-aminoethyl groups (DEAE). In solution, the resin is coated with positively charged counter-ions (cations). Anion exchange resins will bind to negatively charged molecules, displacing the counter-ion. Anion exchange chromatography is commonly used to purify proteins, amino acids, sugars/carbohydrates and other acidic substances with a negative charge at higher pH levels.

Some of these surface stabilizing species are: NaBH4 in large amounts, poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and/or dodecanethiol. Once the particles have been formed in solution they must be separated and collected. There are several general methods to remove nanoparticles from solution, including evaporating the solvent phase or the addition of chemicals to the solution that lower the solubility of the nanoparticles in the solution. Both methods force the precipitation of the nanoparticles.

The rate of the solution flow can be controlled by the electrode's angular velocity and modeled mathematically. This flow can quickly achieve conditions in which the steady-state current is controlled by the solution flow rather than diffusion. This is a contrast to still and unstirred experiments such as cyclic voltammetry where the steady-state current is limited by the diffusion of species in solution. linear sweep voltammogram of 100 μM dopamine in phosphate buffered saline.

This means that adding ethanol to solution disrupts the screening of charges by water. If enough ethanol is added, the electrical attraction between phosphate groups and any positive ions present in solution becomes strong enough to form stable ionic bonds and DNA precipitation. This usually happens when ethanol composes over 64% of the solution. As the mechanism suggests, the solution has to contain positive ions for precipitation to occur; usually Na+, NH4+ or Li+ plays this role .

Alkali metal alkoxides are often oligomeric or polymeric compounds, especially when the R group is small (Me, Et). The alkoxide anion is a good bridging ligand, thus many alkoxides feature M2O or M3O linkages. In solution, the alkali metal derivatives exhibit strong ion-pairing, as expected for the alkali metal derivative of a strongly basic anion. Structure of the Li4(OBu-t)4(thf)3 cluster, highlighting the tendency of alkoxides to aggregate and bind ether ligands.

Upon filtering the basic mixture, Fe2O3 is removed. When the Bayer liquor is cooled, Al(OH)3 precipitates, leaving the silicates in solution. : NaAl(OH)4 → NaOH + Al(OH)3 The solid Al(OH)3 Gibbsite is then calcined (heated to over 1100 °C) to give aluminium oxide: : 2 Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 \+ 3 H2O The product aluminium oxide tends to be multi-phase, i.e., consisting of several phases of aluminium oxide rather than solely corundum.

Regions overlying limestone bedrock tend to have fewer visible above-ground sources (ponds and streams), as surface water easily drains downward through joints in the limestone. While draining, water and organic acid from the soil slowly (over thousands or millions of years) enlarges these cracks, dissolving the calcium carbonate and carrying it away in solution. Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation.

The bismuth phosphate process was devised by Stanley G. Thompson at the University of California. Plutonium had two oxidation states; a tetravalent (+4) state, and hexavalent (+6) state, with different chemical properties. Bismuth phosphate () was similar in its crystalline structure to plutonium phosphate, and plutonium would be carried with bismuth phosphate in a solution while other elements, including uranium, would be precipitated. The plutonium could be switched from being in solution to being precipitated by toggling its oxidation state.

Solution polymers offer the absorbency of a granular polymer supplied in solution form. Solutions can be diluted with water prior to application, and can coat most substrates or used to saturate them. After drying at a specific temperature for a specific time, the result is a coated substrate with superabsorbency. For example, this chemistry can be applied directly onto wires and cables, though it is especially optimized for use on components such as rolled goods or sheeted substrates.

Most applications of noble gas compounds are either as oxidising agents or as a means to store noble gases in a dense form. Xenic acid is a valuable oxidising agent because it has no potential for introducing impurities—xenon is simply liberated as a gas—and so is rivalled only by ozone in this regard. The perxenates are even more powerful oxidizing agents. Xenon-based oxidants have also been used for synthesizing carbocations stable at room temperature, in solution.

Bubble formation can occur in the blood or other tissues. A solvent can carry a supersaturated load of gas in solution. Whether it will come out of solution in the bulk of the solvent to form bubbles will depend on a number of factors. Something which reduces surface tension, or adsorbs gas molecules, or locally reduces solubility of the gas, or causes a local reduction in static pressure in a fluid may result in a bubble nucleation or growth.

If the pressure reduction is sufficient, excess gas may form bubbles, which may lead to decompression sickness, a possibly debilitating or life-threatening condition. It is essential that divers manage their decompression to avoid excessive bubble formation and decompression sickness. A mismanaged decompression usually results from reducing the ambient pressure too quickly for the amount of gas in solution to be eliminated safely. These bubbles may block arterial blood supply to tissues or directly cause tissue damage.

Sur les phénylhydrazones du d glucose et leur multirotation. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. vol. 132, pp. 564–566. The first of these was an experimental measurement of the angle of rotation of polarized light by pure sugar in solution, to determine its concentration for use in saccharimetry, undertaken at the request of the Commission on Sugars and Alcohols, of the Ministry of Finances. Bénard's results were adopted as the legal values in France by the Ministry of Finances.

137 °C) is amorphous and DPPH-III (m.p. 128–129 °C) is triclinic. DPPH is a well-known radical and a trap ("scavenger") for other radicals. Therefore, rate reduction of a chemical reaction upon addition of DPPH is used as an indicator of the radical nature of that reaction. Because of a strong absorption band centered at about 520 nm, the DPPH radical has a deep violet color in solution, and it becomes colorless or pale yellow when neutralized.

DTT is used as a reducing or "deprotecting" agent for thiolated DNA. The terminal sulfur atoms of thiolated DNA have a tendency to form dimers in solution, especially in the presence of oxygen. Dimerization greatly lowers the efficiency of subsequent coupling reactions such as DNA immobilization on gold in biosensors. Typically DTT is mixed with a DNA solution and allowed to react, and then is removed by filtration (for the solid catalyst) or by chromatography (for the liquid form).

An important characteristic of poloxamer solutions is their temperature dependent self-assembling and thermo-gelling behavior. Concentrated aqueous solutions of poloxamers are liquid at low temperature and form a gel at higher temperature in a reversible process. The transitions that occur in these systems depend on the polymer composition (molecular weight and hydrophilic/hydrophobic molar ratio). At low temperatures and concentrations (below the critical micelle temperature and critical micelle concentration) individual block copolymers (unimers) are present in solution.

The lipids will then "aggregate" and form various phases and structures. According to the conditions (concentration, temperature, ionic strength of solution, etc.) and the chemical structures of the lipid, different phases will be observed. For instance, the lipid POPC (palmitoyl oleyl phosphatidyl choline) tends to form lamellar vesicles in solution, whereas smaller lipids (lipids with shorter acyl chains, up to 8 carbons in length), such as detergents, will form micelles if the CMC (critical micelle concentration) is reached.

Handling of wet concrete must always be done with proper protective equipment. Contact with wet concrete can cause skin chemical burns due to the caustic nature of the mixture of cement and water. Indeed, the pH of fresh cement water is highly alkaline due to the presence of free potassium and sodium hydroxides in solution (pH ~ 13.5). Eyes, hands and feet must be correctly protected to avoid any direct contact with wet concrete and washed without delay if necessary.

A hydrogen ion is created when a hydrogen atom loses or gains an electron. A positively charged hydrogen ion (or proton) can readily combine with other particles and therefore is only seen isolated when it is in a gaseous state or a nearly particle-free space. Due to its extremely high charge density of approximately 2×1010 times that of a sodium ion, the bare hydrogen ion cannot exist freely in solution as it readily hydrates, i.e., bonds quickly.

Protein microchips show the high specificity in molecular recognition reactions as seen in solution. Interaction between antigen and their specific antibodies can be studied on- chip in variety of experimental conditions. Either the antigen or antibody can be immobilized and monitored by both direct and indirect methods. In direct method, one uses target molecules labelled with fluorescent dye and in the indirect method the reaction is detected using the labelled molecule that specifically recognizes the target.

Anatoly M Belostotskii (2015): "Conformer and conformation", chapter 2 of Conformational Concept For Synthetic Chemist's Use: Principles And In Lab Exploitation. 580 pages. .) Interactions with other molecules of the same or different compounds (for example, through hydrogen bonds) can significantly change the energy of conformations of a molecule. Therefore, the possible isomers of a compound in solution or in its liquid and solid phases many be very different from those of an isolated molecule in vacuum.

Large quantities of width- controlled GNRs can be produced via graphite nanotomy, where applying a sharp diamond knife on graphite produces graphite nanoblocks, which can then be exfoliated to produce GNRs. GNRs can also be produced by "unzipping" or axially cutting nanotubes. In one such method multi-walled carbon nanotubes were unzipped in solution by action of potassium permanganate and sulfuric acid. In another method GNRs were produced by plasma etching of nanotubes partly embedded in a polymer film.

Pentacarbon dioxide, officially penta-1,2,3,4-tetraene-1,5-dione, is an oxide of carbon (an oxocarbon) with formula C5O2 or O=C=C=C=C=C=O. The compound was described in 1988 by Günter Maier and others, who obtained it by pyrolysis of cyclohexane-1,3,5-trione (phloroglucin, the tautomeric form of phloroglucinol). It has also been obtained by flash vapor pyrolysis of 2,4,6-tris(diazo)cyclohexane-1,3,5-trione (C6N6O3). It is stable at room temperature in solution.

This salt is used to initiate polymerization of various alkenes leading to commercially important polymers such as styrene- butadiene rubber and polytetrafluoroethylene and related materials. In solution, the dianion dissociates to give radicals: :[O3SO-OSO3]2− 2 [SO4]•− It is used in organic chemistry as an oxidizing agent,Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis, vol. 1, pp. 193–197(1995) for instance in the Elbs persulfate oxidation of phenols and the Boyland–Sims oxidation of anilines.

Acidosis inhibits bone osteoblast matrix mineralization with reciprocal effect on osteoclast activation. The combined responses of these cells to acidosis maximizes the availability of hydroxyl ions in solution that can be used to buffer protons. The utilization of bone to buffer even a small percentage of daily acid production can lead to significant loss of bone mass in the course of a decade. Additionally, as the body ages there is a steady decline in renal function.

Homogenization of tissue in solution is often performed simultaneously with cell lysis. To prevent lysis however, the tissue (or collection of cells, e.g. from cell culture) can be kept at temperatures slightly above zero to prevent autolysis, and in an isotonic solution to prevent osmotic damage. If freezing the tissue is possible, cryohomogenization can be performed under "dry" conditions, and is often the method of choice whenever it is desirable to collect several distinct molecular classes (e.g.

Recording optical rotation with a polarimeter: The plane of polarisation of plane polarised light (4) rotates (6) as it passes through an optically active sample (5). This angle is determined with a rotatable polarizing filter (7). In chemistry, specific rotation ([α]) is a property of a chiral chemical compound. It is defined as the change in orientation of monochromatic plane- polarized light, per unit distance–concentration product, as the light passes through a sample of a compound in solution.

He fled with Haber (who was born Jewish) from Nazi Germany to Cambridge in 1933. He later moved to University College London, where he got his PhD in 1935 from Prof Frederick George Donnan.Dan Meisel Chemistry Genealogy in 1937 he started teaching at the King's College in Durham, which later became the Newcastle University. In the thirties, Weiss published several of his ideas on electron transfer processes in the mechanisms of thermal and photochemical reactions in solution.

Due to the complex shape of individual repeats, the whole ARM domain is not a straight rod: it possesses a slight curvature, so that an outer (convex) and an inner (concave) surface is formed. This inner surface serves as a ligand- binding site for the various interaction partners of the ARM domains. The simplified structure of beta-catenin. The segments N-terminal and far C-terminal to the ARM domain do not adopt any structure in solution by themselves.

Oxonium ions normally are strong alkylating agents and are only observed in solution as reactive intermediates or under extreme conditions. Oxatriquinane is an exception: it does not react with boiling water or with alcohols, thiols, halide ions, or amines, although it does react with stronger nucleophiles such as hydroxide, cyanide, and azide. The ability of the oxygen to enter into a fourth covalent bond has been of some theoretical interest and was achieved using carborane acid.

For example, sodium and potassium nitrite reacting with iodomethane would produce mostly nitromethane, with methyl nitrite as the minor product. However, the presence of the silver ion in solution has a stabilizing effect on the formation of carbocation intermediates, increasing the percent yield of methyl nitrite. In either case, some nitromethane and methyl nitrite are both formed. :350px The figure shows the two gas-phase structures of methyl nitrite, as determined by IR and microwave spectroscopy.

Particle in solution stabilized via the electrostatic double-layer force Suspensions of similarly charged particles dispersed in a liquid electrolyte are stabilized through an effect described by the Helmholtz double layer model. The model has two layers. The first layer is the charged surface of the particle, which creates an electrostatic field that affects the ions in the electrolyte. In response, the ions create a diffuse layer of equal and opposite charge, effectively rendering the surface charge neutral.

Calmagite is a complexometric indicator used in analytical chemistry to identify the presence of metal ions in solution. As with other metal ion indicators calmagite will change color when it is bound to an ion. Calmagite will be wine red when it is bound to a metal ion and may be blue, red, or orange when it is not bound to a metal ion. Calmagite is often used in conjunction with EDTA, a stronger metal binding agent.

Even when marked, hypocapnia is normally well tolerated. Symptoms include tingling sensation (usually in the limbs), abnormal heartbeat, painful muscle cramps, and seizures. Acute hypocapnia causes hypocapnic alkalosis, which causes cerebral vasoconstriction leading to cerebral hypoxia, and this can cause transient dizziness, fainting, and anxiety. A low partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood also causes alkalosis (because CO2 is acidic in solution), leading to lowered plasma calcium ions (Hypocalcaemia), causing increased nerve and muscle excitability.

Lithium orotate (C5H3LiN2O4), is a salt of orotic acid and lithium. It is available as the monohydrate, LiC5H3N2O4·H2O. In this compound, lithium is non-covalently bound to an orotate ion, rather than to a carbonate or other ion, and like other salts, dissociates in solution to produce free lithium ions. It is marketed as a dietary supplement, though only barely researched between 1973–1986 to treat certain medical conditions, such as alcoholism and Alzheimer's disease.

This hyperfine splitting is the main source of the sensitivity of ESR to the chemical environment of the electron, and hence it underlies the broad applications of ESR in chemistry. Much of his work concerned the way this interaction term behaves as molecules tumble around in solution or undergo chemical reactions. He also investigated the special non-equilibrium ESR effects which are found as reactions take place. Weissman was a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences.

Welan gum is an exopolysaccharide used as a rheology modifier in industrial applications such as cement manufacturing. It is produced by fermentation of sugar by bacteria of the genus Alcaligenes. The molecule consists of repeating tetrasaccharide units with single branches of L-mannose or L-rhamnose. In solution, the gum exhibits viscosity retention at elevated temperature, and is stable in a wide pH range, in the presence of calcium ion, and with high concentration of glycols.

The water of the arsenic spring has a distinctly yellow color, which in a few other springs has been ascribed to alkaline sulphides in solution. At the north edge of the creek, a few yards above the hot springs, there are two cool springs in which iron is deposited. An analysis of the easternmost of these springs was also made. The two hot springs apparently issue from the same general source and show only slight differences in composition.

Liquid-based syntheses are efficient and typically better for the environment. The simplest and most economical method, in which components of the nanocrystal are mixed together in solution and allowed to precipitate. This method yields nanoparticles with a narrow size distribution (around 100 nm), but that lack the precision of more intricate methods, thereby requiring more post-synthesis work up. NPs can be improved with an annealing step at high temperatures, but this often leads to aggregation, limiting applications.

Daane 1968, p. 815. It often also falls in the same range for reaction order, resembling terbium and dysprosium in its chemical reactivity. Yttrium is so close in size to the so-called 'yttrium group' of heavy lanthanide ions that in solution, it behaves as if it were one of them. Even though the lanthanides are one row farther down the periodic table than yttrium, the similarity in atomic radius may be attributed to the lanthanide contraction.

