A way to get around the NP-hardness of redistricting is to approach the problem heuristically, which is a fancy way of saying that a computer can solve the problem, but not necessarily in the most optimal or perfect way.
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The minimum spanning tree on which traffic flows in the latter case is heuristically defined by Dijkstra's algorithm and Prim's algorithm.
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While media richness theory's application to new media has been contested (see "Criticism"), it is still used heuristically as a basis for studies examining new media.
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These long stretches of coding vs. non-coding can then be classified as introns or exons and the entire segment heuristically labeled as gene or non- gene.
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If seen as a control system this would be encoded as a feedback error function or in a heuristically assisted system as an algorithm combined with set of heuristics bounding its operational space.
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In mathematics, the Dawson-Gärtner theorem is a result in large deviations theory. Heuristically speaking, the Dawson-Gärtner theorem allows one to transport a large deviation principle on a “smaller” topological space to a “larger” one.
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State shifts are often illustrated heuristically by the ball-in-cup model (Holling, C.S. et al., 1995) Biodiversity in the functioning of ecosystems: an ecological synthesis. In Biodiversity Loss, Ecological and Economical Issues (Perrings, C.A. et al., eds), pp.
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In Riemannian geometry, Schur's lemma is a result that says, heuristically, whenever certain curvatures are pointwise constant then they are forced to be globally constant. The proof is essentially a one-step calculation, which has only one input: the second Bianchi identity.
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Those with a lower need for cognition may display opposite tendencies, and may process information more heuristically, often through low elaboration. Need for cognition is closely related to the five factor model domain openness to experience, typical intellectual engagement, and epistemic curiosity (see below).
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Heuristically, the dielectric constant of a solvent can be thought of as its ability to reduce the solute's effective internal charge. Generally, the dielectric constant of a solvent is an acceptable predictor of the solvent's ability to dissolve common ionic compounds, such as salts.
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Heuristically, the terms of a PID controller can be interpreted as corresponding to time: the proportional term depends on the present error, the integral term on the accumulation of past errors, and the derivative term is a prediction of future error, based on current rate of change.
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These can be set using heuristically chosen values, possibly informed by the kind of variations being sought by the study. Alternatively, supervised machine-learning procedures have been investigated that seek to learn optimal prior values for individuals in a sample, using supplied NGS data from these individuals.
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In mathematics, orbit capacity of a subset of a topological dynamical system may be thought of heuristically as a “topological dynamical probability measure” of the subset. More precisely, its value for a set is a tight upper bound for the normalized number of visits of orbits in this set.
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With these difficulties looming, many theorists began to turn away from QFT. Some focused on symmetry principles and conservation laws, while others picked up the old S-matrix theory of Wheeler and Heisenberg. QFT was used heuristically as guiding principles, but not as a basis for quantitative calculations.
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Eine Einführung. Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. The expression serves as an umbrella term that encompasses different research approaches (e.g., international communication, transnational communication) that can heuristically be differentiated by their specific use of research perspectives, as well as particular levels and objects of analysis (see dimensions of analysis).
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It is being debated regarding the existence of the neurobiological basis of emotion. The existence of so-called 'basic emotions' and their defining attributes represents a long lasting and yet unsettled issue in psychology. The available research suggests that the neurobiological existence of basic emotions is still tenable and heuristically seminal, pending some reformulation.
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Async requests are never converted to Sync. This heuristic algorithm complements a previously-existing algorithm that automatically (but not heuristically) converted requests, based on conditions such as path busy and on request data size. The difference is the new algorithm samples response times dynamically. CFs are unique to S/390, zSeries and System z mainframes.
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The rate function is related to the entropy in statistical mechanics. This can be heuristically seen in the following way. In statistical mechanics the entropy of a particular macro-state is related to the number of micro-states which corresponds to this macro-state. In our coin tossing example the mean value M_N could designate a particular macro-state.
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Kempner showed the sum of this series is less than 80. Baillie showed that, rounded to 20 decimals, the actual sum is . Heuristically, this series converges because most large integers contain every digit. For example, a random 100-digit integer is very likely to contain at least one '9', causing it to be excluded from the above sum.
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This minor planet was named after the fictional supercomputer Hal 9000, featured in both Arthur C. Clarke's novel and Stanley Kubrick's movie 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). HAL stands for Heuristically programmed Algorithmic computer. It is one of the best-known artificial intelligence characters in modern movies. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 4 May 1999 ().
