Et quand vous parlez à vos homologues en Pologne et dans les pays Baltes de cette vision, que disent-ils?
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En effet, pendant que les dirigeants saoudiens souriaient à leurs homologues occidentaux, ils accueillaient prévaricateurs prêchant le djihad aux centaines de milliers de personnes rassemblées lors du pèlerinage annuel à la Mecque.
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En France, Le ministre de la Santé Olivier Véran a indiqué dimanche qu'il s'entretiendrait prochainement avec des homologues européens pour répondre au risque épidémique lié au coronavirus après la forte hausse des cas de contamination en Italie.
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Lors d'une conférence de presse, le ministre, qui s'est entretenu ce jour avec ses homologues italien et allemand, a fait savoir que la France n'était pas à ce stade confrontée à une épidémie de coronavirus et qu'aucun nouveau cas de contamination n'avait été enregistré.
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ARC3 homologues transport the same anions as ArsA/AB homologues, though ArsB homologues are members of the IT Superfamily and homologues of the ARC3 family are within the BART Superfamily suggesting they may not be evolutionarily related.
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One of the distant SulP homologues has been shown to be a bicarbonate:Na+ symporter (TC# 2.A.53.5.1). Bioinformatic work has identified additional homologues with fused domains. Some of these fused proteins have SulP homologues fused to carbonic anhydrase homologues (TC# 2.A.53.8.1). These are also presumed to be bicarbonate uptake permeases.
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YedZ homologues exhibit conserved histidyl residues in their transmembrane domains that may function in heme binding. Some of the homologues encoded in the genomes of various bacteria have YedZ domains fused to transport, electron transfer and biogenesis proteins. One of the animal homologues is the 6 TMS epithelial plasma membrane antigen of the prostate (STAMP1) that is over-expressed in prostate cancer. Some animal homologues have YedZ domains fused C-terminal to homologues of NADP oxidoreductases. YedZ homologues arose by intragenic triplication of a 2 TMS-encoding element.
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Homologues of OSTα are found in many eukaryotes including animals (both vertebrates and invertebrates), plants, fungi and slime molds. Homologues of OSTβ are found only in vertebrate animals.
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Homologues of SgaT, like other PTS protein homologues, have been identified in a large number of evolutionarily divergent bacteria, but not in archaea or eukaryotes. Bacteria that encode SgaT homologues include numerous Gram-negative proteobacteria, as well as many low and high G+C Gram-positive bacteria. Except for species of Corynebacterium, Streptomyces and Bacillus, almost all organisms possessing SgaTBA homologues are human/animal pathogens. Several organisms have two or more SgaT paralogues, including E. coli, which has three.
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Similar arginine residues in enzyme homologues (Arg370, Arg390) play analogous roles. Other homologues, such as in Sphingobacterium multivorum, feature the carboxy moiety bound to serine and methionine residues via water in place of arginine. Certain enzyme homologues, such as in S. multivorum as well as B. stolpii, are found to be associated with the inner cell membrane, thus resembling the eukaryotic enzymes. The B. stolpii homologue also features substrate inhibition by palmitoyl-CoA, a feature shared by the yeast and mammalian homologues.
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Although historically HOM-C genes have referred to Drosophila homologues, while Hox genes referred to vertebrate homologues, this distinction is no longer made, and both HOM-C and Hox genes are called Hox genes.
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Homologues are found in proteobacteria of all groups, Flavobacteria and Chlamydia. Distant homologues of the IT superfamily are ubiquitous. The generalized reaction catalyzed by NhaD is: > nH+ (in) + mNa+ (out) ⇌ nH+ (out) + mNa+ (in).
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Homologues of ArsB are found in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria as well as cyanobacteria. Homologues are also found in archaea and eukarya. Several paralogues may sometimes be found in a single organism. Among the distant homologues found in eukaryotes are members of the DASS family (TC# 2.A.47) including the rat renal Na+:sulfate cotransporter (Q07782) and the human renal Na+:dicarboxylate cotransporter (gbU26209).
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However, homologues of the hydrophilic subunits of the NADH-oxidizing complex are absent.
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Homologues are found in a variety of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
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There are several homologues of Sufu, found in a wide variety of organisms.
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Homologues for ADT have been isolated in Arabidopsis thaliana (rabbit-ear cress), Nicotiana sylvestris (tobacco), Spinacia oleracea (spinach), Petunia hybrida, Sorghum bicolor, and Oryza sativa, which are all considered higher-order plants. Erwinia herbicola and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are known to have homologues for cyclohexadienyl dehydratase. Of the plants with ADT homologues, both Arabidopsis thaliana and Petunia hybrida are known to have paralogues for the gene (six and three, respectively).
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In addition, schistosomes have six homologues of human CD59 which are strong inhibitors of MAC.
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Japan has banned JWH-018, CP 47, 497, and homologues, and HU-210 since October 2009.
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OAT family homologues have been found in other animals but not outside of the animal kingdom. These transporters have been characterized in mammals, but homologues are present in Drosophila melanogaster, Anopheles gambiae, and Caenorhabditis elegans. The mammalian OAT family proteins exhibit a high degree of tissue specificity.
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The 6TMS Neutral Amino Acid Transporter (NAAT) Family (TC# 2.A.95) is a family of transporters belonging to the Lysine Exporter (LysE) Superfamily. Homologues are found in numerous Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria including many human pathogens. Several archaea also encode MarC (see below) homologues.
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Within the protozoa only one Mg2+ transporter (XntAp) has been identified. In metazoa, Mrs2p and MgtE homologues have been identified, along with two novel Mg2+ transport systems TRPM6/TRPM7 and PCLN-1. Finally, in plants, a family of Mrs2p homologues has been identified along with another novel protein, AtMHX.
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CP 47,497 and its C6, C8, and C9 homologues were made illegal in France on 24 February 2009.
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CP 47,497 and its C6, C8, and C9 homologues were made illegal in Latvia on 28 November 2009.
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CP 47,497 and its C6, C8, and C9 homologues were made illegal in Lithuania on 5 June 2009.
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CP 47,497 and its C6, C7, C8, and C9 homologues were made illegal in Sweden on 15 September 2009.
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U34 snoRNA has homologues in mouse, Arabidopsis (annotated as snoR4) and in several copies in rice (alternatively named snoZ181).
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JWH-018, CP 47,497 (and its homologues), and HU-210 were all made illegal in France on February 24, 2009.
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The term isotopomer was first proposed by Seeman and Paine in 1992 to distinguish isotopic isomers from isotopologues (isotopic homologues).
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Homologues of the NicO family have differing predicted topologies: 6, 7 and 8 TMSs. One such homologue, RcnA (YohM; TC# 2.A.113.1.1) of E. coli (274 aas) has 6 putative transmembrane segments (TMSs) in a 3 + 3 arrangement with a large hydrophilic loop between putativeTMSs 3 and 4. Several homologues of RcnA (e.g.
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NELF homologues exist in some metazoans (e.g. insects and vertebrates) but have not been found in plants, yeast, or nematodes (worms).
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VAP includes the whole family of protein homologues in all species. For example, baker's yeast expresses two VAPs: Scs2 and Scs22.
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Mammalian homologues (e.g., 2.A.82.1.2) similarly exhibit broad substrate specificity, transporting the same compounds, possibly by an anion:anion exchange mechanism.
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Glutathione or its homologues, e.g. homoglutathione in Fabaceae; hydroxymethylglutathione in Poaceae are the major water-soluble non-protein thiol compounds present in plant tissue and account for 1-2% of the total sulfur. The content of glutathione in plant tissue ranges from 0.1 - 3 mM. Cysteine is the direct precursor for the synthesis of glutathione (and its homologues).
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In some of the homologues found in other bacteria, SgaB domains are fused C-terminal to the SgaT domains. For example, this is true of putative transporters in Vibrio cholerae, Pasteurella multocida and Mycoplasma pulmonis. Homologues of SgaB and SgaA, but not SgaT, are also found in transcriptional activator proteins where they function in regulation rather than sugar transport.
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Homologues of 109 amino acyl residues (aas), which also have 3 putative TMSs, are encoded in the genomes of Xylella fastidiosa strains.
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The VBP1 gene is located at Xq28. Homologues are known to exist between human VBP1 and proteins in mice, Drosophila and C. elegans.
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3.1 A resolution structure of a eukaryotic SWEET transporter in a homotrimer (5CTG, OsSWEET2). Each different color represents one subunit. Many bacterial homologues have only 3 TMSs and are half sized, but they nevertheless are members of the SWEET family with a single 3 TMS repeat unit. Other bacterial homologues have 7 TMSs as do most eukaryotic proteins in this family.
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They exhibit statistically significant sequence similarity to two families of putative heme export systems and one family of cytochrome-containing electron carriers and have biogenesis. YedZ homologues can function as heme-binding proteins that facilitate or regulate oxidoreduction, transmembrane electron flow and transport. Homologues of YedZ are found in a variety of bacteria, including magnetotactic bacteria and cyanobacteria where YedZ domains are fused C-terminal to magnetosome transporters of the MFS superfamily (TC# 2.A.1) and to electron carriers of the DsbD family (TC# 5.A.1), respectively. YedZ homologues are found in animals where one includes a human 6 TMS epithelial plasma membrane antigen that is expressed at high levels in prostate cancer cells. Even more distant homologues may include the transmembrane domain within members of the gp91phoxNADPH oxidase associated cytochrome b558 (CytB) family (TC #5.B.2).
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Rsks are serine/threonine kinases and are activated by the MAPK/ERK pathway. There are two known mammalian homologues of S6 Kinase: S6K1 and S6K2.
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1 - 1.C.97.3.8. Pleurotolysins A are not homologous to Pleurotolysins B. While some homologues depend on the presence of both constituents for pore formation, as noted for both pleurotolysin and ostreolysin, some homologues of both A and B can form pores without the other. While Pleurotolysin B is in the MACPF superfamily (TC# 1.C.39) while Pleurotolysin A is in the Aegerolysin superfamily.
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Once the human genome was sequenced, innexin homologues were identified in humans and then in other vertebrates, indicating their ubiquitous distribution in the animal kingdom. These homologues were called "pannexins" (from the Greek pan - all, throughout, and Latin nexus - connection, bond). However, increasing evidence suggests that pannexins do not form gap junctions unless overexpressed in tissue and thus, differ functionally from innexins.Dahl G. & Harris A. 2009.
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Although it is an XY system, the platypus' sex chromosomes share no homologues with eutherian sex chromosomes. Instead, homologues with eutherian sex chromosomes lie on the platypus chromosome 6, which means that the eutherian sex chromosomes were autosomes at the time that the monotremes diverged from the therian mammals (marsupials and eutherian mammals). However, homologues to the avian DMRT1 gene on platypus sex chromosomes X3 and X5 suggest that it is possible the sex-determining gene for the platypus is the same one that is involved in bird sex-determination. More research must be conducted in order to determine the exact sex determining gene of the platypus.
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3 - 1.C.97.1.9 while homologues of Pleurotolysin A are found under TC#s 1.C.97.2.1 - 1.C.97.2.4 and TC#s 1.C.97.3.
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Thus, the eukaryotic proteins are usually larger than the prokaryotic homologues. These proteins exhibit 10-13 putative transmembrane α-helical spanners (TMSs) depending on the protein.
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Yeast ESCRT-I consists of three protein subunits, VPS23, VPS28, and VPS37. In humans, ESCRT-I comprises TSG101, VPS28, and one of four potential human VPS37 homologues.
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At least four mammalian sialidase homologues have been described in the human genome (see NEU1, NEU2, NEU3, NEU4). Sialidases may act as pathogenic factors in microbial infections.
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Homologues are sometimes known to display promiscuity towards each other's main reactions. This crosswise promiscuity has been most studied with members of the alkaline phosphatase superfamily, which catalyse hydrolytic reaction on the sulfate, phosphonate, monophosphate, diphosphate or triphosphate ester bond of several compounds. Despite the divergence the homologues have a varying degree of reciprocal promiscuity: the differences in promiscuity are due to mechanisms involved, particularly the intermediate required.
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Both of those mutants and the wild type plants were found to have a sensitivity to AtPep1, a damage associated molecular pattern peptide. However, when both mutations occur a double mutant pepr1/pepr2 plant is completely insensitive to the AtPep1. These plants further fail to recognize AtPep2 and AtPep3, distinct homologues of AtPep1, which led Elzbieta Krol to the conclusion that the homologues PEPR1 and PEPR2 control their perception as well.
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REX1, which is short for, required for excision 1, is required for DNA repair in the single- celled, photosynthetic algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, and has homologues in other eukaryotes.
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Two orthologs for the DmX gene have been discovered in humans, DMXL1 and DMXL2. The duplication event that resulted in the two homologues likely occurred in early vertebrates.
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Distant homologues may be present in plants, ciliates and bacteria, Synechocystis and Escherichia coli, so at least some domains within E-ClC family proteins have an ancient origin.
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2CD-5EtO is a homologue of the psychedelic phenethylamine 2C-D, where the 5-methoxy group of 2C-D has been lengthened to an ethoxy group. 2CD-5EtO is a representative example of the so-called "tweetio" compounds discovered by Alexander Shulgin and briefly mentioned in his book PiHKAL. They are homologues of the 2C family of drugs, where either one or both of the methoxy groups at the 2,5-positions of the aromatic ring have been replaced by ethoxy. The term tweetio was derived phonetically from the sound of the "2-ETO" derivatives. Many tweetio derivatives of various 2C drugs have been synthesized and tested, including the 2-ethoxy homologues 2CD-2EtO, 2CB-2EtO, 2CI-2EtO, 2CT-2EtO, 2CT2-2EtO, 2CT4-2EtO and 2CT7-2EtO, the 5-ethoxy homologues 2CD-5EtO, 2CE-5EtO, 2CB-5EtO, 2CT-5EtO and 2CT2-5EtO, and the 2,5-diethoxy homologues 2CD-diEtO, 2CB-diEtO and 2CT2-diEtO.
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In the industrial setting, sebacic acid and its homologues such as azelaic acid can be used as a monomer for nylon 610, plasticizers, lubricants, hydraulic fluids, cosmetics, candles, etc.
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Adhesins are proteins that are used to colonize a surface, often a mucosal surface in the case of pathogenic bacteria. N-glycosyltransferase homologues have been found in pathogenic gammaproteobacteria, such as Yersinia and other pasteurellaceae. These homologues are very similar to the Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae enzyme and can glycosylate the Haemophilus influenzae HMW1A adhesin. N-glycosyltransferases may be a novel glycoengineering tool, considering that they do not require a lipid carrier to perform their function.
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There are also GCN2 homologues in Neurospora crassa, C. elegans, Drosophila melanogaster and mice. Thus, GCN2 may be the most widespread and founding member of the eIF-2α kinase subfamily.
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Homologues, natural kinds and the evolution of modularity. American Zoologist, 36:36–43. and their joint writingWagner, G. and Altenberg, L. 1996a. Perspective: complex adaptations and the evolution of evolvability.
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The mouse anillin gene is located on Chr9. There are also numerous anillin-like protein homologues found outside of metazoans. In Schizosaccharomyces pombe (fission yeast), there are Mid1p and Mid2p.
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EMC proteins are evolutionarily conserved in eukaryotes. No homologues are reported in prokaryotes. Therefore, the EMC has been suggested to have its evolutionary roots in the last eukaryote common ancestor (LECA).
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The exact evolutionary origins of biological modularity has been debated since the 1990s. In the mid 1990s, Günter WagnerGP Wagner. 1996. "Homologues, Natural Kinds and the Evolution of Modularity". American Zoologist.
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Palaeontographica (A), 228, 129-142.Bjerring, H. C. (1994). The evolutionary origin and homologues of the supracochlear lamina: a contribution to our knowledge of mammalian ancestry. Acta Zoologica, 75, 359-369.
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Flp homologues are included in TCDB under TC# 3.A.7.13.1 (pXO1-63) and TC# 3.A.7.15.1 (Flp-1). As in March 2016, their precise functions appear to be unknown.
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Homologues include: (1) several thiol-disulfide exchange proteins (i.e., TC# 5.A.1.1.1) (2) the cytochrome c-type biogenesis proteins, CcdA (TC# 5.A.1.2.1) of Paracoccus pantotrophus and Bacillus subtilis.
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Autophagin-1 (Atg4/Apg4) is a unique cysteine protease responsible for the cleavage of the carboxyl terminus of Atg8/Apg8/Aut7, a reaction essential for its lipidation during autophagy.Development by self-digestion: molecular mechanisms and biological functions of autophagy by Levine B, Klionsky DJ. in Dev Cell. 2004 Apr;6(4):463-77. Review. Human Atg4 homologues cleave the carboxyl termini of the three human Atg8 homologues, microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3), GABARAP, and GATE-16.HsAtg4B/HsApg4B/autophagin-1 cleaves the carboxyl termini of three human Atg8 homologues and delipidates microtubule-associated protein light chain 3- and GABAA receptor-associated protein-phospholipid conjugates byTanida I, Sou YS, Ezaki J, Minematsu- Ikeguchi N, Ueno T, Kominami E. in J Biol Chem.
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S Nirasawa, T Nishino, M Katahira, S Uesugi, Z Hu, Y Kurihara. Structures of heat-stable and unstable homologues of the sweet protein mabinlin. Eur J Biochem 1994, 223(3):989-95.
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At least 20 different chromosomal regions have been linked to type 1 diabetes (T1D) susceptibility in humans, using genome screening, candidate gene testing, and studies of human homologues of mouse susceptibility genes.
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The latter would be at the origin of a surprising anecdote. At Vilacoublay, during the campaign trial, which consisted of dropping mannequins as homologues of paratroopers, one of them would not open.
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6 and 2.A.123.1.18), two out of seven homologues in Caenorhabditis elegans (i.e., TC# 2.A.123.1.10) and the single copy human protein (SLC50A1 of Homo sapiens, TC# 2.A.123.1.4).
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Acid fuchsine is a mixture of homologues of basic fuchsine, modified by addition of sulfonic groups. While this yields twelve possible isomers, all of them are satisfactory despite slight differences in their properties.
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These proteins are distantly related to the ionotropic glutamate-binding protein of the N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor of man. Homologues include a putative cold shock inducible protein and a SecY stabilizing protein.
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It has been shown that new protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) activity for EPPase. Also, EPPase and its closest homologues can be grouped into a distinct subfamily in the large 2H-Phosphatase superfamily of proteins.
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Yeast ATP synthase is one of the best-studied eukaryotic ATP synthases; and five F1, eight FO subunits, and seven associated proteins have been identified. Most of these proteins have homologues in other eukaryotes.
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Following are lists of surface anatomical features in humans and other animals. Sorted roughly from head to tail, cranial to caudal. Homologues share a bullet point and are separated by commas. Subcomponents are nested.
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Close homologues have been found in plants, earthworm, Caenorhabditis elegans (F52H2.11), Hydra, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (YKL056c) , Schizosaccharomyces pombe (SpAC1F12.02c) and protozoa like Trypanosoma brucei . Mammalian TCTP is ubiquitously expressed in various tissues and cell types.
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Unique to Chordopoxviridae, LSDV contains homologues of interleukin-10 (IL-10), IL-1 binding proteins, G protein-coupled CC chemokine receptor, and epidermal growth factor-like protein, which are found in other poxvirus genera.
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Interaction between NrrF and the 5′ untranslated region of the petABC mRNA results in its repression. NrrF appears to be restricted to the Neisseria species and no homologues have yet been identified in other species.
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Homologues of MicF RNA have been characterised by Southern blotting in a variety of bacteria including Salmonella typhimurium, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. MicF has also been identified computationally in Yersinia pestis and Yersinia enterocolitica.
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In Drosophila, notch interaction with its cell-bound ligands (delta, serrate) establishes an intercellular signaling pathway that plays a key role in development. Homologues of the notch-ligands have also been identified in humans, but precise interactions between these ligands and the human notch homologues remain to be determined. This protein is cleaved in the trans-Golgi network, and presented on the cell surface as a heterodimer. This protein functions as a receptor for membrane bound ligands, and may play multiple roles during development.
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There is much evidence indicating that Atg1 homologues from other, multicellular organisms are required for autophagy as well but Recent work however also showed that there are differences and additional functions compared to the yeast model.
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Another has SulP fused to Rhodanese, a sulfate:cyanide sulfotransferase (TC# 2.A.53.9.1). This SulP homologue is presumably a sulfate transporter. Homologues currently characterized in the SulP family can be found in the Transporter Classification Database.
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Rabo Kabara Saminou Gado (born 23 May 1986 in Agadez) is a Nigerien footballer who for FUS Rabat.1 LISTING DES CONTRATS DES JOUEURS ET DES ENTRAINEURS HOMOLOGUES He is also the member of Niger national team.
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Mediator of RNA polymerase II transcription subunit 30 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MED30 gene. It represents subunit Med30 of the Mediator complex and is metazoan-specific, having no homologues in yeasts.
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Homologues are found in a variety of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, yeast, fungi, plants, animals and viruses. The E. coli genome encodes three paralogues, YbhL, YbhM and YccA. Distant homologues found in Drosophilia melanogaster and the rat are the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor- associated protein (NMDARAI) and the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor glutamate binding chain, respectively. Two others are the rat neural membrane protein 35 and the Arabidopsis thaliana Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) protein capable of suppressing Bax-induced cell death in yeast.
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The various paralogues in a mammal have differing but overlapping substrate specificities and tissue distributions as summarized by Hagenbuch and Meier. These authors also provide a phylogenetic tree of the mammalian members of the family, showing that they fall into five recognizable subfamilies, four of which exhibit deep branching sub-subfamilies. However, all sequences within a subfamily are >60% identical while those between subfamilies are >40% identical. As also shown by Hagenbuch and Meier, all but one (OatP4a1) of the mammalian homologues cluster together, separately from all other animal (insect and worm) homologues.
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Thirteen are ORFans, that is they do not have any detectable homologues in current sequence databases. The Sputnik genome has a high AT-content (73%), similar to that of APMV. It contains 16 predicted hairpin loops, all but two of which fall between ORFs. Several other homologues such as those of a helicase-primase, a packaging ATPase, an insertion sequence transposase DNA-binding subunit, and a Zn-ribbon protein, were detected in the Global Ocean Survey environmental data set, suggesting that virophages could be a currently unknown family of viruses.
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In Drosophilia, notch interaction with its cell-bound ligands (delta, serrate) establishes an intercellular signaling pathway that plays a key role in development. Homologues of the notch-ligands have also been identified in human, but precise interactions between these ligands and the human notch homologues remain to be determined. This protein is cleaved in the trans-Golgi network, and presented on the cell surface as a heterodimer. This protein functions as a receptor for membrane bound ligands, and may play a role in vascular, renal and hepatic development.
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ArsA homologues are found in bacteria, archaea and eukarya (both animals and plants), but there are far fewer of them in the databases than ArsB proteins, suggesting that many ArsB homologues function by a pmf-dependent mechanism, probably an arsenite:H+ antiport mechanism. In the E. coli ArsAB transporter, both ArsA and ArsB recognize and bind their anionic substrates. A model has been proposed in which ArsA alternates between two virtually exclusive conformations. In one, (ArsA1) the A1 site is closed but the A2 site is open, but in the other (ArsA2) the opposite is true.
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Since their discovery in S. cerevisiae, septin homologues have been found in other eukaryotic species, including filamentous fungi. Septins in filamentous fungi display a variety of different shapes within single cells, where they control aspects of filamentous morphology.
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This process generates single stranded DNA filaments coated by RAD51 and DMC1 which invade the homologous chromosomes, forming inter-axis bridges, and resulting in the pairing/co-alignment of homologues (to a distance of ~400 nm in mice).
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The C21orf59 gene lies within the critical region of Down Syndrome. There are no clear paralogs in humans, but the gene has homologues widely conserved among animals, fungi, and algae. A phylogenetic tree showing the wide conservation c21orf59.
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In molecular biology, YecM refers to a protein domain found in Escherichia coli. It is a conserved, hypothetical protein with sequence homologues found exclusively in bacteria. Several bacterial YecM proteins in this particular family are of unknown function.
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Piperidine homologues had comparable affinity & potency spreads to their respective phenyltropane analogues. Without as much of a discrepancy between the differing isomers of the piperidine class with respect to affinity and binding values as had in the phenyltropanes.
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Apart from LC3, GABARAP and GATE-16 the most recently but less well characterized mammalian homologue is ATGL8. Little is known about its actual activation process except for its interaction with one of the mammalian ATG4 homologues, hATG4A.
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Distant homologues of DASS family proteins may include members of the Ars (arsenite exporter) (TC# 3.A.4) family as well as the NhaB (TC #2.A.34) and NhaC (TC #2.A.35) Na+/H+ antiporter families.
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The proteins are of about 480 amino acyl residues (aas) in length and have 10-12 putative transmembrane segments (TMSs). Functionally characterized homologues are in the DcuC (TC #2.A.61) and ArsB (TC #2.A.4) families.
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A number of the proteins in this family are classified as non-peptidase homologues as they have been found experimentally to be without peptidase activity, or lack amino acid residues that are believed to be essential for catalytic activity.
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In this TC family, both constituents of pleurotolysin and ostreolysin (A and B) are included under TC#s 1.C.97.1.1 and 1.C.97.1.2, respectively. However, homologues of Pleurotolysin B are found under TC#s 1.C.97.1.
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As given in the example of 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues, branched hydrocarbons can be chiral. Chiral saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and tocopherol.Meierhenrich, Uwe. Amino Acids and the Asymmetry of Life .
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Lefty is conserved in all vertebrates and many species have more than one homologue. Humans and mice, for instance have two homologues, Lefty 1 and Lefty 2, whose differential expression leads to distinct purposes while the mechanism of action is conserved.
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MSP genes have been identified across widely diverged nematode species. They all have more than 60% sequence identity. Proteins with limited sequence similarity were identified in species from plants to mammals. One of the homologues is VAP33 from Aplysia californica.
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Acridine and its homologues are weakly basic. Acridine is a photobase which has a ground state pKa of 5.1, similar to that of pyridine, and an excited state pKa of 10.6.Joseph R. Lakowicz. Principles of Fluorescence Spectroscopy 3rd edition.
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Sequence comparisons with recently cloned mammalian homologues suggest that these genes consist of a family that is responsible for regulation of cellular proliferation, differentiation, and antioxidant functions. Two transcript variants encoding two different isoforms have been found for this gene.
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Homologues are found in plants, animals and fungi including C. elegans, D. melanogaster, H. sapiens, A. thaliana, S. cerevisiae and S. pombe. These proteins are distantly related to MATE and PST family members and therefore are believed to be secondary carriers.
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Homologues of AS-C in other animals, including humans and other vertebrates, have similar functions. Genes of the AS-C interact with the Notch pathway in both their proneural functions as well as their specification of gut and muscle cells.
