76 Sentences With "holdfasts" | Random Sentence Generator

The vine also produces holdfasts, and is consequently an excellent tree climber, growing aggressively upward, eventually strangling its host.

There were no new castles, townships, hamlets, ports, septs, or holdfasts rendered in the opening credits of last night's Game of Thrones, for a very good reason: We've been everywhere we're ever going to go together.

The "Game of Thrones" Monopoly set includes Gold Dragon and Silver Stag cardboard coins and players buy holdfasts and castles instead of houses and hotels, not to mention an Iron Throne card holder that plays the show's theme tune.

The distance was not negligible, even flying; Her Grace landed at the Last Hearth and several smaller keeps and holdfasts on her way, to the surprise and delight of their lords, whilst a portion of her tail scrambled after her (the rest remained at Winterfell).

Holdfast torn from the sea floor by a storm Eocrinoid holdfasts on an Ordovician hardground in Utah. A holdfast is a root-like structure that anchors aquatic sessile organisms, such as seaweed, other sessile algae, stalked crinoids, benthic cnidarians, and sponges, to the substrate. Holdfasts vary in shape and form depending on both the species and the substrate type. The holdfasts of organisms that live in muddy substrates often have complex tangles of root-like growths.

MacFarland reports that this nudibranch feeds on the hydroid Hydractinia, which grows on the holdfasts of Cystoseira osmundacea.

The pelagic stage of its larvae are able to survive for around two weeks in open water. They are associated with the holdfasts of kelp.

This marine species occurs on the bottom of the sea on wood falls and sunken algal holdfasts in the Caribbean Sea and in the Pacific Ocean.

And Ivy divided from the root, we have observed to live some years, by the cirrous parts commonly conceived but as tenacles and holdfasts unto it.

Some juvenile sporophytes will grow on competing organisms, like mussels or barnacles, and rip them from the rocks when the waves come, gripping them with holdfasts of incredible strength.

P. egregia hollows out a cavity in bull kelp holdfasts, usually on exposed rocky coasts, from low intertidal to shallow subtidal zones. Found from Cook Strait south to Stewart Island.

However, since Durvillaea holdfasts often grow at the uppermost limit of the intertidal zone, these uplift estimates are slightly less accurate compared to measures derived from other intertidal kelp such as Carpophyllum maschalocarpum.

Farmeria is a genus of flowering plants in the riverweed family Podostemaceae, native to Sri Lanka and India. They attach to rocks using holdfasts, and their flowers are protected by boat-shaped spathella until they emerge.

The claw-like holdfasts of kelps and other algae differ from the roots of land plants, in that they have no absorbent function, instead serving only as an anchor.Attenborough, D.1984. The Living Planet. p. 232 & 235\.

Comparisons of different fossils in the same locations suggest that it rearranged itself into fewer but larger main masses as the sediment grew deeper round its base. It may also have had a series of holdfasts along the bottom of the thread. Dimple marks in offshore sandstone have been found in the same deposits as Horodyskia, suggesting that they may be remnants of older holdfasts. Thin sections of Horodyskia have revealed a system of tubes within the beads, including connecting strings, and other tubes radiating outward from each bead.

The urchins in turn grazed the holdfasts of kelp so heavily that the kelp forests largely disappeared, along with all the species that depended on them. Reintroducing the sea otters has enabled the kelp ecosystem to be restored.

Dahlia anemones are found on rocks and boulders from the lower shore down to depths of 100 metres. It occurs in rock pools, in crevices and gullies, among the holdfasts of Laminaria spp., in caves and partly buried in gravel.

Marine Biology 141, 965-973. More than 100,000 mobile invertebrates per square meter are found on kelp stipes and holdfasts in well-developed kelp forests (Christie et al., 2003). While larger invertebrates and in particular sea urchins Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis (O.

It occurs from the low water mark to depths of down to 800 m. It lives on hard substrates, often attached with byssus, for instance in mussel beds or nestling among kelp holdfasts, or hiding in rock crevices and also boring itself into soft rocks.