NADH in solution has an emission peak at 340 nm and a fluorescence lifetime of 0.4 nanoseconds, while the oxidized form of the coenzyme does not fluoresce. The properties of the fluorescence signal changes when NADH binds to proteins, so these changes can be used to measure dissociation constants, which are useful in the study of enzyme kinetics. These changes in fluorescence are also used to measure changes in the redox state of living cells, through fluorescence microscopy.

Carbon in pulp (CIP) is an extraction technique for recovery of gold which has been liberated into a cyanide solution as part of the gold cyanidation process. Introduced in the early 1980s, Carbon in Pulp is regarded as a simple and cheap process. As such it is used in most industrial applications where the presence of competing silver or copper does not prohibit its use. Activated carbon acts like a sponge to aurocyanide and other complex ions in solution.

Most NONOates are stable in alkaline solution above pH 8.0 (e. g. 10 mM NaOH) and can be stored at −20 °C in this way for the short term. To generate NO from NONOates, the pH is lowered accordingly. Typically, a dilution of the stock NONOate solution is made in a phosphate buffer (pH 7.4; tris buffers can also be used) and incubated at room temperature for the desired time to allow NO to accumulate in solution.

This format has the advantage of selecting for properties in a cellular environment, which is useful when the evolved protein or RNA is to be used in living organisms. When performed without cells, DE involves using in vitro transcription translation to produce proteins or RNA free in solution or compartmentalised in artificial microdroplets. This method has the benefits of being more versatile in the selection conditions (e.g. temperature, solvent), and can express proteins that would be toxic to cells.

Metallic and semiconducting carbon nanotubes generally coexist in as-grown materials. To get only semiconducting or only metallic nanotubes selective functionalization of metallic SWNTs via 4-hydroxybenzene diazonium can be used. Separation can be done in solution by deprotonation of the p-hydroxybenzene group on the reacted nanotubes (metallic) in alkaline solution followed by electrophoretic separation of these charged species from the neutral species (semiconducting nanotubes). This followed by annealing would give separated pristine semiconducting and metallic SWNT.

Polyhexamethylene guanidine (PHMG) is a guanidine derivative that is used as a biocidal disinfectant, often in the form of its salt polyhexamethylene guanidine phosphate (PHMG-P). Studies have shown that PHMG in solution has fungicidal as well as bactericidal activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The substance also has detergent, anti-corrosive, and flocculant properties and prevents biofouling. PHMG-P is a white powdered solid, and as all polyguanidine salts, readily soluble in water.

The branching index measures the effect of long-chain branches on the size of a macromolecule in solution. It is defined as g = b2>/l2>, where sb is the mean square radius of gyration of the branched macromolecule in a given solvent, and sl is the mean square radius of gyration of an otherwise identical linear macromolecule in the same solvent at the same temperature. A value greater than 1 indicates an increased radius of gyration due to branching.

The system of colloids and depletants in solution is typically modeled by treating the large colloids and small depletants as dissimilarly sized hard spheres. Hard spheres are characterized as non- interacting and impenetrable spheres. These two fundamental properties of hard spheres are described mathematically by the hard-sphere potential. The hard- sphere potential imposes steric constraint around large spheres which in turn gives rise to excluded volume, that is, volume that is unavailable for small spheres to occupy.

Such distillations must be done with all-glass apparatus at reduced pressure, to prevent decomposition of the acid. Industrially, highly concentrated nitric acid is produced by dissolving additional nitrogen dioxide in 68% nitric acid in an absorption tower. Dissolved nitrogen oxides are either stripped in the case of white fuming nitric acid, or remain in solution to form red fuming nitric acid. More recently, electrochemical means have been developed to produce anhydrous acid from concentrated nitric acid feedstock.

When ozone is bubbled through a slurry of americium(III) hydroxide in 0.03 M potassium bicarbonate at 92 °C, hexagonal KAmO2CO3 (potassium dioxoamericium(V) carbonate) can be obtained. Potassium carbonate can also be used. The resulting KAmO2CO3 reacts with dilute acids to produce americium dioxide. O3 \+ Am(OH)3 \+ KHCO3 \+ H2O → KAmO2CO3 \+ 3H2O + O2 In a dilute base such as sodium hypochlorite, Am(OH)3 gets oxidised to Am(OH)4, which is black in solution.

Catabolite Activator Protein (blue) bound to a piece of DNA (red). Catabolite activator protein (CAP; also known as cAMP receptor protein, CRP) is a trans- acting transcriptional activator that exists as a homodimer in solution. Each subunit of CAP is composed of a ligand-binding domain at the N-terminus (CAPN, residues 1-138) and a DNA-binding domain at the C-terminus (DBD, residues 139-209). Two cAMP (cyclic AMP) molecules bind dimeric CAP with negative cooperativity.

From that point it can be transformed in the rock cycle into metamorphic rocks, or melted into igneous rocks. Carbon can return to the surface of the Earth by volcanoes or via uplift in tectonic processes. Carbon is returned to the atmosphere via volcanic gases. Carbon undergoes transformation in the mantle under pressure to diamond and other minerals, and also exists in the Earth's outer core in solution with iron, and may also be present in the inner core.

When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water enters into a cell by osmosis and as a result turgor pressure develops in the cell which is in solution . The cell membrane becomes stretched and the osmotic pressure of the cell decreases. As the cell absorbs more and more water its Turgor Pressure increases and Osmotic Pressure decreases. When a cell is fully turgid, its OP is equal to TP and DPD is zero.

Helmchen's Postulates are the theoretical models used to predict the elution order and extent of separation of diastereomers (including those formed from CDAs) that are adsorbed onto a surface. Although Helmchen’s postulates are specific for amides on silica gel using liquid chromatography, the postulates provide fundamental guidelines for other molecules. Helmchen’s Postulates are: #Conformations are the same is a in solution and when adsorbed. #Diastereomers bind to surfaces (silica gel in normal phase chromatography) mainly with hydrogen bonding.

One representative method is fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia, and solution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid. Osmium, ruthenium, rhodium, and iridium are insoluble in aqua regia and readily precipitate, leaving the other metals in solution. Rhodium is separated from the residue by treatment with molten sodium bisulfate. The insoluble residue, containing Ru, Os, and Ir is treated with sodium oxide, in which Ir is insoluble, producing dissolved Ru and Os salts.

Some substances are stable in solution or some other "wild" form but cannot be isolated or captured without actually catalyzing their own polymerization or decomposition ("dissolving in their own tears"). For example, a molecule containing a carboxylic acid moiety and an acid labile moiety might be stable when initially prepared as the salt (e.g., barium prephenate) but unstable as the free acid (prephenic acid). These have been named "chemical squonks" as a nod to the creature.

Because of this CM and RCM reactions often use alpha-olefins. The reverse reaction of CM of two alpha-olefins, ethenolysis, can be favored but requires high pressures of ethylene to increase ethylene concentration in solution. The reverse reaction of RCM, ring-opening metathesis, can likewise be favored by a large excess of an alpha-olefin, often styrene. Ring-opening metathesis usually involves a strained alkene (often a norbornene) and the release of ring strain drives the reaction.

DPI provides real-time, high- resolution measurements of molecular size, density and mass. While tagging is not necessary, one of the protein species must be immobilized on the surface of a waveguide. As well as kinetics and affinity, conformational changes during interaction can also be quantified. Static light scattering (SLS) measures changes in the Rayleigh scattering of protein complexes in solution and can characterize both weak and strong interactions without labeling or immobilization of the proteins or other biomacromolecule.

An example for this may be observed in the self-assembly of polyoxometalates. Evidence suggests that such molecules assemble via a dense-phase type mechanism whereby small oxometalate ions first assemble non-covalently in solution, followed by a condensation reaction that covalently binds the assembled units. This process can be aided by the introduction of templating agents to control the formed species. In such a way, highly organized covalent molecules may be formed in a specific manner.

Impurities that are more noble than lead, such as silver, gold, and bismuth, flake from the anode as it dissolves and settle to the bottom of the vessel as "anode mud." Pure metallic lead plates onto the cathode, with the less noble metals remaining in solution. Because of its high cost, electrolysis is used only when very pure lead is needed. Otherwise pyrometallurgical methods are preferred, such as the Parkes process followed by the Betterton-Kroll process.

These ligands can be bridging between the two cobalt centres or bound to a single metal centre (a terminal ligand). In solution, there are two isomers known that rapidly interconvert: :350px The major isomer (on the left in the above equilibrium process) contains two bridging carbonyl ligands linking the cobalt centres and six terminal carbonyl ligands, three on each metal. It can be summarised by the formula (CO)3Co(μ-CO)2Co(CO)3 and has C2v symmetry.

A weak electrolyte is a substance whose solute exists in solution mostly in the form of molecules (which are said to be "undissociated"), with only a small fraction in the form of ions. Simply because a substance does not readily dissolve does not make it a weak electrolyte. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) and ammonium (NH4+) are good examples. Acetic acid is extremely soluble in water, but most of the compound dissolves into molecules, rendering it a weak electrolyte.

The reaction can be conducted in gas phase and in solution. center The molecule has a symmetric tetrahedral cage- like structure, similar to adamantane, whose four "corners" are nitrogen atoms and "edges" are methylene bridges. Although the molecular shape defines a cage, no void space is available at the interior for binding other atoms or molecules, unlike crown ethers or larger cryptand structures. The molecule behaves like an amine base, undergoing protonation and N-alkylation (e.g. Quaternium-15).

In order to return to a lower energy state, either the hydroxyl group leaves, or the chloride leaves. In solution both processes happen. A small percentage of the intermediate loses the chloride to become the product (2,4-dinitrophenol), while the rest return to the reactant. Since 2,4-dinitrophenol is in a lower energy state it will not return to form the reactant, so after some time has passed, the reaction reaches chemical equilibrium that favors the 2,4-dinitrophenol.

Diiodobutadiyne (1,4-diiodobuta-1,3-diyne) is a small molecule related to diacetylene. It is used in the creation of the polymer poly(diiododiacetylene) (PIDA) by undergoing 1,4 polymerization. 1,4-Diiodobuta-1,3-diyne is light sensitive and explosive if stored out of solution as a dry solid. It will undergo random 1,2 and 1,4 polymerization, as well as decomposition in solution if kept over an extended period of time, having a half life of just about two weeks.

A ChemFET is a chemically-sensitive field-effect transistor, that is a field- effect transistor used as a sensor for measuring chemical concentrations in solution. When the target analyte concentration changes, the current through the transistor will change accordingly. Here, the analyte solution separates the source and gate electrodes. A concentration gradient between the solution and the gate electrode arises due to a semi-permeable membrane on the FET surface containing receptor moieties that preferentially bind the target analyte.

Secondary efflorescence on the dam of the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant. In chemistry, efflorescence (which means "to flower out" in French) is the migration of a salt to the surface of a porous material, where it forms a coating. The essential process involves the dissolving of an internally held salt in water, or occasionally in another solvent. The water, with the salt now held in solution, migrates to the surface, then evaporates, leaving a coating of the salt.

The production of cadmium selenide has been carried out in two different ways. The preparation of bulk crystalline CdSe is done by the High-Pressure Vertical Bridgman method or High-Pressure Vertical Zone Melting. Cadmium selenide may also be produced in the form of nanoparticles. (see applications for explanation) Several methods for the production of CdSe nanoparticles have been developed: arrested precipitation in solution, synthesis in structured media, high temperature pyrolysis, sonochemical, and radiolytic methods are just a few.

Treatment of TiCl4 with acetylacetone gives cis-TiCl2(acac)2, a red-coloured, octahedral complex with C2 symmetry: :TiCl4 \+ 2 Hacac → TiCl2(acac)2 \+ 2 HCl This reaction requires no base. The complex TiCl2(acac)2 is fluxional in solution, the NMR spectrum exhibiting a single methyl resonance at room temperature. Unlike Ti(IV), Zr(IV) and Hf(IV) bind four bidentate acetylacetonates, reflecting the larger radius of these metals. Hafnium acetylacetonate and zirconium acetylacetonate adopt square antiprismatic structures.

Reaction with ammonia forms PtI2(NH3)2 which is isolated as a yellow compound. When silver nitrate in water is added insoluble silver iodide precipitates and [Pt(OH2)2(NH3)2](NO3)2 remains in solution. Addition of potassium chloride will form the final product which precipitates In the triiodo intermediate the addition of the second ammonia ligand is governed by the trans effect. :600px A one-pot synthesis of cisplatin from K2PtCl4 has been developed.

Iodic acid is a relatively strong acid with a pKa of 0.75. It is strongly oxidizing in acidic solution, less so in basic solution. When iodic acid acts as oxidizer, then the product of the reaction is either iodine, or iodide ion. Under some special conditions (very low pH and high concentration of chloride ions, such as in concentrated hydrochloric acid), iodic acid is reduced to iodine trichloride, a golden yellow compound in solution and no further reduction occurs.

For example, hydrochloric acid is a weak acid in solution in pure acetic acid, HO2CCH3, which is more acidic than water. :HO2CCH3 \+ HCl (HO)2CCH3+ \+ Cl− The extent of ionization of the hydrohalic acids decreases in the order HI > HBr > HCl. Acetic acid is said to be a differentiating solvent for the three acids, while water is not. An important example of a solvent which is more basic than water is dimethyl sulfoxide, DMSO, (CH3)2SO.

1]pentane 1 in a Hunsdiecker reaction to the corresponding dibromide 2 followed by a coupling reaction with n-butyllithium. The final product 3 was isolated by column chromatography at −30 °C. However, a much simplified synthesis was published by Szeimies. It starts with dibromocarbene addition to the alkene bond of 3-chloro-2-(chloromethyl)propene 6 followed by deprotonation by methyllithium and nucleophilic displacements in 7 not isolated but kept in solution at −196 °C.

The toxicity of 210Po stems entirely from its radioactivity. It is not chemically toxic in itself, but its solubility in aqueous solution as well as that of its salts poses a hazard because its spread throughout the body is facilitated in solution. Intake of 210Po occurs primarily through contaminated air, food, or water, as well as through open wounds. Once inside the body, 210Po concentrates in soft tissues (especially in the reticuloendothelial system) and the bloodstream.

Slow reaction rates are common with chromium(III) complexes. The low reactivity of the d3 Cr3+ ion can be explained using crystal field theory. One way of opening CrCl3 up to substitution in solution is to reduce even a trace amount to CrCl2, for example using zinc in hydrochloric acid. This chromium(II) compound undergoes substitution easily, and it can exchange electrons with CrCl3 via a chloride bridge, allowing all of the CrCl3 to react quickly.

Additional forces beyond the DLVO construct have been reported to also play a major role in determining colloid stability. DLVO theory is not effective in describing ordering processes such as the evolution of colloidal crystals in dilute dispersions with low salt concentrations. It also can not explain the relation between the formation of colloidal crystals and salt concentrations. N. Ise and I. S. Sogami, Structure Formation in Solution: Ionic Polymers and Colloidal Particles, (Springer, New York, 2005).

The remainder reports to the red mud and aluminium hydroxide streams. Gallium is removed from the ion-exchange resin in solution. Electrolysis then gives gallium metal. For semiconductor use, it is further purified with zone melting or single-crystal extraction from a melt (Czochralski process). Purities of 99.9999% are routinely achieved and commercially available. Bauxite mine in Jamaica (1984) Its by-product status means that gallium production is constrained by the amount of bauxite, sulfidic zinc ores (and coal) extracted per year.

Sodium hypochlorite is most often encountered as a pale greenish-yellow dilute solution referred to as liquid bleach, which is a household chemical widely used (since the 18th century) as a disinfectant or a bleaching agent. In solution, the compound is unstable and easily decomposes, liberating chlorine which is the active principle of such products. Sodium hypochlorite is the oldest and still most important chlorine-based bleach. Its corrosive properties, common availability, and reaction products make it a significant safety risk.