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Cucurbiturils were first synthesized in 1905 by Robert Behrend, by condensing glycoluril with formaldehyde, but their structure was not elucidated until 1981. The field expanded as cucurbituril homologues CB5, CB7, and CB8 were discovered and isolated by Kim Kimoon in 2000, which laid the foundation for the development of cucurbituril-based chemistry and supramolecular chemistry. Cucurbituril homologues display unique chemical properties as macrocyclic host molecules with exceptionally high binding affinities, and they have found use in host-guest chemistry and formation of supramolecular structures/assembly. This brought more attention to the field, allowing CB10 and CB14 to later be discovered.
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Natural resistance-associated macrophage proteins (NRAMPs) are members of the metal ion (Mn2+-iron) transporter family (TC# 2.A.55). The NRAMP family is a member of the large APC Superfamily of secondary carriers. Homologues of this family are found in various yeasts, plants, animals, archaea, and Gram- negative and Gram-positive bacteria termed "natural resistance-associated" macrophage proteins because one of the animal homologues plays a role in resistance to intracellular bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Leishmania donovani and Mycobacterium bovis. The natural history of SLC11 genes in vertebrates has been discussed by Neves et al. (2011).
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Not only have analogues for all major cytoskeletal proteins in eukaryotes been found in prokaryotes, cytoskeletal proteins with no known eukaryotic homologues have also been discovered. Cytoskeletal elements play essential roles in cell division, protection, shape determination, and polarity determination in various prokaryotes.
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The precise function of the YecM domain remains to be elucidated. However, YecM structural homologues reveal that all the proteins bind a divalent metal cation. This comparison suggests that YecM may be a metal-binding protein and therefore may function as an enzyme.
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Of the 21 genes it contains, eight encode proteins that have homologues. Of these eight, three are thought to be derived from mamavirus or mimivirus. This indicates that Sputnik can participate in gene- transfer processes and mediate lateral gene transfer between giant viruses.
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It was first discovered in yeast and homologues were identified in human, mouse, rat, insects, plants, parasites, and virus. The family of these proteins is referred to as STI1 (stress inducible protein) and can be divided into yeast, plant, and animal STI1 (Hop).
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Homologues of Nm23 in M. xanthus have been closed and characterized as a nucleoside diphosphate kinase (ndk gene) and seems to be essential for M. xanthus growth. During M. xanthus development, nucleoside diphosphate kinase activity has also been shown to drastically decrease.
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YedZ (TC# 5.B.7) of E. coli has been examined topologically and has 6 transmembrane segments (TMSs) with both the N- and C-termini localized to the cytoplasm. von Rozycki et al. 2004 identified homologues of YedZ in bacteria and animals.
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In Xenopus laevis it is located within the introns of ribosomal protein S1 snoR75 from Arabidopsis thaliana and homologues in rice Oryza sativa and other plants are alternatively known as U15, and, despite a significantly shorter sequence length, appear to be related.
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This motif overlaps with transmembrane domain VII, and its identity is NSXXNPXX[Y,H]XXX[Y,F]XWF. TAAR1 and its homologues have ligand pocket vectors that utilize sets of 35 amino acids known to be involved directly in receptor-ligand interaction.
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This hypothesis is supported by studies on the bacterial NRAMP homologues which exhibit extremely high selectivity for Mn2+ over Fe2+, Zn2+ and other divalent cations. Regulation of these transporters in bacteria can occur through Fur, OxyR, and most commonly a DtxR homolog, MntR.
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They have been sequenced from several mammals and from the worm, Caenorhabditis elegans, as well as the fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Humans have at least two RFC family paralogues, and C. elegans has three. All homologues exhibit a high degree of sequence similarity with each other.
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RLI and its homologues in yeast and Drosophila have two major identified functions: translation initiation and ribosome biogenesis. In addition, human RLI is a known inhibitor of RNAse L. This was the first activity identified and the source of its name (RNAse L Inhibitor).
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There are many similar structures MenD. Though it is commonly found in E. Coli, but can be found in other organisms as well. Bacillus subtilis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis are two homologues. All of the organisms share something in common, being that catalyze decarboxylation reactions.
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The Nicotinamide Ribonucleoside (NR) Uptake Permease (PnuC) Family (TC# 4.B.1) is a family of transmembrane transporters that is part of the TOG superfamily. Close PnuC homologues are found in a wide range of Gram-negative and Gram- positive bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes.
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Studies have indicated that Ndt80 homologues also play a role in female sexual development in fungi species other than the more commonly studied Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mutations in vib-1 have been found to affect the timing and development of female reproductive structures prior to fertilization.
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The results of these findings suggest that UNC-5 homologues make up a primary method of netrin-1 signal transduction in the adult spinal cord. This shows that netrin-1 plays a major role in the adult brain and has the potential for therapeutic applications.
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Eukaryotic recombinases that are homologues of RecA are also widespread in eukaryotic organisms. For example, in fission yeast and humans, RecA homologues promote duplex-duplex DNA-strand exchange needed for repair of many types of DNA lesions. Another indication that DNA damages are a major problem for life is that cells make large investments in DNA repair processes. As pointed out by Hoeijmakers, repairing just one double-strand break could require more than 10,000 ATP molecules, as used in signaling the presence of the damage, the generation of repair foci, and the formation (in humans) of the RAD51 nucleofilament (an intermediate in homologous recombinational repair).
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Notch protein family members play a role in a variety of developmental processes by controlling cell fate decisions. The Notch signaling pathway is an evolutionarily conserved intercellular signaling pathway that regulates interactions between physically adjacent cells In Drosophilia, notch interacts with its cell-bound ligands (delta and serrate), and establishes an intercellular signaling pathway that then plays a key role in development. Homologues of the notch-ligands have also been identified in humans, but precise interactions between these ligands and the human notch homologues remain to be determined. The notch protein is cleaved in the trans-Golgi network, and then presented on the cell surface as a heterodimer.
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Each lobe consists of two tetramers, each consisting of the αβδγ subunits as described earlier. The δ subunit is indistinguishable from cellular calmodulin, while the α and β subunits are close homologues of each other which are proposed to have arisen by gene duplication and subsequent differentiation.
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15 Apr. 2014. Mixl1 transcription factor preferentially binds to the DNA sequence TAAT on the Mix gene. Mixl1 is part of the Mix/Bix family of transcription factors, with Mixl1 being the only member identified in humans. The Xenopus Mix gene and human Mix genese are homologues.
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The C-terminus portion of the molecule is called the SPR domain (serine, proline-rich). GRASP55 is more closely related to homologues in other species, suggesting that GRASP55 is ancestral to GRASP65. GRASP55 is found associated with the medial and trans cisternae of the Golgi apparatus.
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Modules are complex character units that are tightly associated, such as a flower.Wagner, Günter P. "Homologues, natural kinds and the evolution of modularity." American Zoologist 36.1 (1996): 36-43. It is hypothesized that organisms with high correlations between traits in a module have the most efficient functions.
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Most functionally characterized members of the family are ammonium uptake transporters. Some, but not other Amt proteins also transport methylammonium. Detailed phylogenetic analyses of plant homologues have been published. In E. coli, NH4+, rather than NH3, may be the substrate of AmtB, but controversy still exists.
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DNMT3A is a 130 kDa protein encoded by 23 exons found on chromosome 2p23 in humans. There exists a 98% homology between human and murine homologues. Due to splicing, there exist two main murine RNA isoforms, Dnmt3a1 and Dnmt3a2. These isoforms exist in different cell types.
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It has been suggested also that the difference in the heat stability of the different mabinlin homologues is due to the presence of an arginine residue (heat-stable homologue) or a glutamine (heat-unstable homologue) at position 47 in the B-chain. The sequences of Mabilins cluster with Napins ().
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Mixl1 plays a role in mesoderm patterning and tissue specification at gastrulation. It marks cells destined to be mesoderm and endoderm. Mixl1 expression is required for both mesoderm development and hematopoiesis. Mixl1 homologues are also a necessary intermediate for BMP4-induced ventral mesoderm patterning and differentiating ES cells.
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It has also been implicated to have an effect in tumor cell proliferation and antiapoptosis. ABCE1 is an essential and highly conserved protein that is required for both eukaryotic translation initiation as well as ribosome biogenesis. The most studied homologues are Rli1p in yeast and Pixie in Drosophila.
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The smaller proteins are generally of prokaryotic origin while the larger ones are of eukaryotic origin. Most of them possess twelve transmembrane α-helical spanners but have a re-entrant loop involving TMSs 2 and 3. The APC Superfamily was established to encompass a wider range of homologues.
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Genes of the ASC and Ngn families, and possibly members of the family of ato homologues, have a similar proneural function in vertebrates to that of their Drosophila counterparts, whereas other neural bHLH genes are involved in specifying neuronal fates or in neuronal differentiation, but have no proneural role.
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This list of related male and female reproductive organs shows how the male and female reproductive organs and the development of the reproductive system are related, sharing a common developmental path. This makes them biological homologues. These organs differentiate into the respective sex organs in males and females.
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RCS-4 is a potent cannabinoid receptor agonist, with EC50 values of 146 nM for human CB1 receptors, and 46 nM for human CB2 receptors. All methoxyphenyl regioisomers, and N-butyl homologues of RCS-4 and its regioisomers also display potent agonist activities at CB1 and CB2 receptors.
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It is named after the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. In the periodic table of the elements, copernicium is a d-block transactinide element and a group 12 element. During reactions with gold, it has been shown to be an extremely volatile substance, so much so that it is possibly a gas or a volatile liquid at standard temperature and pressure. Copernicium is calculated to have several properties that differ from its lighter homologues in group 12, zinc, cadmium and mercury; due to relativistic effects, it may give up its 6d electrons instead of its 7s ones, and it may have more similarities to the noble gases such as radon rather than its group 12 homologues.
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An analysis of the sequences and structures of haloalkane dehalogenase and their homologues divided the family into three subfamilies, which differ mainly in the composition of their catalytic pentad and cap domain. As of late 2007, 25 structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with PDB accession codes , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .
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Gallium is not essential for the human body, but its relation to iron(III) allows it to become bound to proteins that transport and store iron. Gallium can also stimulate metabolism. Indium and its heavier homologues have no biological role, although indium salts in small doses, like gallium, can stimulate metabolism.
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Just as Dap1 is required for the action of Erg11 in the synthesis of ergosterol in yeast, PGRMC1 regulates the Cyp51-catalyzed demethylation step in human cholesterol synthesis. Thus, PGRMC1 and its homologues bind and regulate P450 proteins, and it has been likened to “a helping hand for P450 proteins”.
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The endothelial protease vasohibin uses a cysteine as the nucleophile, but a serine to coordinate the histidine base. Despite the serine being a poor acid, it is still effective in orienting the histidine in the catalytic triad. Some homologues alternatively have a threonine instead of serine at the acid location.
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The WEE1 gene has two known homologues in humans, WEE1 (also known as WEE1A) and WEE2 (WEE1B). The corresponding proteins are Wee1-like protein kinase and Wee1-like protein kinase 2 which act on the human Cdk1 homologue Cdk1. The homologue to Wee1 in budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is called Swe1.
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Most of the members of the box C/D family function in directing site-specific 2'-O-methylation of substrate RNAs. snoRNA snR60 was initially discovered using a computational screen of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome, subsequent experimental screens discovered plant homologues Z15, Z230, Z193 and J17 and human U80/SNORD80.
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The first rylenes, with an example of a diimide derivative at bottom-left. A rylene dye is a dye based on the rylene framework of naphthalene units linked in peri-positions. In homologues additional naphthalene units are added, forming compounds — or poly(peri-naphthalene)s — such as perylene, terrylene and quarterrylene.
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500x500px In more specialized applications, diazomethane and homologues are used in Arndt-Eistert synthesis and the Büchner–Curtius–Schlotterbeck reaction for homologation. Büchner-Curtius- Schlotterbeck Reaction. Diazomethane reacts with alcohols or phenols in presence of boron trifluoride (BF3) to give methyl ethers. Diazomethane is also frequently used as a carbene source.
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The arsenical resistance-3 (ACR3) family (TC# 2.A.59) is a member of the BART superfamily. Based on operon analyses, ARC3 homologues may function either as secondary carriers or as primary active transporters, similarly to the ArsB and ArsAB families. In the latter case ATP hydrolysis again energizes transport.
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A licensing factor is a protein or complex of proteins that allows an origin of replication to begin DNA replication at that site. Licensing factors primarily occur in eukaryotic cells, since bacteria use simpler systems to initiate replication. However, many archaea use homologues of eukaryotic licensing factors to initate replication.
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Actin-binding Rho-activating protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ABRA gene. The mouse and rat homologues are known as STARS (striated muscle activator of Rho signalling) and MS1 (myocyte stress 1) respectively. MS1/STARS is regulated by MyoD during myogenic differentiation of the C2C12 cell line.
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In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the GrpE homologue, Mge1, is found in mitochondria. Mge1 is a nucleotide exchange factor important for shuttling proteins across mitochondrial membranes and in protein folding, it interacts with a yeast homologue of DnaK. Mge1 has a similar role as a thermosensor. Yeast have additional GrpE homologues including Sil1p and Fes1p.
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What homologues can be identified? The general conclusion from the study by Butler, et al., is that some of the major theories for the mammalian brain also appear to be valid for the avian brain. The structures assumed to be critical for consciousness in mammalian brains have homologous counterparts in avian brains.
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The sympathomimetic effects may in turn be caused by 5-MeO-AMT's structural similarity to the amphetamines. As noted by Alexander Shulgin, the alpha- methylated tryptamines can be looked at as the tryptamine homologues of the amphetamines (alpha-methylated phenethylamines). Mechanisms of action such as inhibition of monoamine reuptake may be involved also.
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At higher temperatures homologues of silicon tetrachloride can be prepared by the reaction: :Si + 2 SiCl4 → Si3Cl8 In fact, the chlorination of silicon is accompanied by the formation of hexachlorodisilane Si2Cl6. A series of compounds containing up to six silicon atoms in the chain can be separated from the mixture using fractional distillation.
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Prokaryotic ABC exporters are abundant and have close homologues in eukaryotes. This class of transporters is studied based on the type of substrate that is transported. One class is involved in the protein (e.g. toxins, hydrolytic enzymes, S-layer proteins, lantibiotics, bacteriocins, and competence factors) export and the other in drug efflux.
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The C-terminus helps bind acetyl CoA and differs among NATs including prokaryotic homologues. NAT1 and NAT2 have different but overlapping substrate specificities. Human NAT1 preferentially acetylates 4-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), 4 amino salicylic acid, sulfamethoxazole, and sulfanilamide. Human NAT2 preferentially acetylates isoniazid (treatment for tuberculosis), hydralazine, procainamide, dapsone, aminoglutethimide, and sulfamethazine.
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Originally identified as a regulator of genes involved in nitrogen metabolism and assimilation under nitrogen limiting conditions, E. coli σ54 has since been shown to play important regulatory roles in a variety of other cellular processes. Similarly, σ54 homologues in other species regulate a wide range of processes, including flagellar synthesis and virulence.
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MmgR homologues were found in most alpha-proteobacteria. The Rho- independent terminator and a single stranded region 10-mer (UUUCCUCCCU) are completely conserved. Hence, it was proposed to define a new family of alpha- proteobacterial sRNA: alpha-r8 of which mmgR is a member. RNA binding protein Hfq is binding and stabilising mmgR.
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8) and the functionally uncharacterized DNA damage-inducible protein F (DinF; TC# 2.A.66.1.4) of E. coli. The family includes hundreds of functionally uncharacterized but sequenced homologues from bacteria, archaea, and all eukaryotic kingdoms. A representative list of proteins belonging to the MATE family can be found in the Transporter Classification Database.
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Examples of viruses with similar amino acid identity include suipoxvirus, yatapoxvirus, and leporipoxvirus. In terminal regions, however, collinearity is interrupted. In these regions, poxvirus homologues are either absent or share a lower percentage of amino acid identity. Most of these differences involve genes that are likely associated with viral virulence and host range.
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JWH-018, CP 47,497 and the C6, C8 and C9 homologues of CP 47,497 have been illegal in Germany since January 22, 2009. Since November 26, 2016 about 80-90% of the substances belonging to the group of synthetic cannabinoids are illegal in Germany as the law does not cover all chemical structures.
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Na+/H+ antiporter A (NhaA) family (TC# 2.A.33) contains a number of bacterial sodium-proton antiporter (SPAP) proteins. These are integral membrane proteins that catalyse the exchange of H+ for Na+ in a manner that is highly pH dependent. Homologues have been sequenced from a number of bacteria and archaea.
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These proteins and their homologues are 400-500 aas long and exhibit 10-13 TMSs. They catalyze Na+/H+ and Li+/H+ antiport. They exhibit activity at basic pH (8-10) with no activity at pH 7.5. The Amylolytica antiporter has low Na+ affinity and has optimal activity at 600 mM Na+.
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Although sequence-based methods reveal the prevalence of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria, the results tend to be underestimates of the magnitude of this mechanism, since sequences obtained from donors whose sequence characteristics are similar to those of the recipient will avoid detection. Comparisons of completely sequenced genomes confirm that bacterial chromosomes are amalgams of ancestral and laterally acquired sequences. The hyperthermophilic Eubacteria Aquifex aeolicus and Thermotoga maritima each has many genes that are similar in protein sequence to homologues in thermophilic Archaea. 24% of Thermotoga's 1,877 ORFs and 16% of Aquifex's 1,512 ORFs show high matches to an Archaeal protein, while mesophiles such as E. coli and B. subtilis have far lesser proportions of genes that are most like Archaeal homologues.
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Mutations in the human homologues of the Mut proteins affect genomic stability, which can result in microsatellite instability (MSI), implicated in some human cancers. In specific, the hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancers (HNPCC or Lynch syndrome) are attributed to damaging germline variants in the genes encoding the MutS and MutL homologues MSH2 and MLH1 respectively, which are thus classified as tumour suppressor genes. One subtype of HNPCC, the Muir-Torre Syndrome (MTS), is associated with skin tumors. If both inherited copies (alleles) of a MMR gene bear damaging genetic variants, this results in a very rare and severe condition: the mismatch repair cancer syndrome (or constitutional mismatch repair deficiency, CMMR-D), manifesting as multiple occurrences of tumors at an early age, often colon and brain tumors.
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Mixl1 is functionally similar to the Xenopus Mix.1.# Cloning, expression analysis, and chromosomal localization of murine and human homologues of a Xenopus Mix gene. Robb, L., Hartley, L., Begley, C. G., Brodnicki, T. C., Copeland, N. G., Gilbert, D. J., Jenkins, N. A. and Elefanty, A. G. Dec. Dyn. 219, 497-504 (2000).
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These glands secrete mucus and a vaginal and vulval lubricant. They are homologous to the bulbourethral glands in the male. The lesser vestibular glands known as Skene's glands, are found on the anterior wall of the vagina. They are homologues of the male prostate gland and are also referred to as the female prostate.
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1) have N-terminal, 12 TMS, sensor domains that regulate the C-terminal kinase domains. The latter are homologous to the kinase domain of NtrB and other sensor kinases. The N-terminal sensor domains are homologous, but distantly related to members of the SSS. The closest homologues are PutP of E. coli (2.A.21.2.
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Low-energy σ-donation orbitals from the base to boron are present in these compounds, and the π-interaction from boron's lone pair to the Lewis base serves as the HOMO. Calculated electronic structure for a number of borylene complexes were compared with their isoelectronic homologues: carbone complexes (CL2) and nitrogen cation complexes ((N+)L2).
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While homology refers to the historical continuity of character identity, the term innovation refers to the origin of novel characters, i.e. the origin of novel homologues. Therefore, Wagner and Müller argue that the origin and maintenance of character identity is a central goal of evolutionary developmental biology.Müller, G. B., and G. P. Wagner. 1991.
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The gene encoding mDia1 is located on Chromosome 18 of Mus musculus and named Diap1. mDia1 is highly homologous to Drosophila diaphanous, regulating the cytokinetic ring during cytokinesis. Homologues in other species are known as well, like the human DIAP1, budding yeast Bni1 or fission yeast Cdc12p. The gene has been knocked-out in mice.
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Knockout of both progranulin homologues in a zebrafish model reduces axonal outgrowth. In primary cortical and motor neurons, progranulin regulates neuronal outgrowth and survival. In primary motor neurons, progranulin has been shown to increase neurite outgrowth by regulating the glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta. Progranulin may function as an autocrine growth factor in tumorigenesis.
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SgrS was originally discovered in E. coli but homologues have since been identified in other Gammaproteobacteria such as Salmonella enterica and members of the genus Citrobacter. A comparative genomics based target prediction approach that employs these homologs, has been developed and was used to predict the SgrS target, ptsI (b2416), which was subsequently verified experimentally.
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Mammalian Gpx1, GPx2 (this protein), Gpx3, and Gpx4 have been shown to be selenium-containing enzymes, whereas Gpx6 is a selenoprotein in humans with cysteine-containing homologues in rodents. In selenoproteins, the 21st amino acid selenocysteine is inserted in the nascent polypeptide chain during the process of translational recoding of the UGA stop codon.
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In molecular biology, the kinase binding protein CGI-121 family of proteins includes the kinase binding protein CGI-121 and its homologues. CGI-121 has been shown to bind to the p53-related protein kinase (PRPK). CGI-121 is part of a conserved protein complex, KEOPS. The KEOPS complex is involved in telomere uncapping and telomere elongation.
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TPTE is a member of a large class of membrane-associated phosphatases with substrate specificity for the 3-position phosphate of inositol phospholipids. TPTE is a primate-specific duplicate of the TPTE2 (TPIP) inositol phospholipd phosphatase; TPTE itself is predicted to lack phosphatase activity. TPTE and TPTE2 are the mammalian homologues to the subfamily of voltage sensitive phosphatases.
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OSBP is the founding member of the ORP (OSBP-related proteins) family of lipid transfer proteins. Mammals have 16 different ORPs, whereas the yeast S. cerevisiae genome encodes seven ORP homologues (Osh). ORP and Osh proteins contain a lipid transport domain called ORD (OSBP-related domain) encompassing the EQVSHHPP signature sequence. The ORD structure consists in a hydrophobic pocket.
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The potassium (K+) uptake permease (KUP) family (TC# 2.A.72) is a member of the APC superfamily of secondary carriers. Proteins of the KUP/HAK/KT family include the KUP (TrkD) protein of E. coli and homologues in both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. High affinity (20 μM) K+ uptake systems (Hak1, TC# 2.A.72.2.
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Reddy served as a member of the board of directors of NIEHS from 1990-1995. In 1993, he was awarded the Scientific Achievement Award by the American Cancer Society. He has published over 250 papers. The most notable of his findings are the molecular cloning and sequence determination of a number of viral oncogenes and their cellular homologues.
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1-Naphthol, or α-naphthol, is a fluorescent organic compound with the formula C10H7OH. It is a white solid. It is an isomer of 2-naphthol differing by the location of the hydroxyl group on the naphthalene ring. The naphthols are naphthalene homologues of phenol, with the hydroxyl group being more reactive than in the phenols.
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The Ry receptors and the IP3 receptors cluster separately on the RIR-CaC family tree. They both have homologues in Drosophila. Based on the phylogenetic tree for the family, the family probably evolved in the following sequence: # A gene duplication event occurred that gave rise to Ry and IP3 receptors in invertebrates. # Vertebrates evolved from invertebrates.
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Compared to shorter chain homologues such as DOM, DOET and DOPR which are all potent hallucinogens, DOBU has an even stronger 5-HT2 binding affinity but fails to substitute for hallucinogens in animals or produce hallucinogenic effects in humans, suggesting it has low efficacy and is thus an antagonist or weak partial agonist at the 5-HT2A receptor.
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These receptors are expressed in the basal regions of VNO, where they couple to G proteins to mediate inositol trisphosphate responses. Homologues have also been identified in fish, and the ligand specificity of one such receptor has been determined: a receptor from goldfish olfactory epithelium has been reported to bind basic amino acids, which are odorants for fish.
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Eye development is initiated by the master control gene PAX6, a homeobox gene with known homologues in humans (aniridia), mice (small eye), and Drosophila (eyeless). The PAX6 gene locus is a transcription factor for the various genes and growth factors involved in eye formation.Keller, A. M. V., "Embryonic Development of the Eye". Retrieved 22 April 2015.
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Latrophilins are a group of highly conserved G-protein coupled receptors from the adhesion G protein-coupled receptor family. These receptors were originally identified based on their ability to bind the spider venom alpha- latrotoxin. This conserved family of membrane proteins has up to three homologues in chordate species, including humans. The precise functions of latrophilins remain unknown.
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The Bacillus firmus transporter and several homologues examined have strongly charged, hydrophilic N-terminal domains (cytoplasmic) followed by a hydrophobic C-terminal domain with 5 putative transmembrane α-helical spanners. A central 100 residues resembles archaeal inositol monophosphate dehydrogenases. Kehres and Maguire suggest that the MgtE proteins are secondary carriers with inwardly directed polarity. Hattori et al.
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CDC25A is a member of the CDC25 family of dual-specificity phosphatases. Dual-specificity protein phosphatases remove phosphate groups from phosphorylated tyrosine and serine / threonine residues. They represent a subgroup of the tyrosine phosphatase family (as opposed to the serine/threonine phosphatase family). All mammals examined to date have three homologues of the ancestral Cdc25 gene (found e.g.
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2-Naphthol, or β-naphthol, is a fluorescent colorless (or occasionally yellow) crystalline solid with the formula C10H7OH. It is an isomer of 1-naphthol, differing by the location of the hydroxyl group on the naphthalene ring. The naphthols are naphthalene homologues of phenol, but more reactive. Both isomers are soluble in simple alcohols, ethers, and chloroform.
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Heme is an abundant source of iron in the human host, and P. aeruginosa is the only Pseudomonas species capable of causing infection in humans. Therefore, it is hypothesized that the PrrH RNA plays a role in P. aeruginosa's adaptability as a human pathogen. Both homologues inhibit translation of antR mRNA, which affects quorum sensing and virulence factor production.
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A new species of eosimiid primate, Eosimias paukkaungensis, from the latest middle Eocene of Pondaung, central Myanmar, was discovered in the early 2000s. The specimen consists of left and right mandibular fragments preserving only the M3, so that its generic status is provisional. The E. paukkaungensis fossil is much larger than homologues of the two Eosimias species from China.
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Pi3 blocks shaker B K+ channels expressed in Sf9 cell lines obtained from Spodoptera frugiperda. The human homologues of shaker B channels are the Kv1 channels. The affinity of the Pi3 for shaker B voltage- gated potassium channels was found to be low with a dissociation constant of 140 nM.The block was reversible and not voltage dependent.
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Many genes encoding FOX proteins have been identified. For example, the FOXF2 gene encodes forkhead box F2, one of many human homologues of the Drosophila melanogaster transcription factor forkhead. FOXF2 is expressed in the lung and placenta. Some FOX genes are downstream targets of the hedgehog signaling pathway, which plays a role in the development of basal cell carcinomas.