Monocercomonoides are small free-swimming, single-cell organisms ranging from 5-12μm in length, and 4.5-14.5μm in width. The body may be ovoidal, pyriform, spherical or subspherical; however, they lack holdfasts and have small axostyles.Laird, M. 1955. Intestinal Flagellates from Some New Zealand Insects.

Desmarestiales is an order in the brown algae (Phaeophyceae). Members of this order have terete or ligulate (flat) pinnately branched thalli attached by discoid holdfasts. They have a sporphytic thallus usually aggregated to form a pseudo-parenchyma.Pound F.E. 1962 “The Biology of the Algae” Edward Arnold Ltd.

Tooth-marked small theropod bone: An extremely rare trace. p. 58-63. In: Mesozoic Vertebrate Life. Ed.s Tanke, D. H., Carpenter, K., Skrepnick, M. W. Indiana University Press. Tyrannosaurid teeth were used as holdfasts for pulling meat off a body, rather than knife- like cutting functions.

Usnea scabrata (straw beard lichen) is a very pale grayish-yellowish green, slender, pendant, branching from the base, unequally branching, shrubby foliose lichen that grows from holdfasts on trees.Field Guide to California Lichens, Stephen Sharnoff, Yale University Press, 2014, It is warty with abundant isidia. It resembles Usnea filipendula.

Stems and holdfasts of D. antarctica and D. incurvata are harvested from the coast of Chile and is used in Chilean cuisine for various recipes, including salads and stews. In Quechua the species is called: ''''' (': lake, and ': weed), and hulte. The Mapuche indigenous people refer to it as ' or '.

These projections are called haptera and similar structures of the same name are found on lichens. The holdfasts of organisms that live in sandy substrates are bulb-like and very flexible, such as those of sea pens, thus permitting the organism to pull the entire body into the substrate when the holdfast is contracted. The holdfasts of organisms that live on smooth surfaces (such as the surface of a boulder) have flattened bases which adhere to the surface. The organism derives no nutrition from this intimate contact with the substrate, as the process of liberating nutrients from the substrate requires enzymatically eroding the substrate away, thereby increasing the risk of organism falling off the substrate.

Ascidia mentula is native to the north eastern Atlantic Ocean, its range extending from Norway southwards to the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. It occurs on rocky substrates at depths ranging from subtidal down to . It favours crevices and shady gullies and sometimes adheres to Laminaria holdfasts, stones and shells.

Field Guide to California Lichens, Stephen Sharnoff, Yale University Press, 2014, Members Xanthomendoza were formerly classified in the genus Xanthoria, but Xanthomendoza members have rhizenes or scattered holdfasts, while Xanoria do not, and they have different conidia. Lichen spot tests on the upper cortex are K+ purple, KC-, C-, and P-.

It has been speculated that, like the Steller's sea cows, the front limbs were used as holdfasts. The Cuesta sea cow was among the largest of the sirenians to have ever lived, reaching up to in length and possibly . The body was fusiform, being tapered at both the head and the tail.

A terrestrial nemertean from West Java. The animal is long, of which the anterior is visible. A terrestrial Geonemertes sp. on a rotting log, from Mindanao Island, the Philippines Most nemerteans are marine animals that burrow in sediments, lurk in crevices between shells, stones or the holdfasts of algae or sessile animals.

P. hirtellus lives at depths of up to , preferring areas shallower than . It can be found on various substrates, including muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, under stones and even among the holdfasts of seaweeds. In the Black Sea, this species prefers stony areas with abundant algae and mussels. The diet consists mainly of carrion.

This is largely a shallow-water species though it has been recorded at depths of up to 650 m. The substrate is often rock but this sponge is also common on kelp holdfasts and on other sponge species. This species is found along east Atlantic coasts from the Arctic all the way to South Africa.

