1000 Sentences With "German Confederation"

The DIHK trade group, BDA employers association, BDI industry group and German Confederation of Skilled Crafts (ZDH) also raised concerns about German domestic policy issues in a joint statement issued after a meeting in Munich.

This changed the name of the North German Confederation to the German Confederation, even if the ratifications were still outstanding. After negotiations with Bavaria and Württemberg, the North German Federal Constitution and the most important laws of the North German Confederation were modified. In total, the federal elements were emphasised in comparison with the North German Confederation of 1867. On this new basis, Bavaria entered the agreement between the North- German Confederation and Baden and Hesse in Berlin on 23 November.

Announcement for the North German Confederation (1869) North German Confederation took over ADHGB by federal act (Bundesgesetz) on 5 June 1869.(German)Bundesgesetzblatt of North German Confederation 1869 p. 379 - 381. ADHGB remained in force in German Empire in accordance with Imperial Act (Reichsgesetz) of 16 April 1871.

The German Confederation remained the common government of German Europe.

The seat of the German Confederation, Frankfurt am Main, sat upon this line.

Prussia quickly defeated Austria and her allies, forcing Austria to the negotiating table. Napoleon III offered to mediate, and the result, the Treaty of Prague, dissolved the German Confederation in favour of a Prussian-dominated organisation, the North German Confederation.

Lübeck reassumed its pre-1811 status in 1813. The 1815 Congress of Vienna reconfirmed Lübeck's independence and it became one of 39 sovereign states of the German Confederation. Lübeck joined the North German Confederation in 1867. The following year Lübeck sold its share in the bi-urban condominium of Bergedorf to the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, which was also a sovereign state of the North German Confederation.

Wilhelm issues new elections to the Reichstag. The Constitution of the German Confederation () or November Constitution (Novemberverfassung) was the constitution of the German federal state at the beginning of the year 1871. It was enacted on January 1, 1871. This is a slightly changed version of the Constitution of the North German Confederation; it is not to be confused with the constitutional laws of the German Confederation of 1815.

About this time he was elected a member of the North German Confederation parliament.

The Confederation was dissolved in 1866 after the Austro-Prussian War, and was succeeded in 1866 by the Prussian-dominated North German Confederation. Unlike the German Confederation, the North German Confederation was in fact a true state. Its territory comprised the parts of the German Confederation north of the river Main, plus Prussia's eastern territories and the Duchy of , but excluded Austria and the other southern German states. Prussia's influence was widened by the Franco-Prussian War resulting in the proclamation of the German Empire at on 18 January 1871, which united the North German Federation with the southern German states.

Württemberg also followed on 25 November. All treaties came into force on 1 January 1871, which marks the formal birth of the German Empire. On 8 November, agreements with Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse followed on the agreements between Württemberg, Baden and Hesse and the North German Confederation, respectively Bavaria and the North German Confederation. The November Treaties required the approval of the People's Representatives of the North German Confederation as well as the popular representations, as they created a new state with the German Confederation (the name was later changed) and amended the existing North German Federal Constitution.

At his ascension the principality was a member of the German Confederation, and Leopold supported Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Following the war and the dissolution of the German Confederation, Lippe joined the North German Confederation on its creation in 1867. Lippe would then remain a member of the North German Confederation until the creation of the German Empire in 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War. Prince Leopold was one of the main promoters of the creation of the Hermann monument in the Teutoburg Forest which was opened by the German Emperor William I in the summer of 1875.

The German Confederation in 1820. Territories of the Prussian crown are blue, territories of the Austrian crown are yellow, and independent German Confederation states are grey. The red border shows the limits of the Confederation. Both Prussia and Austria controlled non-Confederation lands.

At this time, the siege of Paris was still in full swing. The result of the negotiations was the unity of converting the North German Confederation into a German Confederation with the acceptance of the southern German states. The North German Confederation should be analogous to the German Federal Constitution. This result was concluded in the constitutional treaties of November 1870 and two separate military conventions with the four states which were to be joined: on 15 November, the treaty between the North German Confederation on the one hand and Baden and Hesse on the other were based on the unchanged acceptance of the North Germans.

German Confederation was dissolved in Augsburg on 23 August 1866. ADHGB persisted in the former federal states.

On 14 June, the Seven Weeks War began when Prussia attacked Austria's allies in the German Confederation.

Many of the small German states flocked to the banner of Prussia by joining the new Prussian-led North German Confederation which was formed in April 1867. No longer merely an economic union like the Zollverein, the North German Confederation had a constitution and a democratically elected Reichstag based on universal popular sovereignty.Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichröder and the Building of the German Empire, p. 93. Inside the North German Confederation, the German nation was completely integrated under Prussian rule.