660 lorry-loads of beet can be accepted each day when beet is being harvested. Not all the beet can be crystallised immediately, and some is kept in solution in holding tanks until late spring and early summer, when the plant has spare crystallising capacity. The sugar is sold under the Silver Spoon name (the other major British brand, Tate & Lyle, is made from imported sugar cane). By-products include molassed sugar beet feed for cattle and LimeX70, a soil improver.

These bacteria can also grow in the mouth; the acid they produce is responsible for the tooth decay known as caries. In medicine, lactate is one of the main components of lactated Ringer's solution and Hartmann's solution. These intravenous fluids consist of sodium and potassium cations along with lactate and chloride anions in solution with distilled water, generally in concentrations isotonic with human blood. It is most commonly used for fluid resuscitation after blood loss due to trauma, surgery, or burns.

From 1904 to 1914, he published 21 papers on physical chemistry, mainly on molecular weights in solution. However, the bulk of his work from 1917 to 1954 was on the chemistry and technology of glass. Following his retirement, he produced an extensive series on the history of glass technology and on glass in archeology. Apart from this, in 1909, he wrote a series of articles in the Sheffield Daily Telegraph about the scientist in industry, in which cooperation with universities was urged.

A constant-pressure calorimeter measures the change in enthalpy of a reaction occurring in solution during which the atmospheric pressure remains constant. An example is a coffee-cup calorimeter, which is constructed from two nested Styrofoam cups and a lid with two holes, allowing insertion of a thermometer and a stirring rod. The inner cup holds a known amount of a solvent, usually water, that absorbs the heat from the reaction. When the reaction occurs, the outer cup provides insulation.

The formation of these species and their relative concentration in solution is dependent upon the specific amine or amines as well as the temperature and pressure of the gas mixture. At low temperatures, CO2 is preferentially absorbed by the amines and at high temperatures CO2 is desorbed. While liquid amine solutions have been used industrially to remove acid gases for nearly a century, amine scrubber technology is still under development at the scale required for carbon capture.G. Rochelle, Science, 2009, 325, 1652-1654.

Like all metal cations, Cs+ forms complexes with Lewis bases in solution. Because of its large size, Cs+ usually adopts coordination numbers greater than 6, the number typical for the smaller alkali metal cations. This difference is apparent in the 8-coordination of CsCl. This high coordination number and softness (tendency to form covalent bonds) are properties exploited in separating Cs+ from other cations in the remediation of nuclear wastes, where 137Cs+ must be separated from large amounts of nonradioactive K+..

However, the crystallization of calcite has been observed to be dependent on the starting pH and presence of Mg in solution. A neutral starting pH during mixing promotes the direct transformation of ACC into calcite. Conversely, when ACC forms in a solution that starts with a basic initial pH, the transformation to calcite occurs via metastable vaterite, which forms via a spherulitic growth mechanism. In a second stage this vaterite transforms to calcite via a surface-controlled dissolution and recrystallization mechanism.

Puerto Rico is a major manufacturer of medical devices and pharmaceuticals, representing 30% of its economy. These factories shut down or greatly reduced production because of the hurricane, and have been slowly recovering since. This has caused a months long shortage in medical supplies in the United States, especially IV bags. Small IV bags often come prefilled with saline or common drugs in solution, and have forced health care providers to scramble behind the scenes for alternative methods of drug delivery.

Dimerization of CK1δ has also been described as a regulatory mechanism through the interaction interface contained by the DD of CK1δ. Following dimerization, Arg-13 inserts into the adenine binding pocket and prevents binding of ATP and perhaps also of large substrates. Although CK1δ in solution is always purified as monomers, biological relevance of dimerization could be demonstrated by showing that the binding of dominant- negative mutant CK1δ to wild type CK1δ resulted in the total reduction of CK1δ-specific kinase activity.

Changes in the metabolic composition of blood can also affect blood pH. Again, recall from our initial experiment that if strong acid or strong base is added to the blood sample, pH and bicarbonate concentration will change accordingly, resulting in a titration curve. Hydroxide ions, for example, when added to the solution, will react with free hydrogen ions and increase the pH of the solution. Additionally, hydroxide ions will abstract protons from carbonic acid in solution, causing the bicarbonate concentration to increase.

These modified PAHs are amphiphilic, which means that they have parts that are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic. When in solution, they assemble in discotic mesogenic (liquid crystal) stacks which, like lipids, tend to organize with their hydrophobic parts protected. On February 21, 2014, NASA announced a greatly upgraded database for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the universe. More than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, possible starting materials for the formation of life.

Remains of uranium in-situ leaching in Stráž pod Ralskem, Czech Republic In- situ leaching (ISL), also called in-situ recovery (ISR) or solution mining, is a mining process used to recover minerals such as copper and uranium through boreholes drilled into a deposit, in situ. In situ leach works by artificially dissolving minerals occurring naturally in a solid state. For recovery of material occurring naturally in solution, see: Brine mining. The process initially involves the drilling of holes into the ore deposit.

Chemical oxidative polymerization is a traditional and commonly used method for the polymerization of aniline in large quantities. When aniline is mixed with an oxidant in an acidic solution, polymerization will occur. The most important parameter to be controlled in this method for the synthesis of polyaniline nanofibers is the domination of homogeneous nucleation over heterogeneous nucleation. Homogeneous nucleation describes when the nuclei are formed spontaneously in solution while heterogeneous nucleation describes when the nuclei are grown on other species.

Aqueous solutions of diazonium chloride salts, traditionally prepared from the aniline, sodium nitrite, and hydrochloric acid, are unstable at room temperature and are classically prepared at 0 – 5 °C. However, one can isolate diazonium compounds as tetrafluoroborate or tosylate salts, which are stable solids at room temperature. It is often preferred that the diazonium salt remain in solution, but they do tend to supersaturate. Operators have been injured or even killed by an unexpected crystallization of the salt followed by its detonation.

It was not merely the earth to which Hutton directed his attention. He had long studied the changes of the atmosphere. The same volume in which his Theory of the Earth appeared contained also a Theory of Rain. He contended that the amount of moisture which the air can retain in solution increases with temperature, and, therefore, that on the mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a portion of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form.

Thicker deposits, up to 1000 μm, are called hard chrome and are used in industrial equipment to reduce friction and wear. The traditional solution used for industrial hard chrome plating is made up of about 250 g/L of CrO3 and about 2.5 g/L of SO4−. In solution, the chrome exists as chromic acid, known as hexavalent chromium. A high current is used, in part to stabilize a thin layer of chromium(+2) at the surface of the plated work.

Other spin-offs include weight reduction, elimination of thousands of fasteners, elimination of complex featuring and a significant reduction in the number of parts. The breakthrough for superplastic Al-Cu alloys was made by Stowell, Watts and Grimes in 1969 when the first of several dilute aluminium alloys (Al-6% Cu-0.5%Zr) was rendered superplastic with the introduction of relatively high levels of zirconium in solution using specialized casting techniques and subsequent electrical treatment to create extremely fine ZrAl3 precipitates.

Tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP) is an alternative reducing agent that is more stable and effective at low pH, but is bulky and reduces cystines in folded proteins only slowly. DTT's half-life is 40 hours at pH 6.5 and 1.4 hours at pH 8.5 and 20 °C; its half-life decreases further as temperature increases. The presence of EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) to chelate divalent metal ions (Fe2+, Cu2+ and others) considerably increases the half-life of DTT in solution.

Ferrioxalate or trisoxalatoferrate(III) is a trivalent anion with formula . It is a transition metal complex consisting of an iron atom in the +3 oxidation state and three bidentate oxalate ions anions acting as ligands. The ferrioxalate anion gives a lime green color to salts, and in solution it is fluorescent. The anion is sensitive to light and higher-energy electromagnetic radiation, which causes the decomposition of one oxalate to carbon dioxide and reduction of the iron(III) atom to iron(II).

In fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV), a small carbon fiber electrode (micrometer scale) is inserted into living cells, tissue, or extracellular space. The electrode is then used to quickly raise and lower the voltage in a triangular wave fashion. When the voltage is in the correct range (typically ±1 Volt) the compound of interest will be repeatedly oxidized and reduced. This will result in a movement of electrons in solution that will ultimately create a small alternating current (nano amps scale).

By subtracting the background current created by the probe from the resulting current, it is possible to generate a voltage vs. current plot that is unique to each compound. Since the time scale of the voltage oscillations is known, this can then be used to calculate a plot of the current in solution as a function of time. The relative concentrations of the compound may be calculated as long as the number of electrons transferred in each oxidation and reduction reaction is known.

Attached to each sugar is one of four types of bases. In case of Mo6S9−xIx, the repeat units are Mo6S9−xIx clusters, which are joined together by flexible sulfur or iodine bridges. Molecular nanowires can be manipulated and investigated as single molecules, but they often aggregate in solution into swatches or bundles. In the case of the Mo chalcogenide- halides, they grow in the form of ordered strands, in which the individual strands are linked by very weak Van der Waals forces.

At one time, stable carbenes were thought to reversibly dimerise through the so-called Wanzlick equilibrium. However, imidazol-2-ylidenes and triazol-5-ylidenes are thermodynamically stable and do not dimerise, and have been stored in solution in the absence of water and air for years. This is presumably due to the aromatic nature of these carbenes, which is lost upon dimerisation. In fact imidazol-2-ylidenes are so thermodynamically stable that only in highly constrained conditions are these carbenes forced to dimerise.

OPA is used in a very sensitive fluorescent reagent for assaying amines or sulfhydryls in solution, notably contained in proteins, peptides, and amino acids, by capillary electrophoresis and chromatography. OPA reacts specifically with primary amines above their isoelectric point Pi in presence of thiols. OPA reacts also with thiols in presence of an amine such as n-propylamine or 2-aminoethanol. The method is spectrometric (fluorescent emission at 436-475 nm (max 455 nm) with excitation at 330-390 nm (max.

Molecular memory is a term for data storage technologies that use molecular species as the data storage element, rather than e.g. circuits, magnetics, inorganic materials or physical shapes."Molecular Memory and Processing Devices in Solution and on Surfaces" A.N. Shipway, E. Katz and I. Willner, Structure and Bonding 2001 (99) 237-281. The molecular component can be described as a molecular switch, and may perform this function by any of several mechanisms, including charge storage, photochromism, or changes in capacitance.

In chemistry, antimonite refers to a salt of antimony(III), such as NaSb(OH)4 and NaSbO2 (meta-antimonite), which can be prepared by reacting alkali with antimony trioxide, Sb2O3.Egon Wiberg, Arnold Frederick Holleman (2001) Inorganic Chemistry, Elsevier These are formally salts of antimonous acid, Sb(OH)3, whose existence in solution is dubious. Attempts to isolate it generally form Sb2O3·xH2O, antimony(III) oxide hydrate, which slowly transforms into Sb2O3. In geology, the mineral stibnite, Sb2S3, is sometimes called antimonite.

Selective enzyme and antibody separation can be achieved with the use of specific end groups that conjugate with the specific compounds. This results in a formation of a polymer-enzyme conjugate which can be reversibly precipitated and dissolved by changing the temperature. Chen and Hoffman used N-Hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) ester functional end group on NIPAAm to conjugate selectively with β-D-glucosidase. They found that the conjugated enzyme could be repeatedly precipitated and dissolved in solution and still maintain sufficient enzymatic activity.

The secondary deposits derived from concrete are the result of concrete degradation, where calcium ions are leached out of the concrete in solution and redeposited on the underside of a concrete structure. Calcium carbonate deposition as micro-gours occur when the solution drops to the ground under the concrete structure. Carbon dioxide is absorbed into the alkaline leachate solution,Macleod, G, Hall, A J and Fallick, A E, 1990. An applied mineralogical investigation of concrete degradation in a major concrete road bridge.

Sodium hypophosphite is mainly used for electroless nickel plating (Ni-P). With this method, a durable nickel-phosphorus film can coat objects with irregular surfaces, such as in avionics, aviation and the petroleum field. Sodium hypophosphite is capable of reducing nickel ions in solution to metallic nickel on metal substrates as well as on plastic substrates.D. Rich & M. Smith, Electroless Deposition of Nickel, Cobalt and Iron, IBM Corp (1971) The latter requires that the substrate is activated with fine particles of palladium.

The double helix makes one complete turn about its axis every 10.4–10.5 base pairs in solution. This frequency of twist (known as the helical pitch) depends largely on stacking forces that each base exerts on its neighbours in the chain. Double-helical RNA adopts a conformation similar to the A-form structure. Other conformations are possible; in fact, only the letters F, Q, U, V, and Y are now available to describe any new DNA structure that may appear in the future.

Salt evaporation ponds are filled from the ocean and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up. Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours, as some species of algae and other micro-organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity. Elsewhere, salt is extracted from the vast sedimentary deposits which have been laid down over the millennia from the evaporation of seas and lakes. These are either mined directly, producing rock salt, or are extracted in solution by pumping water into the deposit.

This method was developed to improve on the hybridization capture target-enrichment method. In solution capture (as opposed to hybrid capture) there is an excess of probes to target regions of interest over the amount of template required. The optimal target size is about 3.5 megabases and yields excellent sequence coverage of the target regions. The preferred method is dependent on several factors including: number of base pairs in the region of interest, demands for reads on target, equipment in house, etc.

Sodium periodate can be used in solution to open saccharide rings between vicinal diols leaving two aldehyde groups. This process is often used in labeling saccharides with fluorescent molecules or other tags such as biotin. Because the process requires vicinal diols, periodate oxidation is often used to selectively label the 3′-ends of RNA (ribose has vicinal diols) instead of DNA as deoxyribose does not have vicinal diols. NaIO4 is used in organic chemistry to cleave diols to produce two aldehydes.

SmFRET can also be used to study the conformations of molecules freely diffusing in a liquid sample. In freely-diffusing smFRET experiments (or diffusion-based smFRET), the same biomolecules are free to diffuse in solution while being excited by a small excitation volume (usually a diffraction-limited spot). Bursts of photons due a single-molecule crossing the excitation spot are acquired with SPAD detectors. The confocal spot is usually fixed in a given position (no scanning happens, and no image is acquired).

If the interaction between acid and base in solution results in an equilibrium mixture the strength of the interaction can be quantified in terms of an equilibrium constant. An alternative quantitative measure is the heat (enthalpy) of formation of the Lewis acid-base adduct in a non-coordinating solvent. The ECW model is quantitative model that describes and predicts the strength of Lewis acid base interactions, -ΔH . The model assigned E and C parameters to many Lewis acids and bases.

When freshly prepared, it reverts rapidly to the monomer in solution. :Conversion of dihydroxyacetone dimer to monomer The monomer is very soluble in water, ethanol, diethyl ether, acetone and toluene. DHA may be prepared, along with glyceraldehyde, by the mild oxidation of glycerol, for example with hydrogen peroxide and a ferrous salt as catalyst. It can also be prepared in high yield and selectivity at room temperature from glycerol using cationic palladium-based catalysts with oxygen, air or benzoquinone acting as co-oxidants.

The nucleation step is critical for crystal formation since it is the first-order phase transition of samples moving from having a high degree of freedom to obtaining an ordered state (aqueous to solid). For the nucleation step to succeed, the manipulation of crystallization parameters is essential. The approach behind getting a protein to crystallize is to yield a lower solubility of the targeted protein in solution. Once the solubility limit is exceeded and crystals are present, crystallization is accomplished.

The acyclic form of xylose has chemical formula HOCH2(CH(OH))3CHO. The cyclic hemiacetal isomers are more prevalent in solution and are of two types: the pyranoses, which feature six-membered C5O rings, and the furanoses, which feature five-membered C4O rings (with a pendant CH2OH group). Each of these rings is subject to further isomerism, depending on the relative orientation of the anomeric hydroxy group. The dextrorotary form, -xylose, is the one that usually occurs endogenously in living things.

While the electronic and solid-state structure of the chloride congener is not known (due to low solubility in common analytical solvents), several studies have been carried out on the bromo and iodo derivatives. The complexes display a temperature-dependent interconversion between square-planar and tetrahedral geometries (diamagnetic and paramagnetic) in polar organic solvents (Keq between 1-3.68, depending on the solvent and temperature). In contrast, dichloro(1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)ethane)nickel adopts a static square-planar (diamagnetic) structure in solution.