Tyrannosaur tooth marks are the most commonly preserved feeding traces of carnivorous dinosaurs. They have been reported from ceratopsians, hadrosaurs and other tyrannosaurs. Tyrannosaurid bones with tooth marks represent about 2% of known fossils with preserved tooth marks. Tyrannosaurid teeth were used as holdfasts for pulling meat off a body, rather than knife-like cutting functions.

Lasaea rubra is native to the eastern Atlantic Ocean where its range extends from Norway through the North Sea to the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean Sea. It is found in the intertidal zone on rocky shores, lodged in crevices, in tufts of lichen or among the holdfasts ad fronds of seaweed, attached by byssus threads.

The type location of Aplidium solidum is Pemba Island, Tanzania and it is also found in Australian waters. It occurs on the west coast of North America from British Columbia south to California where it is common on rocks, especially among the holdfasts of kelp forests, and pilings. It occurs in the intertidal zone and at depths down to 40 metres.

Ian K. Steele, The English Atlantic, 1675-1740: An Exploration of Communication and Community, Oxford, Decades after the terms Ethiopian Ocean or Ethiopian Sea had fallen into disuse to refer to the Southern Atlantic Ocean, botanist William Albert Setchell (1864–1943) used the term for the sea around certain islands close to Antarctica. Setchell, W. A. 1932. Macrocystis and its holdfasts. Univ.

Unlike claws, spurs are normally straight or only slightly curved, making them suited to striking or stabbing. In birds and mammals, their function appears to be for fighting, defense and territory marking, rather than for predation. In reptiles, spurs are usually only found in the males and are used as holdfasts or to stimulate the female during copulation.Pough et al. (1992).

Life cycle of the digenean Metagonimus These parasites' name refers to the cavities in their holdfasts (Greek τρῆμα, hole), which resemble suckers and anchor them within their hosts. The skin of all species is a syncitium, which is a layer of cells that shares a single external membrane. Trematodes are divided into two groups, Digenea and Aspidogastrea (also known as Aspodibothrea).

P. ciliata has a widespread distribution round the coasts of northwestern Europe. As a burrowing species, it tunnels into limestone; chalk and clay, calcareous algae, the holdfasts of seaweeds, wood, muddy sediment and mollusc shells, including those of oysters, mussels and periwinkles. It is also known from the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Black Sea, the Indo-Pacific and Antarctica.

Kelp-associated invertebrates can be transported inside of drifting holdfasts, potentially leading to long-distance dispersal and a significant impact upon the population genetic structure of those species. Fronds of D. antarctica can be infected by an endophytic, phaeophycean algal parasite Herpodiscus durvillaeae (Lindauer) G. R. South. Based on genetic evidence, H. durvillaeae also seems to have also been be transmitted via rafting.

Native to the northeastern Pacific Ocean, L. instabilis is present from Kodiak Island, off the coast of Alaska, to San Diego, California. It is often found on the holdfasts and stipes of kelp, at depths ranging from the intertidal zone down to about . It also occurs on bare rock and sometimes on the shells of gastropod mollusks, including those occupied by hermit crabs.

Usnea intermedia (western bushy beard) is a grayish-yellowish pale green, irregularly much-branching, stiff shrubby foliose lichen commonly anchored on holdfasts on trees, often on oaks.Field Guide to California Lichens, Stephen Sharnoff, Yale University Press, 2014, Abundant apothecia are convex discs with a ring or thallus-like margin having tendril-like fringe radiating from it. It was formerly called U. arizonica in North America.

The term spur is sometimes used to describe the pelvic spur, vestigal limbs found in primitive snakes, such as boas and pythons and in the striped legless lizard. The spurs primarily serve as holdfasts during mating. As these form at the terminal end of the limb, they may properly be claws rather than true spurs. External view of anal spurs on a male, albino Burmese python.

This is likely the result of attacks by the dominant predatory starfish in the region Meyenaster gelatinosus and Luidia magellanica. Starfish with missing arms are likely to have a certain minimum size; this is because, if they are too small, they are entirely devoured by the predator which attacked them. Juvenile S. striatus are found among the holdfasts of the kelp Lessonia nigrescens or hiding in crevices or under boulders.