The red line marks the border of the German Confederation; both Prussia and Austria controlled lands outside the Confederation.

France established permanent diplomatic missions to individual German states during the Thirty Years War or shortly thereafter, most notably Bavaria, Cologne, Prussia, Saxony and the free Hanseatic cities at Hamburg, all of which date from a time around the 1620s to 1640s. At the time of the German Confederation additional missions were opened in Baden, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau and Württemberg. After disestablishment of the German Confederation and establishment of the North-German Confederation, France's mission at Berlin became France's principal mission to Germany.

It resulted in the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by the unification of all of the northern German states in the North German Confederation that excluded Austria and the other Southern German states, a . The war also resulted in the Italian annexation of the Austrian province of Venetia.

After the Napoleonic Wars led to the creation of the German Confederation, the issue of unifying the German states caused a number of revolutions throughout the German states, with all states wanting to have their own constitution. Attempts to create a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful member states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation, which lasted from 1867 to 1871, created a closer union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War but many of its laws were later used in the German Empire.

She was built by the shipbuilder William Patterson in Bristol for the German Confederation. She was launched as Cora in 1848 - the exact date is unknown. She cost 150,000 taler. Under a British flag she sailed to Bremerhaven, where she was transferred to the German Confederation and renamed Ernst Augustus, entering service in October 1848.

Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxony entered the North German Confederation in 1866. This continued after the founding of the German Empire on 18 January 1871. Following this Saxony participated in Reichstag elections from February 1867. Löbau returned a series of Reichstag Deputies until 1919 when the existing constituencies were scrapped.

Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxony entered the North German Confederation in 1866. This continued after the founding of the German Empire on 18 January 1871. Following this Saxony participated in Reichstag elections from February 1867. Zittau returned a series of Reichstag Deputies until 1919 when the existing constituencies were scrapped.

Reuss-Ebersdorf was a county and from 1806 a principality located in Germany. The Counts of Reuss-Ebersdorf belonged to the Reuss Junior Line. Reuss was successively a part of the Holy Roman Empire, Confederation of the Rhine, German Confederation, North German Confederation, German Empire and Weimar Republic before becoming a part of Thuringia in 1920.

The Austrian- controlled German Confederation had been disbanded during the Revolution of 1848. Frederick William IV's chief minister from April 25, 1849 until November 1850, was General Joseph von Radowitz.Alan Palmer, Bismarck (Charles Scribner's Sons Publishers: New York, 1976) p. 40. Radowitz now sought to establish a new Prussian-dominated union to replace the old German Confederation.

The Dresden County Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 6 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the rural area around Dresden. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Meissen Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 7 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the town of Meissen. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Pirna Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 8 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the town of Pirna. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Freiberg Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 9 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the town of Freiberg. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Döbeln Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 10 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the town of Döbeln. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Oschatz-Grimma Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 11 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the towns of Oschatz and Grimma. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Borna Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 14 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the town of Borna. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Mittweida Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 15 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the town of Mittweida. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Zwickau Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 18 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the town of Zwickau. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Stollberg-Schneeberg Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 19 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the towns of Stollberg and Schneeberg. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Marienberg Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 20 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the town of Marienberg . Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Plauen Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 23 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the town of Plauen. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxony entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag. After the founding of the German Empire on 18 January 1871, the deputies were returned to the Reichstag of the German Empire. Following this Saxony participated in Reichstag elections from February 1867.

Calmes (1989), p. 316 The German Confederation refused to sanction the loss of its legal rights in western Luxembourg without suitable compensation. The Conference assigned the Dutch portion of the Duchy of Limburg to the German Confederation that was equal in population to those lost to Belgium. The cities of Maastricht and Venlo where therefore excluded from the Confederation.

The North German Confederation printed 10- and 30-groschen postage stamps on goldbeater's skin to prevent reuse of these high-value stamps.

The town was also renamed to Düppel while under the rule of Prussia and later German Confederation and Empire, from 1864 to 1920.

Prussian victory in the war of 1866 transformed the power relationships across Northern Germany, where the old German Confederation gave way to the North German Confederation. Within the northern region the ensuing four years saw the painful but rapid surrender of powers from the former constituent states to Berlin. Kirchenpauer was mandated in 1867 to represent Hamburg in the Reichstag (legislative assembly) of the North German Confederation. Following the completion on unification in 1871, he became Hamburg's representative in the Bundesrat, the (nominally) upper house in Germany's bicameral legislature, retaining this mandate till April 1880 when he was succeeded by Johannes Versmann.