A random coil is a polymer conformation where the monomer subunits are oriented randomly while still being bonded to adjacent units. It is not one specific shape, but a statistical distribution of shapes for all the chains in a population of macromolecules. The conformation's name is derived from the idea that, in the absence of specific, stabilizing interactions, a polymer backbone will "sample" all possible conformations randomly. Many linear, unbranched homopolymers — in solution, or above their melting temperatures — assume (approximate) random coils.

The two most common gravimetric methods using volatilization are those for water and carbon dioxide. An example of this method is the isolation of sodium hydrogen bicarbonate (the main ingredient in most antacid tablets) from a mixture of carbonate and bicarbonate. The total amount of this analyte, in whatever form, is obtained by addition of an excess of dilute sulfuric acid to the analyte in solution. In this reaction, nitrogen gas is introduced through a tube into the flask which contains the solution.

Faculty engage in solution-driven research that covers the full spectrum of life-stages: early child development, school instruction, adolescent behavior, family/parent intervention, professional development for educators, diversity/equity/inclusion, wellness, school leadership, public policy and senior care. CEHD's research, service and education centers — including the Children's Campus which houses three education sites serving children from birth to eighth grade — provide living laboratories for researchers, undergraduate and graduate students to serve the greater community, by investigating, implementing and modeling evidenced-based practices.

This program serves a broad user base in solution and solid state NMR spectroscopy and MRI and diffusion measurements at high magnetic field strengths. The lab develops technology, methodology, and applications at high magnetic fields through both in-house and external user activities. An in-house made 900 MHz (21.1 Tesla) NMR magnet has an ultra-wide bore measuring 105 mm (about 4 inches) in diameter, this superconducting magnet has the highest field for MRI study of a living animals.

The Griess test is an analytical chemistry test which detects the presence of nitrite ion in solution. One of its most important uses is the determination of nitrite in drinking water. The Griess diazotization reaction, on which the Griess reagent relies, was first described in 1858 by Peter Griess. The test has also been widely used for the detection of nitrates, which are common component of explosives, as they can be converted to nitrites and detected with the Griess test.

The apparent equivalency of the F centers in PF5 was first noted by Gutowsky. The explanation was first described by R. Stephen Berry, after whom the Berry mechanism is named. Berry pseudorotation influences the 19F NMR spectrum of PF5 since NMR spectroscopy operates on a millisecond timescale. Electron diffraction and X-ray crystallography do not detect this effect as the solid state structures are, relative to a molecule in solution, static and can not undergo the necessary changes in atomic position.

Born in Kharkov, Ukraine, Prezhdo obtained a Diploma in Theoretical Chemistry in 1991 under Anatoly V. Luzanov from the Kharkiv National University. He worked at the Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute for a year under Stanislav A. Tyurin. Prezhdo moved to the United States in 1993 for his graduate studies and received a Ph.D. from the University of Texas at Austin, working under Peter J. Rossky, in 1997. His doctoral research focused on various quantum- classical approaches in non-adiabatic dynamics in solution.

A particularly striking example of the importance of crowding effects involves the crystallins that fill the interior of the lens. These proteins have to remain stable and in solution for the lens to be transparent; precipitation or aggregation of crystallins causes cataracts. Crystallins are present in the lens at extremely high concentrations, over 500 mg/ml, and at these levels crowding effects are very strong. The large crowding effect adds to the thermal stability of the crystallins, increasing their resistance to denaturation.

Variation of log Kc of acetic acid with ionic strength It is very rare for activity coefficient values to have been determined experimentally for a system at equilibrium. There are three options for dealing with the situation where activity coefficient values are not known from experimental measurements. #Use calculated activity coefficients, together with concentrations of reactants. For equilibria in solution estimates of the activity coefficients of charged species can be obtained using Debye–Hückel theory, an extended version, or SIT theory.

In solid crystals the shape of absorption bands are determined by the density of states of initial and final states of electronic states or lattice vibrations, called phonons, in the crystal structure. In gas phase spectroscopy, the fine structure afforded by these factors can be discerned, but in solution-state spectroscopy, the differences in molecular micro environments further broaden the structure to give smooth bands. Electronic transition bands of molecules may be from tens to several hundred nanometers in breadth.

B2B firms make extensive use of solution selling where sales force identify the client's problem or needs and sell goods or services that specifically address those needs. In solution selling, it is essential that sales staff explore the client's requirements in depth before presenting a solution. Marketing supports solution selling through methods like account-based marketing--understanding a specific target organization's requirements as the foundation of a marketing program. As research shows, sales success is heavily weighted towards suppliers who understand the customer.

Copper cyanide is insoluble in water but rapidly dissolves in solutions containing CN− to form [Cu(CN)3]2− and [Cu(CN)4]3−, which exhibit trigonal planar and tetrahedral coordination geometry, respectively. These complexes contrast with those of silver and gold cyanides, which form [M(CN)2]− ions in solution. The coordination polymer KCu(CN)2 contains [Cu(CN)2]− units, which link together forming helical anionic chains.Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2008) Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.), Pearson: Prentice Hall.

Electrical measurements are a straightforward way to characterize an important function of a bilayer: its ability to segregate and prevent the flow of ions in solution. By applying a voltage across the bilayer and measuring the resulting current, the resistance of the bilayer is determined. This resistance is typically quite high (108 Ohm-cm2 or more) since the hydrophobic core is impermeable to charged species. The presence of even a few nanometer-scale holes results in a dramatic increase in current.

Burgess, J. Metal ions in solution, (1978) Ellis Horwood, New York. p 147 Aqueous solutions of zinc salts are mildly acidic because the aqua-ion is subject to hydrolysis with a pKa of around 9, depending on conditions.Baes, C. F.; Mesmer, R. E. The Hydrolysis of Cations, (1976), Wiley, New York :[Zn(H2O)6]2+ [Zn(H2O)5(OH)]+ \+ H+ Hydrolysis explains why basic salts such as basic zinc acetate and basic zinc carbonate, Zn3(OH)4(CO3)•H2O are easy to obtain.

They decompose slowly at room temperature. Thorium forms the monocapped trigonal prismatic anion [Th(CH3)7]3−, heptamethylthorate, which forms the salt [Li(tmeda)]3[ThMe7] (tmeda= Me2NCH2CH2NMe2). Although one methyl group is only attached to the thorium atom (Th–C distance 257.1 pm) and the other six connect the lithium and thorium atoms (Th–C distances 265.5–276.5 pm), they behave equivalently in solution. Tetramethylthorium, Th(CH3)4, is not known, but its adducts are stabilised by phosphine ligands.

One major industrial application involves use of activated carbon in metal finishing for purification of electroplating solutions. For example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. A variety of organic chemicals are added to plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. Due to passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted breakdown products in solution.

Magnesium batteries are batteries that utilize magnesium cations as the active charge transporting agent in solution and as the elemental anode of an electrochemical cell. Both non-rechargeable primary cell and rechargeable secondary cell chemistries have been investigated. Magnesium primary cell batteries have been commercialised and have found use as reserve and general use batteries. Magnesium secondary cell batteries are an active topic of research, specifically as a possible replacement or improvement over lithium- ion–based battery chemistries in certain applications.

In chemistry, a zwitterion ( ; ), also called an inner salt, is a molecule that contains an equal number of positively- and negatively-charged functional groups. : With amino acids, for example, in solution a chemical equilibrium will be established between the "parent" molecule and the zwitterion. Betaines are zwitterions that cannot isomerize to an all-neutral form, such as when the positive charge is located on a quaternary ammonium group. Similarly, a molecule containing a phosphonium group and a carboxylate group cannot isomerize.

PDB record 1KBH The analyte molecules in a sample can be partially ordered with respect to the external magnetic field of the spectrometer by manipulating the sample conditions. Common techniques include addition of bacteriophages or bicelles to the sample, or preparation of the sample in a stretched polyacrylamide gel. This creates a local environment that favours certain orientations of nonspherical molecules. Normally in solution NMR the dipolar couplings between nuclei are averaged out because of the fast tumbling of the molecule.

Quinoxalinedione is produced by condensation of dimethyloxalate and o-phenylenediamine: :C2O2(OMe)2 \+ C6H4(NH2)2 → C6H4(NH)2(CO)2 \+ 2 MeOH The compound exists in solution and the solid state predominantly as the diamide form.Saied M. Soliman, Jörg Albering, Morsy A.M. Abu-Youssef "Low temperature X-ray molecular structure, tautomerism and spectral properties of 2,3-dihydroxyquinoxaline" Journal of Molecular Structure 2013, vol. 1053, pp. 48–60. Some reactions of the compound indicate a role for the diol tautomer.

The Nerve Agent Sensing Biopolymer Wipe acts as a biosensor that is capable of detecting specific nerve agents on surfaces, in solution, and in the air. It maintains a dynamic pH equilibrium by utilizing the pH-dependent catalytic activity of a base- producing enzyme and an acid-producing enzyme. The production of acid stems from butyrylcholinesterase (BChE)-catalyzed butyrylcholine hydrolysis while the production of base stems from urease-catalyzed urea hydrolysis. When both enzyme systems are active, the pH remains constant.

In chemistry, ion association is a chemical reaction whereby ions of opposite electrical charge come together in solution to form a distinct chemical entity. Ion associates are classified, according to the number of ions that associate with each other, as ion pairs, ion triplets, etc. Ion pairs are also classified according to the nature of the interaction as contact, solvent- shared or solvent-separated. The most important factor to determine the extent of ion association is the dielectric constant of the solvent.

Host growth conditions also influence the ability of the phage to attach and invade them. As phage virions do not move independently, they must rely on random encounters with the correct receptors when in solution, such as blood, lymphatic circulation, irrigation, soil water, etc. Myovirus bacteriophages use a hypodermic syringe- like motion to inject their genetic material into the cell. After contacting the appropriate receptor, the tail fibers flex to bring the base plate closer to the surface of the cell.

This irrevocably led to the problem of turbulence as distinguished from laminar flow. That also led to the full Navier-Stokes equation set, a nonlinear high ordered mathematical physical construct that still leaves much to be desired in solution. From a homeokinetic perspective, these Navier-Stokes equations connect the lower level atomistic-like components with the upper level collective processes in the material-energetic substance. It was through these interdisciplinary explorations that Iberall’s definition of complexity and its complexity measure began to emerge.

The above are examples of the buffering of soil pH. The general principal is that an increase in a particular cation in the soil water solution will cause that cation to be fixed to colloids (buffered) and a decrease in solution of that cation will cause it to be withdrawn from the colloid and moved into solution (buffered). The degree of buffering is often related to the CEC of the soil; the greater the CEC, the greater the buffering capacity of the soil.

The strength of a conjugate acid is directly proportional to its dissociation constant. If a conjugate acid is strong, its dissociation will have a higher equilibrium constant and the products of the reaction will be favored. The strength of a conjugate base can be seen as the tendency of the species to "pull" hydrogen protons towards itself. If a conjugate base is classified as strong, it will "hold on" to the hydrogen proton when in solution and its acid will not dissociate.

In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may hold in solution trace amounts of toxic elements such as mercury, arsenic, boron, and antimony. These chemicals precipitate as the water cools, and can cause environmental damage if released. The modern practice of injecting cooled geothermal fluids back into the Earth to stimulate production has the side benefit of reducing this environmental risk. Direct geothermal heating systems contain pumps and compressors, which may consume energy from a polluting source.

An AA battery in a glass of tap water with salt showing hydrogen produced at the negative terminal Electrolysed water (electrolyzed water, EOW, ECA, electrolyzed oxidizing water, electro-activated water or electro-chemically activated water solution) is produced by the electrolysis of ordinary tap water containing dissolved sodium chloride. The electrolysis of such salt solutions produces a solution of hypochlorous acid and sodium hydroxide, despite the impossibility of hypochlorous acid coexisting with sodium hydroxide in solution. The resulting water can be used as a disinfectant.

In molecular biology, the chitinase A N-terminal domain is found at the N-terminus of a number of bacterial chitinases and similar viral proteins. It is organised into a fibronectin III module domain-like fold, comprising only beta strands. Its function is not known, but it may be involved in interaction with the enzyme substrate, chitin. It is separated by a hinge region from the catalytic domain; this hinge region is probably mobile, allowing the N-terminal domain to have different relative positions in solution.

The clay hypothesis suggests how biologically inert matter helped the evolution of early life forms: clay minerals form naturally from silicates in solution. Clay crystals, as other crystals, preserve their external formal arrangement as they grow, snap, and grow further. Clay crystal masses of a particular external form may happen to affect their environment in ways that affect their chances of further replication. For example, a "stickier" clay crystal is more likely to silt a stream bed, creating an environment conducive to further sedimentation.

Furthermore, the use of scavenger resins creates a situation where the product can remain in solution and the reaction can be monitored. Conversely, many scavenger resins must be used in large amounts to purify a given product, presenting physical purification issues. Furthermore, when discussing the use of scavenger resins it is important to think about the different types of solid support "beads" that will hold the selected functional group. These polymer beads can be describe most often in two ways, lightly crosslinked and highly crosslinked.

The whole-genome in-solution capture (WISC) allows the characterization of the entire genome sequence of ancient individuals. This technique is based on the use of a genome-wide biotinylated RNA probe library generated through in vitro transcription of fresh modern DNA extracts from species closely related to the target aDNA sample. The heat-denatured aDNA library is then annealed to the RNA probes. To improve stringency and reduce enrichment for highly repetitive regions, low-complexity DNA and adaptor- blocking RNA oligonucleotides are added.

Different methods (called enrichment methods) have been developed to improve accessibility to endogenous DNA in ancient remains. These approaches can mainly be divided into three types: those used during library construction, by preferentially incorporating aDNA fragments characterised by the high level of damage, those applied after library construction, by separating exogenous and endogenous fractions through annealing to pre-defined sets of probes (in solution or on microarrays), or those based on targeted digestion of environmental microbial DNA using restriction enzymes and primer extension capture (PEC).

Static light scattering measures the product of weight-averaged molar mass and concentration of macromolecules in solution. Given a fixed total concentration of one or more species over the measurement time, the scattering signal is a direct measure of the weight-averaged molar mass of the solution, which will vary as complexes form or dissociate. Hence the measurement quantifies the stoichiometry of the complexes as well as kinetics. Light scattering assays of protein kinetics is a very general technique that does not require an enzyme.

2,6-Lutidine has been evaluated for use as a food additive owing to its nutty aroma when present in solution at very low concentrations. Due to the steric effects of the two methyl groups, 2,6-lutidine is only weakly nucleophilic. Protonation of lutidine gives lutidinium, [(CH3)2C5H3NH]+, salts of which are sometimes used as a weak acid because the conjugate base (2,6-lutidine) is so weakly coordinating. In a similar implementation, 2,6-lutidine is thus sometimes used in organic synthesis as a sterically hindered mild base.

Domain II and III are unstructured, shown by NMR studies. Domain I is preceded by an N-terminal amphipathic helix which allows the protein to associate with endoplasmic reticulum-derived membranes. Although X-ray crystallographic studies revealed dimer conformations of NS5A domain1, recent in solution structural characterization studies showed that NS5A proteins form higher-order structures by dimeric subunits of NS5A domain 1. Moreover, the overall structural model of NS5A highlights the variability of intrinsic conformations of the D2 and D3 domains between HCV genotypes.

The binding capacity of hemoglobin is influenced by the partial pressure of oxygen in the environment, as described in the oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve. A smaller amount of oxygen is transported in solution in the blood. In peripheral tissues, oxygen again diffuses down a pressure gradient into cells and their mitochondria, where it is used to produce energy in conjunction with the breakdown of glucose, fats, and some amino acids. Hypoxia can result from a failure at any stage in the delivery of oxygen to cells.