Some rotifers are free swimming and truly planktonic, others move by inchworming along a substrate, and some are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts that are attached to a substrate. About 25 species are colonial (e.g., Sinantherina semibullata), either sessile or planktonic. Rotifers are an important part of the freshwater zooplankton, being a major foodsource and with many species also contributing to the decomposition of soil organic matter.

Usnea mutabilis is a grayish-yellowish pale green, unequally branching, shrubby (foliose) 3–7 cm long lichen commonly anchored on holdfasts on trees, mostly in eastern North America, sometimes in chaparral shurbs or pines in California.Field Guide to California Lichens, Stephen Sharnoff, Yale University Press, 2014, It is darker green than other members of the genus Usnea. The surface is covered with isolated, or clusters of, isidea. It lacks apothecia.

A few of the early animals appear possibly to be ancestors of modern animals. Most fall into ambiguous groups of frond-like organisms; discoids that might be holdfasts for stalked organisms ("medusoids"); mattress-like forms; small calcareous tubes; and armored animals of unknown provenance. These were most commonly known as Vendian biota until the formal naming of the Period, and are currently known as Ediacaran Period biota. Most were soft bodied.

Sea snails and other invertebrates feed on the blades (leaves) of the laminaria. Other organisms, such as sea urchins, feed on the holdfasts, which can kill the algae. Red sea urchins, found on the North America Pacific Coast, can decimate kelp, including Laminaria, if the urchins are not managed by sea otters. Species such as Coelopa pilipes feed and lay eggs on Laminaria when it is washed up on beaches.

The landlady's wig is found on either side of the north Atlantic Ocean from the middle shore down to depths of about . It grows on hard surfaces and is common on rock covered with sand and also occurs in rock pools. It is sometimes torn from the rock in storms, resulting in floating mats of weed. The base of the fronds continue to grow even when they are detached from their holdfasts.

This species of scallop lives in the North Sea, the English Channel, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Red Sea. Chlamys varia is a shallow-living species, living up to about 100m in depth along coastal rocky areas. It typically lives under boulders or among the holdfasts of seaweeds. This species is found in sheltered habitats in Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland, and because of its rapid decline there, it is listed as a Northern Ireland Priority Species.

Like other scallops, this species is a filter feeder, drawing water through its gills and removing the edible fragments. It changes sex several times during the course of its development, becoming a male when fully mature. It is attached by byssus threads when young but may be detached when older. It is often overgrown by the holdfasts of the seaweeds among which it lives, and sponges such as Halichondria panicea may also grow over the shell.

Lethops connectens, the halfblind goby, is a species of marine goby native to the eastern Pacific Ocean from central California, United States to Baja California, Mexico where they inhabit kelp forests. The adults hide amongst the stones and the holdfasts of kelp on the seabed while the juveniles form schools in the kelp canopy. This species can reach a length of TL. Like the name suggests, the eyes of L. connectens are highly reduced.Carl L. Hubbs (1926).

Hence, many species have developed adaptations to prevent this drying out, such as the production of mucous layers and shells. Many species use shells and holdfasts to provide stability against strong wave actions. There are also a variety of other challenges such as temperature fluctuations due to tidal flow (resulting in exposure), changes in salinity and various ranges of illumination. Other threats include predation from birds and other marine organisms, as well as the effects of pollution.

Hymeniacidon kitchingi is native to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, where its range extends from Scotland southwards to Finistère in northern France, and includes the western parts of the English Channel. It has also been reported from the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. It grows on rocks in the littoral zone and shallow sub-littoral zone, as well as on the holdfasts and stipes of kelp such as Saccharina latissima. It prefers areas where there is strong wave action.

There are three major groups of Diploporita that have been traditionally proposed: the Asteroblastida, Glyptosphaeritida, and the Sphaeronitida. These three groups, which are markedly different from one another, are found in approximately the same age strata in the Early Ordovician of the Prague Basin. Of these proposed groups, only one has been thought to be monophyletic: the Sphaeronitida. This group is characterized by short ambulacral feeding grooves and holdfasts that cement directly to a hard substrate, instead of a stem.