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However, arachaeal and eukaryotic homologues are now recognized. The mechanism of energy coupling is not established, but homology with the MATE family suggests that they are secondary carriers. These transporters may function together with auxiliary proteins that allow passage across just the cytoplasmic membrane or both membranes of the Gram-negative bacterial envelope. They may also regulate transport.
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Following his return, Demarçay served for several years as an assistant to Auguste André Thomas Cahours at the École Polytechnique. In 1876, he studied acetylacetonates in the laboratory of Cahours. In 1880 he completed his dissertation, Sur !es acides tetrique et oxytetrique et leurs homologues ("On tetric and oxytetric acids and their counterparts" Gauthier-Villars, 1880).
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Chen et al. (2010) reviewed evidence for a new class of sugar transporters, named SWEETs. Those that mediate glucose transport include at least six out of seventeen sugar homologues in Arabidopsis (i.e., TC#s 2.A.123.1.3, 2.A.123.1.5, 2.A.123.1.9, 2.A.123.1.13), two out of over twenty porters in rice (TC#s 2.A.123.1.
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However, a homologous IIC protein from Listeria monocytogenes has been shown to be required for D-arabitol fermentation. It presumably functions together with IIAGat and IIBGat homologues. IICGat is distantly related to IICSgc of E. coli; IIAGat is distantly related to IIASga and IIASgcof E. coli as well as IIAMtl and IIAFru. IIBGat is distantly related to IIBSga and IIBSgc of E. coli.
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Both of these proteins share a common domain with an 8-stranded beta-barrel fold. This resembles the lipocalin fold, although no sequence homology exists with lipocalins. In TTHA0802, the protein binds the polyisoprenoid chain within the pore of the barrel via hydrophobic interactions. Sequence homologues of this core structure are present in a wide range of bacteria and archaea.
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Mabinlins are sweet-tasting proteins extracted from the seed of mabinlang (Capparis masaikai Levl.), a Chinese plant growing in Yunnan province. There are four homologues. Mabinlin-2 was first isolated in 1983 and characterised in 1993, and is the most extensively studied of the four. The other variants of mabinlin-1, -3 and -4 were discovered and characterised in 1994.
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Several functional homologues of P22TSP has been identified belonging to the bacteriophages HK620 and Sf6. Both of these tailspike proteins also contain right-handed parallel beta-helices and share similar O-antigen binding and cleavage to P22TSP. These proteins share 70% sequence identity in their N-terminal domains, but no sequence similarities have been found in the C-terminal domains.
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RANK is encoded on human chromosome 18q22.1. It shows 85% homology between mouse and human homologues. There are two monomers of RANK related by noncrystallographic 2-fold symmetry perpendicular to the long axis of the molecules in the asymmetric unit. RANK contains four CRDs spanning a length of 100 Angstroms which makes it the longest member of the TNFR family to date.
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Phenylacetones are a group of organic compounds containing a phenyl moiety and an acetone moiety bonded together, the archetypal example being phenylacetone. Phenylacetones often play a role in the illicit synthesis of amphetamine and its analogues, 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone (MDP2P) for example being used in the production of 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methylenedioxy-N- ethylamphetamine (MDEA), and other homologues.
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Mediator of RNA polymerase II transcription subunit 31 is a protein in humans encoded by the MED31 gene. It represents subunit Med31 of the Mediator complex. The family contains the Saccharomyces cerevisiae SOH1 homologues. SOH1 is responsible for the repression of temperature sensitive growth of the HPR1 mutant and has been found to be a component of the RNA polymerase II transcription complex.
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The other region expresses homologues of orthodenticle, Otx or otd. This region is more caudal and lateral, and bears the eyes. Orthodenticle is associated with the protocerebral bridge, part of the central complex, traditionally a marker of the prosocerebrum. In the annelid brain, Otx expression characterises the peristomium, but also creeps forwards into the regions of the prostomium that bear the larval eyes.
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In 1993 he became professor (C3) of Inorganic Chemistry at the Humboldt-University of Berlin and in 2005 he became professor (W3) of Inorganic Chemistry at the Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitaet Bonn. Filippou has made a significant contribution in the research of heavier homologues of carbon (Si, Ge, Sn, Pb) regarding the ability to form a triple bond to a metal.
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NCS1 proteins are H+/Na+ symporters specific for the uptake of purines, pyrimidines and related metabolites. Krypotou et al. 2015 studied the origin, diversification and substrate specificities of fungal NCS1 transporters, suggesting that the two fungal NCS1 subfamilies, Fur and Fcy, and plant homologues, originated through independent horizontal transfers from prokaryotes. Expansion by gene duplication led to functional diversification of fungal NCS1 porters.
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The Putative Sulfate Exporter (PSE) Family (TC# 2.A.98) is composed of several putative 10 or 11 transmembrane segment (TMS) proteins. This family is part of the CPA superfamily and its members are found in diverse bacteria and archaea. The genes encoding some of these homologues may be induced by growth in the presence of cysteate (suyZ) or taurine (tauZ).
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The large N-terminal hydrophilic domains and the small C-terminal hydrophilic domains are localized to the cytoplasm. Mammals possess at least three isoforms which probably arose by gene duplication and divergence before divergence of the mammalian species. Homologues are present in Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorabditis elegans. Tetrameric cardiac and skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticular ryanodine receptors (RyR) are large (~2.3 MDa).
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Insect mouthparts and antennae are considered homologues of insect legs. Parallel developments are seen in some arachnids: The anterior pair of legs may be modified as analogues of antennae, particularly in whip scorpions, which walk on six legs. These developments provide support for the theory that complex modifications often arise by duplication of components, with the duplicates modified in different directions.
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Wee1 is a nuclear kinase belonging to the Ser/Thr family of protein kinases in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe (S. pombe). Wee1 has a molecular mass of 96 kDa and is a key regulator of cell cycle progression. It influences cell size by inhibiting the entry into mitosis, through inhibiting Cdk1. Wee1 has homologues in many other organisms, including mammals.
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Characterized protein members of the AE family are found in plants, animals, insects and yeast. Uncharacterized AE homologues may be present in bacteria (e.g., in Enterococcus faecium, 372 aas; gi 22992757; 29% identity in 90 residues). Animal AE proteins consist of homodimeric complexes of integral membrane proteins that vary in size from about 900 amino acyl residues to about 1250 residues.
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Roy Jensen in 1976 theorised that primordial enzymes had to be highly promiscuous in order for metabolic networks to assemble in a patchwork fashion (hence its name, the patchwork model). This primordial catalytic versatility was later lost in favour of highly catalytic specialised orthologous enzymes. As a consequence, many central-metabolic enzymes have structural homologues that diverged before the last universal common ancestor.
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The high number of subfamilies in humans explains why we are able to recognize so many odors. Human OR genes have homologues in other mammals, such as mice, that demonstrate the evolution of Olfactory Receptor genes. One particular family that is involved in the initial event of odor perception has been found to be highly conserved throughout all of vertebrate evolution.
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TipN has two transmembrane regions in the N-terminal region and a large C-terminal coiled-coil domain. TipN homologues are present in other alpha-proteobacteria. TipN localizes to the new pole in both daughter cells after division and relocalizes to the cell division site in the late predivisional cell. Therefore, both daughter cells have TipN at the new pole after division.
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The higher pillar[n]arene homologues, pillar[6-15]arene, have been synthesized through the ring expansion of pillar[5]arene.Tomoki Ogoshi, Naosuke Ueshima, Fumiyasu Sakakibara, Tada-aki Yamagishi, and Takeharu Haino. Conversion from Pillar[5]arene to Pillar[6–15]arenes by Ring Expansion and Encapsulation of C60 by Pillar[n]arenes with Nanosize Cavities. Org. Lett. 2014, 16, 2896-2899. .
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Ideally, these approaches co-exist and complement each other in the same annotation pipeline (also see below). Traditionally, the basic level of annotation is using BLAST for finding similarities, and then annotating genomes based on homologues. More recently, additional information is added to the annotation platform. The additional information allows manual annotators to deconvolute discrepancies between genes that are given the same annotation.
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The miR-129 microRNA precursor is a small non-coding RNA molecule that regulates gene expression. This microRNA was first experimentally characterised in mouse and homologues have since been discovered in several other species, such as humans, rats and zebrafish. The mature sequence is excised by the Dicer enzyme from the 5' arm of the hairpin. It was elucidated by Calin et al.
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Shih J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1981, 103, 7367. Article The field expanded as CB5, CB7, and CB8 were discovered and isolated by Kim Kimoon in the year 2000. To date cucurbiturils composed of 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, and 14 repeat units have all been isolated,Cucurbituril Homologues and Derivatives: New Opportunities in Supramolecular Chemistry Acc. Chem. Res., 36 (8), 621 -630, 2003.
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Podoplanin is a mucin-type protein with a mass of 36- to 43-kDa. It is relatively well conserved between species, with homologues in humans, mice, rats, dogs and hamsters. This gene encodes a type-I, integral membrane, heavily O-glycosylated glycoprotein with diverse distribution in human tissues. The physiological function of this protein may be related to its mucin-type character.
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Viruses have also developed a variety of immunomodulation mechanisms to subvert the host immune response. This tend to feature virus-encoded decoy receptors that target cytokines and chemokines produced as part of the host immune response, or homologues of host cytokines. As such, viruses capable of manipulating the host cell response to infection as an immune evasion strategy exhibit greater pathogenicity.
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Mercury(II) hydride may be prepared by the reduction of mercury(II) chloride. In this process, mercury(II) chloride and a hydride salt equivalent react to produce mercury(II) hydride according to the following equations, which depend on the stochiometry of the reaction: :2 \+ 2 → + : + 2 → + 2 Variations of this method exits where mercury(II) chloride is substituted for its heavier halide homologues.
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Metaescaline entry in PiHKAL Metaescaline produces mental insights, entactogenic, MDMA-like effects, and TOMSO-like activation. Little data exists about the pharmacological properties, metabolism, and toxicity of metaescaline, though it has been studied to a limited extent in comparison with other related compounds.Jacob P 3rd, Shulgin AT. Sulfur analogues of psychotomimetic agents. 3. Ethyl homologues of mescaline and their monothio analogues.
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The NhaB family (TC# 2.A.34) belongs to the Ion Transporter (IT) Superfamily. A representative list of proteins belonging to the NhaB family can be found in the Transporter Classification Database. NhaB homologues are usually about 500 amino acyl residues (aas) in length and possess about 12 transmembrane α-helical spanners (TMSs), although some members differ in their number of TMSs.
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The Deinococcus/Thermus Holin (D/T-Hol) Family (TC# 1.E.41) consists of a single protein with no close homologues (Putative holin of Meiothermus silvanus,TC# 1.E.41.1.1); however, its distant homology to members of the Holin superfamily III suggest an evolutionary relationship. The putative holin of Meiothermus silvanus is 108 amino acyl residues in length and possesses 3 transmembrane segments.
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This is in keeping with other type I toxin-antitoxin systems. Northern blots showed that ldrD and rdlD are both transcribed and primer extension analysis showed the rdlD transcript is not translated. Homologues exist in related Enterobacteriaceae such as Salmonella enterica and Shigella boydii. The Ldr peptide genes that have been discovered are thought to have evolved from a common ancestor.
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The "replication restart" primosome, defined in Escherichia coli, is involved in the reactivation of arrested replication forks. Binding of the PriA protein to forked DNA triggers its assembly. PriA is conserved in bacteria, but its primosomal partners are not. In Bacillus subtilis, genetic analysis has revealed three primosomal proteins, DnaB, DnaD, and DnaI, that have no obvious homologues in E. coli.
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The genomes of other organisms can be analysed in a similar way, although with different transposable elements. The recent discovery of the 'mariner transposon' (from the reconstruction of the original sequence from many 'dead' versions in the human genome) has allowed many new experiments, mariner has well conserved homologues across a wide range of species and is a very versatile tool.
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Using genomatix, more transcription factor binding sites are predicted. Transcription binding matrix, like EGR/nerve growth factor induced protein C & related factors, GC- Box factors SP1/GC, Krueppel like transcription factors, Myc associated zinc fingers, vertebrate homologues of enhancer of split complex, E-box binding factors, E2F-myc activator/cell cycle regulator, and BED subclass of zinc- finger proteins, are predicted to give the highest matrix similarity.
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The FBT family includes functionally characterized members from protozoa, cyanobacteria and plants. Functionally characterized members of the family include FT1, the major folate transporter, and BT1, the biopterin/folate transporter and AdoMetT1, the major S-adenosylmethionine uptake porter. A related protein in Trypanosoma brucei, ESAGIO, shows weak folate/biopterin transport activity. There are at least 6 homologues of the FT1 transporter in Leishmania encoded by tandem genes.
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RyR1s seem to be able to open without this interaction as well, but the underlying mechanism is not yet fully understood . RyR1 consists of four subunits and has binding sites for several regulatory molecules, such as calcium, calmodulin, ATP and magnesium. The opening of the channel involves two hinge glycines. The receptor is expressed in mammals, but homologues exist in avian and amphibian skeletal muscles .
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The trabecular cartilages were first described in the grass snake by Martin Heinrich Rathke at 1839.Entwicklungsgeschichte der Natter. Konigsberg (1839) In 1874, Thomas Henry Huxley suggested that the trabecular cartilages are a modified part of the splanchnocranium: they arose as the serial homologues of the pharyngeal arches. The vertebrate jaw is generally thought to be the modification of the mandibular arch (1st pharyngeal arch).
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All foals infected with R. equi produce high levels of antibodies specific for vapA, the first vap gene to be characterised. Deletion of vapA renders the resulting strain avirulent. In addition to vapA, the PAI encodes a further five full-length vap homologues, one truncated vap gene, and two vap pseudogenes. The porcine PAI contains five full-length vap genes, including the vapA homologue, vapB.
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From this study multiple mRNA transcripts were detected by northern blot analysis. This finding suggests that netrin receptors could be encoded by alternatively spliced mRNAs. During embryonic development only one splice variant is detected while there are two in the adult model. The results of these findings suggest that UNC-5 homologues make up a primary method of netrin-1 signal transduction in the adult spinal cord.
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RLI and its homologues are also thought to play a role in ribosome biogenesis, nuclear export, or both. They have been found in the nucleus associated with the 40S and 60S subunits, as well as Hcr1p, a protein required for rRNA processing. It has been shown that the Fe/S clusters are necessary for ribosome biogenesis and/or nuclear export, although the exact mechanism is unknown.
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In humans, mitochondrial organelles have GrpE-like 1 (GRPEL1) protein. In eukaryotic cells, there any many additional eukaryotic GrpE homologues. Members of the BAG family specifically, BAG1 are the main nucleotide exchange factors for heat shock protein 70kDa (Hsp70), which is the eukaryotic equivalent of DnaK. Other nucleotide exchange factors that interact with heat-shock proteins in eukaryotes include, Sse1p, Sil1p, Hip, and HspBP1.
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They have been isolated from wild boars in GermanyAdlhoch C, Kaiser M, Ellerbrok H, Pauli G (2010) High prevalence of porcine Hokovirus in German wild boar populations. Virol J 7: 171 and chimpanzees and baboons.Sharp CP, LeBreton M, Kantola K, Nana A, Diffo Jle D, et al. (2010) Widespread infection with homologues of human parvoviruses B19, PARV4, and human bocavirus of chimpanzees and gorillas in the wild.
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250x250px Tryptophan 7-halogenase is a 538-residue, 61-kDa protein. In solution, a number of homologues exist as homodimers. The enzyme has two main binding sites: one for FAD and one for tryptophan. Note that the FAD is supplied by a separate flavin reductase which may be a general enzyme recruited from metabolism or a specific enzyme encoded in the relevant biosynthetic gene cluster.
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Where relevant, data on the rat and mouse homologues are presented to assist researchers and clinicians in developing and/or enhancing therapeutics for eventual medication in humans. NC-IUPHAR also promulgates standards of name nomenclature for research in pharmacology and the related disciplines. In general, IUPHAR offers individual pharmacologists free curriculum expertise, career development and job listings (the non-profit PharmacoCareers.org), research resources, and collaboration opportunities.
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Fullerene purification is the process of obtaining a fullerene compound free of contamination. In fullerene production mixtures of C60, C70 and higher homologues are always formed. Fullerene purification is key to fullerene science and determines fullerene prices and the success of practical applications of fullerenes. The first available purification method for C60 fullerene was by HPLC from which small amounts could be generated at large expense.
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The anhydrous salt adopts a polymeric structure in the solid state consisting of Na+-phenyl interactions. As such the salt could be classified as an organosodium compound.Ulrich Behrens, Frank Hoffmann, and Falk Olbrich "Solid-State Structures of Base-Free Lithium and Sodium Tetraphenylborates at Room and Low Temperature: Comparison with the Higher Homologues MB(C6H5)4 (M = K, Rb, Cs)" Organometallics 2012, volume 31, p. 905−913.
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A number of human V1 receptor homologues have also been found. The majority of these human sequences are pseudogenes, but an apparently functional receptor has been identified that is expressed in the human olfactory system. The V2 receptors are members of GPCR family 3 and have close similarity to the extracellular calcium-sensing receptors. Rodents appear to have around 100 functional V2 receptors and many pseudogenes.
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The Hydroxy/Aromatic Amino Acid Permease (HAAAP) Family (TC# 2.A.42) is a member of the large Amino Acid-Polyamine-OrganoCation (APC) Superfamily of secondary carriers. Members of the HAAAP family all function in amino acid uptake. Homologues are present in a large number of Gram-negative and Gram- positive bacteria, with at least one member classified from archaea (TC# 2.A.42.1.
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In Cyrillic used for languages of the Caucasus, there are tetragraphs as doubled digraphs used for 'strong' consonants (typically transcribed in the IPA as geminate), and also labialized homologues of trigraphs. is used in Kabardian for , the labialized homologue of , in turn unpredictably derived from ejective . is used in Avar for , the 'strong' homologue of , the ejective () homologue of . It is often substituted with .
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This close relationship, the associated high homology with humans, their ease of maintenance and handling, and their high reproduction rate, make mice particularly suitable models for human-oriented research. The laboratory mouse genome has been sequenced and many mouse genes have human homologues. Other mouse species sometimes used in laboratory research include the American white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) and the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus).
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Both were useful in making pigments and both had herbicidal properties. The structural difference between the two "closely related" compounds was that 3,4-DCAA "differ[ed] in its structural formula solely by having one less CH2 group" than 3,4-DCPA.456 F.2d at 596. Such pairs of compounds are termed "adjacent homologues" and they are known to have similar chemical and physical properties.
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However, U-type exchange can also occur for homologous chromosomes which creates an isochromosome with homologous arms. This exchange between homologues is most likely due to homologous sequences containing low copy repeats. Regardless of the chromosome involved in U-type exchange, the acentric fragment of the chromosome is lost, thus creating a partial monosomy of genes located in that portion of the acentric chromosome.
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The primary structure of the SUI1 protein is made up of 108 amino acids. The protein domain has a structure made of a seven-bladed beta-propeller and it also contains a C-terminal alpha helix. Homologues of SUI1 have been found in mammals, insects and plants. SUI1 is also evolutionary related to proteins from Escherichia coli (yciH), Haemophilus influenzae (HI1225) and Methanococcus vannielii.
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Structure of abelsonite In 1989, abelsonite was the only known geoporphyrin to have a crystalline structure. Most geoporphyrins occur as a series of homologues spanning a large range of carbon numbers. The porphyrin which comprises abelsonite is common, but it does not usually occur in isolation from other porphyrins. The mineral is a deoxophylloerythroetioporphyrin (DPEP), with nickel occupying the center of the porphyrin ring.
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MerT homologues have been identified in which the 3 TMS MerT is fused to a MerP heavy metal associated (HMA) domain, possibly via a linker region that includes a fourth TMS (see 1.A.72.3.3). HMA domains of ~30 aas are found in MerP, copper chaperone proteins, mercuric reductase, and at the N-termini of both copper and heavy metal P-type ATPases, sometimes in multiple copies.
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The three subunits of nitrogenase exhibit significant sequence similarity to three subunits of the light-independent version of protochlorophyllide reductase that performs the conversion of protochlorophyllide to chlorophyll. This protein is present in gymnosperms, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria but has been lost by angiosperms during evolution. Separately, two of the nitrogenase subunits (NifD and NifH) have homologues in methanogens that do not fix nitrogen e.g. Methanocaldococcus jannaschii.
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RNase D is one of the seven exoribonucleases identified in E. coli. It is a 3'-5' exoribonuclease which has been shown to be involved in the 3' processing of various stable RNA molecules. RNase D has homologues in many other organisms. When a part of another larger protein has a domain that is very similar to RNase D, this is called an RNase D domain.
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In this case, new combinations of alleles are not produced since the sister chromosomes are usually identical. In meiosis and mitosis, recombination occurs between similar molecules of DNA (homologous sequences). In meiosis, non-sister homologous chromosomes pair with each other so that recombination characteristically occurs between non-sister homologues. In both meiotic and mitotic cells, recombination between homologous chromosomes is a common mechanism used in DNA repair.
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The specific examples Behe proposes have been shown to have simpler homologues which could act as precursors with different functions. His arguments have been rebutted, both in general and in specific cases by numerous scientific papers. In response, Behe and others, "ironically, given the absence of any detail in their own explanation, complain that the proffered explanations lack sufficient detail to be empirically tested".
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Non-effective conjugation is the phenomenon of meiotic chromosome pairing without chiasmata, including the absence of crossing over. When this meiosis occurs during gametogenesis, it is commonly limited to one of the two sexes. The most frequent feature of such meiosis is the absence any opening-out of the homologues chromosomes in diakinesis. The four bivalent chromatide are staying parallel until the beginning of the metaphase.
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Two members of the LysE family (LysE of Corynebacterium glutamicum (TC# 2.A.75.1.1) and ArgO of E. coli) have been functionally characterized, but functionally uncharacterized homologues are encoded within the genomes of many bacteria including Bacillus subtilis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Aeromonas salmonicida, Helicobacter pylori, Vibrio cholerae and Yersinia pestis. Thus, LysE family members are found widely distributed in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria.
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Discovered in 1996 in beans, its homologues have been identified in plants, protozoa, vertebrates, and helminths. The enzyme has been implicated in several human diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis and inflammation . It can be detected in spleen, liver, brain, testis tissue and heart and the protein is mostly localised to lysosomes and endosomes. It is also interesting that AEP is activated in age- dependent manner.
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Asteranes are members of a series of cage hydrocarbons consisting of two cycloalkane rings linked to each other by methylene groups. Each linking face is thus a cyclohexane, which has a boat conformation.Henning Hopf, Classics in Hydrocarbon Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, New York, 2000, pages 34-37, . They can be considered as homologues of the prismanes, but with a carbon linker between the faces rather than direct bonding.
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This program allows students the ability to identify possible coding regions for tRNAs in sequence that would have been missed by Aragorn because it includes detection for unusual tRNA homologues; although, both programs have sensitivities between 99-100%. tRNAscan-SE does not detect tRNAs itself, but instead outputs the results of the information processed from three independent tRNA prediction programs: tRNAscan, EufindtRNA, and tRNA covariance model search.
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The best-known neuraminidase is the viral neuraminidase, a drug target for the prevention of the spread of influenza infection. The viral neuraminidases are frequently used as antigenic determinants found on the surface of the influenza virus. Some variants of the influenza neuraminidase confer more virulence to the virus than others. Other homologues are found in mammalian cells, which have a range of functions.
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DnaD is a 232 amino acid long protein that is part of the primosome involved in prokaryotic DNA replication. In Bacillus subtilis, genetic analysis has revealed three primosomal proteins, DnaB, DnaD, and DnaI, that have no obvious homologues in E. coli. They are involved in primosome function both at arrested replication forks and at the chromosomal origin. DnaB and DnaD proteins are both multimeric and bind individually to DNA.
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Of these sequence associations, only four kaiA genes are distinguishable, thus making it the most sequence diversified of the kai genes. The Synechocystis sp. Strain PCC 6803 genome has only one kaiA gene, whereas multiple are found in kaiB and kaiC. KaiB and kaiC homologues can be found in other eubacteria and archaea, but kaiA appears to only be found in cyanobacteria (currently the only prokaryotes with 24-hour biological oscillation).
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It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in group 16 as the heaviest chalcogen, although it has not been confirmed to behave as the heavier homologue to the chalcogen polonium. Livermorium is calculated to have some similar properties to its lighter homologues (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium), and be a post-transition metal, although it should also show several major differences from them.
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The variable region of the virulence plasmid contain genes that are highly expressed following phagocytosis of R. equi by macrophages. This variable region is believed to be a pathogenicity island that contains genes essential for virulence. A hallmark of the pathogenicity island (PAI) is that many genes within it do not have homologues in other species. The most notable of these are the virulence- associated protein (vap) genes.
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There are still many unanswered questions regarding the netrin family of molecules. It is still uncertain what role vertebrate homologues of UNC-5 play in chemorepulsion. Although much is known about the expression of netrin during development, little is yet known about its regulation in later development in the brain. Netrin knockout mice show that there is much to learn about the many roles of netrin in axonal guidance.
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In plants, GrpE homologues, CGE1 and CGE2, are found in chloroplasts. CGE1 has two splice isoforms that differ in 6 amino acids in the N-terminal, with isoform CGE1b being 6 nucleotides longer than CGE1a. This N-terminal domain is important in substrate release through competitive binding to the heat-shock protein. All of these plant nucleotide exchange factors interact directly with the cpHsc70, the plant homologue of DnaK.
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INAH-3 is the short form for the third interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus, and is the sexually dimorphic nucleus of humans. The INAH-3 is significantly larger in males than in females regardless of age and larger in heterosexual males than in homosexual males and heterosexual females. Homologues of the INAH-3 have been observed taking a direct role in sexual behavior in rhesus monkeys, sheep, and rats.
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The molecule remains important during later stages of embryogenesis and metamorphosis. Mammals have three Hedgehog homologues, Desert (DHH), Indian (IHH), and Sonic (SHH), of which Sonic is the best studied. The pathway is equally important during vertebrate embryonic development and is therefore of interest in evolutionary developmental biology. In knockout mice lacking components of the pathway, the brain, skeleton, musculature, gastrointestinal tract and lungs fail to develop correctly.
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Calcium is a chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide- nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to its heavier homologues strontium and barium. It is the fifth most abundant element in Earth's crust and the third most abundant metal, after iron and aluminium.
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The pathogenetic pathways of Streptococcus dysgalactiae have not been explored in detail. Several virulence factors have been identified, but predominantly by screening S. dysgalactiae isolates for homologues of well- characterized S. pyogenes virulence genes. In a study of 216 S. pyogenes virulence genes, S. dysgalactiae was found to harbour approximately half of them. Indeed, whole-genome comparisons reveal a 70% -genetic similarity between the two species, indicating a common genetic ancestry.
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From page 588: "17. Nous appelons substances homologues celles qui jouissent des même propriétés chimiques et dont la composition offre certaines analogies dans les proportions relatives des éléments." (17. We call homologous substances those that have the same chemical properties and whose composition offers certain analogies in the relative proportions of elements.) A homologation reaction is a chemical process that converts one member of a homologous series to the next member.