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Finding the optimal weighted MMSE precoding is difficult, leading to approximate approaches where the weights are selected heuristically. A common approach is to concentrate on either the numerator or the denominator of the mentioned ratio; that is, maximum ratio transmission (MRT) and zero-forcing (ZF)N. Jindal, MIMO Broadcast Channels with Finite Rate Feedback, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, vol. 52, no.
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Whether this formula produces an infinite quantity of Carmichael numbers is an open question (though it is implied by Dickson's conjecture). Paul Erdős heuristically argued there should be infinitely many Carmichael numbers. In 1994 W. R. (Red) Alford, Andrew Granville and Carl Pomerance used a bound on Olson's constant to show that there really do exist infinitely many Carmichael numbers.
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York also heuristically divides the New Age into three broad trends. The first, the social camp, represents groups that primarily seek to bring about social change, while the second, the occult camp, instead focus on contact with spirit entities and channeling. York's third group, the spiritual camp, represents a middle ground between these two camps that focuses largely on individual development.
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Project unpublished requirements by including end-use customers in the idea mining process. Look for full and partial solutions. 2\. CONSOLIDATE / RACK AND STACK: Heuristically sort list of ideas into groups based on resource requirements, proven record, technology leveraging, mission accomplishment, Department of Defense, Air Force Instruction, and National Guard Bureau identified needs. Based on chosen development cycles, monthly, quarterly, etc.
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During his graduate and postdoctoral years, he covered the standard topics in analytic philosophy in search of a new methodology. He sought to approach contemporary problems from a heuristically powerful and intellectually enriching perspective when dealing with lively philosophical issues. During his graduate studies, he began to distance himself from classical analytic philosophy. In his view, the analytic movement had lost its way.
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In mathematics, Krener's theorem is a result attributed to Arthur J. Krener in geometric control theory about the topological properties of attainable sets of finite-dimensional control systems. It states that any attainable set of a bracket-generating system has nonempty interior or, equivalently, that any attainable set has nonempty interior in the topology of the corresponding orbit. Heuristically, Krener's theorem prohibits attainable sets from being hairy.
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This can be achieved by a simple agglomerative clustering method. The distortion in the lossy compression determines the coarseness of the segmentation and its optimal value may differ for each image. This parameter can be estimated heuristically from the contrast of textures in an image. For example, when the textures in an image are similar, such as in camouflage images, stronger sensitivity and thus lower quantization is required.
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An example of how persuasion plays a role in heuristic processing can be explained through the heuristic-systematic model. This explains how there are often two ways we are able to process information from persuasive messages, one being heuristically and the other systematically. A heuristic is when we make a quick short judgement into our decision making. On the other hand, systematic processing involves more analytical and inquisitive cognitive thinking.
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Low contrast pixels that are found are excluded from being further altered by FXAA. The high pass filter that excludes low contrast pixels can be tuned to balance speed and sensitivity. # Use contrast between adjacent pixels to heuristically find edges, and determine whether the edges are in the horizontal or vertical directions. The blend direction of a pixel will be perpendicular to the detected edge direction on that pixel.
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Cleverbot is constantly growing in data size at a rate of 400 to 7 million interactions per second. Updates to the software have been mostly behind the scenes. In 2014, Cleverbot was upgraded to use GPU serving techniques. Unlike Eliza, the program does not respond in a fixed way, instead choosing its responses heuristically using fuzzy logic, the whole of the conversation being compared to the millions that have taken place before.
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It comprises a constant- or variable-size population of individuals, a fitness criterion, and genetically inspired operators that produce the next generation from the current one. The initial population is typically generated randomly or heuristically, and typical operators are mutation and recombination. At each step, the individuals are evaluated according to the given fitness function (survival of the fittest). The next generation is obtained from selected individuals (parents) by using genetically inspired operators.
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These and other models of electromagnetism and gravity were pursued by Albert Einstein in his attempts at a classical unified field theory. By 1930 Einstein had already considered the Einstein–Maxwell–Dirac System [Dongen]. This system is (heuristically) the super-classical [Varadarajan] limit of (the not mathematically well-defined) quantum electrodynamics. One can extend this system to include the weak and strong nuclear forces to get the Einstein–Yang–Mills–Dirac System.