This species is native to the northeastern Pacific Ocean from Alaska to Mexico. It occurs in the lower part of the intertidal zone and the shallow sub-littoral, down to about . It typically clings to the lower part and underside of rocks, but is sometimes found on the holdfasts and stalks of kelp. When the tide is out and it is exposed, it tends to always attach itself to the same spot, where its shell neatly fits the contours of the rock.

Kelp-associated invertebrates can be transported inside of drifting kelp holdfasts, potentially leading to long- distance dispersal and a significant impact upon the population genetic structure of the invertebrate species. Fronds of D. antarctica can be infected by an endophytic, phaeophycean algal parasite Herpodiscus durvillaeae (Lindauer) G.R. South. Based on genetic evidence, H. durvillaeae also seems to have also been be transmitted via rafting. In New Zealand, Durvillaea fronds can also be infected by the obligate red algal epiphyte Pyrophyllon subtumens (J.

Pyura haustor is native to the northeastern Pacific Ocean where its range extends from the Shumagin Islands in Alaska southwards to San Diego County, California. It is found attached to rocks, piers, pilings and floats, as well as to the holdfasts of kelp. It occurs in both sheltered and exposed locations, but in the San Juan Islands, where it is common, it avoids the areas with the strongest currents. Its depth range is from the lower intertidal zone down to about .

It was named by Martin Glaessner and Mary Wade in 1966. Its biological affinities were called into question amidst suggestions that it might represent a mud volcano or other sedimentary structure, but further research showed that these structures could not satisfactorily account for its complexity. The fossil has been theorized to represent algae holdfasts, jellyfish (although this is considered unlikely), a filter feeder, a burrow, a microbial colony or invertebrate tracks. Several of these possibilities would indicate that Mawsonites represents a trace fossil, not an organism.

Discoidal fossils had been classified as cnidarian medusae before being redefined as holdfasts of frondose organisms, that is, the roots or stalks that held them to the sea bed. Rangeomorphs consist of branching "frond" elements, each a few centimeters long, each of which is itself composed of many smaller branching tubes held up by a semi-rigid organic skeleton. This self-similar structure proceeds over four levels of fractality, and could have been formed using fairly simple developmental patterns. Rangeomorphs were radially symmetrical and likely sessile.

H. whitei inhabits shallow, weedy inshore areas, usually at depths of . Its natural habitats include Zostera seagrass beds, sponges, kelp holdfasts, macroalgae, and corals, but it can also be found under jetties and on other anthropogenic structures, such as shark nets. Evidence from Port Stephens indicates that juveniles prefer gorgonian habitats (Euplexaura sp.), while adults prefer sponges and soft coral habitats. This species is known to show a preference for more complex habitats, likely because their camouflage is more effective in these environments, making avoiding predators easier.

In geology an erratic is any material which is not native to the immediate locale but has been transported from elsewhere. The most common examples of erratics are associated with glacial transport, either by direct glacier-borne transport or by ice rafting. However, other erratics have been identified as the result of kelp holdfasts, which have been documented to transport rocks up to in diameter, rocks entangled in the roots of drifting logs, and even in transport of stones accumulated in the stomachs of pinnipeds during foraging.

Carbon uptake and photosynthesis in a seagrass meadow. Special cells within the seagrass, called chloroplasts, use energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates (or sugar) and oxygen through photosynthesis. Seagrass roots and rhizomes absorb and store nutrients and help to anchor the seagrass plants in place. holdfasts to secure then to the seafloor and internally transport nutrients by diffusion, while seagrasses are flowering plants with a rhizome and root system connecting them to the seafloor and a vascular system for internal transport.