The Kingdom of Denmark was at the time in personal union with the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, both of which had close ties with each other, although only Holstein was part of the German Confederation. When the Danish government tried to integrate Schleswig, but not Holstein, into the Danish state, Prussia led the German Confederation against Denmark in the First War of Schleswig (1848–1851). Because Russia supported Austria, Prussia also conceded predominance in the German Confederation to Austria in the Punctation of Olmütz in 1850. In 1863, Denmark introduced a shared constitution for Denmark and Schleswig.

The German Confederation 1815–1866. Prussia (in blue) considerably expanded its territory. The North German Confederation, 1866–1871 In 1815 continental Europe was in a state of overall turbulence and exhaustion, as a consequence of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. The liberal spirit of the Enlightenment and Revolutionary era diverged toward the Romanticism of Edmund Burke, Joseph de Maistre and Novalis.

The Kingdom of Prussia thus established itself as the only major power among the German states. The German Confederation was abolished. The North German Confederation had been formed as a military alliance five days prior to the Peace of Prague, with the north German states joining together; the Southern German states outside of the Confederation were required to pay large indemnities to Prussia.

Germany since 1871: In late 1870, the south German states joined the North German Confederation which changed its name to Deutsches Reich. 'Lesser Germany' became a reality. Austria remained a part of the re-established German Confederation, while Prussia still tried to improve its position within the confederation and even cherished its union plans. Around 1860, the German question became dynamic again.

Bavaria refused to become Prussia's junior partner in this project. But nevertheless Prussia sought the confrontation with Austria that was unwilling to accept Prussia as its equal within the confederation. The Austro-Prussian War of summer 1866 ended with a Prussian victory and the dissolution of the German Confederation. Prussia established a federal state in Northern Germany, called the North German Confederation.

The Leipzig City Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 13 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag of the German Empire. It was based upon the city of Leipzig. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Leipzig County Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 13 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag. It was based upon the rural area close to the city of Leipzig. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Annaberg Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 21 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag of the German Empire. It was based upon the town of Annaberg. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Auerbach Reichstag constituency was constituency No. 22 in the Kingdom of Saxony which returned a deputy to the German Reichstag of the German Empire. It was based upon the town of Auerbach . Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxon entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag.

The Hep-Hep riots from August to October 1819 were pogroms against Ashkenazi Jews, beginning in the Kingdom of Bavaria, during the period of Jewish emancipation in the German Confederation. The antisemitic communal violence began on August 2, 1819 in Würzburg and soon reached the outer regions of the German Confederation. Many Jews were killed and much Jewish property was destroyed.

All the constituent states of the former German Confederation became part of the in 1871, except Austria, Luxembourg, the Duchy of Limburg, and Liechtenstein.

Liechtenstein left the German Confederation in 1866. Not long after, the army of Liechtenstein was abolished as it was regarded as an unnecessary expense.

The abrupt change of political focus also reflected a widespread opposition to further reform across Nassau and indeed across the German Confederation more generally.

Prussia created the North German Confederation in 1867 covering all German states north of the river Main and also the Hohenzollern territories in Swabia. Besides Austria, the South German states Bavaria, , , and Hesse- remained separate from the rest of Germany. However, due to the successful prosecution of the Franco-Prussian War, the four southern states joined the North German Confederation by treaty in November 1870.

The Duchy of Brunswick () was a historical German state. Its capital was the city of Brunswick (Braunschweig). It was established as the successor state of the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. In the course of the 19th-century history of Germany, the duchy was part of the German Confederation, the North German Confederation and from 1871 the German Empire.

As the Franco- Prussian War drew to a close, King Ludwig II of Bavaria was persuaded to ask King Wilhelm to assume the crown of the new German Empire. On 1 January 1871, the Empire was declared by the presiding princes and generals in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, near Paris. The Diet of the North German Confederation moved to rename the North German Confederation as the German Empire and gave the title of German Emperor to the King of Prussia. The new constitution of the state, the Constitution of the German Confederation, effectively transformed the Diet of the Confederation into the German Parliament (Reichstag).

In 1848, the First Schleswig War started, as Schleswig-Holstein was trying to separate from Denmark, and Denmark considered it a part of the country. The Kingdom of Prussia, the Austrian Empire and the German Confederation,Although the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were members of the German Confederation, they supported Schleswig-Holstein independent of the Confederation during the First Schleswig War. sent troops to support Schleswig-Holstein in its attempt to secede from Denmark, and become a part of the German Confederation. Wishing to defeat Denmark before German, Austrian, and Prussian troops arrived, 7,000 Schleswig-Holsteinian soldiers under General Krohn occupied Flensborg on March 31, 1848.