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Pairs of spaces occur centrally in relative homology, homology theory and cohomology theory, where chains in A are made equivalent to 0, when considered as chains in X. Heuristically, one often thinks of a pair (X,A) as being akin to the quotient space X/A. There is a functor from spaces to pairs, which sends a space X to the pair (X,\varnothing). A related concept is that of a triple , with . Triples are used in homotopy theory.
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The emergence of protected dimorphism near singular points during the course of evolution is not unusual, but its significance depends on whether selection is stabilising or disruptive. In the latter case, the traits of the two morphs will diverge in a process often referred to as evolutionary branching. Geritz 1998 presents a compelling argument that disruptive selection only occurs near fitness minima. To understand this heuristically, consider a dimorphic population r_1 and r_2 near a singular point.
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Here the term yoga denotes a kind of "meta-theory" that can be used heuristically; Michel Raynaud writes the other terms "Ariadne's thread" and "philosophy" as effective equivalents.at p. 2. Grothendieck wrote that, of these themes, the largest in scope was topoi, as they synthesized algebraic geometry, topology, and arithmetic. The theme that had been most extensively developed was schemes, which were the framework "par excellence" for eight of the other themes (all but 1, 5, and 12).
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Heuristically, it would be expected that evolution between spin network states might be described by discrete combinatorial operations on the spin networks, which would then trace a two-dimensional skeleton of spacetime. This approach is related to state-sum models of statistical mechanics and topological quantum field theory such as the Turaeev–Viro model of 3D quantum gravity, and also to the Regge calculus approach to calculate the Feynman path integral of general relativity by discretizing spacetime.
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The import service is responsible for importing package repositories, parsing the package metadata, and matching the packages to products using a complex heuristically based algorithm. The Import service supports any Debian based distribution. RPM based packages can be supported by the domain model with additional work specific to the RPM package metadata schema and release management practices. The import service has a 98% success rate matching packages to products with admin support tools for finding and correcting any problems quickly.
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One approach to handling Loschmidt's paradox is the fluctuation theorem, derived heuristically by Denis Evans and Debra Searles, which gives a numerical estimate of the probability that a system away from equilibrium will have a certain value for the dissipation function (often an entropy like property) over a certain amount of time.D. J. Evans and D. J. Searles, Adv. Phys. 51, 1529 (2002). The result is obtained with the exact time reversible dynamical equations of motion and the universal causation proposition.
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In general, dimensionality plays a strong role in determining whether a mean-field approach will work for any particular problem. There is sometimes a critical dimension, above which MFT is valid and below which it is not. Heuristically, many interactions are replaced in MFT by one effective interaction. So if the field or particle exhibits many random interactions in the original system, they tend to cancel each other out, so the mean effective interaction and MFT will be more accurate.
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The Scoring algorithm (or Scr) was introduced by Jurij Mihelič and Borut Robič in 2005. This algorithm takes advantage of the reduction from the vertex k-center problem to the minimum dominating set problem. The problem is solved by pruning the input graph with every possible value of the optimal solution size and then solving the minimum dominating set problem heuristically. This heuristic follows the lazy principle, which takes every decision as slow as possible (opossed to the greedy strategy).
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It is important to note that \partial_if(a) is a linear transformation from V_i into W . Heuristically, if f has an i-th partial differential at a , then \partial_if(a) linearly approximates the change in the function f when we fix all of its entries to be a_j for j eq i , and we only vary the i-th entry. We can express this in the Landau notation as : f(a_1, \dots, a_i+h, \dots a_n) - f(a_1, \dots, a_n) = \partial_if(a)(h) + o(h).
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In the face of uncertainty, people often look to others for guidance, including experts. Prior research shows that people heuristically rely on consensus cues in the absence of motivation to cognitively elaborate, because consensus typically implies correctness. Research also indicates that people desire to conform to the expert consensus and generally prefer to rely on the combined judgment of multiple experts rather than on individual expert opinions. Relying on consensus cues is often considered socially adaptive because it harnesses the wisdom of the crowd effect.
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If it occurs in both parent nodes the clause is calculated as resolvent of the parent clauses. If it is not present in one of the parent nodes the clause of this parent can be copied. If it misses in both parents one has to choose heuristically. 1 function ReconstructProof(Node n): 3 if n is visited return 4 mark n as visited 5 if n has no parents return 6 else if n has only one parent x then 7 ReconstructProof(x) 8 n.