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The function of the LINC complex appears to be in many cell activities. These include nuclear relocation/movement, moving meiotic chromosomes to find their homologues at leptotene/zygotene, attaching the centrosome to the outer nuclear membrane, formation of the nuclear pore complex, and responding to extracellular mechanical stimuli. LINC complex, by virtue of providing internal cell connectivity, is required for sensing of various mechanical stimuli including high frequency vibrations.
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Using analysis of labeled β-glucuronidase peptides after hydrolysis of a substrate that enters a very stable intermediate stage, researchers have determined that Glu540 is the nucleophilic residue. Though the particular type of nucleophilic substitution employed by β-glucuronidase is unclear, evidence for the mechanisms of their homologues in the glycosidase family suggests that these reactions are qualitatively SN2 reactions. The reactions proceed through a transition state with oxocarbenium ion characteristics.
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There is debate about whether humans have functional homologues to preputial glands. Preputial glands were first noted by Edward Tyson and in 1694 fully described by William Cowper who named them Tyson's glands after Tyson. They are described as modified sebaceous glands located around the corona and inner surface of the prepuce of the human penis. They are believed to be most frequently found in the balanopreputial sulcus.
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Autophagy-related protein 8 (Atg8) is a ubiquitin-like protein required for the formation of autophagosomal membranes. The transient conjugation of Atg8 to the autophagosomal membrane through a ubiquitin-like conjugation system is essential for autophagy in eukaryotes. Even though there are homologues in animals (see for example GABARAP, GABARAPL1, GABARAPL2, MAP1LC3A, MAP1LC3B, MAP1LC3B2, and MAP1LC3C), this article mainly focuses on its role in lower eukaryotes such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
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Both the non-crossover and crossover types of recombination function as processes for repairing DNA damage, particularly double-strand breaks (see Genetic recombination). The central function of synapsis is therefore the identification of homologues by pairing, an essential step for a successful meiosis. The processes of DNA repair and chiasma formation that take place following synapsis have consequences at many levels, from cellular survival through to impacts upon evolution itself.
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Mammalian GPx1, GPx2, GPx3, and GPx4 (this protein) have been shown to be selenium-containing enzymes, whereas GPx6 is a selenoprotein in humans with cysteine-containing homologues in rodents. In selenoproteins, the 21st amino acid selenocysteine is inserted in the nascent polypeptide chain during the process of translational recoding of the UGA stop codon. GPx4 shares the amino acid motif of selenocysteine, glutamine, and tryptophane (catalytic triad) with other glutathione peroxidases.
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The glutathione peroxidase family consists of 8 known human isoforms. Glutathione peroxidases use glutathione as an electron donor and are active with both hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxide substrates. Gpx1, Gpx2, Gpx3, and Gpx4 have been shown to be selenium- containing enzymes, whereas Gpx6 is a selenoprotein in humans with cysteine- containing homologues in rodents. Amyloid beta, when bound to heme, has been shown to have peroxidase activity.
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The specialised pronotum (or helmet) may not be simply an expansion of the prothoracic sclerite, but a fused pair of dorsal appendages of the first thoracic segment. These may be serial homologues of insect wings, which are dorsal appendages of the second and/or third thoracic segments, although this interpretation has been seriously challenged.Yoshizawa, K. (2012) The treehopper’s helmet is not homologous with wings (Hemiptera: Membracidae) Systematic Entomology. 37, 2–6.
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The human ortholog of Drosophila suppressor of fused, has a conserved sequence, this means that particular amino acids have remained the same throughout evolution. Consequently, they have very similar roles in repressing Hedgehog signalling. It represses the Gli and Ci transcription factors of the Hedgehog pathway, and functions by binding to these proteins and preventing their translocation to the nucleus. Homologues of Sufu have been found in bacteria.
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In chemistry, homology is the appearance of homologues. A homologue (also spelled as homolog) is a compound belonging to a series of compounds differing from each other by a repeating unit, such as a methylene bridge −−, a peptide residue, etc. A homolog is a special case of an analog. Examples are alkanes and compounds with alkyl side chains of different length (the repeating unit being a methylene group -CH2-).
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The MATE family is made up of several members and includes a functionally characterized multidrug efflux system from Vibrio parahaemolyticus NorM (TC# 2.A.66.1.1), and several homologues from other closely related bacteria that function by a drug:Na+ antiport mechanism, a putative ethionine resistance protein of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (ERC1 (YHR032w); TC# 2.A.66.1.5), a cationic drug efflux pump in A. thaliana (i.e., AtDTX1 aka AT2G04040; TC# 2.A.66.1.
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Human SREBP regulates sterol responsive gene expression, and this regulatory action is conserved in the genetic model organism C. elegans, a roundworm (homologues MDT-15 and SBP-1). Also in C. elegans, MDT-15 is essential for the response to several stresses (fasting, heavy metal, toxin, and oxidative stress); at least in part the fasting response is conferred by interactions of MDT-15 with nuclear receptors, including NHR-49.
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JWH-018, JWH-073, CP 47,497 (and its homologues), and HU-210 as well as leonotis leonurus have been all banned in Latvia since 2005. After the first confirmed lethal case from the use of legal drugs in late 2013, parliament significantly increased the number of temporarily banned substances used in Spice and similar preparations. On April 3, 2014, parliament made selling of the temporarily banned substances a criminal offense.
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X-ray crystallography has shown that human frataxin consists of a β-sheet that supports a pair of parallel α-helices, forming a compact αβ sandwich. Frataxin homologues in other species are similar, sharing the same core structure. However, the frataxin tail sequences, extending from the end of one helix, diverge in sequence and differ in length. Human frataxin has a longer tail sequence than frataxin found in bacteria or yeast.
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Homologues include putative fungal chaperone proteins, a retinal-containing rhodopsin from Neurospora crassa, a H+-pumping rhodopsin from Leptosphaeria maculans, retinal-containing proton pumps isolated from marine bacteria, a green light- activated photoreceptor in cyanobacteria that does not pump ions and interacts with a small (14 kDa) soluble transducer protein and light-gated H+ channels from the green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The N. crassa NOP-1 protein exhibits a photocycle and conserved H+ translocation residues that suggest that this putative photoreceptor is a slow H+ pump. Most of the MR family homologues in yeast and fungi are of about the same size and topology as the archaeal proteins (283-344 amino acyl residues; 7 putative transmembrane α-helical segments), but they are heat shock- and toxic solvent-induced proteins of unknown biochemical function. They have been suggested to function as pmf-driven chaperones that fold extracellular proteins, but only indirect evidence supports this postulate.
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First, γ-glutamylcysteine is synthesized from cysteine and glutamate catalyzed by gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase. Second, glutathione is synthesized from γ-glutamylcysteine and glycine (in glutathione homologues, β-alanine or serine) catalyzed by glutathione synthetase. Both steps of the synthesis of glutathione are ATP dependent reactions. Glutathione is maintained in the reduced form by an NADPH-dependent glutathione reductase and the ratio of reduced glutathione (GSH) to oxidized glutathione (GSSG) generally exceeds a value of 7.
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The genome of C. albicans encodes homologues to all S. cerevisiae septins. Without Cdc3 and Cdc12 genes Candida albicans cannot proliferate, other septins affect morphology and chitin deposition, but are not essential. Candida albicans can display different morphologies of vegetative growth, which determines the appearance of septin structures. Newly forming hyphae form a septin ring at the base, Double rings form at sites of hyphal septation, and a septin cap forms at hyphal tips.
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In E. coli, the lacZ gene is the structural gene for β-galactosidase; which is present as part of the inducible system lac operon which is activated in the presence of lactose when glucose level is low. β-galactosidase synthesis stops when glucose levels are sufficient. Beta- galactosidase has many homologues based on similar sequences. A few are evolved beta-galactosidase (EBG), beta-glucosidase, 6-phospho-beta- galactosidase, beta-mannosidase, and lactase-phlorizin hydrolase.
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Heme oxygenase is conserved across phylogenetic kingdoms. The European Bioinformatics Institute's InterPro taxonomy database indicates there are 4,347 bacteria species, 552 fungi species, and 6 archaea species expressing a HO-1-like enzymes. Microbial HO homologues use different abbreviation such as HMX1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hmu O in Corynebacterium diphtheriae, and Chu S in Escherichia coli. A critical role of the prokaryotic HO systems is to facilitate acquisition of nutritional iron from a eukaryotic host.
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The gene encoding InvR is located in this SPI-1 region between two genes called invH and STM2901. InvR appears to be unique to Salmonella species as there does not appear to be any predicted homologues in other Enterobacteriaceae species. InvR is ~80nt long and appears to be independently expressed from its own promoter. Its expression is activated by the transcription factor HilD and has been shown to be abundantly expressed during exponential growth.
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In the German Naturphilosophie tradition, homology was of special interest as demonstrating unity in nature. In 1790, Goethe stated his foliar theory in his essay "Metamorphosis of Plants", showing that flower part are derived from leaves. The serial homology of limbs was described late in the 18th century. The French zoologist Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire showed in 1818 in his theorie d'analogue ("theory of homologues") that structures were shared between fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
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The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is the collective name for all structural filaments in prokaryotes. It was once thought that prokaryotic cells did not possess cytoskeletons, but recent advances in visualization technology and structure determination have shown that filaments indeed exist in these cells. In fact, homologues for all major cytoskeletal proteins in eukaryotes have been found in prokaryotes. Cytoskeletal elements play essential roles in cell division, protection, shape determination, and polarity determination in various prokaryotes.
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Sequence or structural similarities to other domains demonstrate that homologues of inserted and parent domains can exist independently. An example is that of the 'fingers' inserted into the 'palm' domain within the polymerases of the Pol I family. Since a domain can be inserted into another, there should always be at least one continuous domain in a multidomain protein. This is the main difference between definitions of structural domains and evolutionary/functional domains.
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Nicking endonucleases introduce the strand discontinuities, or DNA nicks, for both respective systems. Mut L homologues from eukaryotes and most bacteria incise the discontinuous strand to introduce the entry or termination point for the excision reaction. Similarly, in E. coli, Mut H nicks the unmethylated strand of the duplex to introduce the entry point of excision. For eukaryotes specifically, the mechanism of DNA replication elongation between the leading and lagging strand differs.
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The Firmicute Phage φU53 Holin (φU53 Holin) Family (TC# 1.E.13) consists of putative holins that range in size from 117 to 124 amino acyl residues (aas) in length and exhibit 3 transmembrane segments (TMSs) found in Firmicute phage. While annotated as holins, it appears as though many members of the φU53 holin family are not yet functionally characterized. A representative list of homologues can be found in the Transporter Classification Database.
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Nupharin A is an ellagitannin found in Nuphar japonica.Tannins and Related Compounds. LXXV. : Isolation and Characterization of Novel Diastereoisomeric Ellagitannins, Nupharins A and B, and Their Homologues from Nuphar japonicum DC. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 25 January 1989, volume 37, issue 1, pages 129-134 (abstract) It is a molecule with three gallic acid units and one hexahydroxydiphenic acid unit attached to a glucose residue. It is an isomer of punicafolin and tellimagrandin II.
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IL17RD is probably the most ancient member of IL-17 receptor family. It was firstly identified in zebrafish and its homologues were also found in sea lamprey and C. elegans. There are two IL-17Rs (IL-17RA and IL-17RD) in the genome of the basal chordate Amphioxus. After two rounds of whole genome duplications, these two IL-17R genes expanded into five early vertebrate IL-17R genes, IL-17RA to IL-17RE.
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They fought in the Battle of Kursk during the month of July. The Commandant of the Group Jean Tulasne and his deputy Albert Littolff were killed during this battle.Selon Yves Courrière, 1979, le prix payé fut lourd : six morts en quatre jours pour 17 victoires homologues (casualty status was heavy : six fatalities in four days for 17 homologue victories). Commandant Pierre Pouyade who joined the regiment after his evasion in Indochina, became commandant.
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The human SMAD3 gene is located on chromosome 15 on the cytogenic band at 15q22.33. The gene is composed of 9 exons over 129,339 base pairs. It is one of several human homologues of a gene that was originally discovered in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. The expression of SMAD3 has been related to the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK/ERK pathway), particularly to the activity of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase-1 (MEK1).
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Commonality with HSV1 and HSV2 indicates a common ancestor; five genes do not have corresponding HSV genes. Relation with other human herpes viruses is less strong, but many homologues and conserved gene blocks are still found. There are five principal clades (1–5) and four genotypes that do not fit into these clades. The current distribution of these clades is Asia (clades 1,2, and 5) and Europe (clades 1, 3 and 4).
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This gene is one of the PMS2 gene family members which are found in clusters on chromosome 7. Human PMS2 related genes are located at bands 7p12, 7p13, 7q11, and 7q22. Exons 1 through 5 of these homologues share high degree of identity to human PMS2 The product of this gene is involved in DNA mismatch repair. The protein forms a heterodimer with MLH1 and this complex interacts with MSH2 bound to mismatched bases.
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MAP1A and MAP1B are microtubule-associated proteins which mediate the physical interactions between microtubules and components of the cytoskeleton. MAP1A and MAP1B each consist of a heavy chain subunit and multiple light chain subunits. The protein encoded by this gene is one of the light chain subunits and can associate with either MAP1A or MAP1B. MAPLC3A is one of the mammalian homologues of yeast ATG8, an important marker and effector of autophagy.
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Members of the neurexin family are found across all animals, including basal metazoans such as porifera (sponges), cnidaria (jellyfish) and ctenophora (comb jellies). Porifera lack synapses so its role in these organisms is unclear. Homologues of α-neurexin have also been found in several invertebrate species including Drosophila, Caenorhabditis elegans, honeybees and Aplysia. In Drosophila melanogaster, NRXN genes (only one α-neurexin) are critical in the assembly of glutamatergic neuromuscular junctions but are much simpler.
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Prior to the work of Jones et al., 2001, the cell wall was believed to be the deciding factor for many bacterial cell shapes, including rods and spirals. When studied, many misshapen bacteria were found to have mutations linked to development of a cell envelope. The cytoskeleton was once thought to be a feature only of eukaryotic cells, but homologues to all the major proteins of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton have been found in prokaryotes.
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Ziziphin, a triterpene glycoside which exhibits taste-modifying properties, has been isolated from the leaves of Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae). Among ziziphin's known homologues found in this plant, it is the most anti-sweet. However, its anti-sweet activity is less effective than gymnemic acid 1, another anti-sweet compound glycoside isolated from the leaves of Gymnema sylvestre (Asclepiadaceae).Kinghorn, A.D. and Compadre, C.M. Alternative Sweeteners: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, Marcel Dekker ed.
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Mouse and yeast frataxin homologues contain a potential N-terminal mitochondrial targeting sequence, and human frataxin has been observed to co- localise with a mitochondrial protein. Furthermore, disruption of the yeast gene has been shown to result in mitochondrial dysfunction. Friedreich's ataxia is thus believed to be a mitochondrial disease caused by a mutation in the nuclear genome (specifically, expansion of an intronic GAA triplet repeat in the FXN gene, which encodes the protein frataxin.).
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The Mycobacterial 4 TMS Phage Holin (MP4 Holin) Family (TC# 1.E.40) is a group of transporters belonging to Holin superfamily IV. A representative list of members belonging to the MP4 holin family can be found in the Transporter Classification Database. A member of the Mycobacterial 4 transmembrane segment (TMS) Phage Holin family was first identified by Catalao et. al. This small family includes several 4 TMS homologues, from mycobacterial phage and cyanobacteria.
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Different from all other CDTs, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi CDT (SeCDT) has no CdtA and CdtC homologues. However, encoded closely to the active subunit cdtb, the Pertussis-like toxin A and B (pltA/pltB) have been shown to be essential for cellular intoxication. PltA and PltB have a different structure from CdtA and CdtC, thus promoting CdtB activity in a different way. Both PltA and PltB have been found to bind directly to CdtB in vitro.
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The emboliform nucleus is a wedge-shaped structure of gray matter found at the medial side of the hilum of the dentate nucleus. Its neurons display a similar structure from those of the dentate nucleus. In some mammals the emboliform nucleus is continuous with the globose nucleus, forming together the interposed nucleus. When present, the interposed nucleus can be divided in an anterior and a posterior interposed nucleus, considered homologues of the emboliform and globose nuclei, respectively.
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IAPs like survivin, inhibit apoptosis by physically binding to and inhibiting proper caspase function. The function of IAPs is evolutionarily conserved as Drosophila homologues of IAPs have been shown to be essential for cell survival. IAPs have been implicated in studies to have a regulatory effect on cell division. Yeast cells with knock-outs of certain IAP genes did not show problems associated with cell death, but showed defects in mitosis characterized by improper chromosome segregation or failed cytokinesis.
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SA1 is one of three human homologues of the yeast protein Scc3 which is a core subunit of the cohesin complex (the three human paralogues are SA1, SA2 and SA3). SA1 and SA2 are expressed in somatic cells whereas SA3 is the main SA paralogue in meiotic cells. SA1 stably binds to cohesin via the RAD21 subunit and functions as a platform for other regulatory subunits. SA1 has roles in regulating both cohesin loading and release.
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Cannabinoid production starts when an enzyme causes geranyl pyrophosphate and olivetolic acid to combine and form CBGA. Next, CBGA is independently converted to either CBG, THCA, CBDA or CBCA by four separate synthase, FAD- dependent dehydrogenase enzymes. There is no evidence for enzymatic conversion of CBDA or CBD to THCA or THC. For the propyl homologues (THCVA, CBDVA and CBCVA), there is an analogous pathway that is based on CBGVA from divarinolic acid instead of olivetolic acid.
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Supple, M., Hines, H., Dasmahapatra, K., Lewis J., Nielsen D., Lavoie, C., Ray, D., Salavar, C., Mcmillan, O., Counterman, B. 2103. Genomic architecture of adaptive color pattern divergence and convergence in Heliconius butterflies. Genome research (2013): gr-150615. Similarly, molecular evidence indicates that Heliconius numata shares the same patterning homologues, but that these loci are locked into a wing patterning supergene that results in a lack of recombination and a finite set of wing pattern morphs.
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Since the trabecular cartilages appear anterior to the mandibular arch, if the trabecular cartilages are serial homologues of the pharyngeal arches, ancestral vertebrates should possess more than one pharyngeal arch (so-called "premandibular arches") anterior to the mandibular arch. The existence of premandibular arch(es) has been accepted by many comparative embryologists and morphologists (e.g., Edwin Stephen Goodrich, Gavin de Beer). Moreover, Erik Stensio reported premandibular arches and the corresponding branchiomeric nerves by the reconstruction of the Osteostracans (e.g.
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Cholesterol is converted mainly into coprostanol, a nonabsorbable sterol that is excreted in the feces. Although cholesterol is a steroid generally associated with mammals, the human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis is able to completely degrade this molecule and contains a large number of genes that are regulated by its presence. Many of these cholesterol-regulated genes are homologues of fatty acid β-oxidation genes, but have evolved in such a way as to bind large steroid substrates like cholesterol.
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Some alkyl derivatives of adamantane have been used as a working fluid in hydraulic systems. Adamantane- based polymers might find application for coatings of touchscreens, and there are prospects for using adamantane and its homologues in nanotechnology. For example, the soft cage-like structure of adamantane solid allow incorporation of guest molecules, which can be released inside the human body upon breaking the matrix. Adamantane could be used as molecular building blocks for self- assembly of molecular crystals.
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Gallium is a relatively rare element in the Earth's crust and is not found in as many minerals as its lighter homologues. Its abundance on the Earth is a mere 0.0018% (18 ppm). Its production is very low compared to other elements, but has increased greatly over the years as extraction methods have improved. Gallium can be found as a trace in a variety of ores, including bauxite and sphalerite, and in such minerals as diaspore and germanite.
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In molecular biology, the haemolysin expression modulating protein family is a family of proteins. This family consists of haemolysin expression modulating protein (Hha) from Escherichia coli and its enterobacterial homologues, such as YmoA from Yersinia enterocolitica, and RmoA encoded on the R100 plasmid. These proteins act as modulators of bacterial gene expression. Members of this family act in conjunction with members of the H-NS family, participating in the thermoregulation of different virulence factors and in plasmid transfer.
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Coronin homologues both in vertebrates and invertebrates forms a subfamily among WD repeat proteins. Coronin contains 3-5 WD clustered repeats forming the central core domain. Apart from the core domain, almost all coronins have a short conserved N-terminal motif and coiled coil motif of 50 amino acids at the C-terminus. The N-terminal region contains 12 basic amino acids which can be taken as signature as it is present in only coronin proteins.
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Innexins are transmembrane proteins that form gap junctions in invertebrates. Gap junctions are composed of membrane proteins that form a channel permeable to ions and small molecules connecting the cytoplasm of adjacent cells. Although gap junctions provide similar functions in all multicellular organisms, it was not known what proteins invertebrates used for this purpose until the late 1990s. While the connexin family of gap junction proteins was well-characterized in vertebrates, no homologues were found in non-chordates.
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In 2011 the Wiedermann lab showed in mice that probiotics could have anti-allergic effects against multiple allergens. In 2012 the Wiedermann lab showed that a fusion protein containing several allergens could treat birch pollen-related food allergy, in which patients are allergic to homologues of Bet v I. Also in 2012 the Wiedermann lab showed in mice that perinatal administration of Lactobacillus paracasei to pregnant and lactating mothers could protect against the development of airway inflammation in offspring.
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The fruits also contains the alkaloids (0.06%) nupharine, beta- nupharidin, desoxynupharidin. In the rhizomes are found the steroid sitosterol, alkaloids acids, higher fatty acids (palmitic, oleic acid) and the ellagitanins nupharin A, B,Tannins and Related Compounds. LXXV. : Isolation and Characterization of Novel Diastereoisomeric Ellagitannins, Nupharins A and B, and Their Homologues from Nuphar japonicum DC. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 25 January 1989, volume 37, issue 1, pages 129-134 (abstract) C, D, E and F.Tannins and Related Compounds. LXXIX.
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SR-beta interacts with the N-terminal SRX-domain of SR-alpha, which is not present in the bacterial FtsY homologue. SR-beta also functions in recruiting the SRP-nascent polypeptide to the protein-conducting channel. This family represents homologues of the alpha subunit of the SR receptor. Members of this entry consist of a central six- stranded anti-parallel beta-sheet sandwiched by helix alpha1 on one side and helices alpha2-alpha4 on the other.
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The 2002 Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded to Sydney Brenner, Horvitz and John E. Sulston for their work identifying genes that control apoptosis. The genes were identified by studies in the nematode C. elegans and homologues of these genes function in humans to regulate apoptosis. John E. Sulston won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2002, for his pioneering research on apoptosis. In Greek, apoptosis translates to the "falling off" of leaves from a tree.
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While the biomolecular mechanism by which the Nm23 gene works in cells is currently unknown, like in most prokaryotes, nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) expression levels determine cell growth and differentiation. Normally, the Nm23 gene (NME) is involved in metastasis suppression in humans. In prokaryotes, the Nm23 gene is involved in normal cell development and differentiation. Highly conserved homologues of the Nm23 gene have been found in prokaryotes, more specifically, Myxococcus xanthus, a gram negative soil bacteria.
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The L and Lv transcripts utilize distal and proximal splice sites, respectively, within exon 11. The L and Lv protein isoforms differ by only 22 amino acids within the C-terminus. Alternate transcriptional splice variants, encoding different isoforms, have been characterized. DISC1 homologues have been identified in all major vertebrate families including the common chimpanzee, the rhesus monkey, the house mouse, the brown rat, zebrafish, pufferfish, cattle, and dogs; additionally homologue's have been described for invertebrate and plant phyla.
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Mustard is a database that tracks Antimicrobial Resistance Determinants (ARDs). The method by which it tracks ARDs is using their own method adapted from Protein Homology Modelling called Pairwise Comparative Modelling (PCM), which increase specificity protein prediction, especially for distantly related protein homologues. Using PCM, 6095 ARDs from 20 families in the human gut microbiota. Antibiotic resistance databases used were ResFinder, ARG- ANNOT, the now defunct Lahey Clinic, Marilyn Roberts website for tetracycline and macrolide resistance genes and metagenomics.
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In particular, these species have seven genes that encode proteins whose only known function is in meiosis, including Dmc1 that is a meiosis-specific recombinase. Since meiosis is considered to be a hallmark of sexual reproduction, it might be expected that a sexual stage or a sexual apparatus should be present. However, as yet, none has been identified. In addition, mating type gene homologues and a putative sex hormone-sensing pathway were detected in these fungi.
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The potassium channel RNA editing signal is an RNA element found in human Kv1.1 and its homologues which directs the efficient modification of an adenosine to inosine by an adenosine deaminase acting on RNA (ADAR). The ADAR modification causes an isoleucine/valine recoding event which lies in the ion- conducting pore of the potassium channel. It is thought that this editing event targets the process of fast inactivation and allows a more rapid recovery from inactivation at negative potentials.
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RNase PH is a tRNA nucleotidyltransferase, present in archaea and bacteria, that is involved in tRNA processing. Contrary to hydrolytic enzymes, it is a phosphorolytic enzyme, meaning that it uses inorganic phosphate as a reactant to cleave nucleotide-nucleotide bonds, releasing diphosphate nucleotides. The active structure of the proteins is a homohexameric complex, consisting of three ribonuclease (RNase) PH dimers. RNase PH has homologues in many other organisms, which are referred to as RNase PH-like proteins.
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En effet, > des le printemps 1919, des articles de presse commencent à associer > activisme et mouvement flamand; ce qui finira par créer l'image d'une > Flandre embochée.[...] À la fin de la guerre, les activistes wallons sont > jugés avec la même virulence que leurs homologues flamands et pour les mêmes > raisons. Mais, une fois condamnés, ils disparaissent des mémoires; alors que > l'activisme flamand est de plus en plus utilisé contre les revendications > flamandes.» Laurence Van Ypersele, ibid.
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Comparative oncogenomics uses cross- species comparisons to identify oncogenes. This research involves studying cancer genomes, transcriptomes and proteomes in model organisms such as mice, identifying potential oncogenes and referring back to human cancer samples to see whether homologues of these oncogenes are important in causing human cancers. Genetic alterations in mouse models are similar to those found in human cancers. These models are generated by methods including retroviral insertion mutagenesis or graft transplantation of cancerous cells.
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In all of these organisms, the transmembrane proteins Notch and Delta (or their homologues) have been identified as mediators of the interaction. Research has been more commonly associated with Drosophila, the fruit fly. Neuroblast with slightly more Delta protein on its cell surface will inhibit its neighboring cells from becoming neurons. In flies, frogs, and chicks, Delta is found in those cells that will become neurons, while Notch is elevated in those cells that become the glial cells.