Instead of one stylet, the Polystilifera have a pad that bears many tiny stylets, and these animals have separate orifices for the proboscis and mouth, unlike other Enopla. The Enopla can only attack after contacting the prey. Some nemerteans, such as L. longissimus, absorb organic food in solution through their skins, which may make the long, slim bodies an advantage. Suspension feeding is found only among the specialized symbiotic bdellonemerteans, which have a proboscis but no stylet, and use suckers to attach themselves to bivalves.

In contrast to sulfinic and sulfonic acids, simple sulfenic acids, such as methanesulfenic acid, CH3SOH, are highly reactive and cannot be isolated in solution. In the gas phase the lifetime of methanesulfenic acid is about one minute. The gas phase structure of methanesulfenic acid was found by microwave spectroscopy (rotational spectroscopy) to be CH3–S–O–H. Sulfenic acids can be stabilized through steric effects, which prevent the sulfenic acid from condensing with itself to form thiosulfinates, RS(O)SR, such as allicin from garlic.

The proposed mechanism for cationic photopolymerization begins with the photoexcitation of the initiator. Once excited, both homolytic cleavage and dissociation of a counter anion takes place, generating a cationic radical (R), an aryl radical (R') and an unaltered counter anion (X). The abstraction of a lewis acid by the cationic radical produces a very weakly bound hydrogen and a free radical. The acid is further deprotonated by the anion (X) in solution, generating a lewis acid with the starting anion (X) as a counter ion.

Thermometric titrimetry offers a rapid, highly precise method for the determination of aluminium in solution. A solution of aluminium is conditioned with acetate buffer and an excess of sodium and potassium ions. Titration with sodium or potassium fluoride yields the exothermic precipitation of an insoluble alumino-fluoride salt. : Al3+ \+ Na+ \+ 2K+ \+ 6F− ↔ K2NaAlF6↓ Because 6 mole of fluoride react with one mole of aluminium, the titration is particularly precise, and a coefficient of variance (CV) of 0.03 has been achieved in the analysis of alum.

The slower the rate of cooling, the bigger the crystals form. → Solvent added (clear) to compound (orange) → Solvent heated to give saturated compound solution (orange) → Saturated compound solution (orange) allowed to cool over time to give crystals (orange) and a saturated solution (pale- orange). Crystallization of Ibuprofen in HCl(aq) In an ideal situation the solubility product of the impurity, B, is not exceeded at any temperature. In that case the solid crystals will consist of pure A and all the impurity will remain in solution.

In older landfills and those with no membrane between the waste and the underlying geology, leachate is free to leave the waste and flow directly into the groundwater. In such cases, high concentrations of leachate are often found in nearby springs and flushes. As leachate first emerges it can be black in colour, anoxic, and possibly effervescent, with dissolved and entrained gases. As it becomes oxygenated it tends to turn brown or yellow because of the presence of iron salts in solution and in suspension.

The light chains bind primarily to the proximal leg portion of the heavy chain with some interaction near the trimerization domain. The β-propeller at the 'foot' of clathrin contains multiple binding sites for interaction with other proteins. When triskelia assemble together in solution, they can interact with enough flexibility to form 6-sided rings (hexagons) that yield a flat lattice, or 5-sided rings (pentagons) that are necessary for curved lattice formation. When many triskelions connect, they can form a basket-like structure.

This compound can be prepared by pouring a solution of silver nitrate in nitric acid into ethanol, under careful control of the reaction conditions, to avoid an explosion. The reaction is usually done at 80-90 °C; at 30 °C, the precipitate may not form. Only very tiny amounts of silver fulminate should be prepared at once, as even the weight of the crystals can cause them to self- detonate. Another way to make silver fulminate is to react silver carbonate with ammonia in solution.

The presence of abundant water on Earth is of great importance for the rock cycle. Most obvious perhaps are the water driven processes of weathering and erosion. Water in the form of precipitation and acidic soil water and groundwater is quite effective at dissolving minerals and rocks, especially those igneous and metamorphic rocks and marine sedimentary rocks that are unstable under near surface and atmospheric conditions. The water carries away the ions dissolved in solution and the broken-down fragments that are the products of weathering.

In oats, β-glucan makes up the majority of the soluble fibre; however, oat β-glucans do become insoluble above a certain concentration. The total viscosity is determined by the level of solubility, the molecular weight, and the trimer-to-tetramer ratio. The lower the trimer- tetramer ratio, the higher the β-glucan viscosity in solution. A more viscous internal β-glucan solution generally leads to beneficial physiological effects – including a more pronounced hypoglycemic effect and lowered cholesterol levels, and a decrease in postprandial blood glucose levels.

Biophysical analyses and mathematical modelling has shown that MIP-1 reversibly forms a polydisperse distribution of rod-shaped polymers in solution. Polymerization buries receptor-binding sites of MIP-1, thus depolymerization mutations enhance MIP-1 to arrest monocytes onto activated human endothelium. MIP-1γ is another macrophage inflammatory protein and according to the new nomenclature is named CCL9. It is produced mainly by follicle-associated epithelial cells and is responsible for chemotaxis of dendritic cells and macrophages into Peyer's patches in gut through binding of CCR1.

Alpha- synuclein in solution is considered to be an intrinsically disordered protein, i.e. it lacks a single stable 3D structure. As of 2014, an increasing number of reports suggest, however, the presence of partial structures or mostly structured oligomeric states in the solution structure of alpha-synuclein even in the absence of lipids. This trend is also supported by a large number of single molecule (optical tweezers) measurements on single copies of monomeric alpha-synuclein as well as covalently enforced dimers or tetramers of alpha- synuclein.

The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or ELISA is a diagnostic method for quantitatively or semi-quantitatively determining protein concentrations from blood plasma, serum or cell/tissue extracts in a multi-well plate format (usually 96-wells per plate). Broadly, proteins in solution are adsorbed to ELISA plates. Antibodies specific for the protein of interest are used to probe the plate. Background is minimised by optimising blocking and washing methods (as for IHC), and specificity is ensured via the presence of positive and negative controls.

Due to the location of the enzyme, and the protein layout of the enzyme, the enzyme is in solution with a smaller amount of proteins than there are in another portion of the cell. The proteins' heat stability can also be taken advantage of when isolating this enzyme (through heat denaturation). In addition, alkaline phosphatase can be assayed using p-Nitrophenyl phosphate. A reaction where alkaline phosphatase dephosphorylates the non-specific substrate, p-Nitrophenyl phosphate in order to produce p-Nitrophenol(PNP) and inorganic phosphate.

Commercially made ice cubes may be clear, compared to domestically made ice cubes. Cloudy ice cubes occur when water is frozen quickly, or when the water is high in dissolved solids. When water is cooled to its freezing point, and ice starts to form, dissolved gases can no longer stay in solution and come out as microscopic bubbles. However, as ice floats in water, once there is enough ice to form a layer on the surface, the ice layer traps all bubbles within the ice cube.

Generation of a vinyl cation reactive intermediate. Adapted from Vinyl cations have been observed as reactive intermediates during solvolysis reactions. Consistent with SN1 chemistry, these reactions follow first order kinetics. Generally, vinylic halides are unreactive in solution: silver nitrate does not precipitate silver halides in the presence of vinyl halides, and this fact was historically used to dispute the existence of the vinyl cation species. The introduction of “super” Leaving group in the 1970s first allowed for the generation of vinyl cation reactive intermediates with appreciable lifetimes.

Smaller QDs (2–3 nm) emit shorter wavelengths, yielding colors like blue and green. However, the specific colors vary depending on the exact composition of the QD. Potential applications of quantum dots include single-electron transistors, solar cells, LEDs, lasers, single-photon sources, second-harmonic generation, quantum computing,, cell biology research, and medical imaging. Their small size allows for some QDs to be suspended in solution, which may lead to use in inkjet printing and spin-coating. They have been used in Langmuir-Blodgett thin-films.

Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is a physical technique used to determine the thermodynamic parameters of interactions in solution. It is most often used to study the binding of small molecules (such as medicinal compounds) to larger macromolecules (proteins, DNA etc.). It consists of two cells which are enclosed in an adiabatic jacket. The compounds to be studied are placed in the sample cell, while the other cell, the reference cell, is used as a control and contains the buffer in which the sample is dissolved.

The requisite acidic condition needed for the reaction might also be provided by the sulfuric acid. In solution, ethanol reacts with the potassium dichromate, reducing the dichromate ion to the chromium (III) ion. This reduction results in a change of the solution's color from red-orange to green. The reacted solution is compared to a vial of non-reacted solution by a photocell, which creates an electric current proportional to the degree of the color change; this current moves the needle that indicates BAC.

Addition of miscible solvents such as ethanol or methanol to a solution may cause proteins in the solution to precipitate. The solvation layer around the protein will decrease as the organic solvent progressively displaces water from the protein surface and binds it in hydration layers around the organic solvent molecules. With smaller hydration layers, the proteins can aggregate by attractive electrostatic and dipole forces. Important parameters to consider are temperature, which should be less than 0 °C to avoid denaturation, pH and protein concentration in solution.

Statistical potentials are more computationally efficient than energy calculations. Physics-based energy calculations aim to capture the interatomic interactions that are physically responsible for protein stability in solution, especially van der Waals and electrostatic interactions. These calculations are performed using a molecular mechanics force field; proteins are normally too large even for semi-empirical quantum mechanics-based calculations. The use of these methods is based on the energy landscape hypothesis of protein folding, which predicts that a protein's native state is also its energy minimum.

The determination of enantiomeric purity and absolute configuration is frequently necessary in organic synthesis. Pirkle's alcohol is applied to obtain this information by NMR spectroscopy. When Pirkle's alcohol is in solution with an ensemble of chiral molecules, short- lived diastereomeric solvates may be formed from Pirkle's alcohol and the enantiomers of the analyte. Enantiomorphic protons of the analyte enantiomers, which without Pirkle's alcohol are indistinguishable by NMR, become diastereomorphic when the analyte interacts with Pirkle's alcohol, and appear as different signals in an NMR spectrum.

Crystal luciferin was found to be fluorescent, absorbing ultraviolet light with a peak at 327 nm and emitting light with a peak at 530 nm. Visible emission occurs upon relaxation of the oxyluciferin from a singlet excited state down to its ground state. Alkaline solutions caused a redshift of the absorption likely due to deprotonation of the hydroxyl group on the benzothiazole, but did not affect the fluorescence emission. It was found that the luciferyl adenylate (the AMP ester of luciferin) spontaneously emits light in solution.

Carbon compounds can be distinguished as either organic or inorganic, and as dissolved or particulate, depending on their composition. Organic carbon forms the backbone of key component of organic compounds such as – proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Inorganic carbon is found primarily in simple compounds such as carbon dioxide, carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate (CO2, H2CO3, HCO3−, CO32− respectively). Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) includes three major aqueous species, CO2, HCO3− ,CO32−, and to a lesser extent their complexes in solution with metal ions.

There are many ways to adsorb hydrogenases onto carbon electrodes that have been modified with polymers. An example is a study done by Morozov et al. where they inserted NiFe hydrogenase into polypyrrole films and to provide proper contact to the electrode, there were redox mediators entrapped into the film. This was successful because the hydrogenase density was high in the films and the redox mediator helped to connect all enzyme molecules for catalysis which was about the same power output as hydrogenase in solution.

Triphenylphosphinegold(I) chloride is a popular stable precursor for a cationic gold(I) catalyst used in organic synthesis. Typically, it is treated with silver(I) salts of weakly coordinating anions (e.g., X– = SbF6–, BF4–, TfO–, or Tf2N–) to generate a weakly bound Ph3PAu–X complex, in equilibrium with the catalytically-active species [Ph3PAu]+X– in solution. Among these, only the bistriflimide complex Ph3PAuNTf2 can be isolated as the pure compound. The nitrate complex Ph3PAuONO2 and the oxonium species [(Ph3PAu)3O]+[BF4]– are also prepared from the chloride.

It is thought the toxins of Ixodes holocyclus cause a failure of secretion of neurotransmitter acetylcholine at neuro-muscular junctions. In experiments where nerve-muscle preparations were incubated in solution containing toxin the paralysis effect was delayed for six to seven hours after the addition of toxin. As in live test animals, this effect was temperature dependent, paralysis being more rapid at higher temperatures. Live mice injected with toxin did not develop signs of paralysis for some 8 to 12 hours after the injection.

The results of this procedure has many applications both medically and industrially. For example, applications of PCR including forensics, paternity testing, biodefence, cloning, mutation detection, genetic testing and DNA sequencing. Through these additional methods, hot start PCR is able to decrease the amount of non-specific amplifications which naturally occur during lower temperatures – which remains a problem for conventional PCR. These modifications work overall to ensure that specific enzymes in solution will remain inactive or are inhibited until the optimal annealing temperature is reached.

Hollow nanotubes are useful for drug delivery, cell and enzyme transplantation, removal of contaminated waste and gene therapy. To create the gold nanorods, Obare used nanoparticles as a seed in a growth solution that contained cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, sodium hydroxide and ascorbic acid at a controlled Ph (3.5). She demonstrated that gold nanoparticles functionalised with 1,10-phenanthroline could be used to sense lithium ions in solution. The ligands of 1,10-phenanthroline bind to the lithium ions, forming a complex that causes the nanoparticles to aggregate.

Soon after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II, Wheeler accepted a request from Arthur Compton to join the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago. He moved there in January 1942, joining Eugene Wigner's group, which was studying nuclear reactor design. He co-wrote a paper with Robert F. Christy on "Chain Reaction of Pure Fissionable Materials in Solution", which was important in the plutonium purification process. It would not be declassified until December 1955.

Rhodocene is ca. 500 mV more reducing than cobaltocene, indicating that it is more readily oxidised and hence less stable. An earlier polarographic investigation of rhodocenium perchlorate at neutral pH showed a cathodic wave peak at −1.53 V (versus SCE) at the dropping mercury electrode, corresponding to the formation rhodocene in solution, but the researchers were unable to isolate the neutral product from solution. In the same study, attempts to detect iridocene by exposing iridocenium salts to oxidising conditions were unsuccessful even at elevated pH.

Such a heat treatment produces a steel that is rather soft. If the steel is cooled quickly, however, the carbon atoms will not have time to diffuse and precipitate out as carbide, but will be trapped within the iron crystals. When rapidly cooled, a diffusionless (martensite) transformation occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform as the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, leaving those crystals very hard but much less ductile (more brittle).

Because many optically active chemicals such as tartaric acid, are stereoisomers, a polarimeter can be used to identify which isomer is present in a sample – if it rotates polarized light to the left, it is a levo-isomer, and to the right, a dextro-isomer. It can also be used to measure the ratio of enantiomers in solutions. The optical rotation is proportional to the concentration of the optically active substances in solution. Polarimetry may therefore be applied for concentration measurements of enantiomer-pure samples.

Another way to tag proteins is to engineer an antigen peptide tag onto the protein, and then purify the protein on a column or by incubating with a loose resin that is coated with an immobilized antibody. This particular procedure is known as immunoprecipitation. Immunoprecipitation is quite capable of generating an extremely specific interaction which usually results in binding only the desired protein. The purified tagged proteins can then easily be separated from the other proteins in solution and later eluted back into clean solution.

An Ion gel (or Iongel) is a composite material consisting of an ionic liquid immobilized by an inorganic or a polymer matrix. The material has the quality of maintaining high ionic conductivity while in the solid state. To create an ion gel, the solid matrix is mixed or synthesized in-situ with an ionic liquid. A common practice is to utilize a block copolymer which is polymerized in solution with an ionic liquid so that a self-assembled nanostructure is generated where the ions are selectively soluble.

To carry out metal cation titrations using EDTA, it is almost always necessary to use a complexometric indicator to determine when the end point has been reached. Common indicators are organic dyes such as Fast Sulphon Black, Eriochrome Black T, Eriochrome Red B, Patton Reeder, or Murexide. Color change shows that the indicator has been displaced (usually by EDTA) from the metal cations in solution when the end point has been reached. Thus, the free indicator (rather than the metal complex) serves as the endpoint indicator.