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1934–35), Gödel proposed axiomatizing the notion of "effective calculability"; indeed, in a 1935 letter to Kleene, Church reported that: But Gödel offered no further guidance. Eventually, he would suggest his recursion, modified by Herbrand's suggestion, that Gödel had detailed in his 1934 lectures in Princeton NJ (Kleene and Rosser transcribed the notes). But he did not think that the two ideas could be satisfactorily identified "except heuristically".Sieg 1997:160 quoting from the 1935 letter written by Church to Kleene, cf Footnote 3 in Gödel 1934 in .
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Scientists do not use statistical proof as a means to attain certainty, but to falsify claims and explain theory. Science cannot achieve absolute certainty nor is it a continuous march toward an objective truth as the vernacular as opposed to the scientific meaning of the term "proof" might imply. Statistical proof offers a kind of proof of a theory's falsity and the means to learn heuristically through repeated statistical trials and experimental error. Statistical proof also has applications in legal matters with implications for the legal burden of proof.
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In mathematics, Itô's lemma is an identity used in Itô calculus to find the differential of a time-dependent function of a stochastic process. It serves as the stochastic calculus counterpart of the chain rule. It can be heuristically derived by forming the Taylor series expansion of the function up to its second derivatives and retaining terms up to first order in the time increment and second order in the Wiener process increment. The lemma is widely employed in mathematical finance, and its best known application is in the derivation of the Black–Scholes equation for option values.
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A series of geometric shapes enclosed by its minimum bounding box (in 2 dimensions) In geometry, the minimum or smallest bounding or enclosing box for a point set (S) in N dimensions is the box with the smallest measure (area, volume, or hypervolume in higher dimensions) within which all the points lie. When other kinds of measure are used, the minimum box is usually called accordingly, e.g., "minimum-perimeter bounding box". The minimum bounding box of a point set is the same as the minimum bounding box of its convex hull, a fact which may be used heuristically to speed up computation.
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Religious values are usually based on values reflected within religious texts or by the influence of the lives of religious persons. Known as the ‘Indigenous Religious Values Hypothesis’, the origin of religious values can be seen as the product of the values held by the society in which the religion originated from. The beliefs of an individual are often centred around a religion, so the religion can be the origin of that individual’s values. When religion is defined heuristically, it can be used by individuals, communities or societies to answer their existential questions with the beliefs that the religion teaches.
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In 2D Euclidean field theory, the operator product expansion is a Laurent series expansion associated to two operators. A Laurent series is a generalization of the Taylor series in that finitely many powers of the inverse of the expansion variable(s) are added to the Taylor series: pole(s) of finite order(s) are added to the series. Heuristically, in quantum field theory one is interested in the result of physical observables represented by operators. If one wants to know the result of making two physical observations at two points z and w, one can time order these operators in increasing time.
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While FAT has proven extremely valuable in predicting increased influence through functional matching through an array of empirical studies, explanations for why this effect is present have yet to materialize. Lavine and Snyder (1996) posited that the matching effect could be attributed to biased processing of messages that are functionally linked, with individuals processing functionally-matched messages peripherally (ELM) or heuristically (HSM). However, research based on the ELM has provided mixed results and many studies have failed in their attempts to replicate original results and thus theories other than ELM are necessary to understand the function matching phenomenon (Carpenter et al., 2013).
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Character encoding detection, charset detection, or code page detection is the process of heuristically guessing the character encoding of a series of bytes that represent text. The technique is recognised to be unreliable and is only used when specific metadata, such as a HTTP header is either not available, or is assumed to be untrustworthy. This algorithm usually involves statistical analysis of byte patterns, like frequency distribution of trigraphs of various languages encoded in each code page that will be detected; such statistical analysis can also be used to perform language detection. This process is not foolproof because it depends on statistical data.
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In abstract algebra, a completion is any of several related functors on rings and modules that result in complete topological rings and modules. Completion is similar to localization, and together they are among the most basic tools in analysing commutative rings. Complete commutative rings have a simpler structure than general ones, and Hensel's lemma applies to them. In algebraic geometry, a completion of a ring of functions R on a space X concentrates on a formal neighborhood of a point of X: heuristically, this is a neighborhood so small that all Taylor series centered at the point are convergent.