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O. histrionica, along with O. speciosa, produces cardiotoxins known as histrionicotoxins. These moderate to highly toxic compounds act as potent noncompetitive antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, binding to a regulatory site on the delta subunit of the ion channel complex. They also have some affinity for sodium and potassium channels, although they are much less potent for these targets. The synthesis of histrionicotoxins and various homologues is synthetically challenging and has been the subject of many different attempts.
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Both contain Broca's and Wernicke's homologues that are involved in communication. Broca's area is largely used for planning and producing vocalizations in both chimps and humans. Wernicke's area appears to be where linguistic representations and symbols are mapped to specific concepts. This functionality is present in both chimps and humans; the chimp Wernicke's area is much more similar to its human counterpart than is the Broca's area, suggesting that Wernicke's is more evolutionary ancient than Broca's.
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In the periodic table, it is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 10 elements, although no chemical experiments have yet been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to platinum in group 10 as the eighth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Darmstadtium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues, nickel, palladium, and platinum.
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In the fields of biochemistry and cell biology, the cation-dependent mannose-6-phosphate receptor (CD-MPR) also known as the 46 kDa mannose 6-phosphate receptor is a protein that in humans is encoded by the M6PR gene. The CD-MPR is one of two transmembrane proteins that bind mannose-6-phosphate (M6P) tags on acid hydrolase precursors in the Golgi apparatus that are destined for transport to the lysosome. Homologues of CD-MPR are found in all eukaryotes.
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Iberian peninsular cavalry was particularly renowned. Chronicles continually extol Spanish horses, describing them as fast, strong and well tamed. They were accustomed to climb mountainous roads, easily leaving behind their Italic homologues, and were also taught to obey their owners and wait for them if dismounted in midst of the battlefield. This was a custom of Ilergete and Celtiberian cavalrymen, as they often dismounted to fight on their feet at a possible tactical necessity, relegating their mounts as ways to retreat quickly.
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CRISPR is a DNA editing method that makes genetic engineering faster, easier, and more efficient. The approach involves expressing an RNA-guided endonuclease such as Cas9 along with guide RNAs directing it to a particular sequence to be edited. When the endonuclease cuts the target sequence, the cell repairs the damage by replacing the original sequence with homologous DNA. By introducing an additional template with appropriate homologues, an endonuclease can be used to delete, add or modify genes in an unprecedentedly simple manner.
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The 4 mabinlins are very similar in their amino acids sequences (see below). > Chain A > M-1: > M-2: > M-3: > M-4: > > Chain B > M-1: > M-2: > M-3: > M-4: > Amino acid sequence of Mabinlins homologues are adapted from Swiss-Prot > biological database of protein. The molecular weights of Mabinlin-1, Mabinlin-3 and Mabinlin-4 are 12.3 kDa, 12.3 kDa and 11.9 kDa, respectively. With a molecular weight of 10.4kDa, mabinlin-2 is lighter than mabinlin-1.
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Its small genome and short life cycle makes it easy to manipulate and it contains many homologues to important crop species. It was the first plant sequenced, has a host of online resources available and can be transformed by simply dipping a flower in a transformed Agrobacterium solution. In research, plants are engineered to help discover the functions of certain genes. The simplest way to do this is to remove the gene and see what phenotype develops compared to the wild type form.
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FDC-SP is a 68-amino acid protein containing a signal peptide at its N terminus, which is used for directing the transport of the protein. Adjacent to the signal peptide, the protein contains a highly charged N-terminal sequence. The C-terminal half of FDC-SP is proline-rich and not highly conserved between species, but the alignment of proline residues within this region is highly conserved. FDC-SP homologues are only easily located within the human, rat, mouse and chimpanzee genome.
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However, SNORD113 and SNORD114 differ from most C/D box snoRNAs in their expression profiles (which is tissue specific) and the lack of complementarity to rRNA and SnRNA. As a result, they are not predicted to guide to 2'O-methylation of a rRNA or snRNA. Homologues of SNORD113 and SNORD114 are found in the imprinted non-coding mouse transcript Rian where they are again found in tandem array of 9 highly related snoRNAs. These snoRNAs also display tissue specific (brain) expression.
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Opinions regarding the use of ANP for the treatment of acute heart failure and kidney disease are varied. While this molecule has been shown to successfully restore some hemodynamic parameters following heart failure, and yield clinical improvement for kidney injury, whether it ultimately reduces mortality and its long-term effects are unknown. Therefore, more studies need to be conducted to better understand the therapeutic effects of ANP. Newly synthesized homologues of ANP molecule are being assessed for the treatment of acute heart failure.
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BRI1 acts as a kinase, but in the absence of BR its action is inhibited by another protein, BRI1 kinase inhibitor 1 (BKI1). When BR binds to the BRI1:BAK1 complex, BKI1 is released, and a phosphorylation cascade is triggered which results in the de-activation of another kinase, brassinosteroid insensitive 2 (BIN2). BIN2 and its close homologues inhibit several transcription factors. The inhibition of BIN2 by BR releases these transcription factors to bind to DNA and to enact certain developmental pathways.
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RNase R, or Ribonuclease R, is a 3'-->5' exoribonuclease, which belongs to the RNase II superfamily ,a group of enzymes that hydrolyze RNA in the 3' - 5' direction. RNase R has been shown to be involved in selective mRNA degradation, particularly of non stop mRNAs in bacteria. RNase R has homologues in many other organisms. When a part of another larger protein has a domain that is very similar to RNase R, this is called an RNase R domain.
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However, the GC content of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA) genes in hyperthermophiles shows a strong correlation with optimal growth temperature. It was proposed that non coding regions of high GC-content might encode functional RNA products. The computational screen identified a number of novel ncRNA genes in the genome of M.jannaschii. These were named hgc- ("high GC") A, B, C, D, E, F and G. Two other homologues were detected called HhcA and HhcB after "homologue of hgcC".
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An experimental approach involves preventing the parasite from binding with red blood cells by blocking calcium signalling between the parasite and the host cell. Erythrocyte-binding-like proteins (EBLs) and reticulocyte-binding protein homologues (RHs) are both used by specialized P. falciparum organelles known as rhoptries and micronemes to bind with the host cell. Disrupting the binding process can stop the parasite. Monoclonal antibodies were used to interrupt calcium signalling between PfRH1 (an RH protein), EBL protein EBA175 and the host cell.
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It is named after Lise Meitner. In the periodic table, meitnerium is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 9 elements, although no chemical experiments have yet been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to iridium in group 9 as the seventh member of the 6d series of transition metals. Meitnerium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues, cobalt, rhodium, and iridium.
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The first autophagy genes were identified by genetic screens conducted in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Following their identification those genes were functionally characterized and their orthologs in a variety of different organisms were identified and studied. In mammals, amino acid sensing and additional signals such as growth factors and reactive oxygen species regulate the activity of the protein kinases mTOR and AMPK. These two kinases regulate autophagy through inhibitory phosphorylation of the Unc-51-like kinases ULK1 and ULK2 (mammalian homologues of Atg1).
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The main advantage of FbFPs over GFP is their independence of molecular oxygen. Since all GFP derivatives and homologues require molecular oxygen for the maturation of their chromophore, these fluorescent proteins are of limited use under anaerobic or hypoxic conditions. Since FbFPs bind FMN as chromophore, which is synthesized independently of molecular oxygen, their fluorescence signal does not differ between aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Another advantage is the small size of FbFPs, which is typically between 100 and 150 amino acids.
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These incremental changes in vitro correspond to the distance of domains from the signaling tissue (notochord and floor plate) which subsequently differentiates into different neuronal subtypes as it occurs in vitro. Graded SHH signaling is suggested to be mediated through the Gli family of proteins which are vertebrate homologues of the Drosophila zinc-finger- containing transcription factor Cubitus interruptus (Ci). Ci is a crucial mediator of hedgehog (Hh) signaling in Drosophila. In vertebrates three different Gli proteins are present viz.
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Together they studied the effects of parasitic wasps on various insect pests. Their work led to Competitive displacement between ecological homologues (1963) which concluded that two or more species with similar ecological requirements cannot live together. When Sundby returned to Norway in 1960, her interest in biological control increasingly turned from research to conservation, as she came up with proposals for alternatives to chemical control. Sundby chaired the Norwegian Entomological Society twice: from 1954 to 1959, and from 1964 to 1967.
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It was cloned, sequenced and expressed in E.coli and in order to completely reconstitute signal dependent transport, had to be combined with Ran(TC4). Other key stimulatory factors were also found in the study. Importin-β, unlike importin-α, has no direct homologues in yeast, but was purified as a 90-95kDa protein and found to form a heterodimer with importin-α in a number of different cases. These included a study led by Michael Rexach and further studies by Dirk Görlich.
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Gauthier and de Queiroz originally referred a number of prehistoric species to this group, on the basis of fossilized feather traces. These included what they considered to be non-avian dinosaurs such as Sinornithosaurus, Archaeopteryx, and the enantiornithines, all of which had true feathers. They tentatively considered the simpler feathers of other dinosaurs like Sinosauropteryx and Beipiaosaurus to be homologues of modern feathers and thus probably included in Avifilopluma. Therefore, they concluded that Avifilopluma would include most of the clade Maniraptora or Coelurosauria.
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These proteins are usually 500-600 amino acyl residues long and possess 12 putative transmembrane α-helical segments (TMSs). Residues in the first TMS and in the region between TMSs 1 and 2, and in TMS 11 appear to play roles in substrate recognition. The large cytoplasmic loop between TMSs 6 and 7 is required for stability and efficient transport. Proteins of the RFC family have been characterized only from animals, but homologues can also be found in other eukaryotes such as slime molds and Giardia.
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CotY, ExsY and CotB are homologues of Bacillus subtilis outer spore coat proteins, but ExsF and ExsK are specific to B. anthracis and other members of the Bacillus cereus group. The protein ywdL has been identified in B. cereus as important for exosporium formation. In the absence of the ywdL gene, a fragile and easily damaged exosporium is formed, which can be damaged by mechanical disruption such as freeze-thaw cycles. However, ywdL is not required to maintain the internal organization of the exosporium.
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The arsC protein structure has been solved. It belongs to the thioredoxin superfamily fold which is defined by a beta-sheet core surrounded by alpha-helices. The active cysteine residue of ArsC is located in the loop between the first beta-strand and the first helix, which is also conserved in the Spx protein and its homologues. The arsC family also comprises the Spx proteins which are Gram-positive bacterial transcription factors that regulate the transcription of multiple genes in response to disulphide stress.
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The proteins are of about 450-600 amino acyl residues in length with the eukaryotic proteins in general being longer than the bacterial proteins. They exhibit 12 putative or established transmembrane α-helical spanners. Pairs of salt bridge interactions between transmembrane helices work in tandem to orchestrate alternating access transport within the PTR family. Key roles for residues conserved between bacterial and eukaryotic homologues suggest a conserved mechanism of peptide recognition and transport that in some cases has been subtly modified in individual species.
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These can be distinguished from other 7TM proteins (especially those known to couple G-proteins) by their own characteristic TM signatures. More than 1300 potential chemoreceptor genes have been identified in C. elegans, which are generally prefixed sr for serpentine receptor. The receptor superfamilies include Sra (Sra, Srb, Srab, Sre), Str (Srh, Str, Sri, Srd, Srj, Srm, Srn) and Srg (Srx, Srt, Srg, Sru, Srv, Srxa), as well as the families Srw, Srz, Srbc, Srsx and Srr. Many of these proteins have homologues in Caenorhabditis briggsae.
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Outer membrane porin D is a protein family containing bacterial outer membrane porins which are involved in transport of cationic amino acids, peptides, antibiotics and other compounds. It was also described as having some serine protease activity. However many of these proteins are not peptidases and are classified as non-peptidase homologues as they either have been found experimentally to be without peptidase activity, or lack amino acid residues that are believed to be essential for the catalytic activity of peptidases in the S43 family.
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Several residues are necessary for recognition of cadaverine in the periplasm because the level of cadaverine is much lower than that of putrescine at neutral pH. The roughly barrel-shaped AdiC subunit of approx. 45 Å diameter consists of 12 transmembrane helices, TMS1 and TMS6 being interrupted by short non-helical stretches in the middle of their transmembrane spans. Biochemical analysis of homologues places the amino and carboxy termini on the intracellular side of the membrane. TM1–TM10 surround a large cavity exposed to the extracellular solution.
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The dcl-2 of T. marneffei and its homologue in T. stipitatus are more closely related to those of the thermal dimorphic pathogenic fungi, Histoplasma capsulatum, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis and Coccidioides immitis than to P. chrysogenum and Aspergillus spp., suggesting the co-evolution of dcl-2 among the thermal dimorphic fungi. On the other hand, qde-2 of T. marneffei is most closely related to its homologues in other thermal dimorphic fungi than to that in T. stipitatus, P. chrysogenum and Aspergillus spp.
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Ruvkun's laboratory has also discovered that an insulin-like signaling pathway controls C. elegans metabolism and longevity. Klass Johnson and Kenyon showed that the developmental arrest program mediated by mutations in age-1 and daf-2 increase C. elegans longevity. The Ruvkun lab established that these genes constitute an insulin like receptor and a downstream phosphatidylinositol kinase that couple to the daf-16 gene product, a highly conserved Forkhead transcription factor. Homologues of these genes have now been implicated in regulation of human aging.
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The Putative 3-4 TMS Transglycosylase-associated Holin (T-A Hol) Family (TC# 1.E.43) is believed to be a group of holins that does not belong to one of the seven holin superfamilies. Homologues include thousands of diverse phage and bacterial proteins between 80 and 140 amino acyl residues (aas) in length that exhibit 3 to 4 transmembrane segments (TMSs). These proteins are holin-like in their size and topology and are designated 'Transglycosylase-associated', 'Putative holin', 'Phage-like transmembrane protein', 'YeaQ protein', etc.
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The four kainosymmetric orbital types filled among the known elements, one per row: 1s, 2p, 3d, 4f. The 1s, 2p, 3d, 4f, and 5g shells are each the first to have their value of ℓ, the azimuthal quantum number that determines a subshell's orbital angular momentum. This gives them some special properties, that has been referred to as kainosymmetry (from Greek καινός "new"). Elements filling these orbitals are usually less metallic than their heavier homologues, prefer lower oxidation states, and have smaller atomic and ionic radii.
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The RNA and protein components of this complex are highly conserved but do vary between the different kingdoms of life. The common SINE family Alu probably originated from a 7SL RNA gene after deletion of a central sequence. The eukaryotic SRP consists of a 300-nucleotide 7S RNA and six proteins: SRPs 72, 68, 54, 19, 14, and 9. Archaeal SRP consists of a 7S RNA and homologues of the eukaryotic SRP19 and SRP54 proteins. Eukaryotic and archaeal 7S RNAs have very similar secondary structures.
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The vertebrate ENaC proteins from epithelial cells cluster tightly together on the phylogenetic tree; voltage-insensitive ENaC homologues are also found in the brain. The many sequenced C. elegans proteins, including the worm degenerins, are distantly related to the vertebrate proteins as well as to each other. Vertebrate ENaC proteins are similar to degenerins of Caenorhabditis elegans: deg-1, del-1, mec-4, mec-10 and unc-8. These proteins can be mutated to cause neuronal degradation, and are also thought to form sodium channels.
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Distant homologues include the Lec15/Lec35 suppressor, SL15, of Chinese hamster ovary cells and ERS1, the ERD suppressor in S. cerevisiae. Both of these suppressors, when overexpressed, have been reported to influence retention of lumenal endoplasmic reticular proteins as well as glycosylation in the Golgi apparatus. The Lec15 and Lec35 mutations are characterized by inefficient synthesis and utilization, respectively, of mannose-P-dolichol for glycolipid biosynthesis. All proteins in the LCT family are distantly related to the proteins of the microbial rhodopsin (MR) family (TC #3.
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Malate synthase is found as an octamer of identical subunits (each roughly 60kDa) in some plants, including maize. It is found as a homotetramer in the fungus Candida and as a homodimer in eubacteria. Malate synthase is fused to the C-terminus of isocitrate lyase in C. elegans, resulting in a single bifunctional protein. While there is currently not sufficient sequence information to determine the exact evolutionary history of malate synthase, plant, fungal, and C. elegans sequences are distinct and show no homologues from archaebacteria.
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Several of the PTS porters in the Glc family lack their own IIA domains and instead use the glucose IIA protein (IIAglc or Crr). Most of these porters have the B and C domains linked together in a single polypeptide chain. A cysteyl residue in the IIB domain is phosphorylated by direct phosphoryl transfer from IIAglc(his~P) or one of its homologues. Those porters which lack a IIA domain include the maltose, arbutin-salicin-cellobiose, trehalose, putative glucoside and sucrose porters of E. coli.
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Conversely, the paternal H19 promoter is highly methylated during embryogenesis so that Ifg2 will not be silenced. Should CTCF fail to bind, H19 on the maternal chromosome has reduced expression and Igf2 is not silenced properly, resulting in biallelic expression. Mice have homologues of these genes, but silence them in a different way, where biallelic expression occurs and then antisense RNA is used to silence one of the genes.Hallgrimsson, Benedikt, Ph.D.; Hall, Brian K., Ph.D.. Epigenetics: Linking Genotype and Phenotype in Development and Evolution.
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The problematic then arises for the identification of the first, given that taphonomic loss and inaccuracy of molecular clocks has led to huge phylogenetic gap comprising the intermediate states that would conform the stem eukaryotes. Notwithstanding, ideas can be postulated regarding the eukaryotic organism formation based on the traits found in archaeal and α-proteobacteria common to eukaryotes. This consists mostly in homologues of eukaryotic molecular features, specially those related with cytoskeleton, cytokines and membrane remodeling systems. Indeed, these features are more abundant in the TACK Archaea.
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Thiosulfate dehydrogenase (abbreviated as TsdA) () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction: :2 thiosulfate + 2 ferricytochrome c \rightleftharpoons tetrathionate + 2 ferrocytochrome c Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are thiosulfate and ferricytochrome c, whereas its two products are tetrathionate and ferrocytochrome c. Thiosulfate dehydrogenase homologues have been isolated from numerous bacterial species and differ slightly in structure but have analogous function and mechanism of sulfur oxidation. The enzyme is similar in both function and structure to a few enzymes in the Sox sulfur oxidation pathway.
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Ecdysone is a steroidal prohormone of the major insect molting hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone, which is secreted from the prothoracic glands. Insect molting hormones (ecdysone and its homologues) are generally called ecdysteroids. Ecdysteroids act as moulting hormones of arthropods but also occur in other related phyla where they can play different roles. In Drosophila melanogaster, an increase in ecdysone concentration induces the expression of genes coding for proteins that the larva requires, and it causes chromosome puffs (sites of high expression) to form in polytene chromosomes.
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Cyclin A was first identified in 1983 in sea urchin embryos. Since its initial discovery, homologues of cyclin A have been identified in numerous eukaryotes including Drosophila, Xenopus, mice, and in humans but has not been found in lower eukaryotes like yeast. The protein exists in both an embryonic form and somatic form. A single cyclin A gene has been identified in Drosophila while Xenopus, mice and humans contain two distinct types of cyclin A: A1, the embryonic-specific form, and A2, the somatic form.
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These domains are joined by residue loops to form a substrate binding cleft, where the glucosyl group acceptor binds. Although H. orenii is a non-photosynthetic bacterium, various studies indicate that the structure of its SPS is similar to plant SPS. First, antibodies with high specificities for plant SPS also target the bacterial SPS, indicating the structure is conserved enough for the antibody to recognize the enzyme as an antigen. Furthermore, genomic studies reveal that closely related plant homologues exhibit up to 54% sequence identities.
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Typical core-domain of an FbFP () A FMN-binding fluorescent protein (FbFP), also known as a LOV-based fluorescent protein, is a small, oxygen-independent fluorescent protein that binds flavin mononucleotide (FMN) as a chromophore. They were developed from blue-light receptors (so called LOV-domains) found in plants and various bacteria. They complement the GFP-derivatives and –homologues and are particularly characterized by their independence of molecular oxygen and their small size. FbFPs absorb blue light and emit light in the cyan-green spectral range.
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The number of carpels is described by terms such as tricarpellate (three carpels). Carpels are thought to be phylogenetically derived from ovule-bearing leaves or leaf homologues (megasporophylls), which evolved to form a closed structure containing the ovules. This structure is typically rolled and fused along the margin. Although many flowers satisfy the above definition of a carpel, there are also flowers that do not have carpels according to this definition because in these flowers the ovule(s), although enclosed, are borne directly on the shoot apex.
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In 1907 and in 1909 he wrote the section on stereochemistry for the annual reports of the Chemical Society. The study of organic nitrogen bases led to his attempt to solve the difficult problem of the constitution and transformations of the aldol bases derived from the homologues of aniline. Meanwhile, Jones was assisting Dewar in very different investigations of the metallic (nickel and iron) carbonyls. These researches had made Jones familiar with low temperature manipulations and ultimately led to their discovery of carbon monosulfide.
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Presently there are four known human Piwi proteins—PIWI-like protein 1, PIWI-like protein 2, PIWI-like protein 3 and PIWI-like protein 4. Human Piwi proteins all contain two RNA binding domains, PAZ and Piwi. The four PIWI-like proteins have a spacious binding site within the PAZ domain which allows them to bind the bulky 2’-OCH3 at the 3’ end of piwi-interacting RNA. One of the major human homologues, whose upregulation is implicated in the formation of tumours such as seminomas, is called hiwi (for _h_ uman p _iwi_ ).
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MAFA (Mast cell function-associated antigen) is a type II membranal glycoprotein, first identified on the surface of rat mucosal-type mast cells of the RBL-2H3 line. More recently, human and mouse homologues of MAFA have been discovered yet also (or only) expressed by NK and T-cells. The intracellular domain of MAFA contains a single immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM), which classifies MAFA as a member of an inhibitory receptor superfamily. The inhibitory capacity of MAFA is best defined in mast cells, where MAFA keeps in check the antigen-induced (i.e.
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Survivin is a member of the IAP family of antiapoptotic proteins. It is shown to be conserved in function across evolution as homologues of the protein are found both in vertebrates and invertebrates. The first members of the IAPs identified were from the baculovirus IAPs, Cp-IAP and Op-IAP, which bind to and inhibit caspases as a mechanism that contributes to its efficient infection and replication cycle in the host. Later, five more human IAPs that included XIAP, c-IAPl, C-IAP2, NAIP, and survivin were discovered.
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Dermatopontin also known as tyrosine-rich acidic matrix protein (TRAMP) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DPT gene. Dermatopontin is a 22-kDa protein of the noncollagenous extracellular matrix (ECM) estimated to comprise 12 mg/kg of wet dermis weight. To date, homologues have been identified in five different mammals and 12 different invertebrates with multiple functions. In vertebrates, the primary function of dermatopontin is a structural component of the ECM (interaction with decorin and modification of collagen fibrillogenesis), cell adhesion, modulation of TGF-β activity and cellular quiescence).
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As with other Brahmic scripts, the Burmese alphabet is arranged into groups of five letters for stop consonants called wek (, from Pali ) based on articulation. Within each group, the first letter is tenuis ("plain"), the second is the aspirated homologue, the third and fourth are the voiced homologues and the fifth is the nasal homologue. This is true of the first twenty-five letters in the Burmese alphabet, which are called grouped together as wek byi (, from Pali ). The remaining eight letters (, , , , , , , ) are grouped together as a wek (, lit.
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Despite no obvious amino acid sequence similarity from pathogen to host factors, structural studies have revealed that mimicry can still occur at the host level. In some cases, pathogenic mimics can possess a structural architecture that differs markedly from that of the functional homologues. Therefore, proteins of dissimilar sequence may have a common structure which elicits an autoimmune response. It has been hypothesized that these virulent proteins display their mimicry through molecular surfaces that mimic host protein surfaces (protein fold or three-dimensional conformation), which have been obtained by convergent evolution.
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Genital tubercle of female at fourteen weeks Development of genitals showing homologues from indifferent at A to both sexes - female on right In week three of the development of the embryo, mesenchyme cells from the primitive streak migrate around the cloacal membrane. Early in the fifth week the cells form two swellings called the cloacal folds. The cloacal folds meet in front of the cloacal membrane and form a raised area known as the genital tubercle. The urorectal septum fuses with the cloacal membrane to form the perineum.
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A, but because it belongs to a family in which well-characterized homologues catalyze active ion transport, it is assigned to the MR family. Expression of the chop1 gene, or a truncated form of that gene encoding only the hydrophobic core (residues 1-346 or 1-517) in frog oocytes in the presence of all-trans retinal produces a light-gated conductance that shows characteristics of a channel passively but selectively permeable to protons. This channel activity probably generates bioelectric currents. A homologue of ChR1 in C. reinhardtii is channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2; Chop2; Cop4; CSOB).
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Intermediate filaments (IFs) are cytoskeletal structural components found in the cells of vertebrates, and many invertebrates. Homologues of the IF protein have been noted in an invertebrate, the cephalochordate Branchiostoma. Intermediate filaments are composed of a family of related proteins sharing common structural and sequence features. Initially designated 'intermediate' because their average diameter (10 nm) is between those of narrower microfilaments (actin) and wider myosin filaments found in muscle cells, the diameter of intermediate filaments is now commonly compared to actin microfilaments (7 nm) and microtubules (25 nm).
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STI proteins are characterized by some structural features: All homologues have nine tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) motifs, that are clustered into domains of three TPRs. The TPR motif is a very common structural feature used by many proteins and provides the ability of directing protein-protein interactions. Crystallographic structural information is available for the N-terminal TPR1 and the central TPR2A domains in complex with Hsp90 resp. Hsp70 ligand peptides. The Hsp70-Hsp90 Organizing Protein (Hop, STIP1 in humans) is the co-chaperone responsible for the transfer of client proteins between Hsp70 and Hsp90.
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Sepate junction in developing trachea in Drosophyla Septate junctions are intercellular junctions found in invertebrate epithelial cells, appearing as ladder-like structures under electron microscopy. They are thought to provide structural strength and a barrier to solute diffusion through the intercellular space. They are considered somewhat analogous to the (vertebrate) tight junctions; however, tight and septate junctions are different in many ways. Known insect homologues of tight junction components are components of conserved signalling pathways that localize to either adherens junctions, the subapical complex, or the marginal zone.
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Ten to forty percent of people will experience nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, itching skin, increased body temperature, trembling and weakness. One to five percent of peoples may experience back and chest pain, dizziness, anemia, chills and sweating, metallic taste, tachycardia and respiratory distress. Contraindications for the use of carbetocin include inappropriate timing during labor and delivery (such as before parturition or to induce labor) or allergic reactions to carbetocin or other oxytocin homologues. Additionally, carbetocin should not be used if a person has high blood pressure or cardiovascular problems.