The Royal Canadian Engineers erected a few huts for the ATS, while the men slept in tents despite the cold weather. The gun platforms required 2000 tons of rubble to be tipped onto soft ground, with another 800 tons for hardstandings, although the access roads were built as single tracks that were blocked by the gun transporters. On arrival the 15-ton static guns had to be lowered precisely onto holdfasts dug into the ground. All other facilities, including cookhouses and latrines, had to be built from scratch.

Ed.s Tanke, D. H., Carpenter, K., Skrepnick, M. W. Indiana University Press. Tyrannosaurid teeth were used as holdfasts for pulling meat off a body, so when a tyrannosaur would have pulled back on a piece of meat, the tension could cause a purely crack-like serration to spread through the tooth. However, the presence of the ampulla would have distributed these forces over a larger surface area, and lessened the risk of damage to the tooth under strain. The presence of incisions ending in voids has parallels in human engineering.

Beachcast D. antarctica kelp frond with blisters caused by an infection Holdfasts of D. antarctica are often inhabited by a diverse array of epifaunal invertebrates, many of which burrow into and graze on the kelp. In New Zealand, epifaunal species include the crustaceans Parawaldeckia kidderi, P. karaka and Limnoria stephenseni, and the molluscs Cantharidus roseus, Onchidella marginata, Onithochiton neglectus, and Sypharochiton sinclairi. Plants of D. antarctica can from detach substrates, particularly during storms. The kelp floats as a raft and can travel vast distances at sea, driven by ocean currents.

The shell of Lottia instabilis is specially adapted by the shape of its rim to adhere to the holdfasts and stipes of kelp. The sides of the rim are elongated and nearly parallel, but both anterior and posterior end are raised up; this means it cannot lie flat and seal itself to a level surface but it can seal to a curved surface. The shell is smooth with an even margin. It is often mainly brownish, and may be paler near the apex, which is somewhat towards the anterior end of the shell.

All birds however have claws, which are used as general holdfasts and protection for the tip of the digits. The hoatzin and turaco are unique among extant birds in having functional claws on the thumb and index finger (digit I and II) on the forelimbs as chicks, allowing them to climb trees until the adult plumage with flight feathers develop. However, several birds have a claw- or nail-like structure hidden under the feathers at the end of the hand digits, notably ostriches, emus, ducks, geese and kiwis.Sir Walter Lawry Buller (1888): A History of the Birds of New Zealand.

Tyrannosaurid teeth were used as holdfasts for pulling flesh off a body, so when a tyrannosaur pulled back on a piece of meat, the tension could cause a purely crack-like serration to spread through the tooth. However, the presence of the ampulla distributed these forces over a larger surface area, and lessened the risk of damage to the tooth under strain. The presence of incisions ending in voids has parallels in human engineering. Guitar makers use incisions ending in voids to, as Abler describes, "impart alternating regions of flexibility and rigidity" to wood they work.

Seaweed Ecology and Physiology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. At Race Rocks, near Vancouver Island, it was found that during the winter, the only remains of the kelp forest was the bare stipes of P. californica, the annual seaweeds having been broken down and dispersed. By mid summer however, the fast-growing N. luetkeana formed the canopy while P. californica and S. latissima formed a middle storey layer. In a research study in that location, it was found that much of the N. luetkeana was growing epiphytically on P. californica with their holdfasts attached to the blades and upper portions of the stipes.

The large macro-alga Durvillaea antarctica supports a diverse array of invertebrate taxa and may play an important role in transporting some of this fauna to Heard Island. The rocky shores of Heard Island exhibit a clear demarcation between fauna of the lower kelp holdfast zone and the upper shore zone community, probably due to effects of desiccation, predation and freezing in the higher areas. The limpet Nacella kerguelensis is abundant in the lower part of the shore, being found on rock surfaces and on kelp holdfasts. Other common but less abundant species in this habitat include the chiton Hemiarthrum setulosum and the starfish Anasterias mawsoni.