The swapping of this positive cation with another is what makes different types of clays including Kaolinite, montmorillonite, smectite and illite. This happens in marine clays because the ocean's water is high in solution with cations making it very easy to overcome the clays negative net charge and swap the clays cation with a less positive one. These marine clays can be what are known as quick clays, which are notorious for its erosive properties. A great example of these quick clays is in the pacific northwest.

Chemical structure of humulone, the most prevalent alpha acid in hops Alpha acids (α acids) are a class of chemical compounds primarily of importance to the production of beer. They are found in the resin glands of the flowers of the hop plant and are the source of hop bitterness. Alpha acids may be isomerized to form iso-alpha acids by the application of heat in solution. Iso-alpha acids (iso-α-acids) are typically produced in beer from the addition of hops to the boiling wort.

The theory claimed that the reason coordination complexes form is because in solution, ions would be bound via ammonia chains. He compared this effect to the way that various carbohydrate chains form. Following this theory, Danish scientist Sophus Mads Jørgensen made improvements to it. In his version of the theory, Jørgensen claimed that when a molecule dissociates in a solution there were two possible outcomes: the ions would bind via the ammonia chains Blomstrand had described or the ions would bind directly to the metal.

Quantum tunneling does not appear to provide a major catalytic advantage, since the tunneling contributions are similar in the catalyzed and the uncatalyzed reactions in solution. However, the tunneling contribution (typically enhancing rate constants by a factor of ~1000 compared to the rate of reaction for the classical 'over the barrier' route) is likely crucial to the viability of biological organisms. This emphasizes the general importance of tunneling reactions in biology. In 1971-1972 the first quantum-mechanical model of enzyme catalysis was formulated.

In solution, Cp2Fe2(CO)4 can be considered a dimeric half-sandwich complex. It exists in three isomeric forms: cis, trans, and an unbridged, open form. These isomeric forms are distinguished by the position of the ligands. The cis and trans isomers differ in the relative position of C5H5 (Cp) ligands. The cis and trans isomers have the formulation [(η5-C5H5)Fe(CO)(μ-CO)]2, that is, two CO ligands are terminal whereas the other two CO ligands bridge between the iron atoms.

The negative charge of its phosphate backbone moves the DNA towards the positively charged anode during electrophoresis. However, the migration of DNA molecules in solution, in the absence of a gel matrix, is independent of molecular weight during electrophoresis. The gel matrix is therefore responsible for the separation of DNA by size during electrophoresis, and a number of models exist to explain the mechanism of separation of biomolecules in gel matrix. A widely accepted one is the Ogston model which treats the polymer matrix as a sieve.

At every pH, the concentration of carbonic acid is assumed to be negligible compared to the concentration of dissolved CO2, and so is often omitted from Bjerrum plots. These plots are very helpful in solution chemistry and natural water chemistry. In the example given here, it illustrates the response of seawater pH and carbonate speciation due to the input of man-made emission by the fossil fuel combustion. The Bjerrum plots for other polyprotic acids, including silicic, boric, sulfuric and phosphoric acids, are other commonly used examples.

Most neptunium coordination complexes known in solution involve the element in the +4, +5, and +6 oxidation states: only a few studies have been done on neptunium(III) and (VII) coordination complexes.Yoshida et al., pp. 771–82. For the former, NpX2+ and (X = Cl, Br) were obtained in 1966 in concentrated LiCl and LiBr solutions, respectively: for the latter, 1970 experiments discovered that the ion could form sulfate complexes in acidic solutions, such as and ; these were found to have higher stability constants than the neptunyl ion ().

Lartigue A, Campanacci V, Roussel A, Larsson AM, Jones TA, Tegoni M, et al. X-ray structure and ligand binding study of a moth chemosensory protein. J Biol Chem. 2002; 277: 32094-32098. 6\. Jansen S, Zídek L, Löfstedt C, Picimbon JF, Sklenar V. 1H, 13C, and 15N resonance assignment of Bombyx mori chemosensory protein 1 (BmorCSP1). J Biomol NMR 2006; 36: 47. 7\. Jansen S, Chmelik J, Zídek L, Padrta P, Novak P, Zdrahal Z, et al. Structure of Bombyx mori Chemosensory Protein 1 in solution.

Sample of potassium tetracyanonickelate hydrate Simple complexes of nickel include hexaquonickel(II), yellow tetracyanonickelate [Ni(CN)4]2−, red pentacyanonickelate [Ni(CN)5]3− only found in solution, [Ni(SCN)4]2− and [Ni(SCN)6]4−. Halo- complexes include [NiCl4]2−, [NiF4]2−, [NiF6]4−, [NiCl2(H2O)4] [Ni(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+, [Ni(NH3)6]2+, [Ni(en)3)]2+. Some complexes have fivefold coordination. N[CH2CH2NMe2]3 (tris(N,N-dimethyl-2-aminoethyl)amine); P(o-C6H4SMe)3; P(CH2CH2CH2AsMe2)3.

Surface conductivity may refer to the electrical conduction across a solid surface measured by surface probes. Experiments may be done to test this material property as in the n-type surface conductivity of p-type. Additionally, surface conductivity is measured in coupled phenomena such as photoconductivity, for example, for the metal oxide semiconductor ZnO. Surface conductivity differs from bulk conductivity for analogous reasons to the electrolyte solution case, where the charge carriers of holes (+1) and electrons (-1) play the role of ions in solution.

He was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University in 1991, the Louis-Jeantet Prize for Medicine in 1993, the Otto Warburg Medal in 1999 and half of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2002 for "his development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in solution". He received the Bijvoet Medal of the Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research of Utrecht University in 2008. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 2010.

SB-334867 is an orexin antagonist. It was the first non-peptide antagonist developed that is selective for the orexin receptor subtype OX1, with around 50x selectivity for OX1 over OX2 receptors. It has been shown to produce sedative and anorectic effects in animals, and has been useful in characterising the orexinergic regulation of brain systems involved with appetite and sleep, as well as other physiological processes. The hydrochloride salt of SB-334867 has been demonstrated to be hydrolytically unstable, both in solution and as the solid.

SEM-Picture of PMMA-particles fabricated by dispersion polymerization after drying / removal of the organic liquid phase (cyclohexane) At the onset of polymerization, polymers remain in solution until they reach a critical molecular weight (MW), at which point they precipitate. These initial polymer particles are unstable and coagulate with other particles until stabilized particles form. After this point in the polymerization, growth only occurs by addition of monomer to the stabilized particles. As the polymer particles grow, stabilizer (or dispersant) molecules attach covalently to the surface.

A typical example of wet gas flows are in the production of natural gas in the oil and gas industry. Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds with quantities of various non hydrocarbons. This exists in either a gaseous or liquid phase or in solution with crude oil in porous rock formations. The amount of hydrocarbons present in the liquid phase of the wet gas extracted depends on the reservoir temperature and pressure conditions, which change over time as the gas and liquid are removed.

The most common route to PLA is the ring-opening polymerization of lactide with various metal catalysts (typically tin octoate) in solution or as a suspension. The metal-catalyzed reaction tends to cause racemization of the PLA, reducing its stereoregularity compared to the starting material (usually corn starch). The direct condensation of lactic acid monomers can also be used to produce PLA. This process needs to be carried out at less than 200 °C; above that temperature, the entropically favored lactide monomer is generated.

An NMR analysis of whole algal cells which were cultivated in autotrophic growth reports evidence of the presence of cellulose in the cell wall and of mobile chrysolaminarin, probably accumulated in solution in vacuoles inside the cell. Comparison between the lipid metabolic genes of N. gaditana and of red/green/brown algae and diatoms provided some insights into the exemplary lipid production of Nannochloropsis cultures. The comparisons indeed highlighted the presence of an expanded repertoire of some of the genes involved in TAG assembly in Nannochloropsis.

1,3-Diphenylisobenzofuran is a yellow, light- and air-sensitive, crystalline solid that is soluble in many organic solvents with a maximum absorption around 420 nm (in solution), which generates intense fluorescence. Fluorescence measurements can be performed in DMF and DMSO because of the stability of 1,3-DPBF, in these solvents. In CHCl3 and CCl4, the dissolved 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran is rapidly photolyzed by attack of CHCl2 and CCl3 radicals, even in the absence of oxygen. [24 ] With ethanol, 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran forms an orange-yellow, fluorescent solution.

In order to isolate noble-metalliferous materials, pyrolysis and/or hydrolysis procedures are used. In pyrolysis, the noble-metalliferous products are released from the other materials by solidifying in a melt to become cinder and then poured off or oxidized. In hydrolysis, the noble-metalliferous products are dissolved either in aqua regia (consisting of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid) or in hydrochloric acid and chlorine gas in solution. Subsequently, certain metals can be precipitated or reduced directly with a salt, gas, organic, and/or nitro hydrate connection.

Chlorine replaces hydrogen on the aromatic rings of lignin via aromatic substitution, oxidizes pendant groups to carboxylic acids and adds across carbon carbon double bonds in the lignin sidechains. Chlorine also attacks cellulose, but this reaction occurs predominantly at pH 7, where un-ionized hypochlorous acid, HClO, is the main chlorine species in solution. To avoid excessive cellulose degradation, chlorination is carried out at pH <1.5. : Cl2 \+ H2O ⇌ H+ \+ Cl− \+ HClO At pH >8 the dominant species is hypochlorite, ClO−, which is also useful for lignin removal.

18-crown-6 can be synthesized from using potassium ion as the template cation Illustrations of a. metal-organic frameworks and b. supramolecular coordination complexes As studied in coordination chemistry, metal ions (usually transition metal ions) exist in solution bound to ligands, In many cases, the coordination sphere defines geometries conducive to reactions either between ligands or involving ligands and other external reagents. A well known metal-ion-templating was described by Charles Pederson in his synthesis of various crown ethers using metal cations as template.

When solvation increases, ionic bonding decreases and a loose or solvent-shared ion pair results. The ion pair concept explains stereochemistry in solvolysis. center The concept of intimate ion pairs is used to explain the slight tendency for inversion of stereochemistry during an SN1 reaction. It is proposed that solvent or other ions in solution may assist in the removal of a leaving group to form a carbocation which reacts in an SN1 fashion; similarly, the leaving group may associate loosely with the cationic intermediate.

A common difficulty with iridium-based catalyst is their tendency to trimerize in solution. The use of the non-coordinating anion BAr− has proven to be the most widely applicable solution to the aggregation problem. Other strategies to enhance catalyst stability include the addition of an additional coordinating arm to the chiral ligand, increasing the steric bulk of the ligand, using a dendrimeric ligand, increasing the rigidity of the ligand, immobilizing the ligand, and using heterobimetallic systems (with iridium as one of the metals).

Selenites are also formed during this process, but they can be separated by adding sulfuric acid. The hydrotellurites are converted into the insoluble tellurium dioxide while the selenites stay in solution. : + OH− \+ H2SO4 → TeO2 \+ + 2 H2O The metal is produced from the oxide (reduced) either by electrolysis or by reacting the tellurium dioxide with sulfur dioxide in sulfuric acid. : TeO2 \+ 2 SO2 \+ 2H2O → Te + 2 + 4 H+ Commercial-grade tellurium is usually marketed as 200-mesh powder but is also available as slabs, ingots, sticks, or lumps.

Later workers had difficulty in observing the minor colorless "erbia", but the soluble pink fraction was impossible to miss. Arguments went back and forth as to whether erbia even existed. In the confusion, the original names got reversed, and the exchange of names stuck, so that the pink fraction referred eventually to the solution containing erbium (which in solution, is pink). It is now thought that workers using double sodium or potassium sulfates to remove ceria from yttria inadvertently lost the terbium into the ceria-containing precipitate.

Turning the patient on her side decreases risk of breathing in vomit and spit. If available, magnesium sulfate is the preferred treatment for seizures in pregnant women, starting with a dose of 4 mg IV over 5 minutes. A sensation of warmth during infusion is normal, however, there is also a risk of stopping breathing with magnesium sulfate use, which would indicate the dosage is too high. If this occurs, calcium gluconate can be used to reverse the effects (1g IV over 10 minutes, often in solution).

At the initial addition of TBSCl, there is only a minor amount of monoanion in solution with the rest being in suspension. This small portion reacts and shifts the equilibrium of the monoanion to draw more into solution, thereby allowing for high yields of the mono-TBS compound to be obtained. Superior results in some cases may be obtained with butyllithium:Roush, W. R.; Gillis, H. R.; Essenfeld, A. P. "Hydrofluoric acid catalyzed intramolecular Diels-Alder reactions " J. Org. Chem. 1983, 49, 4674–4682. :File:rxn2.

Prof. Maroncelli's research interests include solvation and solvent effects on chemical reaction, liquid- phase dynamics, electron and proton transfer reactions, supercritical fluids and expanded liquids, ionic liquids, ultrafast spectroscopy, and computer simulation. Maroncelli’s research seeks to develop a fundamental understanding of the molecular nature of solvation and how it affects chemical reactions taking place in solution. Solvation involves the interactions between dissolved molecules (solutes) and molecules of the solvent. Favorable arrangements of solvent molecules around the solute lower its energy, which leads to dissolution.

The hybrid QM/MM (quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics) approach is a molecular simulation method that combines the strengths of the QM (accuracy) and MM (speed) approaches, thus allowing for the study of chemical processes in solution and in proteins. The QM/MM approach was introduced in the 1976 paper of Warshel and Levitt. They, along with Martin Karplus, won the 2013 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems". An important advantage of QM/MM methods is their efficiency.

The Petasis reagent is prepared by the salt metathesis reaction of methylmagnesium chloride or methyllithium with titanocene dichloride: : Cp2TiCl2 \+ 2 CH3MgCl -> Cp2Ti(CH3)2 \+ 2 MgCl2 This compound is used for the transformation of carbonyl groups to terminal alkenes. It exhibits similar reactivity to the Tebbe reagent and Wittig reaction. Unlike the Wittig reaction, the Petasis reagent can react with a wide range of aldehydes, ketones and esters. The Petasis reagent is also very air stable, and is commonly used in solution with toluene or THF.

T residue of GNA (red) and natural T nucleotide in DNA (blue)) Glycol nucleic acid (GNA) is a polymer similar to DNA or RNA but differing in the composition of its "backbone". GNA is not known to occur naturally; they are synthesized chemically. The 2,3-dihydroxypropylnucleoside analogues were first prepared by Ueda et al. (1971). Soon thereafter it was shown that phosphate- linked oligomers of the analogues do in fact exhibit hypochromicity in the presence of RNA and DNA in solution (Seita et al. 1972).

The experimental determination of a pKa value is commonly performed by means of a titration. Chapter 4: Experimental Procedure for Potentiometric pH Measurement of Metal Complex Equilibria A typical procedure would be as follows. A quantity of strong acid is added to a solution containing the acid or a salt of the acid, to the point where the compound is fully protonated. The solution is then titrated with a strong base :HA + OH− → A− \+ H2O until only the deprotonated species, A−, remains in solution.

Phadebas is a synthetic biochemical substrate used for both qualitative and quantitative assessment of the α-amylase enzyme. Its active component is DSM-P, microspheres in which a blue dye has been chemically bound. When the substrate is digested by the amylase enzyme in solution, it releases that blue dye at a rate proportional to the quantity of the enzyme present. It is used in a range of applications from quality control tests for food & beverages to detection of saliva stains in forensic investigations.

Stability of a certified reference material is also important, so a range of strategies may be used to prepare a reference material that is more stable than the natural material it is prepared from. For example, stabilizing agents such as antioxidants or antimicrobial agents may be added to prevent degradation, liquids containing certified concentrations of trace metals may have pH adjusted to keep metals in solution, and clinical reference materials may be freeze-dried for long term storage if they can be reconstituted successfully.