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Methylamine was first prepared in 1849 by Charles-Adolphe Wurtz via the hydrolysis of methyl isocyanate and related compounds.Karsten Eller, Erhard Henkes, Roland Rossbacher, Hartmut Höke "Amines, Aliphatic" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2005. Charles- Adolphe Wurtz (1849) "Sur une série d'alcalis organiques homologues avec l'ammoniaque" (On a series of homologous organic alkalis containing ammonia), Comptes rendus … , 28 : 223-226. Note: Wurtz's empirical formula for methylamine is incorrect because chemists in that era used an incorrect atomic mass for carbon (6 instead of 12).
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The insolubility of this compound has been used to determine the concentration of potassium ions by precipitation and gravimetric analysis: : K+ \+ NaB(Ph)4 -> KB(Ph)4 \+ Na+ The compound adopts a polymeric structure with bonds between the phenyl rings and potassium. As such it is classified as an organopotassium compound.Ulrich Behrens, Frank Hoffmann, and Falk Olbrich "Solid-State Structures of Base-Free Lithium and Sodium Tetraphenylborates at Room and Low Temperature: Comparison with the Higher Homologues MB(C6H5)4 (M = K, Rb, Cs)" Organometallics 2012, volume 31, p. 905−913.
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Sputnik has a circular double stranded DNA genome consisting of 18,343 base pairs. It contains genes able to infect all three domains of life: Eukarya, Archaea and Bacteria. Of the twenty-one predicted protein-coding genes, three are apparently derived from APMV itself, one is a homologue of an archaeal virus, and four others are homologues of proteins in bacteriophages and eukaryotic viruses. The fact that three of these genes are derived from APMV indicates that Sputnik is able to participate in gene-transfer processes and mediate lateral gene transfer between giant viruses.
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The structure of ethenium's ground state was in dispute for many years, but it was eventually agreed to be a non-classical structure, with the two carbon atoms and one of the hydrogen atoms forming a three-center two-electron bond. Calculations have shown that higher homologues, like the propyl and n-butyl cations also have bridged structures. Generally speaking, bridging appears to be a common means by which 1° alkyl carbocations achieve additional stabilization. Consequently, true 1° carbocations (with a classical structure) may be rare or nonexistent.
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Despite this shared topology, the protein families do not share enough sequence similarity to confidently infer common ancestry. Pannexins are similar to innexins and are usually considered a sub-group, but they do not participate in the formation of gap junctions and the channels have seven subunits. Vinnexins, viral homologues of innexins, were identified in polydnaviruses that occur in obligate symbiotic associations with parasitoid wasps. It was suggested that vinnexins may function to alter gap junction proteins in infected host cells, possibly modifying cell-cell communication during encapsulation responses in parasitized insects.
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Researchers conjecture that, over the course of history, these photosynthesizing organisms produced the arsenates that allowed the arsenate- reducing bacteria to thrive. One strain PHS-1 has been isolated and is related to the gammaproteobacterium Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii. The mechanism is unknown, but an encoded Arr enzyme may function in reverse to its known homologues. In 2011, it was postulated that a strain of Halomonadaceae could be grown in the absence of phosphorus if that element were substituted with arsenic, exploiting the fact that the arsenate and phosphate anions are similar structurally.
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In higher eukaryotes Atg8 is not encoded by a single gene as in yeast, but derived from a multigene family. Four of its homologues have already been identified in mammalian cells. One of them is LC3 (MAP1LC3A), a light chain of the microtubule-associated protein 1 Like Atg8, LC3 needs to be proteolytically cleaved and lipidated to be turned into its active form which can localize to the autophagosomal membrane. Similar to the situation in yeast, the activation process of LC3 is triggered by nutrient depletion, as well as in response to hormones.
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This discovery he worked out very thoroughly in investigations of ethylene oxide and the polyethylene alcohols. The oxidation of the glycols led him to homologues of lactic acid, and a controversy about the constitution of the latter with Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe resulted in the discovery of many new facts and in a better understanding of the relations between the oxy- and the amido-acids. In 1855, he published work on what is now known as the Wurtz reaction. In 1867 Wurtz synthesized neurine by the action of trimethylamine on glycol-chlorhydrin.
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This is the only region which does not show any homologies to segmental duplication of other chromosomes with more than 95% sequence identity. Lowering the stringency conditions, homologues can be ascertained with chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 16, and 18. There exist three copies of this human region on the chimpanzee Y chromosome with two surrounding the Y chromosome centromere and the third located at Yp11.2. Both the human region and the homologous chimpanzee region are encompassed by typical alpha-satellite DNA found near the chromosome centromeres.
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APLP2 associates with antigen presentation molecules like MHC class I molecules and regulates their surface expression by enhancing endocytosis. APLP1 and APLP2 double knockout mice display hypoglycemia and hyperinsulinemia indicating that these two proteins are important modulators of glucose and insulin homeostasis. APLP2 has also been shown to regulate development of the brain by regulating migration and differentiation of neural stem cells. Double mice knock outs of APLP2 and its homologues, APP and APLP1 have shown a strong indication that APLP2 has the key physiological role among the family members.
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Homologues of IQGAP1 are known in species as divergent as yeast, worms, and humans (as well as other mammals), though the domains are not always highly conserved. IQGAP1 is the most well studied member of the IQGAP family of scaffold proteins. The two other members of the family include IQGAP2 and IQGAP3 which have far more restricted expression patterns in comparison with IQGAP1. IQGAP2 is found in the liver, stomach, and platelets and is 62% identical to IQGAP1, but appears to have a drastically divergent function in terms of pathology.
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An example of a polonide is lead polonide (PbPo), which occurs naturally as lead is formed in the alpha decay of polonium. Polonium hydride is difficult to work with due to the extreme radioactivity of polonium and its compounds and has only been prepared in very dilute tracer quantities. As a result, its physical properties are not definitely known. It is also unknown if polonium hydride forms an acidic solution in water like its lighter homologues, or if it behaves more like a metal hydride (see also hydrogen astatide).
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The SUF pathway is a known pathway of prokaryotes, and it is believed that the genes used to build Monocercomonoides' SUF system had to have come from prokaryotes. However, Monocercomonoides' SUF proteins were found to not be related to plastid homologues, or any other microbial eukaryotes. It was proposed that the pathway was acquired from a eubacterium by horizontal gene transfer (HGT) in the common ancestor of Monocercomonoides and Paratrismastrix (a sister taxon of oxymonads). The genetic acquisition has not been demonstrated despite the assumption that it must have occurred.
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The crystal structure of RmlC from Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum was determined in the presence and absence of a substrate analogue. RmlC is a homodimer comprising a central jelly roll motif, which extends in two directions into longer beta-sheets. Binding of dTDP is stabilised by ionic interactions to the phosphate group and by a combination of ionic and hydrophobic interactions with the base. The active site, which is located in the centre of the jelly roll, is formed by residues that are conserved in all known RmlC sequence homologues.
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Expression of DAZ proteins varies between species but is mainly expressed in Primordial Germ Cells (PGCs). One DAZ homologue is expressed in nearly every stage of spermatogenesis, from PGCs to mature spermatozoa. The conservation of DAZ family genes among various species ranging from unicellular organisms to humans indicates their important role in fertility. More precisely, DAZ is only present in higher primates, without any homologues being present in unicellular organisms whereas BOULE is found in species ranging from sea anemones to humans and DAZL is conserved among vertebrates.
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In other words, the most related species will not necessarily inherit the most related haplotypes of genes. This is of course a simplified example and in real research it is usually more complex containing more genes and/or species. When studying primates, chimpanzees and bonobos are more related to each other than any other taxa and are thus sister taxa. Still, for 1.6% of the bonobo genome, sequences are more closely related to homologues of humans than to chimpanzees, which is probably a result of incomplete lineage sorting.
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Since HzNV-1 shares all of these homologous genes with baculovirus genome and four more, it is very likely that HsNV-1 and HzNV-2 have a recent common ancestor and their common ancestor diverged from a common ancestor of the baculoviruses. 75 of the virus' 113 putative genes have poor or no homology to any other known genes, except with genes of HzNV-1. Of the 38 genes with homologues, 6 are involved in DNA replication, 4 in transcription, 5 in nucleic acid metabolism, 3 structural proteins.
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Hz2V007 is very similar to the Bombyx mori carboxylesterase (COE) and, to a lesser degree, Anopheles gambiae juvenile hormone esterase (JHE). This high similarity may mean that HzNV-2 can control the physiology of infected hosts through the regulation of Juvenile hormone levels and the level of gene expression occurring at different stages of their development. In addition, this gene more closely resembles a host gene than a viral gene. Hz2V012 and Hz2V015 encode inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) homologues. Hz2V023 shows homology to the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), specifically Aedes aegypti adenylate cyclase.
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PnuC of Salmonella typhimurium and Haemophilus influenzae are believed to function cooperatively with NadR homologues, multifunctional proteins that together with PnuC, participate in NR phosphorylation, transport and transcriptional regulation. NadR, a cytoplasmic protein that is partly membrane associated, contains one well conserved and one poorly conserved mononucleotide-binding consensus sequence (G-X4 GKS). It drives transport and may render transport responsive to internal pyridine nucleotide levels. While its N-terminal half functions as a repressor, its C-terminal half functions as an NR kinase in a putative group translocation process.
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Nihonium has been calculated to have similar properties to its homologues boron, aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium. All but boron are post-transition metals, and nihonium is expected to be a post-transition metal as well. It should also show several major differences from them; for example, nihonium should be more stable in the +1 oxidation state than the +3 state, like thallium, but in the +1 state nihonium should behave more like silver and astatine than thallium. Preliminary experiments in 2017 showed that elemental nihonium is not very volatile; its chemistry remains largely unexplored.
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During her PhD, she became interested in macrophage-pathogen biology and was selected to take a Cold Spring Harbor Course on Advanced Bacterial Genetics. Brown helped to develop a novel method to study the mechanisms underlying mycobacterium replication in mononuclear phagocytes. Brown and her colleagues developed a leucine auxotrophic mutant that the field could use to study the host-pathogen interactions of mycobacterium and the animal cells thy replicate in. Brown also explored the sec-dependent protein export pathway in mycobacterium, the main protein export pathway into the cytoplasm, and discovered the presence of two homologues of the SecA protein.
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The high conservation of the family makes actin the favoured model for studies comparing the introns-early and introns-late models of intron evolution. All non-spherical prokaryotes appear to possess genes such as MreB, which encode homologues of actin; these genes are required for the cell's shape to be maintained. The plasmid-derived gene ParM encodes an actin-like protein whose polymerized form is dynamically unstable, and appears to partition the plasmid DNA into its daughter cells during cell division by a mechanism analogous to that employed by microtubules in eukaryotic mitosis. Actin is found in both smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulums.
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The eukaryotic cytoskeleton of organisms among all taxonomic groups have similar components to actin and tubulin. For example, the protein that is coded by the ACTG2 gene in humans is completely equivalent to the homologues present in rats and mice, even though at a nucleotide level the similarity decreases to 92%. However, there are major differences with the equivalents in prokaryotes (FtsZ and MreB), where the similarity between nucleotide sequences is between 40−50 % among different bacteria and archaea species. Some authors suggest that the ancestral protein that gave rise to the model eukaryotic actin resembles the proteins present in modern bacterial cytoskeletons.
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The pylT and pylS genes are part of an operon of Methanosarcina barkeri, with homologues in other sequenced members of the Methanosarcinaceae family: M. acetivorans, M. mazei, and M. thermophila. Pyrrolysine-containing genes are known to include monomethylamine methyltransferase (mtmB), dimethylamine methyltransferase (mtbB), and trimethylamine methyltransferase (mttB). Homologs of pylS and pylT have also been found in an Antarctic archaeon, Methanosarcina barkeri and a Gram- positive bacterium, Desulfitobacterium hafniense.Reviewed in The occurrence in Desulfitobacterium is of special interest, because bacteria and archaea are separate domains in the three-domain system by which living things are classified.
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It was at the Nam-Hai Chua lab working with another postdoc named Ferenc Nagy that Kay stumbled upon the discovery that the chlorophyll binding gene CAB was regulated by a circadian clock. In 1989, Kay was appointed to his first faculty position as an Assistant Professor at Rockefeller University. While there, he collaborated with Michael W. Young to identify fly PER gene homologues, which did not exist. Kay then developed glowing Arabidopsis thaliana plants to screen for circadian rhythm mutants, with the help of his student Andrew Millar , and subsequently identified TOC1, the first clock gene identified in plants.
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Moscovium is an extremely radioactive element: its most stable known isotope, moscovium-290, has a half-life of only 0.65 seconds. In the periodic table, it is a p-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in group 15 as the heaviest pnictogen, although it has not been confirmed to behave as a heavier homologue of the pnictogen bismuth. Moscovium is calculated to have some properties similar to its lighter homologues, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, and to be a post-transition metal, although it should also show several major differences from them.
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A March 2000 study by National Human Genome Research Institute comparing the fruit fly and human genome estimated that about 60% of genes are conserved between the two species. About 75% of known human disease genes have a recognizable match in the genome of fruit flies, and 50% of fly protein sequences have mammalian homologs . An online database called Homophila is available to search for human disease gene homologues in flies and vice versa. Drosophila is being used as a genetic model for several human diseases including the neurodegenerative disorders Parkinson's, Huntington's, spinocerebellar ataxia and Alzheimer's disease.
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It is named after the physicist Wilhelm Röntgen (also spelled Roentgen), who discovered X-rays. In the periodic table, it is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 11 elements, although no chemical experiments have been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to gold in group 11 as the ninth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Roentgenium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues, copper, silver, and gold, although it may show some differences from them.
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Hfq protein homologues have yet to be found in M. tuberculosis; an alternative pathway – potentially involving conserved C-rich motifs – has been theorised to enable trans-acting sRNA functionality. sRNAs were shown to have important physiological roles in M. tuberculosis. Overexpression of G2 sRNA, for example, prevented growth of M. tuberculosis and greatly reduced the growth of M. smegmatis; ASdes sRNA is thought to be a cis-acting regulator of a fatty acid desaturase (desA2) while ASpks is found with the open reading frame for Polyketide synthase-12 (pks12) and is an antisense regulator of pks12 mRNA.
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However, a reanalysis of studies that used phylostratigraphy in yeast, fruit flies and humans found that even when accounting for such error rates and excluding difficult-to-stratify genes from the analyses, the qualitative conclusions were unaffected for all three studies. The impact of phylostratigraphic bias on studies examining various features of de novo genes (see below) remains debated. To increase the detectability of ancestral homologues, sensitive sequence-based similarity searches, such as CS-BLAST and Hidden Markov Model (HMM)-based searches, may also be used, alone or in combination with BLAST- based phylostratigraphy analysis, to identify de novo genes.
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Fittig's interpretation of his results was incorrect and the products formed were not identified until more than a decade later when Aleksandr Butlerov independently prepared trimethylacetic acid and confirmed it was the same product as Fittig had prepared. :File:Acetone2pinacolone.svg In 1855, Charles-Adolphe Wurtz showed that when sodium acted upon alkyl iodides, the alkyl residues combined to form more complex hydrocarbons; Fittig developed this Wurtz reaction method by showing that a mixture of an aryl halide and an alkyl halide, under similar treatment, yielded homologues of benzene. This process is now known as the Wurtz-Fittig reaction.
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The fluorinase enzyme (, also known as adenosyl-fluoride synthase) catalyzes the reaction between fluoride ion and the co-factor S-adenosyl-L-methionine to generate L-methionine and 5'-fluoro-5'-deoxyadenosine, the first committed product of the fluorometabolite biosynthesis pathway. The fluorinase was originally isolated from the soil bacterium Streptomyces cattleya, but homologues have since been identified in a number of other bacterial species, including Streptomyces sp. MA37, Nocardia brasiliensis and Actinoplanes sp. N902-109. This is the only known enzyme capable of catalysing the formation of a carbon-fluorine bond, the strongest single bond in organic chemistry.
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The term gluteome is used to describe the entire set of all gluten-like proteins in grains, which consumption causes occurrence of clinical manifestations in celiac patients. These proteins include gliadins and glutenins from wheat, secalins from rye, hordeins from barley, avenins from oats and potentially homologues from other related grain species. Since not all grain storage proteins have been identified yet, the term gluteome often refers to the complete set of the known sequences of gluten and gluten-like molecules. Alternatively, the word gluteome can depict the entire complement of grain-storage proteins in a single grain species at a given time.
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Proteorhodopsin (also known as pRhodopsin) is a family of over 50 photoactive retinylidene proteins, a larger family of transmembrane proteins that use retinal as a chromophore for light-mediated functionality, in this case, a proton pump. Some homologues exist as pentamers or hexamers. pRhodopsin is found in marine planktonic bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes (protae), but was first discovered in bacteria. Its name is derived from proteobacteria that are named after Ancient Greek Πρωτεύς (Proteus), an early sea god mentioned by Homer as "Old Man of the Sea", Ῥόδος (rhódon) for "rose", due to its pinkish color, and ὄψις (opsis) for "sight".
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In 2001, Green found Noc homologues in other species such as mice with a high degree coding sequence similarity. Since expanding these studies into mice, they have shown that mouse Nocturnin mRNA is also rhythmic and expressed in many circadian clock-containing tissues. Interestingly, Green's group has shown that though Noc is not directly involved in regulating the master clock gene expression, it is required for oscillator output functions thereby contributing to circadian physiology. The rhythmic expression of nocturnin (Noc) is seen throughout the body, notably in tissues crucial for metabolism like the liver and intestine.
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As the 4-alkyl chain length is increased from shorter homologues such as DOM, DOET, DOPR, and DOBU which are all potent hallucinogens, the 5-HT2 binding affinity increases, rising to a maximum with the 4-(n-hexyl) derivative before falling again with even longer chains, but compounds with chain length longer than n-propyl, or with other bulky groups such as isopropyl, t-butyl or γ-phenylpropyl at the 4- position, fail to substitute for hallucinogens in animals or produce hallucinogenic effects in humans, suggesting these have low efficacy and are thus antagonists or weak partial agonists at the 5-HT2A receptor.
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Sequence 3 cannot be completely reconstructed without an additional outgroup sequence (uncertainty indicated by an "X"). Unlike conventional evolutionary and biochemical approaches to studying proteins, i.e. the so-called horizontal comparison of related protein homologues from different branch ends of the tree of life; ASR probes the statistically inferred ancestral proteins within the nodes of the tree – in a vertical manner (see diagram, right). This approach gives access to protein properties that may have transiently arisen over evolutionary time and has recently been used as a way to infer the potential selection pressures that resulted in the present day sequences seen today.
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Several related homologues of the protein of interest are selected and aligned in a multiple sequence alignment (MSA), a 'phylogenetic tree' is constructed with statistically inferred sequences at the nodes of the branches. It is these sequences that are the so- called 'ancestors' – the process of synthesising the corresponding DNA, transforming it into a cell and producing a protein is the so-called 'reconstruction'. Ancestral sequences are typically calculated by maximum likelihood, however Bayesian methods are also implemented. Because the ancestors are inferred from a phylogeny, the topology and composition of the phylogeny plays a major role in the output ASR sequences.
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They are used as fuels in internal combustion engines, as they vaporize easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets, which would impair the uniformity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition, which causes knocking, than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the octane rating of the fuel, where 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane) has an arbitrary value of 100, and heptane has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good solvents for nonpolar substances.
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While a human homologue of the protein exists, no evidence was found for a long time that its human homologue was associated with the human exosome complex. In 2010, however, it was discovered that humans have three Rrp44 homologues and two of these can be associated with the exosome complex. These two proteins most likely degrade different RNA substrates due to their different cellular localization, with one being localized in the cytoplasm (Dis3L1) and the other in the nucleus (Dis3). "Ribbon view" of the partial structure of the yeast exosome subunit Rrp6, with α-helices in red and β-sheets in yellow.
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The GLIC receptor is a bacterial ( _G_ loeobacter) _L_ igand-gated _I_ on _C_ hannel, homolog to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. It is a proton-gated (the channel opens when it binds a proton, ion), cation-selective channel (it selectively lets the positive ions through). Like the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors is a functional pentameric oligomer (the channel normally works as an assembly of five subunits). However while its eukaryotic homologues are hetero-oligomeric (assembled from different subunits), all until now known bacteria known to express LICs encode a single monomeric unit, indicating the GLIC to be functionally homo-oligomeric (assembled from identical subunits).
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Mitochondria are the predominant site of endogenous DISC1 expression, with at least two isoforms occupying internal mitochondrial locations. No known functional homologues exist for this protein in humans, although it does have broad homology to scaffold proteins. The DISC1 protein function appears to be highly diverse and its functional role in cellular processes is dependent upon the cellular domain it is located in. The presence or absence of certain protein interaction domains or targeting motifs may confer specific functions and influence sub cellular targeting, therefore it is probable that alternative splicing codetermines both the function and the intracellular location of DISC1.
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However, in the aberrant mechanism, during the formation of Holliday junctions, the double-stranded breaks are misaligned and the crossover lands in non-allelic positions on the same chromosome. When the Holliday junction is resolved, the unequal crossing over event allows transfer of genetic material between the two homologous chromosomes, and as a result, a portion of the DNA on both the homologues is repeated. Since the repeated regions are no longer segregating independently, the duplicated region of the chromosome is inherited. Another type of homologous recombination based mechanism that can lead to copy number variation is known as break induced replication.
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PRKAB1 has been shown to interact with PRKAG2 and PRKAG1. The 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase beta subunit interaction domain (AMPKBI) is a conserved domain found in the beta subunit of the 5-AMP-activated protein kinase complex, and its yeast homologues Sip1 (SNF1-interacting protein 1), Sip2 (SNF1-interacting protein 2) and Gal83 (galactose metabolism 83), which are found in the SNF1 (sucrose non-fermenting) kinase complex. This region is sufficient for interaction of this subunit with the kinase complex, but is not solely responsible for the interaction, and the interaction partner is not known.
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Recent studies have contended that Polδ may synthesize the leading strand. How these polymerases function, in relationship with other factors involved in replication, is of great interest as it likely explains the mutational landscape that they produce when defective. Maintenance of replication fidelity is a fine balance between the unique errors by polymerases δ and ε, the equilibrium between proofreading and MMR, and distinction in ribonucleotide processing between the two strands. Extensive studies in yeast models have shown that mutations in the exonuclease domain of Polδ and Polε homologues can cause a mutator phenotype, reviewed in.
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Proteins that are essential for sister chromatid cohesion, such as Smc3 and Scc1, do not regulate the formation of covalent bonds between cohesin and DNA, indicating that DNA interaction is not sufficient for cohesion. In addition, disturbing the ring structure of cohesin through cleavage of Smc3 or Scc1 triggers premature sister chromatid segregation in vivo. This shows that the ring structure is important for cohesin’s function. Early studies suggested various ways in which cohesin may entrap DNA, including as a monomer that holds both homologues together, and a "hand-cuff" model where two intertwining cohesin complexes each hold one sister chromatid.
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In mouse, NAA10 is located on chromosome X A7.3 and contains 9 exons. Two alternative splicing products of mouse Naa10, mNaa10235 and mNaa10225, were reported in NIH-3T3 and JB6 cells that may have different activities and function in different subcellular compartments. Homologues for Naa10 have been identified in almost all kingdoms of life analyzed, including plants, fungi, amoebozoa, archaeabacteria and protozoa. In eubacteria, 3 Nα-acetyltransferases, RimI, RimJ and RimL, have been identified but according to their low sequence identity with the NATs, it is likely that the RIM proteins do not have a common ancestor and evolved independently.
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Fermitin family homolog 3) (FERMT3), also known as kindlin-3 (KIND3), MIG2-like protein (MIG2B), or unc-112-related protein 2 (URP2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FERMT3 gene. The kindlin family of proteins, member of the B4.1 superfamily, comprises three conserved protein homologues, kindlin 1, 2, and 3. They each contain a bipartite FERM domain comprising four subdomains F0, F1, F2, and F3 that show homology with the FERM head (H) domain of the cytoskeletal Talin protein. Kindlins have been linked to Kindler syndrome, leukocyte adhesion deficiency, cancer and other acquired human diseases.
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It has been suggested that the evolutionary source of a single ancestral Kindlin protein is the earliest metazoa, the Parazoa. Within vertebrates, these ancestral proteins were subjected to duplication processes in order to arrive at the actual Kindlin family. In comparison with other members of the B4.1 superfamily of proteins, the FERM domains in Kindlin homologues have a greater degree of conservation. The presence of an inserted pleckstrin homology domain within the FERM domain, suggests that the metazoan evolution of the FERM domain is the origination from a proto-talin protein in unicellular or proto-multicellular organisms.
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It makes the C-start response behaviorally important as a way to initiate the escape reflex in an all or nothing fashion, while the direction and speed of the escape can be corrected later through the activity of smaller motor neurons. In larval zebrafish about ~60% of the total population of reticulospinal neurons are also activated by a stimulus that elicits the M-spike and C-start escape. A well-studied group of these reticulospinal neurons are the bilaterally paired M-cell homologues denoted MiD2cm and MiD3cm. These neurons exhibit morphological similarities to the M-cell including a lateral and ventral dendrite.
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The first mating pheromone-receptor genes characterized were for U. maydis. The A or b mating locus contains genes that code for two types of homeodomain transcription factor proteins, usually tightly linked, that are homologues to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae mating proteins MATα2 and MATa1. In Agaricomycotina the two types of homeodomain transcription factors are termed HD1 and HD2; so the HD1 and HD2 proteins from an individual interacts with the HD2 and HD1 proteins from the other partner, respectively, generating heterodimers able to activate the A transcriptional regulated pathway, which involves formation of clamp cells, coordinated nuclear division and septation.
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New York City Inferno was directed by Jacques Scandelari, with a screenplay by Scandelari based on a concept from Elliott Stein. The film's soundtrack was arranged by record producer Jacques Morali and features licensed music from the Village People, specifically "I Am What I Am" and "Macho Man". New York City Inferno is Scandelari's second gay pornographic film, following his 1977 film Homologues. It is one of six films funded by French gay pornography producer that were shot on location in New York City, and was filmed in and around the Meatpacking District and Greenwich Village.
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The Rep protein lacks homologues in cellular organisms, so it can be searched for within an organism's genome to identify if viral DNA has become endogenized as part of the organism's genome. Among eukaryotes, endogenization is most often observed in plants, but it is also observed in animals, fungi, and various protozoans. Endogenization can occur through several means such as the integrase or transpose enzymes or by exploiting the host cell's recombination machinery. Most endogenized ssDNA viruses are in non-coding regions of the organism's genome, but sometimes the viral genes are expressed, and the Rep protein may be used by the organism.
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It has been proposed that chromosomal homologues of plasmid toxin-antitoxin systems may serve as anti- addiction modules, which would allow progeny to lose a plasmid without suffering the effects of the toxin it encodes. For example, a chromosomal copy of the ccdA antitoxin encoded in the chromosome of Erwinia chrysanthemi is able to neutralize the ccdB toxin encoded on the F plasmid and thus, prevent toxin activation when such a plasmid is lost. Similarly, the ataR antitoxin encoded on the chromosome of E. coli O157:H7 is able neutralize the ataTP toxin encoded on plasmids found in other enterohemorragic E. coli.