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A normally hyperbolic invariant manifold (NHIM) is a natural generalization of a hyperbolic fixed point and a hyperbolic set. The difference can be described heuristically as follows: For a manifold \Lambda to be normally hyperbolic we are allowed to assume that the dynamics of \Lambda itself is neutral compared with the dynamics nearby, which is not allowed for a hyperbolic set. NHIMs were introduced by Neil Fenichel in 1972. In this and subsequent papers, Fenichel proves that NHIMs possess stable and unstable manifolds and more importantly, NHIMs and their stable and unstable manifolds persist under small perturbations.
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In contrast, the closed world assumption allows an agent to infer, from its lack of knowledge of a statement being true, anything that follows from that statement being false. Heuristically, the open-world assumption applies when we represent knowledge within a system as we discover it, and where we cannot guarantee that we have discovered or will discover complete information. In the OWA, statements about knowledge that are not included in or inferred from the knowledge explicitly recorded in the system may be considered unknown, rather than wrong or false. Semantic Web languages such as OWL make the open-world assumption.
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In mathematics, a doctrine is simply a 2-category which is heuristically regarded as a system of theories. For example, algebraic theories, as invented by William Lawvere, is an example of a doctrine, as are multi-sorted theories, operads, categories, and toposes. The objects of the 2-category are called theories, the 1-morphisms f\colon A\rightarrow B are called models of the in , and the 2-morphisms are called morphisms between models. The distinction between a 2-category and a doctrine is really only heuristic: one does not typically consider a 2-category to be populated by theories as objects and models as morphisms.
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Janssen (1995), Ch. 4 Another reason for Einstein's early rejection of the aether in any form (which he later partially retracted) may have been related to his work on quantum physics. Einstein discovered that light can also be described (at least heuristically) as a kind of particle, so the aether as the medium for electromagnetic "waves" (which was highly important for Lorentz and Poincaré) no longer fitted into his conceptual scheme.Rynasiewicz/Renn (2006) It's notable that Einstein's paper contains no direct references to other papers. However, many historians of science like Holton, Miller, Stachel,Stachel (1982) have tried to find out possible influences on Einstein.
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HAL 9000 is a fictional artificial intelligence character and the main antagonist in Arthur C. Clarke's Space Odyssey series. First appearing in the 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey, HAL (Heuristically Programmed ALgorithmic Computer) is a sentient computer (or artificial general intelligence) that controls the systems of the Discovery One spacecraft and interacts with the ship's astronaut crew. While part of HAL's hardware is shown toward the end of the film, he is mostly depicted as a camera lens containing a red or yellow dot, instances of which are located throughout the ship. HAL 9000 is voiced by Douglas Rain in the two feature film adaptations of the Space Odyssey series.
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Acumen, 2010. Henry Jenkins, Joshua Green, and Sam Ford, in their book Spreadable Media (2013), criticize Dawkins' idea of the meme, writing that "while the idea of the meme is a compelling one, it may not adequately account for how content circulates through participatory culture." The three authors also criticize other interpretations of memetics, especially those which describe memes as "self-replicating", because they ignore the fact that "culture is a human product and replicates through human agency." Like other critics, Maria Kronfeldner has criticized memetics for being based on an allegedly inaccurate analogy with the gene; alternately, she claims it is "heuristically trivial", being a mere redescription of what is already known without offering any useful novelty.
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Artificial intelligence researcher Marco Dorigo described in 1993 a method of heuristically generating "good solutions" to the TSP using a simulation of an ant colony called ACS (ant colony system). It models behaviour observed in real ants to find short paths between food sources and their nest, an emergent behaviour resulting from each ant's preference to follow trail pheromones deposited by other ants. ACS sends out a large number of virtual ant agents to explore many possible routes on the map. Each ant probabilistically chooses the next city to visit based on a heuristic combining the distance to the city and the amount of virtual pheromone deposited on the edge to the city.
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The Unruh effect (or sometimes Fulling–Davies–Unruh effect) is the prediction that an accelerating observer will observe a thermal bath, like blackbody radiation, whereas an inertial observer would observe none. In other words, the background appears to be warm from an accelerating reference frame; in layman's terms, an accelerating thermometer (like one being waved around) in empty space, subtracting any other contribution to its temperature, will record a non-zero temperature, just from its acceleration. Heuristically, for a uniformly accelerating observer, the ground state of an inertial observer is seen as a mixed state in thermodynamic equilibrium with a non-zero temperature bath. The Unruh effect was first described by Stephen Fulling in 1973, Paul Davies in 1975 and W. G. Unruh in 1976.