These are often called flukes, as most have flat rhomboid shapes like that of a flounder (Old English flóc). There are about 11,000 species, more than all other platyhelminthes combined, and second only to roundworms among parasites on metazoans. Adults usually have two holdfasts: a ring around the mouth and a larger sucker midway along what would be the underside in a free-living flatworm. Although the name "Digeneans" means "two generations", most have very complex life cycles with up to seven stages, depending on what combinations of environments the early stages encounter – the most important factor being whether the eggs are deposited on land or in water.

Sipunculus nudus All sipunculid worms are marine and benthic; they are found throughout the world's oceans including polar waters, equatorial waters and the abyssal zone, but the majority of species occur in shallow water, where they are relatively common. They inhabit a range of habitats including burrowing in sand, mud, clay and gravel, hiding under stones, in rock crevices, in hollow coral heads, in wood, in empty seashells and inside the bones of dead whales. Some hide in kelp holdfasts, under tangles of eelgrass, inside sponges and in the empty tubes of other organisms, and some live among fouling organisms on man-made structures. Some bore into solid rocks to make a shelter for themselves.

Beachcast D. antarctica kelp frond with blisters caused by an infection Holdfasts of D. antarctica and other species are often inhabited by a diverse array of epifaunal invertebrates, many of which burrow into and graze on the kelp. In New Zealand, epifaunal species include the sea-star Anasterias suteri, crustaceans Parawaldeckia kidderi, P. karaka, Limnoria segnis and L. stephenseni, and the molluscs Cantharidus roseus, Onchidella marginata, Onithochiton neglectus, and Sypharochiton sinclairi. Beachcast D. antarctica at St Kilda Beach, Dunedin Specimens of Durvillaea can detach from substrates, particularly during storms. Once detached, buoyant species such as D. antarctica and D. poha can float as rafts, and can travel vast distances at sea, driven by ocean currents.

Before the 1990s, E. viridis was thought to have a wide range in the northeastern Atlantic including the waters around the United Kingdom, but morphological and biochemical studies led to the southern populations being recognised as a separate species E. clavigera, part of a species complex with E. viridis. This means that the distribution of E. clavigera is not well understood, with references in the literature referring to E viridis possibly being misapplied; however, E. clavigera is present around the coasts of Britain and southwards to France and the Iberian Peninsula, and possibly into the Mediterranean Sea. Its depth range is from the middle shore to the sublittoral zone. It typically lives in crevices, under stones, among the holdfasts of large seaweeds and among mussels and barnacles.

A sea pen, a modern cnidarian bearing a passing resemblance to Charnia Since the most primitive eumetazoans—multi-cellular animals with tissues—are cnidarians, the first attempt to categorise these fossils designated them as jellyfish and sea pens. However, more recent discoveries have established that many of the circular forms formerly considered "cnidarian medusa" are actually holdfasts – sand- filled vesicles occurring at the base of the stem of upright frond-like Ediacarans. A notable example is the form known as Charniodiscus, a circular impression later found to be attached to the long 'stem' of a frond-like organism that now bears the name.Discussed at length in The link between certain frond-like Ediacarans and sea pens has been thrown into doubt by multiple lines of evidence; chiefly the derived nature of the most frond-like pennatulacean octocorals, their absence from the fossil record before the Tertiary, and the apparent cohesion between segments in Ediacaran frond-like organisms.

Eventually it was decided to move the guns by barge and use special sheers and holdfasts as anchors. The guns were lifted by manpower with a capstan instead of by machinery, permission being granted for this by the Board of Trade on condition that it all be removed as soon as possible after the guns were landed. An overhead traveller was constructed to move the guns across to the top of the turret and then lower them onto their carriages. The sheers weighed 100 tons and the traveller weighed 22 tons. They were tested in 1881 and the No.1 gun arrived on 4 December 1881. It was in place by 6 January 1882. The No.2 gun followed on 12 May 1882. The turret machinery was ready for testing at the beginning of 1883 and the testing was arranged for July. The first shot was fired using a 250-pound charge. A second shot followed using a 337-pound charge and finally three shots were fired using a full battering charge of four hundred and fifty pounds of powder.