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JWH-210 is an analgesic chemical from the naphthoylindole family, which acts as a potent cannabinoid agonist at both the CB1 and CB2 receptors, with Ki values of 0.46 nM at CB1 and 0.69 nM at CB2. It is one of the most potent 4-substituted naphthoyl derivatives in the naphthoylindole series, having a higher binding affinity (i.e. lower Ki) at CB1 than both its 4-methyl and 4-n-propyl homologues JWH-122 (CB1 Ki 0.69 nM) and JWH-182 (CB1 Ki 0.65 nM) respectively, and than the 4-methoxy compound JWH-081 (CB1 Ki 1.2 nM). It was discovered by and named after John W. Huffman.
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The binding of OSB to OSBS's active site consists mainly of indirect interactions via water molecules or hydrophobic interactions. This lack of strict specificity and catalysis could possibly simplify the evolution of the shape and volume of the active site, meaning that OSBS could serve as a starting point for the evolution of new enzymes with new functions in the enolase superfamily. These homologues could catalyze completely different reactions, but because they maintain an active site similar to that of OSBS, the substrate and intermediate of the new reaction would be structurally similar to that of OSBS. One such homologue has already been identified: OSBS from Amycolatopsis.
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The first voltage sensitive phosphatase was discovered as a result of a genome-wide search in the sea squirt Ciona intestinalis. The search was designed to identify proteins which contained a sequence of amino acids called a voltage sensor, because this sequence of amino acids confers voltage sensitivity to voltage- gated ion channels. Although the initial genomic analysis was primarily concerned with the evolution of voltage-gated ion channels, one of the results of the work was the discovery of the VSP protein in sea squirt, termed Ci-VSP. The homologues to Ci-VSP in mammals are called Transmembrane phosphatases with tensin homology, or TPTEs.
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Ero1 exists in two isoforms: Ero1-α and Ero1-β. Ero1-α is mainly induced by hypoxia (HIF-1), whereas Ero1-β is mainly induced by the unfolded protein response (UPR). During endoplasmic reticulum stress (such as occurs in beta cells of the pancreas or in macrophages causing atherosclerosis), CHOP can induce activation of Ero1, causing calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum into the cytoplasm, resulting in apoptosis. Homologues of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ero1 proteins have been found in all eukaryotic organisms examined, and contain seven cysteine residues that are absolutely conserved, including three that form the sequence Cys–X–X–Cys–X–X–Cys (where X can be any residue).
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The first served as heavy cavalry, in contrast to the lighter, skirmishing Numidian cavalry, though they were also entrusted the front lines as infantry in battles like Cannae, where they stood out for their ability to hold the line. Lusitanians are mentioned as having served as mountain troops, possibly playing the role of both skirmishers and heavy cavalry along with Celtiberians. Their combined force, composed of around 2,000 horsemen, was praised by Livy over their more numerous and famous Numidian homologues. Finally, Balearics, ranging between 1,000 and 2,000, excelled as skirmishing infantry, being armed with famed slings capable to throw heavy shot over their enemies.
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The microtubule-associated protein Augmin acts in conjunction with γ-TURC to nucleate new microtubules off of existing microtubules. The growing ends of microtubules are protected against catastrophe by the action of plus-end microtubule tracking proteins (+TIPs) to promote their association with kinetochores at the midzone. CLIP170 was shown to localize near microtubule plus-ends in HeLa cells and to accumulate in kinetochores during prometaphase. Although how CLIP170 recognizes plus-ends remains unclear, it has been shown that its homologues protect against catastrophe and promote rescue, suggesting a role for CLIP170 in stabilizing plus-ends and possibly mediating their direct attachment to kinetochores.
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Three mammalian homologues have been characterized, which all differ in their ability to function as adaptor proteins due to the differing lengths of their C-terminal UBA domains: # c-Cbl: ubiquitously expressed, 906 and 913 amino acids in length in humans and mice respectively # Cbl-b: ubiquitously expressed, 982 amino acids long. # Cbl-c: lacks the UBA domain and is therefore only 474 amino acids in length. It is primarily expressed in epithelial cells however its function is poorly understood. Both c-Cbl and Cbl-b have orthologues in D. melanogaster (D-Cbl) and C. elegans (Sli-1), hinting at a long evolutionary path for these proteins.
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There are two families of mechanosensitive (MS) channels: large-conductance MS channels (MscL) and small-conductance MS channels (MscS or YGGB). The MscS family is much larger and more variable in size and sequence than the MscL family. MscS family homologues vary in length between 248 and 1120 amino acyl residues and in topology, but the homologous region that is shared by most of them is only 200-250 residues long, exhibiting 4-5 transmembrane regions (TMSs). Much of the diversity in MscS proteins occurs in the number of TMSs, which ranges from three to eleven TMSs, although the three C-terminal helices are conserved.
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The prostate originally consists of two separate portions, each of which arises as a series of diverticular buds from the epithelial lining of the urogenital sinus and vesico-urethral part of the cloaca, between the third and fourth months. These buds become tubular, and form the glandular substance of the two lobes, which ultimately meet and fuse behind the urethra and also extend on to its ventral aspect. The median lobe of the prostate is formed as an extension of the lateral lobes between the common ejaculatory ducts and the bladder. Skene's glands in the female urethra are regarded as the homologues of the prostatic glands.
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The differentiation pathways, functional processes and molecules of T cells are highly conserved in birds. However, there are some novel features of T cells that are unique to birds. These include a new lineage of cytoplasmic CD3+ lymphoid cells (TCR0 cells) and a T cell sublineage that expresses a different receptor isotypes (TCR3) generated exclusively in the thymus. Homologues of the mammalian gamma, delta and alpha beta TCR (TCR1 and TCR2) are found in birds. However, a third TCR, called TCR3, has been found in avian T cell populations that lack both TCR1 and TCR2. These were found on all CD3+ T cells and were either CD4+ or CD8+.
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In accordance with this model, words are perceived via a specialized word reception center (Wernicke's area) that is located in the left temporoparietal junction. This region then projects to a word production center (Broca's area) that is located in the left inferior frontal gyrus. Because almost all language input was thought to funnel via Wernicke's area and all language output to funnel via Broca's area, it became extremely difficult to identify the basic properties of each region. This lack of clear definition for the contribution of Wernicke's and Broca's regions to human language rendered it extremely difficult to identify their homologues in other primates.
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This mechanism is supported by x-ray structures and biochemical information about glycosylation processes; the interaction breaks the delocalization and allows the electrons of the nitrogen to perform a nucleophilic attack on the sugar substrate. N-glycosyltransferases from Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae use an asparagine-amino acid-serine or threonine sequences as target sequences, the same sequence used by oligosaccharyltransferases. The glutamine-469 residue in the Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae N-glycosyltransferase and its homologues in other N-glycosyltransferases is important for the selectivity of the enzyme. The enzyme activity is further influenced by the amino acids around the sequon, with beta-loop structures especially important.
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JWH-424 is a drug from the naphthoylindole family, which acts as a cannabinoid agonist at both the CB1 and CB2 receptors, but with moderate selectivity for CB2, having a Ki of 5.44nM at CB2 vs 20.9 nM at CB1. The heavier 8-iodo analogue is even more CB2 selective, with its 2-methyl derivative having 40 times selectivity for CB2. However the 1-propyl homologues in this series showed much lower affinity at both receptors, reflecting a generally reduced affinity for the 8-substituted naphthoylindoles overall. In the United States, all CB1 receptor agonists of the 3-(1-naphthoyl)indole class such as JWH-424 are Schedule I Controlled Substances.
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Ceftobiprole (Zevtera/Mabelio) is a fifth-generation cephalosporin for the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia (excluding ventilator-associated pneumonia) and community-acquired pneumonia. It is marketed by Basilea Pharmaceutica in the United Kingdom, Germany, Switzerland and Austria under the trade name Zevtera, in France and Italy under the trade name Mabelio. Like other cephalosporins, ceftobiprole exerts its antibacterial activity by binding to important penicillin-binding proteins and inhibiting their transpeptidase activity which is essential for the synthesis of bacterial cell walls. Ceftobiprole has high affinity for penicillin-binding protein 2a of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains and retains its activity against strains that express divergent mecA gene homologues (mecC or mecALGA251).
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In the late 19th century, van Beneden (1883) and Boveri (1890) described meiosis for the first time through a careful observation of germ cell formation in the nematode Ascaris. These observations, together with several further analyses, evidenced that canonical meiosis consists of a first division (called reductional division) that involves the segregation of chromosomal homologs resulting in the reduction of chromosome number and a second division (defined equational division) consisting in the separation of sister chromatids. A general rule for meiosis is therefore: first homologues, then sisters. Schematic comparison of the chromosomal separation occurring during the first meiotic division in standard and inverted meiosis.
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NhaB homologues also exhibit a region with limited sequence similarity to a 46 kDa membrane protein of unknown function from Mycobacterium leprae (spP46838) which is also homologous to a member of arsenate resistance pumps of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes (TC# 3.A.4). Only Gram-negative bacterial proteins have been functionally characterized. The E. coli NhaB is 58% identical to the orthologous Vibrio alginolyticus Na+/H+ antiporter. Although the latter protein is predicted to exhibit 10 TMSs, construction of NhaB-phoA fusions led to evidence for a 9 TMS model with the N-terminus in the cytoplasm and the C-terminus in the periplasm.
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Ostromislensky (1928) "Polymerized styrol and its homologues" which was used by US Rubber for the first commercial production of polystyrene in the early 1930s. He also patented his early work on the synthesis of polyvinyl chloride in the US.I. Ostromislensky (1929) "Polymer of vinyl chloride and process of making the same" In 1930, Ostromislensky received U.S. citizenship and was invited to work in the company Union Carbide to develop commercial production of butadiene from ethanol. The production ceased only after the World War II, because it could not compete with butylene-based technologies. In the US, Ostromislensky improved several industrial technologies of synthetic rubber production.
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The origin of the RdRps of Orthornavirae is less clear due to a lack of information, but two scenarios have been suggested. The most likely scenario is that the RdRps of the RNA viruses originated from the reverse transcriptase of a bacterial group II intron shortly before the emergence of eukaryotes. The other possibility is that the RdRps of Orthornavirae originated before the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) and that they preceded the retroelement reverse transcriptases. With regard to the second possibility, it has been noted that the capsid proteins of leviviruses, which infect bacteria, have no homologues with cellular organisms and other viruses.
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Curtisite and idrialite have been found to be unique complex mixtures of over 100 polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) consisting of six specific PAH structural series with each member of a series differing from the previous member by addition of another aromatic ring. The curtisite and idrialite samples contained many of the same components but in considerably different relative amounts. The major PAH constituents of the curtisite sample were: picene (a PAH with 5 fused benzene rings), dibenzo[a,h]fluorene, 11H-indeno[2,1-a]phenanthrene, benzo[b]phenanthro[2,1-d]thiophene, indenofluorenes, chrysene, and their methyl- and dimethyl-substituted homologues; the major components in the idrialite sample were higher- molecular-weight PAH, i.e.
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Livy compared them favorably against the Numidians, stating that Spanish riders were "their equals in speed and their superiors in strength and daring".Livy, 21-30 (26) Among them is mentioned a unit from the Celtiberian city of Uxama, whose riders wore helmets with jaws of beasts to scare their enemies away.Silius Italicus, Punica, 3, 384 Due to their performance at the battles of Trebia and Cannae, Livy would even state that Hispanic cavalry was superior to any other in the war. This eventually led the Roman military to ask for their own horsemen to the Celtiberian cities under their domain, using them to counter their Carthaginian homologues and exerting psychological warfare on them.
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Septins in Ashbya gossypii (fluorescent micrograph) • Green: septins (AgSEP7-GFP) • Red: cell outline (phase contrast) • Inlay: 3D reconstruction of a discontinuous septin ring • Scale bars: 10 μm The ascomycete A. gossypii possesses homologues to all S. cerevisiae septins, with one being duplicated (AgCDC3, AgCDC10, AgCDC11A, AgCDC11B, AgCDC12, AgSEP7). In vivo studies of AgSep7p-GFP have revealed that septins assemble into discontinuous hyphal rings close to growing tips and sites of branch formation, and into asymmetric structures at the base of branching points. Rings are made of filaments which are long and diffuse close to growing tips and short and compact further away from the tip. During septum formation, the septin ring splits into two to form a double ring.
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"We did not find any homologues of digestive cellulase genes, including endoglucanase, exoglucanase and beta-glucosidase, indicating that the bamboo diet of the panda is unlikely to be dictated by its own genetic composition, and may instead be more dependent on its gut microbiome." Pandas are born with sterile intestines and require bacteria obtained from their mother's feces to digest vegetation. The giant panda is a highly specialised animal with unique adaptations, and has lived in bamboo forests for millions of years. The average giant panda eats as much as 9 to 14 kg (20 to 30 lb) of bamboo shoots a day to compensate for the limited energy content of its diet.
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In molecular biology, the AMMECR1 protein (Alport syndrome, intellectual disability, midface hypoplasia and elliptocytosis chromosomal region gene 1 protein) is a protein encoded by the AMMECR1 gene on human chromosome Xq22.3. The contiguous gene deletion syndrome is characterised by Alport syndrome (A), intellectual disability (M), midface hypoplasia (M), and elliptocytosis (E), as well as generalized hypoplasia and cardiac abnormalities. It is caused by a deletion in Xq22.3, comprising several genes including AMME chromosomal region gene 1 (AMMECR1), which encodes a protein with a nuclear location and presently unknown function. The C-terminal region of AMMECR1 (from residue 122 to 333) is well conserved, and homologues appear in species ranging from bacteria and archaea to eukaryotes.
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In vertebrates, the cerebellar vermis develops between two bilaterally symmetrical formations located dorsal to the upper end of the medulla oblongata, or rhombencephalon. This is the region of termination for the fibers of the vestibular nerve and lateral line nerves; thus, these are the oldest afferent paths to the cerebellum and cerebellar vermis. In bony fish, or teleosts, it has been proposed that the cerebellar auricles, which receive a large amount of input from the vestibulolateral line system, constitute the vestibulocerebellum and are homologues of the flocculonodular lobe of higher vertebrates along with the corpus cerebelli, which receives spinocerebellar and tectocerebellar fibers. The labyrinth and the lateral line organs of lampreys have structural and functional similarity.
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Thus the main portions of the theories of Crick and Koch, Edelman and Tononi, and Cotterill seem to be compatible with the assumption that birds are conscious. Edelman also differentiates between what he calls primary consciousness (which is a trait shared by humans and non-human animals) and higher-order consciousness as it appears in humans alone along with human language capacity. Certain aspects of the three theories, however, seem less easy to apply to the hypothesis of avian consciousness. For instance, the suggestion by Crick and Koch that layer 5 neurons of the mammalian brain have a special role, seems difficult to apply to the avian brain, since the avian homologues have a different morphology.
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In 1997, Hajime Tei, Yoshiyuki Sakaki, and Hitoshi Okamura identified the human and mouse Per homologues of the Drosophila Per gene. They discovered that hPer (the human homolog of dPer) and mPer (the mouse homolog of dPer) encoded PAS- domain-containing polypeptides that are highly homologous to dPer. They also found that mPer showed autonomous circadian oscillation in its expression in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which acts as the primary circadian pacemaker in the mammalian brain. They were able to discover this by using a method called intra-module scanning-polymerase chain reaction (IMS-PCR), which allowed them to screen out short stretches of DNA sequences and isolate mammalian homologs of the Drosophila Per gene.
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The first branch is catalyzed in E. coli by enzymes encoded by epd, pdxB, serC and pdxA. These share mechanistical similarities and homology with the three enzymes in serine biosynthesis (serA (homologue of pdxB), serC, serB — however, epd is a homologue of gap), which points towards a shared evolutionary origin of the two pathways. In several species there are two homologues of the E. coli serC gene, generally one in a ser operon (serC), and the other in a pdx operon, in which case it is called pdxF. center A "serendipitous pathway" was found in an overexpression library that could suppress the auxotrophy caused by the deletion of pdxB (encoding erythronate 4 phosphate dehydrogenase) in E. coli.
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The corresponding Slit and Robo homologues in C. elegans are Slt and Sax-3, respectively. Slits are characterized by four distinct domains, each containing variable numbers of leucine-rich repeats (LRRs), seven to nine EGF repeats, an ALPS domain (Agrin, Perlecan, Laminin, Slit), and a cysteine knot. Robos are characterized by five Ig-like domains, three fibronectin type III (FNIII) repeats, a transmembrane portion, and an intracellular tail with up to four conserved cytoplasmic motifs: CC0 (a potential site of tyrosine phosphorylation), CC1 (also a potential site of tyrosine phosphorylation and binds P3 domain of netrin-1 receptor DCC), CC2 (polyproline stretch; consensus binding site for Ena/Vasp proteins), and CC3 (polyproline stretch).
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Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of ununennium (Uue), which is likely to be the next member of the group; none was successful. However, ununennium may not be an alkali metal due to relativistic effects, which are predicted to have a large influence on the chemical properties of superheavy elements; even if it does turn out to be an alkali metal, it is predicted to have some differences in physical and chemical properties from its lighter homologues. Most alkali metals have many different applications. One of the best-known applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in atomic clocks, of which caesium atomic clocks form the basis of the second.
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In 1988, Koopman was recruited to the Medical Research Council's National Institute for Medical Research at Mill Hill, London, working first with Anne McLaren, then joining a team led by Robin Lovell-Badge to search for the Y chromosomal sex-determining gene. Koopman demonstrated that activity of mouse homologues of the existing candidate, ZFY, was not consistent with a role in sex determination. Lovell-Badge's team, collaborating with Peter Goodfellow and colleagues at the Imperial Cancer Research Fund in London, discovered a new candidate gene, Sry. Koopman and colleagues injected Sry into fertilized XX mouse eggs which as a result developed as males, thus proving the male sex-determining role of Sry.
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Diethyl oxomalonate is the diethyl ester of mesoxalic acid (ketomalonic acid), the simplest oxodicarboxylic acid and thus the first member (n = 0) of a homologous series HOOC–CO–(CH2)n–COOH with the higher homologues oxalacetic acid (n = 1), α-ketoglutaric acid (n = 2) and α-ketoadipic acid (n = 3) (the latter a metabolite of the amino acid lysine). Diethyl oxomalonate reacts because of its highly polarized keto group as electrophile in addition reactions and is a highly active reactant in pericyclic reactions such as the Diels-Alder reactions, cycloadditions or ene reactions. At humid air, mesoxalic acid diethyl ester reacts with water to give diethyl mesoxalate hydrate and the green-yellow oil are spontaneously converted to white crystals.
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CLIP-associated proteins like CLASP1 in humans have also been shown to localize to plus-ends and the outer kinetochore as well as to modulate the dynamics of kinetochore microtubules (Maiato 2003). CLASP homologues in Drosophila, Xenopus, and yeast are required for proper spindle assembly; in mammals, CLASP1 and CLASP2 both contribute to proper spindle assembly and microtubule dynamics in anaphase. Plus-end polymerization may be further moderated by the EB1 protein, which directly binds the growing ends of microtubules and coordinates the binding of other +TIPs. Opposing the action of these microtubule-stabilizing proteins are a number of microtubule-depolymerizing factors which permit the dynamic remodeling of the mitotic spindle to promote chromosome congression and attainment of bipolarity.
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This nomenclature was agreed upon and has been adopted by almost all investigators working on these molecules (by convention, Siglecs are always capitalised.) Several additional Siglecs (Siglecs 5–12) have been identified in humans that are highly similar in structure to CD33 and so are collectively referred to as "CD33-related Siglecs". Further Siglecs have been identified including Siglec-14 and Siglec-15. Siglecs have been characterized into two distinct groups: the first and highly conserved-across-mammals group composed of Sialoadhesins, CD22, MAG, and Siglec-15, and a second group comprising Siglecs closely related to CD33. Others such as Siglec-8 and Siglec-9 have homologues in mice and rats (Siglec-F and Siglec-E respectively in both).
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This gene encodes a member of the glutathione peroxidase family, consisting of eight known glutathione peroxidases (GPx1-8) in humans. Mammalian Gpx1 (this gene), Gpx2, Gpx3, and Gpx4 have been shown to be selenium-containing enzymes, whereas Gpx6 is a selenoprotein in humans with cysteine-containing homologues in rodents. In selenoproteins, the 21st amino acid selenocysteine is inserted in the nascent polypeptide chain during the process of translational recoding of the UGA stop codon. In addition to the UGA-codon, a cis-acting element in the mRNA, called SECIS, binds SBP2 to recruit other proteins, such as eukaryotic elongation factor selenocysteine-tRNA specific, to form the complex responsible for the recoding process.
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The initial appearance of the fetal genitalia looks basically feminine: a pair of "urogenital folds" with a small protuberance in the middle, and the urethra behind the protuberance. If the fetus has testes, and if the testes produce testosterone, and if the cells of the genitals respond to the testosterone, the outer urogenital folds swell and fuse in the midline to produce the scrotum; the protuberance grows larger and straighter to form the penis; the inner urogenital swellings grow, wrap around the penis, and fuse in the midline to form the penile urethra. Each sex organ in one sex has a homologous counterpart in the other one. See a list of homologues of the human reproductive system.
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However, Pto is a resistant gene that can detect AvrPto and induce immunity as well. AvrPto is an ancient effector that is conserved in many P. syringae strains, whereas Pto R gene is only found in a few wild tomato species. This suggests recent evolution of the Pto R gene and the pressure to evolve to target AvrPto, turning a virulence effector to an avirulence effector. Unlike the MAMP or PAMP class of avr genes that are recognized by the host PRRs, the targets of bacterial effector avr proteins appear to be proteins involved in plant innate immunity signaling, as homologues of Avr genes in animal pathogens have been shown to do this.
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Recent comparative analyses of sequenced Synergistetes genomes have led to identification of large numbers of conserved signature indels (CSIs) in protein sequences that are specific for either all sequenced Synergistetes species or some of their sub-clades that are observed in phylogenetic trees. Of the CSIs that were identified, 32 in widely distributed proteins such as RpoB, RpoC, UvrD, GyrA, PolA, PolC, MraW, NadD, PyrE, RpsA, RpsH, FtsA, RadA, etc., including a large >300 aa insert in the RpoC protein, are present in various Synergistetes species, but except for isolated bacteria, these CSIs are not found in the protein homologues from all other organisms. These CSIs provide novel molecular markers for distinguishing Synergistetes species from all other bacteria.
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In a 2010 study on the prevalence of food allergies in Europe, 3.6 percent of young adults showed some degree of sensitivity to carrots. Because the major carrot allergen, the protein Dauc c 1.0104, is cross-reactive with homologues in birch pollen (Bet v 1) and mugwort pollen (Art v 1), most carrot allergy sufferers are also allergic to pollen from these plants. In India carrots are used in a variety of ways, as salads or as vegetables added to spicy rice or dal dishes. A popular variation in north India is the Gajar Ka Halwa carrot dessert, which has carrots grated and cooked in milk until the whole mixture is solid, after which nuts and butter are added.
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This complex binds and activates Atg3, which covalently attaches mammalian homologues of the ubiquitin-like yeast protein ATG8 (LC3A-C, GATE16, and GABARAPL1-3), the most studied being LC3 proteins, to the lipid phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) on the surface of autophagosomes. Lipidated LC3 contributes to the closure of autophagosomes, and enables the docking of specific cargos and adaptor proteins such as Sequestosome-1/p62. The completed autophagosome then fuses with a lysosome through the actions of multiple proteins, including SNAREs and UVRAG. Following the fusion LC3 is retained on the vesicle's inner side and degraded along with the cargo, while the LC3 molecules attached to the outer side are cleaved off by Atg4 and recycled.
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Harold Erickson notes that before 1992, only eukaryotes were believed to have cytoskeleton components. However, research in the early '90s suggested that bacteria and archaea had homologues of actin and tubulin, and that these were the basis of eukaryotic microtubules and microfilaments. Although the evolutionary relationships are so distant that they are not obvious from protein sequence comparisons alone, the similarity of their three-dimensional structures and similar functions in maintaining cell shape and polarity provides strong evidence that the eukaryotic and prokaryotic cytoskeletons are truly homologous. Three laboratories independently discovered that FtsZ, a protein already known as a key player in bacterial cytokinesis, had the "tubulin signature sequence" present in all α-, β-, and γ-tubulins.
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In molecular biology, the FEZ-like protein family is a family of eukaryotic proteins thought to be involved in axonal outgrowth and fasciculation. The N-terminal regions of these sequences are less conserved than the C-terminal regions, and are highly acidic. The Caenorhabditis elegans homologue, UNC-76, may play structural and signalling roles in the control of axonal extension and adhesion (particularly in the presence of adjacent neuronal cells) and these roles have also been postulated for other FEZ family proteins. Certain homologues have been definitively found to interact with the N-terminal variable region (V1) of PKC-zeta, and this interaction causes cytoplasmic translocation of the FEZ family protein in mammalian neuronal cells.
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In Lepidoptera, therefore, chromosome evolution is believed to play a role in reinforcing speciation. Comparing the genomes of lepidopteran species it has been also possible to analyse the effect of holocentrism in terms of rate of fixed chromosomal rearrangements. This approach evidenced in Lepidoptera two chromosome breaks per megabase of DNA per Million of years: a rate that is much higher than what observed in Drosophila and it is a direct consequence of the holocentric nature of the lepidopteran genomes. At a structural level, insect holocentric chromosomes have not been studied in details, but it is interesting to underline the absence of homologues of CENP-C and CENP-A, previously considered essential for kinetochore functioning in eukaryotes.
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While the bacterial flagellum is hollow, which allows flagellin monomers to travel through its interior to the tip of the growing filament, the archaellum filament is thinner, precluding the passage of archaellin monomers. This evidence suggested that the mechanism of assembly of the archaellum is more similar to the assembly mechanism observed in type IV pili (in which the monomers assemble at the bottom of the growing filament) than the assembly mechanism of flagella via a type III secretion system. The similarities between archaella and T4P became more obvious with the identification of two archaella motor complex proteins that have homologues in T4P and type IV and II secretion systems. Specifically, ArlJ and ArlI are homologous to PilC and PilB/PilT, respectively.
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In humans these are the genes PMPCA and PMPCB. The subunits of the MPP are highly conserved, and have shown to be interoperable between species, homologues to MPPs are also found in eukaryotes whose mitochondria have evolved into divergent organelles, though in the case of Trichomonas the processing peptidase complex appears to be made of two β subunits. The origins of the mitochondrial processing peptidases are thought to be prokaryotic in origin, possibly originating in the endosymbiont which developed into the mitochondrion, this hypothesis has been supported by the discovery of a bacterial signal peptidase in Rickettsia, an organism thought to be a closely related to the mitochondrial progenitor. Experimentally this peptidase was shown to cleave signal sequences from mitochondrial proteins.