The hydration number for methane in a clathrate is 46 water molecules per unit cell. Methane in solution has a hydration number of 20. In addition to methane, other simple molecules like ethane and carbon dioxide can also form hydrates in these extreme environments. The global distribution of oceanic methane clathrate reserves found worldwide, 1996 Given the dependence on cold temperatures in keeping the hydrated methane locked away from the atmosphere, anthropogenic climate change has emerged as a possible destabilizing force to the vast reserves of clathrates.

Polymers are speculated to have advantages over molecular materials in LEDs, such as ease of processing, reduced tendency for crystallization, and greater thermal and mechanical stability. Ever since the first breakthrough in 1989, a large number of PPV derivatives have been synthesized and used for LED applications. Although solid-state lasing has yet to be demonstrated in an organic LED, poly[2-methoxy-5-(2’-ethylhexyloxy)-p-phenylene vinylene] (MEH-PPV) has been proven to be a promising laser dye due to its high fluorescence efficiency in solution.

The extracellular domain consists of the signal sequence, 11 LRR motifs comprised between an N-terminal and C-terminal capping domains, and the Immunoglobulin-like (IgC2) domain. The C-terminal LRR domain is essential for the protein's function with its screening for proteins that interact with this domain. The structure, together with biophysical analysis of LINGO-1 properties have revealed that the protein's LRR-Ig composite fold of the protein can drive it to associate with itself in a circular ring-like form, creating a closed and stable tetramer in solution and in crystal.

Continuing her interest in the f-elements, Soderholm shifted her focus from solid-state materials to nanoparticles and solutions, taking advantage of advances in X-ray structural probes made available by synchrotron facilities. Building on her earlier work using neutron scattering, her team became the first to discover that plutonium exists in solution as tiny, well-defined nanoparticles. This work solved a longstanding problem in understanding transport of plutonium in the environment and resulted in the development of a new, patented approach to separating plutonium during nuclear reprocessing.

Alexander Graham Cairns-Smith FRSE (24 November 1931 – 26 August 2016) was an organic chemist and molecular biologist at the University of Glasgow. He studied at the University of Edinburgh, where he gained a Ph.D. in Chemistry (1957). He was most famous for his controversial 1985 book Seven Clues to the Origin of Life. The book popularized a hypothesis he began to develop in the mid-1960s—that self-replication of clay crystals in solution might provide a simple intermediate step between biologically inert matter and organic life.

Research is investigating the possibilities of combining CEA and a dermal matrix in one product. Experimental procedures are being tested for burn victims using stem cells in solution which are applied to the burned area using a skin cell gun. Recent advances have been successful in applying the cells without damage. Split skin graft donor site 8 days after the skin was taken In order to remove the thin and well preserved skin slices and strips from the donor, surgeons use a special surgical instrument called a dermatome.

Multiple layers of negative charge accumulate near a positively charged surface to form a double layer. Gouy-Chapman theory describes the effect of a static surface charge on a surface's potential. "Gouy suggested that interfacial potential at the charged surface could be attributed to the presence of a number of ions of given charge attached to its surface, and to an equal number of ions of opposite charge in the solution." A positive surface charge will form a double layer, since negative ions in solution tend to balance the positive surface charge.

Double bonded compounds, alkene homologs, R2E=ER2 are now known for all of the heavier group 14 elements. Unlike the alkenes these compounds are not planar but adopt twisted and/or trans bent structures. These effects become more pronounced for the heavier elements. The distannene (Me3Si)2CHSn=SnCH(SiMe3)2 has a tin-tin bond length just a little shorter than a single bond, a trans bent structure with pyramidal coordination at each tin atom, and readily dissociates in solution to form (Me3Si)2CHSn: (stannanediyl, a carbene analog).

The rate of binding is called affinity, and this measurement typifies a tendency or strength of the effect. Binding affinity is actualized not only by host–guest interactions, but also by solvent effects that can play a dominant, steric role which drives non-covalent binding in solution. The solvent provides a chemical environment for the ligand and receptor to adapt, and thus accept or reject each other as partners. Radioligands are radioisotope labeled compounds used in vivo as tracers in PET studies and for in vitro binding studies.

The biological synthesis of nanoparticles has provided a means for improved techniques compared to the traditional methods that call for the use of harmful reducing agents like sodium borohydride. Many of these methods could improve their environmental footprint by replacing these relatively strong reducing agents. The problems with the chemical production of silver nanoparticles is usually involves high cost and the longevity of the particles is short lived due to aggregation. The harshness of standard chemical methods has sparked the use of using biological organisms to reduce silver ions in solution into colloidal nanoparticles.

Pure gold precipitate produced by the aqua regia chemical refining process Aqua regia dissolves gold, though neither constituent acid will do so alone, because, in combination, each acid performs a different task. Nitric acid is a powerful oxidizer, which will actually dissolve a virtually undetectable amount of gold, forming gold ions (Au3+). The hydrochloric acid provides a ready supply of chloride ions (Cl−), which react with the gold ions to produce tetrachloroaurate(III) anions, also in solution. The reaction with hydrochloric acid is an equilibrium reaction that favors formation of chloroaurate anions (AuCl4−).

Sodium hypochlorite in solution exhibits broad spectrum anti-microbial activity and is widely used in healthcare facilities in a variety of settings. It is usually diluted in water depending on its intended use. "Strong chlorine solution" is a 0.5% solution of hypochlorite (containing approximately 5000 ppm free chlorine) used for disinfecting areas contaminated with body fluids, including large blood spills (the area is first cleaned with detergent before being disinfected). It may be made by diluting household bleach as appropriate (normally 1 part bleach to 9 parts water).

A unique feature of DewA is its capacity to exist as two types of conformers in solution, both able to form rodlet assemblies but at different rates. Despite these differences in structural and self-assembly mechanisms, both EAS and DewA form robust fibrillar monolayers, meaning that there must exist several pathways, protein sequences and tertiary conformations able to self-assemble into amphipathic monolayers. Further characterisation of both EAS and DewA and their rodlet self-assembly mechanisms will open up opportunities for rational design of hydrophobins with novel biotechnological applications.

Many cell types, in particular, many microorganisms, grow in solution and not attached to a surface. These cell types can be subcultured by simply taking a small volume of the parent culture and diluting it in fresh growth medium. Cell density in these cultures is normally measured in cells per milliliter for large eukaryotic cells, or as optical density for 600nm light for smaller cells like bacteria. The cells will often have a preferred range of densities for optimal growth and subculture will normally try to keep the cells in this range.

The minimum molecular weight suggested by Mulder's analyses was roughly 9 kDa, hundreds of times larger than other molecules being studied. Hence, the chemical structure of proteins (their primary structure) was an active area of research until 1949, when Fred Sanger sequenced insulin. The (correct) theory that proteins were linear polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds was proposed independently and simultaneously by Franz Hofmeister and Emil Fischer at the same conference in 1902. However, some scientists were sceptical that such long macromolecules could be stable in solution.

The benzyl ester can be removed by hydrogenolysis, the fluorenylmethylenoxy group (Fmoc) by bases (such as piperidine), and the phenolic tert-butyl ether cleaved with acids (e.g. with trifluoroacetic acid). A common example for this application, the Fmoc-peptide synthesis, in which peptides are grown in solution and on solid phase is very important. The protecting groups in solid-phase synthesis with regard to the reaction conditions such as reaction time, temperature and reagents can be standardized so that they are carried out by a machine, while yields of well over 99% can be achieved.

The extract was fractioned using a Sephadex column. The different fractions were assayed for toxicity to mice, to which the most toxic fraction was pooled and subsequently applied to a DEAE-(diethylaminoethyl)-column. The bound proteins, including Modeccin, were eluted and fractionised using a gradient of sodium chloride in solution. Again, the fractions were assayed for toxicity to mice, to which the most toxic fraction was pooled and analysed by Gel Electrophoresis. To better follow the protein during further purification, labelling using 125I is done via the lactoperoxidase method.

Camp Bettens was built in mid-June 1892, and was abandoned in mid-November When the railroad reached Suggs in 1892, railroad officials planned the new town of Arvada on the west bank of the Powder River, and Suggs was abandoned. The post office was moved from Suggs to Arvada on July 20, 1893. The Arvada area has deposits of coal at a shallow depth, and in the early days, local wells produced natural gas in solution in the drinking water. The drinking water would catch on fire, and could burn.

Lodge is internationally recognized for his seminal contributions in numerous areas of polymer science. The focus of his work has been on achieving a molecular-level understanding of polymer structure and dynamics in multicomponent systems and mixtures, and to understand how these are affected by the thermodynamic interactions amongst the components. Polymer chain dynamics: Lodge's early work focused on the chain dynamics of polymers in solution and in miscible blends. In particular, Lodge and McLeish (2000) discussed the effect of local composition on the dynamics of polymers in a miscible blend.

Once the DNA is free, it can be separated from all other cellular components. After the DNA has been separated in solution, the remaining cellular debris can then be removed from the solution and discarded, leaving only DNA. The most common methods of DNA extraction include organic extraction (also called phenol chloroform extraction), Chelex extraction, and solid phase extraction. Differential extraction is a modified version of extraction in which DNA from two different types of cells can be separated from each other before being purified from the solution.

The charge of actinide and lanthanide ions in solution is substantially +3 and the difference in size of these cations is very small. Thus, an efficient separation of minor actinides from lanthanides is very challenging. Actinides seem to be a little less hard than lanthanides, probably due to a longer spatial extent of 5f atomic orbitals with respect to 4f ones, then a selective separation is possible thanks to ligands bearing soft donors such as nitrogen and sulphur atoms, by a different bonding nature compared to hard donors.

Phosphorylase kinase is a 1.3 MDa hexadecameric holoenzyme, though its size can vary somewhat due to substitution of different subunit isoforms via mRNA splicing. It consists of four homotetramers each comprised four subunits (α,β,δ,γ). Only the γ subunit is known to possess catalytic activity, while the others serve regulatory functions. Due to the instability of the regulatory subunits in solution, only the γ subunit has been crystallized individually: Overall, the subunits are arranged in two lobes oriented back-to-back in what has been described as a “butterfly” shape with D2 symmetry.

Lead(II) compounds are characteristic of the inorganic chemistry of lead. Even strong oxidizing agents like fluorine and chlorine react with lead to give only PbF2 and PbCl2. Lead(II) ions are usually colorless in solution, and partially hydrolyze to form Pb(OH)+ and finally [Pb4(OH)4]4+ (in which the hydroxyl ions act as bridging ligands), but are not reducing agents as tin(II) ions are. Techniques for identifying the presence of the Pb2+ ion in water generally rely on the precipitation of lead(II) chloride using dilute hydrochloric acid.

In 2007, a research group claimed the first reproducible synthesis of unsubstituted hexacene—purportedly invalidating previous claims—based on photochemical decarbonylation of a diketone precursor: :Neckers hexacene synthesis (2007). The compound synthesized could not be isolated: it dimerized at concentrations as low as 10−4 M, and reacted with oxygen in solution to form an organic peroxide. In a poly(methyl methacrylate) polymer matrix such side-reactions were limited, and the compound survived up to 12 hours. The next homologue heptacene also studied by this group, and was even more unstable, decomposing within 4 hours.

Zonal rotors are designed to contain a large volume of sample in a single central cavity rather than in tubes. Some zonal rotors are capable of dynamic loading and unloading of samples while the rotor is spinning at high speed. Preparative rotors are used in biology for pelleting of fine particulate fractions, such as cellular organelles (mitochondria, microsomes, ribosomes) and viruses. They can also be used for gradient separations, in which the tubes are filled from top to bottom with an increasing concentration of a dense substance in solution.

Sodium hydride is the chemical compound with the empirical formula NaH. This alkali metal hydride is primarily used as a strong yet combustible base in organic synthesis. NaH is representative of the saline hydrides, meaning it is a salt-like hydride, composed of Na+ and H− ions, in contrast to the more molecular hydrides such as borane, methane, ammonia and water. It is an ionic material that is insoluble in organic solvents (although soluble in molten Na), consistent with the fact that H− remains an unknown anion in solution.

Side view (top) and axial view (bottom) These unparalleled contorted molecules exhibit wide absorption spectrum and enhanced charge transport properties which make them potential candidates for electronic and optoelectronic applications. The curvature in these molecules cause slight shifting of the frontier orbitals from ideal parallel symmetry. The departure from parallel overlap induces modification in HOMO and LUMO eventually giving birth to changed optical properties. Inversion of these molecules in solution may allow changes in orbital geometry, thereby, broadening the absorption and emission spectra which is useful for light emitting diode applications.

Due to the high steric demand of the TMP ligand and its flexible rotation in solution, the THF molecule gets separated from the magnesium cation. The result is an unsaturated magnesium side that could explain the enhanced reactivity and selectivity of TMPMgCl·LiCl. TMP-Turbo- Hauser Base in THF solution Knochel et al. proposed that LiCl increases the reactivity of Turbo-Grignard compounds RMgCl·LiCl (R = alkyl, aryl or vinyl) by giving the reactive bimetallic monomer a magnesiate character in sense of a solvent separated ion pair (SSIP) [Li(THF)4]+ [RMg(THF)Cl2]−.

Lithium diisopropylamide (commonly abbreviated LDA) is a chemical compound with the molecular formula [(CH3)2CH]2NLi. It is used as a strong base and has been widely accepted due to its good solubility in non-polar organic solvents and non-nucleophilic nature. It is a colorless solid, but is usually generated and observed only in solution. It was first prepared by Hamell and Levine in 1950 along with several other hindered lithium diorganylamides to effect the deprotonation of esters at the α position without attack of the carbonyl group.

Therefore, its conjugate base is suitable for the deprotonation of compounds with greater acidity, importantly, such weakly acidic compounds (carbon acids) of the type R2CHZ, where Z = C(O)R', CO2R' or CN. Conventional protic functional groups such as alcohols and carboxylic acids are of course readily deprotonated. Like most organolithium reagents, LDA is not a salt, but is highly polar. It forms aggregates in solution, with the extent of aggregation depending on the nature of the solvent. In THF its structure is primarily that of a solvated dimer.

While ubiquitin assumes a highly stable three-dimensional structure in solution, Pup has been shown to belong to the group of intrinsically disordered proteins. The establishment of the term UBact is controversial, since to date there is no experimental evidence presented to justify the distinction of UBact from Pup. The term UBact was denoted because several bacterial species from the phylum Nitrospirae (where UBact was initially identified; e.g., Leptospirillum ferriphilum) contain both the Pup-proteasome system and a novel ORF-proteasome system that needed to be addressed and therefore was denoted UBact.

Gibbs was the author or co-author of over forty research papers, on subjects such as the ultraviolet spectra of isoelectronic sequences, and the hyperfine structure of spectra. He determined the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron by studying the intervals between the H-alpha lines of hydrogen and deuterium, and investigated the absorption spectra of organic compounds in solution. Gibbs became an assistant professor of Physics at Cornell in 1912, and a professor of Physics in 1918. He rose to chairman of the Department of Physics from 1934 to 1946.

Other modifications to these types of systems are free radical assisted cationic polymerization. In this case, a free radical is formed from another species in solution that reacts with the photoinitiator in order to start polymerization. Although there are a diverse group of compounds activated by cationic photoinitiators, the compounds that find most industrial uses contain epoxides, oxetanes, and vinyl ethers. One of the advantages to using cationic photopolymerization is that once the polymerization has begun it is no longer sensitive to oxygen and does not require an inert atmosphere to perform well.

Metabolic labeling involves a number of additional steps that must be performed in the laboratory on RNA that is in solution. Since metabolic labeling requires that the RNA be kept unfrozen in liquid solution, some level of spontaneous degradation is unavoidable, although it is usually not to such an extent that results are affected. Of greater risk is the chances of ribonuclease contamination, which would render a sample useless, wasting time and resources. It is important for researchers working with RNA in any capacity to minimize unnecessary handling of RNA due to these risks.