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The local minimality of the triangulation is meant to increase the likelihood that such a solution exists, since heuristically one might expect such a triangulation to be "straightened" without causing degenerations or overlapping of tetrahedra. From this description of the hyperbolic structure on a link complement, SnapPea can then perform hyperbolic Dehn filling on the cusps to obtain more hyperbolic 3-manifolds. SnapPea does this by taking any given slopes which determine certain Dehn filling equations (also explained in Thurston's notes), and then adjusting the shapes of the ideal tetrahedra to give solutions to these equations and the edge equations. For almost all slopes, this gives an incomplete hyperbolic structure on the link complement, whose completion gives a hyperbolic structure on the Dehn- filled manifold.
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In cryptography, a system has provable security if its security requirements can be stated formally in an adversarial model, as opposed to heuristically, with clear assumptions that the adversary has access to the system as well as enough computational resources. The proof of security (called a "reduction") is that these security requirements are met provided the assumptions about the adversary's access to the system are satisfied and some clearly stated assumptions about the hardness of certain computational tasks hold. An early example of such requirements and proof was given by Goldwasser and Micali for semantic security and the construction based on the quadratic residuosity problem. Some proofs of security are in given theoretical models such as the random oracle model, where real cryptographic hash functions are represented by an idealization.
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Some of their recommendations urged policymakers to: (i) provide more public oversight of charter school authorizers, including the removal of poor-quality authorizers, (ii) improve the quality of student performance data with more longitudinal student-linked data and multiple measures of school performance, and (iii) clarify state laws related to charter school closure, especially the treatment of displaced students. All but 17% of charter school students show no improvement when compared to a heuristically modeled virtual twin traditional public school. Educational gains from switching to charter schools from public schools have on average been shown to be "small or insignificant" (Zimmer, et al.) and tend to decline over a span of time (Byrnes). Charter schools provided no substantial improvement in students' educational outcomes that could not be accounted for in a public school setting (Gleason, Clark and Clark Tuttle).
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Historically, the symbol dx was taken to represent an infinitesimally "small piece" of the independent variable x to be multiplied by the integrand and summed up in an infinite sense. While this notion is still heuristically useful, later mathematicians have deemed infinitesimal quantities to be untenable from the standpoint of the real number system.In the 20th century, nonstandard analysis was developed as a new approach to calculus that incorporates a rigorous concept of infinitesimals by using an expanded number system called the hyperreal numbers. Though placed on a sound axiomatic footing and of interest in its own right as a new area of investigation, nonstandard analysis remains somewhat controversial from a pedagogical standpoint, with proponents pointing out the intuitive nature of infinitesimals for beginning students of calculus and opponents criticizing the logical complexity of the system as a whole.
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Reasoning from physics (and not by heuristically extrapolating deterministic reaction rates to a stochastic context), he showed that the probability that a specific reaction will occur in the next very small time dt could be written as an explicit function of the current species populations multiplied by dt. From that result he deduced, using only the laws of probability, an exact formula for the joint probability density function p(τ,j) of the {time τ to the next reaction event} and the {index j of that reaction}. The SSA consists of first generating random values for τ and j according to p(τ,j), and then actualizing the next reaction accordingly. The generating step of the SSA can be accomplished using any of several different methods, and Gillespie's original paper presented two: the "direct method", which follows from a straightforward application of the well known Monte Carlo inversion method for generating random numbers; and the "first-reaction method", which is less straightforward but mathematically equivalent.
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Griffin's theory, set out first in The Nature of Fascism in 1991, and more recently in Fascism: An Introduction to Comparative Fascist Studies (2017), offers a heuristically useful ideal type of fascism as a form of revolutionary organic nationalist movement, or palingenetic ultranationalism. For Griffin, fascism directly mobilises popular energies or works through an elite to eventually achieve the cultural hegemony of new values and the total rebirth of the 'ultranation', whether conceived as a historic nation-state or as a race or ethnos, from what it defines as the present state of decadence. Fascism is an ideology that has assumed a large number of specific national permutations and several distinct organizational forms. Moreover, it is a political project that continues to evolve to this day throughout the Europeanized world, though it remains highly marginalised compared with the central place it occupied in inter-war Europe, and its central role in identity politics has been largely replaced by non-revolutionary forms of radical right-wing populism.