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Thus we can't exclude protein-sequence evolution as an important reason why we lack whiskers and tails." He also noted that nearly half of human protein-coding genes do not have homologues in fruit flies, so one could argue the opposite of Carroll's thesis and claim that "evolution of form is very much a matter of teaching old genes to make new genes." The review in BioScience noted that the book serves as a new Just So Stories, explaining the "spots, stripes, and bumps" that had attracted Rudyard Kipling's attention in his children's stories. The review praised Carroll for tackling human evolution and covering the key concepts of what Charles Darwin called the grandeur of [the evolutionary view of] life, suggesting that "Kipling would be riveted.
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The 60 kDa form of chaperonin is the immunodominant antigen of patients with Legionnaire's disease, and is thought to play a role in the protection of the Legionella bacteria from oxygen radicals within macrophages. This hypothesis is based on the finding that the cpn60 gene is upregulated in response to hydrogen peroxide, a source of oxygen radicals. Cpn60 has also been found to display strong antigenicity in many bacterial species and has the potential for inducing immune protection against unrelated bacterial infections. The RuBisCO subunit binding protein (which has been implicated in the assembly of RuBisCO) and cpn60 have been found to be evolutionary homologues, the RuBisCO subunit binding protein having the C-terminal Gly-Gly-Met repeat found in all bacterial cpn60 sequences.
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Studies in model plant Antirrhinum and Arabidopsis identified that type I KNOX SHOOTMERISTEMLESS (STM) genes play a role in the development of spur-like structures. These type I KNOX STM genes also play important roles in the development of the growing tip of the plant, the shoot apical meristem, by controlling cell division and prolonging indeterminate growth. Subsequent gene expression studies confirmed that orthologues of the type I KNOX genes are expressed in the petals of Linaria, a genus of plants with a spur arising from the ventral petal. However, the type I KNOX homologues were not were not differentially expressed during spur development on the petals of Aquilegia, while certain TCP genes instead were suggested to play a role.
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Promiscuity is however not only a primordial trait, in fact it is very widespread property in modern genomes. A series of experiments have been conducted to assess the distribution of promiscuous enzyme activities in E. coli. In E. coli 21 out of 104 single-gene knockouts tested (from the Keio collection) could be rescued by overexpressing a noncognate E. coli protein (using a pooled set of plasmids of the ASKA collection). The mechanisms by which the noncognate ORF could rescue the knockout can be grouped into eight categories: isozyme overexpression (homologues), substrate ambiguity, transport ambiguity (scavenging), catalytic promiscuity, metabolic flux maintenance (including overexpression of the large component of a synthase in the absence of the amine transferase subunit), pathway bypass, regulatory effects and unknown mechanisms.
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Early research into hyperthermophiles speculated that their genome could be characterized by high guanine-cytosine content; however, recent studies show that "there is no obvious correlation between the GC content of the genome and the optimal environmental growth temperature of the organism."High guanine-cytosine content is not an adaptation to high temperature: a comparative analysis amongst prokaryotes The protein molecules in the hyperthermophiles exhibit hyperthermostability—that is, they can maintain structural stability (and therefore function) at high temperatures. Such proteins are homologous to their functional analogues in organisms which thrive at lower temperatures, but have evolved to exhibit optimal function at much greater temperatures. Most of the low-temperature homologues of the hyperthermostable proteins would be denatured above 60 °C.
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The name Phosphorus in Ancient Greece was the name for the planet Venus and is derived from the Greek words (φῶς = light, φέρω = carry), which roughly translates as light-bringer or light carrier. (In Greek mythology and tradition, Augerinus (Αυγερινός = morning star, still in use today), Hesperus or Hesperinus (΄Εσπερος or Εσπερινός or Αποσπερίτης = evening star, still in use today) and Eosphorus (Εωσφόρος = dawnbearer, not in use for the planet after Christianity) are close homologues, and also associated with Phosphorus-the-morning-star). According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the correct spelling of the element is phosphorus. The word phosphorous is the adjectival form of the P3+ valence: so, just as sulfur forms sulfurous and sulfuric compounds, phosphorus forms phosphorous compounds (e.g.
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Mammalian LC3 isoforms contain a conserved Ser/Thr12, which is phosphorylated by protein kinase A to suppress participation in autophagy/mitophagy. Other homologues are the transport factor GATE-16 (Golgi-associated ATPase enhancer of 16 kDa) which plays an important role in intra-golgi vesicular transport by stimulating NSF (N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor) ATPase activity and interacting with the Golgi v-SNARE GOS-28, and GABARAP (γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor associated protein) which facilitates clustering of GABAA receptors in combination with microtubules. All three proteins are characterized by proteolytic activation processes upon which they get lipidated and localized to the plasma membrane. However, for GATE-16 and GABARAP membrane association seems to be possible even for the non-lipidated forms.
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This subdivision plays a key role in the definitive patterning of vertebrae that form when the posterior part of one somite fuses to the anterior part of the consecutive somite during a process termed resegmentation. Disruption of the somitogenesis process in humans results in diseases such as congenital scoliosis. So far, the human homologues of three genes associated to the mouse segmentation clock, (MESP2, DLL3 and LFNG), have been shown to be mutated in cases of congenital scoliosis, suggesting that the mechanisms involved in vertebral segmentation are conserved across vertebrates. In humans the first four somites are incorporated in the base of the occipital bone of the skull and the next 33 somites will form the vertebrae, ribs, muscles, ligaments and skin.
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Terrestrial temnospondyls have larger, thicker limbs, and some even have claws. One unusual terrestrial temnospondyl, Fayella, has relatively long limbs for its body, and probably lived as an active runner able to chase prey. Xenotosaurus africanus, showing the skull roof bones common in all temnospondyls Homologues of most of the bones of temnospondyls are also seen in other early tetrapods, aside from a few bones in the skull, such as interfrontals, internasals, and interparietals, that have developed in some temnospondyl taxa. Most temnospondyls have tabular horns in the backs of their skulls, rounded projections of bone separated from the rest of the skull by indentations called otic notches; in some temnospondyls, such as Zatrachys, they are pointed and very prominent.
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Rasse then returned to the midcard, teaming up with Yoshitsune until end of 2006. The next year, Rasse teamed up with the recently turned face Kagetora to win the Tohoku Tag Team Championship against Kei and Shu Sato, eventually unifying it with the Osaka Pro Wrestling Tag Team Championship from Hideyoshi and Masamune at the Pro Wrestling Summit 2007 independent event. They retained it successfully for the rest of 2007, even winning the next tag league while having the titles, but they finally lost the two titles against Osaka Pro representatives Gaina and Zero and MPW homologues Great Sasuke and Yoshitsune. The same year, Rasse competed individually at the prestigious Fukumen World League, but was eliminated at the first round by another Osaka Pro wrestler, Tigers Mask.
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While many genes on the Y chromosome have backups (homologues) on other chromosomes, a few genes such as RBMY on the Y chromosome do not have such backups, and their effects must be compensated for to convert cells from a woman into sperm. In 2007, a patent application was filed on methods for creating human female sperm using artificial or natural Y chromosomes and testicular transplantation. Key to successful creation of female sperm (and male eggs) will be inducing male epigenetic markings for female cells that initially have female markings, with techniques for doing so disclosed in the patent application. In 2018 Chinese research scientists produced 29 viable mice offspring from two female mother mice by creating sperm-like structures from haploid embryonic stem cells using gene editing to alter imprinted regions of DNA.
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HDAC proteins are grouped into four classes (see above) based on function and DNA sequence similarity. Class I, II and IV are considered "classical" HDACs whose activities are inhibited by trichostatin A (TSA) and have a zinc dependent active site, whereas Class III enzymes are a family of NAD+-dependent proteins known as sirtuins and are not affected by TSA. Homologues to these three groups are found in yeast having the names: reduced potassium dependency 3 (Rpd3), which corresponds to Class I; histone deacetylase 1 (hda1), corresponding to Class II; and silent information regulator 2 (Sir2), corresponding to Class III. Class IV contains just one isoform (HDAC11), which is not highly homologous with either Rpd3 or hda1 yeast enzymes, and therefore HDAC11 is assigned to its own class.
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Delhi University Girdhar Pandey was born on 15 February 1972 at Almora, in Uttarakhand to Kishan Chand and Kamala Devi Pandey. He completed his graduate studies in biochemistry from the University of Delhi in 1992 and moved to Banaras Hindu University for his post-graduate studies. After securing a master's degree in biotechnology in 1994, he returned to Delhi to pursue for his doctoral research under the guidance of Sudhir Kumar Sopory which earned him a PhD in 1999 from Jawaharlal Nehru University for his thesis, Presence and role of homologues of E. histolytica Calcium binding protein in higher plants and characterization of a novel protein kinase from Brassica juncea. His post-doctoral work was at the University of California, Berkeley under the supervision of Sheng Luan during 2000–07.
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Clare Hall Manor, the LRI's other site The laboratories are associated with a number of major scientific discoveries, including the discovery of the p53 gene, the link between growth factors and oncogenes; the identification of mammalian homologues of the cell cycle regulator cdc2; and the identification of the sex-determining gene SRY. In 1975 Dr Renato Dulbecco, then Deputy Research Director of the Laboratories shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his work on the interactions between DNA tumour viruses and cells. In 2001, the Nobel Committee again honoured the Lincoln's Inn Fields Laboratories with the award of a share of the Prize to Dr Paul Nurse, then Chief Executive of Cancer Research UK and a group leader at the Lincoln's Inn Fields laboratories for his work on the cell cycle.
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2L6x In-Active-Site Cartoon Color Coded and Labeled Visualization, D and E Helices hidden for vantage, Retinal ligand binding site In comparison with its better-known archaeal homolog bacteriorhodopsin, most of the active site residues of known importance to the bacteriorhodopsin mechanism are conserved in proteorhodopsin. Sequence similarity is not significantly conserved however, from either halo- or bacterio- rhodopsin. Homologues of the active site residues Arg82, Asp85 (the primary proton acceptor), Asp212 and Lys216 (the retinal Schiff base binding site) in bacteriorhodopsin are conserved as Arg94, Asp97, Asp227 and Lys231 in proteorhodopsin. However, in proteorhodopsin, there are no carboxylic acid residues directly homologous to Glu194 or Glu204 of bacteriorhodopsin (or Glu 108 and 204 depending on the bacRhodopsin variant), which are thought to be involved in the proton release pathway at the extracellular surface.
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On September 22, 1997, Gracie partook in Pentagon Combat, a MMA event founded by future ADCC backer Sheikh Tahnoon bin Zayed. Gracie was pitted against Eugenio Tadeu, a fighter whose style, luta livre, was in a huge rivalry with Brazilian jiu-jitsu at the time, which guaranteed the match was received with heat. Promoters of the event hired little security for the match, and although the luta livre supporters got fewer tickets than their jiu-jitsu homologues, they snuck into the arena earlier in the event.Renzo Gracie, Eugenio Tadeu and the riot that got MMA banned in Rio de Janeiro The first minutes of the match were uneventful, with Gracie claiming years later that Tadeu had greased up his body to difficult his grip, but he eventually managed to mount Tadeu.
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See article homologous series. See also In re Henze, 181 F.2d 196, 201 (CCPA 1950), in which the court stated, "In effect, the nature of homologues and the close relationship the physical and chemical properties of one member of a series bears to adjacent members is such that a presumption of unpatentability arises against a claim directed to a composition of matter, the adjacent homologue of which is old in the art." Because of the similarity in structure between 3,4-DCPA and other chemicals, including 3,4-DCAA, the Patent Office rejected the patent application on obviousness grounds. Monsanto then tried to persuade the Office to withdraw the rejection by submitting documents to show that DCPA was not obvious, because it had greatly superior and unexpected selective herbicidal activity.
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Born in Douala, Etoundi began his career 2004 with Dragons Yaoundé and joined 2009 to Ouragan FC de Biyem Assi.Page 1 1 LISTING DES CONTRATS DES JOUEURS ET DES ENTRAINEURS HOMOLOGUES PAR LA COMMISSION DU STATUT DU JOUEUR AU 24 AOÛT 2009 In September 2009, Etoundi left his club Ouragan FC to sign his first professional contract in Europe for Neuchâtel Xamax, earning his first professional cap in the Swiss Super League on 14 February 2010 against FC Basel. On 27 April 2010, Neuchâtel Xamax confirmed his expiring contract would not renewed and he could leave the club.Xamax mistet aus (Sport, Fussball, NZZ Online) On 17 May 2010, he began a trial with the Swiss club FC Biel-Bienne and signed a contract with the Swiss Challenge League team three days later.
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The difference between enzymatically active and inactive homologues has been noted (and in some cases, understood when comparing catalytically active and inactive proteins residing in recognisable families) for some time at the sequence level, and some pseudoenzymes have also been referred to as 'prozymes' when they were analysed in protozoan parasites. The best studied pseudoenzymes reside amongst various key signalling superfamilies of enzymes, such as the proteases, the protein kinases, protein phosphatases and ubiquitin modifying enzymes. The role of pseudoenzymes as "pseudo scaffolds" has also been recognised and pseudoenzymes are now beginning to be more thoroughly studied in terms of their biology and function, in large part because they are also interesting potential targets (or anti-targets) for drug design in the context of intracellular cellular signalling complexes.
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Of the hh homologues SHH has been found to have the most critical roles in development acting as a morphogen involved in patterning many systems including the anterior pituitary pallium of the brain spinal cord lungs teeth and the thalamus by the zona limitans intrathalamica. In vertebrates the development of limbs and digits depends on the secretion of sonic hedgehog by the zone of polarizing activity located on the posterior side of the embryonic limb bud. Mutations in the human sonic hedgehog gene SHH cause holoprosencephaly type 3 HPE3 as a result of the loss of the ventral midline. The sonic hedgehog transcription pathway has also been linked to the formation of specific kinds of cancerous tumors including the embryonic cerebellar tumor and medulloblastoma as well as the progression of prostate cancer tumours.
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The Na+:anion coupling ratio is 3:1, indicative of electrogenic properties. They have a substrate preference for divalent anions, which include tetra-oxyanions for the NaS cotransporters or Krebs cycle intermediates (including mono-, di- and tricarboxylates) for the NaC cotransporters. The molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the biochemical, physiological and structural properties of DASS family members have been reviewed. The phylogenetic tree for the DASS family reveals six clusters as follows: # all animal homologues; # all yeast proteins; # a functionally uncharacterized protein from Ralstonia eutrophus; # three E. coli proteins plus one from H. influenzae and one from spinach chloroplasts (the SodiT1 oxoglutarate:malate translocator); # an E. coli Orf that clusters loosely with a sulfur deprivation regulated protein of Synechocystis, and # an M. jannaschii protein that clusters loosely with an H. influenzae Orf.
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Bacillus ARC3 (ArsB; TC# 2.A.59.1.2) probably has a 10 TMS topology. ACR3 of S. cerevisiae is 404 amino acyl residues long and exhibits 10 putative transmembrane α-helical spanners (TMSs). Homologues are found in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (498 aas; gbZ80225), Archaeoglobus fulgidus (370 aas; gbAE001071), Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum (365 aas; gbAE000865) and Synechocystis (383 aas; spP74311). Thus, members of the ACR3 family are found in bacteria, archaea and eukarya. Sequence similarity of several members of the ACR3 family with members of the bile acid:Na+ symporter (BASS) family (TC# 2.A.28) is sufficient to establish homology. Bioinformatic analyses have revealed that some ACR3 porters are involved in operons together with ArsA-like ATPases, implying that some of these porters may be driven by ATP hydrolysis as primary active transporters.
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Hedrich R, Busch H, & Raschke K (1990) Ca2+ and nucleotide dependent regulation of voltage dependent anion channels in the plasma membrane of guard cells. EMBO J. 9:3889-3892.Schroeder JI & Keller BU (1992) Two types of anion channel currents in guard cells with distinct voltage regulation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:5025-5029.Pei Z-M, Kuchitsu K, Ward JM, Schwarz M, & Schroeder JI (1997) Differential abscisic acid regulation of guard cell slow anion channels in Arabdiopsis wild-type and abi1 and abi2 mutants. Plant Cell 9:409-423.Negi J, Matsuda O, Nagasawa T, Oba Y, Takahashi H, Kawai-Yamada M, Uchimiya H, Hashimoto M, & Iba K (2008) CO2 regulator SLAC1 and its homologues are essential for anion homeostasis in plant cells. Nature 452:483-486.
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In addition, a so‒called DU domain module is the combination of a DUSP domain followed by a UBL domain separated by a linker and is found in USP11 as well as in USP15 and USP4. USP11 is 963aa protein with a MW of approximately 109.8 kDa and a pI of ~5.28; it shares significant homology with USP15 and along with USP4 forms the DU subfamily. Nevertheless, alignment of the three USPs confirms that USP15 and USP4 are the closest homologues with the identity reaching ~73 % between their UBL1 domains whereas USP11 is the most distant member with an identity of only ~32.3 % when compared to USP15. An UBL2 domain insertion (285aa) is present within the catalytic domain, which encompasses amino acids 310‒931, and the catalytic triad consists of a cysteine, a histidine and an aspartic acid.
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Pol I is a 590 kDa enzyme that consists of 14 protein subunits (polypeptides), and its crystal structure in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was solved at 2.8Å resolution in 2013. Twelve of its subunits have identical or related counterparts in RNA polymerase II (Pol II) and RNA polymerase III (Pol III). The other two subunits are related to Pol II initiation factors and have structural homologues in Pol III. Ribosomal DNA transcription is confined to the nucleolus, where about 400 copies of the 42.9-kb rDNA gene are present, arranged as tandem repeats in nucleolus organizer regions. Each copy contains a ~13.3 kb sequence encoding the 18S, the 5.8S, and the 28S RNA molecules, interlaced with two internal transcribed spacers, ITS1 and ITS2, and flanked upstream by a 5' external transcribed spacer and a downstream 3' external transcribed spacer.
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Vitamin K2, the main storage form in animals, has several subtypes, which differ in isoprenoid chain length. These vitamin K2 homologues are called menaquinones, and are characterized by the number of isoprenoid residues in their side chains. Menaquinones are abbreviated MK-n, where M stands for menaquinone, the K stands for vitamin K, and the n represents the number of isoprenoid side chain residues. For example, menaquinone-4 (abbreviated MK-4) has four isoprene residues in its side chain. Menaquinone-4 (also known as menatetrenone from its four isoprene residues) is the most common type of vitamin K2 in animal products since MK-4 is normally synthesized from vitamin K1 in certain animal tissues (arterial walls, pancreas, and testes) by replacement of the phytyl tail with an unsaturated geranylgeranyl tail containing four isoprene units, thus yielding menaquinone-4 which is Water Soluble in nature.
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Diagram showing a yeast cell Several yeasts, in particular S. cerevisiae and S. pombe, have been widely used in genetics and cell biology, largely because they are simple eukaryotic cells, serving as a model for all eukaryotes, including humans, for the study of fundamental cellular processes such as the cell cycle, DNA replication, recombination, cell division, and metabolism. Also, yeasts are easily manipulated and cultured in the laboratory, which has allowed for the development of powerful standard techniques, such as yeast two-hybrid, synthetic genetic array analysis, and tetrad analysis. Many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying their homologues in yeast; these proteins include cell cycle proteins, signaling proteins, and protein-processing enzymes. On 24 April 1996, S. cerevisiae was announced to be the first eukaryote to have its genome, consisting of 12 million base pairs, fully sequenced as part of the Genome Project.
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Current data suggest that C. elegans kinetochores form paired lines or plates on opposite faces of condensed mitotic chromosomes, where each line represents the diffuse kinetochore of a single chromatid. transmission electron microscopy of C. elegans chromosomes revealed that the kinetochore has a trilaminar structure very similar to that observed in monocentric chromosomes More than 30 different proteins have been identified as components of the C. elegans kinetochore and half of them was already known as functioning in the kinetochores of monocentric chromosomes. Among these, highly studied proteins include homologues of CENP-C and CENP-A, which are highly conserved structural component of the kinetochore in eukaryotes. Contrarily to what generally observed in monocentric chromosomes, in holocentric ones the preferential localization of centromeres within heterochromatic areas is missing together with the presence of specific DNA sequences that in C. elegans are not required for the assembly of a functional kinetochore.
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Neamine is made from six genes, DOIS gene (btrC, neo7); L-glutamine:DOI aminotransferase gene (btrS, neo6); a putative glycosyltransferase gene (btrM, neo8); a putative aminotransferase (similar to glutamate-1-semialdehyde 2,1- aminomutase) gene (btrB, neo18); a putative alcohol dehydrogenase gene (btrE, neo5); another putative dehydrogenase (similar to chorine dehydrogenase and related flavoproteins) gene (btrQ, neo11). A deacetylase acting to remove the acetyl group on N-acetylglucosamine moieties of aminoglycoside intermediates (Neo16), still needs to be clarified (sequence similar to BtrD). Next is the attachment of the D-ribose via ribosylation of neamine, using 5-phosphoribosyl-1-diphosphate (PRPP) as the ribosyl donor (BtrL, BtrP); glycosyltransferase (potential homologues RibF, LivF, Parf) gene (Neo15). Neosamine B (L-neosamine B) is most likely biosynthesized in the same manner as the neosamine C (D-niosamine) in neamine biosynthesis, but with an additional epimerization step required to account for the presence of the epimeric neosamine B in neomycin B. Neomycin B Neomycin C can undergo enzymatic synthesis from ribostamycin.
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Dr. Bellen's current research focuses on an effort to decipher the mechanisms by which mutations in specific genes cause neurodegeneration, and to this end, he and his colleagues performed unbiased forward genetic screens in fruitflies that detect the progressive decline in function and morphology of photoreceptor neurons. To date over 165 genes that cause a neurodegenerative phenotype when mutated have been uncovered by Dr. Bellen's group using this strategy. Many of these genes encode homologues of human genes that are known to cause neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) (Lou Gehrig's disease), Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT), Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Leigh syndrome, and others, and these studies will help provide a much better understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which neurodegeneration occurs. A prevailing theme among these mutants seems to be dysfunction of the neuronal mitochondria and an increasing inability to deal with oxidative stress, which manifests as lipid droplets.
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Homology model of the DHRS7B protein created with Swiss-model and rendered with PyMOL Homology modeling, also known as comparative modeling of protein, refers to constructing an atomic-resolution model of the "target" protein from its amino acid sequence and an experimental three-dimensional structure of a related homologous protein (the "template"). Homology modeling relies on the identification of one or more known protein structures likely to resemble the structure of the query sequence, and on the production of an alignment that maps residues in the query sequence to residues in the template sequence has been shown that protein structures are more conserved than protein sequences amongst homologues, but sequences falling below a 20% sequence identity can have very different structure. Evolutionarily related proteins have similar sequences and naturally occurring homologous proteins have similar protein structure. It has been shown that three-dimensional protein structure is evolutionarily more conserved than would be expected on the basis of sequence conservation alone.
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In yeast, Osh4 is an OSBP homologue the crystal structure of which, obtained in both the sterol-bound and unbound states, showed a soluble β-barrel protein with a hydrophilic external surface and a hydrophobic pocket that can carry a single sterol molecule. Seven OSBP homologues (OSH proteins) have been identified in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, in which their role has been suggested to be more relevant to sterol organization in the PM, rather than sterol trafficking from ER. Furthermore, Stefan et al. showed that OSH proteins control PI4P metabolism via the Sac1 Phosphatidylinositol (PI) 4-phosphatase. They also proposed a mechanism for Sac1 regulation: high Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) levels on the plasma membrane recruit Osh3 at PM-ER contact sites through its pleckstrin homology (PH) domain; Osh3 is now active and can interact with the ER-resident VAP proteins Scs2/Scs22 through its FFAT motif (two phenylalanines on an acidic tract), ultimately activating ER-localized Sac1 to reduce PI levels.
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When placed in hydrogen, polonium dioxide is slowly reduced to metallic polonium at 200 °C; the same reduction occurs at 250 °C in ammonia or hydrogen sulfide. When heated in sulfur dioxide at 250 °C, a white compound is formed, possibly a polonium sulfite. When polonium dioxide is hydrated, polonous acid (H2PoO3), a pale yellow, voluminous precipitate, is formed. Despite its name, polonous acid is an amphoteric compound, reacting with both acids and bases. Halogenation of polonium dioxide with the hydrogen halides yields the polonium tetrahalides: :PoO2 \+ 4 HF → PoF4 \+ 2 H2O :PoO2 \+ 4 HCl → PoCl4 \+ 2 H2O :PoO2 \+ 4 HBr → PoBr4 \+ 2 H2O :PoO2 \+ 4 HI → PoI4 \+ 2 H2O In reactions, polonium dioxide behaves very much like its homologue tellurium dioxide, forming Po(IV) salts; however, the acidic character of the chalcogen oxides decreases going down the group, and polonium dioxide and polonium(IV) hydroxide are much less acidic than their lighter homologues. For example, SO2, SO3, SeO2, SeO3 and TeO3 are acidic, but TeO2 is amphoteric, and PoO2, while amphoteric, even shows some basic character.
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At least six homologues of this receptor are found in mice. ALX/FPR is a promiscuous (i.e. interacting with diverse ligands) receptor that binds and is activated by other ligands including: a) various N-formyl oligopeptides that, like FMLP, are either released by microbes and mitochondria or are analogs of those released by microbes and mitochondria; b) microbe-derived non-formyl oligopeptides; c) certain polypeptides that are associated with the development of chronic amyloidosis and/or inflammation including Serum amyloid A (SAA) proteins), a 42-amino acid peptide form Amyloid beta termed Aβ42, Humanin, and a cleaved soluble fragment (amino acids 274-388) from the Urokinase receptor; and d) other SPMs including Resolvins RvD1, RvD2, RvD5, AT-RvD1, and RvD3 (see specialized pro-resolving mediators). LXA4 and 15-epi-LXA4 inhibit chemotaxis, transmigration, superoxide generation, NF-κB activation, and/or generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL8, IL13, IL12, and IL5) by neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes, Innate lymphoid cells, and/or macrophages, as well as suppress proliferation and production of IgM and IgG antibodies by B lymphocytes.
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Some molecular development studies have given limited support to the idea of an "ocular" segment corresponding to the protocerebrum; but these data are not unequivocal. The idea of the protocerebrum actually comprising two components has also received support from both molecular and embryological data. On this view, the protocerebrum comprises a typical 'segment', the prosocerebrum, marked by the expression of engrailed at its caudal margin and a pair of appendages (in most crown euarthropods, compound eyes, which are interpreted as modified trunk appendages), and a pre-segmental region, the archicerebrum, which bore a pair of appendages that are not serial homologues of the trunk appendages; these are represented by the onychophoran antennae and the 'great appendages' of certain stem euarthropods. The archicerebrum is in some ways equivalent to the 'acron', and may be equivalent (by means of a shared equivalent structure in the common ancestor of lophotrochozoans and ecdysozoans) with the annelid prototroch; it can be recognized by the expression of the genes optix and six3 during development, whereas the prosocerebrum is associated with orthodenticle and its homologs.
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