Hanks' salts is a collective group of salts rich in bicarbonate ions, formulated in 1940 by the microbiologist John H. Hanks. Typically, they are used as a buffer system in cell culture media and aid in maintaining the optimum physiological pH (roughly 7.0–7.4) for cellular growth. Due to their poorly reactive nature and small concentration in solution, Hanks' salts are mainly used in media that are exposed to atmospheric conditions as opposed to incubation. Performing the latter drastically exceeds the buffer capacity of Hanks' salts and may result in cell death.

The acid is usually formed by acidification of an azide salt like sodium azide. Normally solutions of sodium azide in water contain trace quantities of hydrazoic acid in equilibrium with the azide salt, but introduction of a stronger acid can convert the primary species in solution to hydrazoic acid. The pure acid may be subsequently obtained by fractional distillation as an extremely explosive colorless liquid with an unpleasant smell. :NaN3 \+ HCl → HN3 \+ NaCl Its aqueous solution can also be prepared by treatment of barium azide solution with dilute sulfuric acid, filtering the insoluble barium sulfate.

In solution, the ferrioxalate complex undergoes photoreduction. In this process, the complex absorbs a photon of light and subsequently decomposes to form and . The iron centre is reduced (gains an electron) from the +3 to the +2 oxidation state, while an oxalate ion is oxidised to carbon dioxide: : 2 []3− \+ hν → 2 []2− \+ 2 + This reaction provides an efficient chemical method for photometry and actinometry, the measurement of light and higher-energy electromagnetic radiation. Potassium ferrioxalate is over 1000 times more sensitive than uranyl oxalate, the compound previously used for these purposes.

Other metal impurities such as copper, chromium, magnesium, and zinc form granular precipitates. However, depending on the degree of polymerization, ammonium polyphosphate can act as a chelating agent to keep certain metal ions dissolved in solution. Ammonium polyphosphate is used as a food additive, emulsifier, (E number: E545) and as a fertilizer. Ammonium polyphosphate (APP) is also used as a flame retardant in many applications such as paints and coatings, and in a variety of polymers: the most important ones are polyolefins, and particularly polypropylene, where APP is part of intumescent systems.

Calcium hypochlorite is commonly used to sanitize public swimming pools and disinfect drinking water. Generally the commercial substances are sold with a purity of 65% to 73% with other chemicals present, such as calcium chloride and calcium carbonate, resulting from the manufacturing process. As a swimming pool chemical, it is blended with other chemicals less often than other forms of chlorine, due to dangerous reactions with some common pool chemicals. In solution, calcium hypochlorite could be used as a general purpose sanitizer, but due to calcium residue, sodium hypochlorite (bleach) is usually preferred.

However, for simplicity, the water molecules are omitted from here-on. If excess sodium hydroxide is added, the precipitate of zinc hydroxide will dissolve, forming a colorless solution of zincate ion: :Zn(OH)2 \+ 2 OH− → Zn(OH)42−. This property can be used as a test for zinc ions in solution, but it is not exclusive, since aluminum and lead compounds behave in a very similar manner. Unlike the hydroxides of aluminum and lead, zinc hydroxide also dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia to form a colorless, water-soluble ammine complex.

When the egg is buried deeply enough, the bacteria decomposing it no longer have access to oxygen and need to power their metabolisms with different substances. These physiological changes in the decomposers also alter the local environment in a way that allows certain minerals to be deposited, while others remain in solution. Generally, however, a fossilizing egg's shell keeps the same calcite it had in life, which allows scientists to study its original structure millions of years after the developing dinosaur hatched or died. However, eggs can also sometimes be altered after burial.

Alternatively, the presence of free titrant (indicating that the reaction is complete) can be detected at very low levels. An example of robust endpoint detector for etching of semiconductors is EPD-6 a system probing reaction at up to six different wavelengths ;Amperometry: Amperometry can be used as a detection technique (amperometric titration). The current due to the oxidation or reduction of either the reactants or products at a working electrode will depend on the concentration of that species in solution. The equivalence point can then be detected as a change in the current.

This interaction has been shown to play a key role in the pathogenesis of staphylococcal pneumonia. # Protein A has been shown to cripple humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity which in turn means that individuals can be repeatedly infected with S. aureus since they cannot mount a strong antibody response. # Protein A has been shown to promote the formation of biofilms both when the protein is covalently linked to the bacterial cell wall as well as in solution. Protein A helps inhibit phagocytic engulfment and acts as an immunological disguise.

The X-ray structure revealed longer N–C bond lengths in the ring of the carbene than in the parent imidazolium compound, indicating that there was very little double bond character to these bonds. The first air-stable ylidic carbene, a chlorinated member of the imidazol-2-ylidene family, was obtained in 1997. In 2000, Bertrand obtained additional carbenes of the phosphanyl type, including (phosphanyl)(trifluoromethyl)carbene, stable in solution at -30 °C and a moderately stable (amino)(aryl)carbene with only one heteroatom adjacent to the carbenic atom.

Lithium amides like the diisopropylamide (LDA) and the (tetramethylpiperidide (LiTMP)) generally work well for the deprotonation of all types of salts, providing that not too much LiOH is present in the n-butyllithium used to make the lithium amide. Titration of lithium amide can be used to determine the amount of hydroxide in solution. The deprotonation of precursor salts with metal hexamethyldisilazides works very cleanly for the deprotonation of all types of salts, except for unhindered formamidinium salts, where this base can act as a nucleophile to give a triaminomethane adduct.

The tautomer, known as cyanic acid, HOCN, in which the oxygen atom is protonated, is unstable to decomposition, but in solution it is present in equilibrium with isocyanic acid to the extent of about 3%. The vibrational spectrum is indicative of the presence of a triple bond between the nitrogen and carbon atoms. Low-temperature photolysis of solids containing HNCO creates the tautomer cyanic acid H-O-C≡N, also called hydrogen cyanate. Pure cyanic acid has not been isolated, and isocyanic acid is the predominant form in all solvents.

Phosphorus trioxide reacts with water to form phosphorous acid, reflecting the fact that it is the anhydride of that acid. : P4O6 \+ 6 H2O → 4 H3PO3 It reacts with hydrogen chloride to form H3PO3 and phosphorus trichloride. : P4O6 \+ 6 HCl → 2 H3PO3 \+ 2 PCl3 With chlorine or bromine it forms the corresponding phosphoryl halide, and it reacts with iodine in a sealed tube to form diphosphorus tetraiodide. P4O6 reacts with ozone at 195 K to give the unstable compound P4O18.. 380px P4O18 decomposes above 238 K in solution with the release of O2 gas.

Lonnie Lee Van Zandt (1937-1995) was a professor of physics at Purdue University in Indiana, USA. Van Zandt participated in the formation of the molecular biological physics group at Purdue and studied the dynamics of dissolved DNA polymers. He also performed pioneering research on the effect of microwaves on DNA.M. E. Davis and L. L. Van Zandt (1988) Microwave response of DNA in solution Physical Review, Volume 37, Issue 3, pages 888–901 His PhD thesis in Physics at Harvard University focused on the "Effects of Static Spin Density Waves on Electron Transport".

The ability of 3C approaches to identify long-range interactions is based on the theory of proximity ligation. In regards to DNA inter-ligation, fragments that are tethered by common protein complexes have greater kinetic advantages under dilute conditions, than those freely diffusing in solution or anchored in different complexes. ChIA-PET takes advantage of this concept by incorporating linker sequences onto the free ends of the DNA fragments tethered to the protein complexes. In order to build connectivity of the fragments tethered by regulatory complexes, the linker sequences are ligated during nuclear proximity ligation.

Janus particles' two or more distinct faces give them special properties in solution. In particular, they have been observed to self- assemble in a specific way in aqueous or organic solutions. In the case of spherical Janus micelles having hemispheres of polystyrene (PS) and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), aggregation into clusters has been observed in various organic solvents, such as tetrahydrofuran. Similarly, Janus discs composed of sides of PS and poly(tert-butyl methacrylate) (PtBMA) can undergo back-to-back stacking into superstructures when in an organic solution.

The activity of a substance in solution depends on the product of its concentration and the activity coefficient in that solution. The activity coefficient depends on the ionic strength of the solution in which the potentiometric measurements are made. This can be calculated for dilute solutions using the Debye–Hückel equation; for more concentrated solutions other approximations must be used. In most cases, the analyst's goal is simply to make sure that the activity coefficient is constant across a set of solutions, with the assumption that no significant ion pairing exists in the solutions.

A chemical may be directly applied to the skin followed by blood and urine measurements, at set time points after the application, to assess the amount of chemical that entered the body. The concentration in the blood or urine at particular time points can be graphed to show an area under the curve and the extent and duration of absorption and distribution to provide a measure of systemic absorption. This can be done in animals or humans with a dry chemical powder or a chemical in solution. Rats are commonly used for these experiments.

English mercury glass objects Mercury glass (or silvered glass) is glass that was blown double walled, then silvered between the layers with a liquid silvering solution, and sealed. Although mercury was originally used to provide the reflective coating for mirrors, elemental mercury was never used to create tableware. Silvered glass was free-blown, then silvered with a solution containing silver nitrate and grape sugar in solution, heated, then closed. Sealing methods include metal discs covered with a glass round or a cork inserted into the unpolished pontil scar.

He designed a simple quadruple hydrogen-bonded building block that is self-complementary and exhibits a very large association constant. Bringing two of these units together with a spacer resulted in a supramolecular polymer with unprecedented properties. Depending on the conditions applied it on the one hand it possess all the properties of macromolecules, both in solution and solid state, while on the other hand it displays the dynamic nature of organic molecules tied together via non-covalent bonds. Today, the concept of supramolecular polymers is investigated in many international academic and industrial laboratories.

It has been established using X-ray crystallography that the molecule is, in effect, coplanar with slight nitrogen pyramidalization, and that the central carbon bonds are longer (144 pm) than what would be expected for a double bond (136 pm). Further research shows that the diradical exists as a mixture of triplets and singlets, although an ESR signal is absent. In this sense, the molecule resembles Tschischibabin's hydrocarbon, discovered during 1907. It also shares with this molecule a blue color in solution, and a metallic-green color as crystals.

ALPS motifs are 20 to 40 amino acid long portions of proteins that have important collections of types of amino acid residues. Bulky hydrophobic amino acid residues, such as Phenylalanine, Leucine, and Tryptophan are present every 3 or 4 positions, with many polar but uncharged amino acid residues such as Glycine, Serine and Threonine between. The ALPS is unstructured in solution but folds as an alpha helix when associated with the membrane bilayer, such that the hydrophobic residues insert between loosely packed lipids and the polar residues point toward the aqueous cytoplasm.

Cave and Karst Science 43(1), pp4-10. Gours form beneath concrete structures on a floor with a gradual sloping surface or on the side of rounded stalagmites derived from concrete. Most of the calcium carbonate carried by the leachate is deposited as stalactites (when the drop rate is slower than one drop per minute), leaving little in solution to be carried to the ground to create stalagmites, flowstone and gours. The leachate which does reach the ground usually evaporates quickly due to air movement beneath the concrete structure, hence micro-gours are more common.

ADP being one of the two major activators (NAD+ being the other one), acts by destabilizing the abortive complexes, and abrogating the negative cooperativity. In the absence of substrates, and with bound ADP, the catalytic cleft is in the open conformation, and the GLUD1 hexamers form long polymers in the crystal cell with more interactions than found in the abortive complex crystals (1NQT). This is consistent with the fact that ADP promotes aggregation in solution. When the catalytic cleft opens, R516 is rotated down on to the phosphates of ADP.

The three main structures phospholipids form spontaneously in solution: the liposome (a closed bilayer), the micelle and the bilayer. A protocell is a self-organized, self-ordered, spherical collection of lipids proposed as a stepping-stone to the origin of life. A central question in evolution is how simple protocells first arose and differed in reproductive contribution to the following generation driving the evolution of life. Although a functional protocell has not yet been achieved in a laboratory setting, there are scientists who think the goal is well within reach.

Target-enrichment methods allow one to selectively capture genomic regions of interest from a DNA sample prior to sequencing. Several target-enrichment strategies have been developed since the original description of the direct genomic selection (DGS) method in 2005. Though many techniques have been described for targeted capture, only a few of these have been extended to capture entire exomes. The first target enrichment strategy to be applied to whole exome sequencing was the array-based hybrid capture method in 2007, but in-solution capture has gained popularity in recent years.

Orgel proposed a novel solution to a problem with Juan Oro's proposed mechanism of nucleobase synthesis on the early Earth, which relied on the reaction of five molecules of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to form adenine. The problem with this was that it would require much more concentrated hydrogen cyanide than evidence suggested was present. Orgel suggested that the hydrogen cyanide was frozen in solution. This would concentrate HCN molecules in the spaces in between the crystal lattice of ice, and also solved the problem of HCN being too volatile in a liquid water solution.

While the chemical engineers worked on these problems, Seaborg asked Stanley G. Thompson, a colleague at Berkeley, to have a look at the possibility of a phosphate process. It was known that the phosphates of many heavy metals were insoluble in an acid solutions. Thompson tried phosphates of thorium, uranium, cerium, niobium and zirconium without success. He did not expect bismuth phosphate () to work any better but when he tried it on 19 December 1942, he was surprised to find that it carried 98 percent of the plutonium in solution.

FPIA quantifies the change in fluorescence polarization of reaction mixtures of fluorescent-labelled tracer, sample antigen, and defined antibody. Operating under fixed temperature and viscosity allows for the fluorescence polarization to be directly proportional to the size of the fluorophore. Free tracer in solution has a lower fluorescence polarization than antibody-bound tracer with slower Brownian motion. The tracer and the specific antigen will compete to bind to the antibody and if the antigen is low in concentration, more tracer will be bound to the antibody resulting in a higher fluorescence polarization and vice versa.

Decomposition of Pt2(dba)3 under hydrogen gas in toluene yielded the formation of nanowires with 2–3 nm diameter independent of HDA concentration. The length of these nanowires was found to be inversely proportional to the concentration of HDA present in solution. When these nanowire syntheses were repeated using reduced concentrations of Pt2(dba)3, there was little effect on the size, length or distribution of the nanowires formed. Platinum nanoparticles of controlled shape and size have also been accessed through varying the ratio of polymer capping agent concentration to precursor concentration.

Methyl nitrite can be prepared by the reaction of silver nitrite with iodomethane: Silver nitrite (AgNO2) exists in solution as the silver ion, Ag+ and the nitrite ion, NO2−. One of the lone pairs on an oxygen from nitrite ion attacks the methyl group (—CH3), releasing the iodide ion into solution. Unlike silver nitrite, silver iodide is highly insoluble in water and thus forms a solid. Note that nitrogen is a better nucleophile than oxygen and most nitrites would react via an SN2-like mechanism and the major product would be nitromethane.

The use of carbon dioxide overcomes many of the problems with the original industrial process. Because CO2 is a better flame inhibitor than N2, a CO2 environment allows for the use of pure oxygen directly, instead of air, with reduced flammability hazards. The solubility of molecular oxygen in solution is also enhanced in the CO2 environment. Because more oxygen is available to the system, supercritical carbon dioxide (Tc = 31 °C) has more complete oxidation with fewer byproducts, lower carbon monoxide production, less decarboxylation and higher purity than the commercial process.

Autologous donations are sometimes transfused without further modification, however whole blood is typically separated (via centrifugation) into its components, with red blood cells (RBC) in solution being the most commonly used product. Units of WB and RBC are both kept refrigerated at , with maximum permitted storage periods (shelf lives) of 35 and 42 days respectively. RBC units can also be frozen when buffered with glycerol, but this is an expensive and time-consuming process, and is rarely done. Frozen red cells are given an expiration date of up to ten years and are stored at .

Unlike in linear sweep voltammetry, after the set potential is reached in a CV experiment, the working electrode's potential is ramped in the opposite direction to return to the initial potential. These cycles of ramps in potential may be repeated as many times as needed. The current at the working electrode is plotted versus the applied voltage (that is, the working electrode's potential) to give the cyclic voltammogram trace. Cyclic voltammetry is generally used to study the electrochemical properties of an analyte in solution or of a molecule that is adsorbed onto the electrode.