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In their 1974 book, Lloyd Shapley and Robert Aumann extended the concept of the Shapley value to infinite games (defined with respect to a non-atomic measure), creating the diagonal formula. This was later extended by Jean-François Mertens and Abraham Neyman. As seen above, the value of an n-person game associates to each player the expectation of his contribution to the worth or the coalition or players before him in a random ordering of all the players. When there are many players and each individual plays only a minor role, the set of all players preceding a given one is heuristically thought as a good sample of the players so that the value of a given infinitesimal player around as "his" contribution to the worth of a "perfect" sample of the population of all players. Symbolically, if is the coalitional worth function associating to each coalition measured subset of a measurable set that can be thought as I=[0,1] without loss of generality.
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For example, science diasporas are communities of scientists who conduct their research away from their homeland. In an article published in 1996, Khachig Tölölyan argues that the media have used the term corporate diaspora in a rather arbitrary and inaccurate fashion, for example as applied to “mid-level, mid-career executives who have been forced to find new places at a time of corporate upheaval” (10) The use of corporate diaspora reflects the increasing popularity of the diaspora notion to describe a wide range of phenomena related to contemporary migration, displacement and transnational mobility. While corporate diaspora seems to avoid or contradict connotations of violence, coercion, and unnatural uprooting historically associated with the notion of diaspora, its scholarly use may heuristically describe the ways in which corporations function alongside diasporas. In this way, corporate diaspora might foreground the racial histories of diasporic formations without losing sight of the cultural logic of late capitalism in which corporations orchestrate the transnational circulation of people, images, ideologies and capital.
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A loose replica of HAL 9000 on exhibit at the Carnegie Science Center. HAL's name, according to writer Arthur C. Clarke, is derived from Heuristically programmed ALgorithmic computer. After the film was released, fans noticed HAL was a one-letter shift from the name IBM and there has been much speculation since then that this was a dig at the large computer company,Ted Friedman, Electric Dreams: Computers in American Culture, NYU Press - 2005, page 101 something that has been denied by both Clarke and 2001 director Stanley Kubrick. Clarke addressed the issue in his book The Lost Worlds of 2001: > ...about once a week some character spots the fact that HAL is one letter > ahead of IBM, and promptly assumes that Stanley and I were taking a crack at > the estimable institution ... As it happened, IBM had given us a good deal > of help, so we were quite embarrassed by this, and would have changed the > name had we spotted the coincidence.
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In frequentist statistics, the likelihood function is itself a statistic that summarizes a single sample from a population, whose calculated value depends on a choice of several parameters θ1 ... θp, where p is the count of parameters in some already-selected statistical model. The value of the likelihood serves as a figure of merit for the choice used for the parameters, and the parameter set with maximum likelihood is the best choice, given the data available. The specific calculation of the likelihood is the probability that the observed sample would be assigned, assuming that the model chosen and the values of the several parameters θ give an accurate approximation of the frequency distribution of the population that the observed sample was drawn from. Heuristically, it makes sense that a good choice of parameters is those which render the sample actually observed the maximum possible post-hoc probability of having happened. Wilks' theorem quantifies the heuristic rule by showing that the difference in the logarithm of the likelihood generated by the estimate’s parameter values and the logarithm of the likelihood generated by population’s "true" (but unknown) parameter values is χ² distributed.
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This is the standard concept. Heuristically, if we have a space M for which each point m ∊ M corresponds to an algebro-geometric object Um, then we can assemble these objects into a tautological family U over M. (For example, the Grassmannian G(k, V) carries a rank k bundle whose fiber at any point [L] ∊ G(k, V) is simply the linear subspace L ⊂ V.) M is called a base space of the family U. We say that such a family is universal if any family of algebro-geometric objects T over any base space B is the pullback of U along a unique map B → M. A fine moduli space is a space M which is the base of a universal family. More precisely, suppose that we have a functor F from schemes to sets, which assigns to a scheme B the set of all suitable families of objects with base B. A space M is a fine moduli space for the functor F if M represents F, i.e., there is a natural isomorphism τ : F → Hom(−, M), where Hom(−, M) is the functor of points.
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