After a period of constitutional deadlock between crown and parliament in Prussia, a crisis arose in 1863 over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, disputed between Denmark and the German Confederation. After the Danish annexation of Schleswig, Otto von Bismarck, the new prime Minister of Prussia, made the smaller states of the German Confederation join Prussia and Austria in the war with Denmark. The Second Schleswig War ended with the defeat of the Danes at Dybbøl, and an agreement between Austria and Prussia to jointly administer Schleswig and Holstein. Bismarck then set about making Prussia the undisputed master of northern Germany, weakening Austria and the German Confederation.

The ship in 1850 Ernst August was a wooden paddle steamer and corvette in the navy of the German Confederation, named after Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover.

Effective 1 January 1868, the Free and Hanseatic city of Hamburg bought Lübeck's share in the Bi-Urban Condominium which passed completely into the former's ownership. On this date, the joint entry into the North German Confederation (the predecessor of the 1871 German Empire) took place. Since that time, the postal history of Bergedorf shares that of the North German Confederation. Bergedorf's five stamps were only valid until that day.

Map of the German Confederation, 1815-1848 and 1851-1866 Since 1815, the German states had belonged to the German Confederation. Its territory was defined essentially after the Holy Roman Empire. Some member states belonged to the confederation only with a part of their territories, such as Prussia and especially Austria. The territory within the confederation was called bundeszugehörig (belonging to the confederation), the other bundesfremd (foreign to the confederation).

The historical predecessor of the Bundesrat was the Federal Convention (Confederate Diet) of the German Confederation (1815–1848, 1850/1851–1866). That Federal Convention consisted of the representatives of the member states. The first basic law (Bundesakte) of the German Confederation listed how many votes a member state had, for two different formations of the diet. The diet was the only organ, there was no division of powers.

Michael Sommer (born 15 January 1952) is a German trade unionist leader. He served for 12 years as the chairman of the German Confederation of Trade Unions (DGB).

A map of the German Confederation. In 1864, Austria and Prussia together became the new sovereign of Holstein (a member of the confederation) and Schleswig (outside the confederation).

Born on October 6, 1853, in Raschkow, German Confederation (now Raszków, Poland), Trieber was the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Arkansas from 1897 to 1900.

The IG Bergbau, Chemie, Energie (IG BCE) is a trade union in Germany. It is one of eight industrial affiliations of the German Confederation of Trade Unions (DGB).

Zander was born on July 17, 1844 in Tessin, then in the German Confederation. He died on July 27, 1919. Zander, Wisconsin is named after his brother, Helmuth.

Following the dissolution of the German Confederation, Prussia formed its unofficial successor, the North German Confederation, in 1866 with the signing of the Confederation Treaty in August 1866 and then the ratification of the Constitution of 1867. This national state consisted of Prussia, the largest member state, and 21 other north German states. 2:3 Flag of the North German Confederation (1867–1871) and the German Empire (1871–1918). In use at the beginning of the Weimar Republic (1918–1919), and by the foreign services (1922–1933) The question regarding what flag should be adopted by the new confederation was first raised by the shipping sector and its desire to have an internationally recognisable identity.

Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg (born von Bismarck- Schönhausen; ; 1 April 1815 – 30 July 1898), known as Otto von Bismarck (), was a conservative German statesman who masterminded the unification of Germany in 1871 and served as its first chancellor until 1890, in which capacity he dominated European affairs for two decades. He had previously been Minister President of Prussia (1862–1890) and Chancellor of the North German Confederation (1867–1871). He provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France. Following the victory against Austria, he abolished the supranational German Confederation and instead formed the North German Confederation as the first German national state, aligning the smaller North German states behind Prussia.

The constitution was signed by William I, the King of Prussia, acting in his capacity as Bundespräsidium of the North German Confederation, the Kings of Bavaria, Saxony, and Württemberg, and the Grand Dukes of Baden and Hesse. Hesse north of the river Main was already a member of the North German Confederation; its territory south of the river was now included as well. The member states of the North German Confederation that now became members of the Empire were Prussia, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Saxe-Weimar- Eisenach, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe- Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Anhalt, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg- Sondershausen, Waldeck, Reuss (older line), Reuss (younger line), Schaumburg- Lippe, Lippe, Lübeck, Bremen, and Hamburg.

In the following days, Brommy was further busied with the development of the fleet, but found himself opposed by the reactionary ruling powers. In 1850, the German Confederation was reestablished. Yet on April 2, 1852, the Federal Diet of the German Confederation in Frankfurt am Main, at the insistence of Prussia, disestablished the first German fleet in Brake. Lorenz Hannibal Fischer was the politician appointed as federal commissioner to oversee the naval disestablishment.

1 nr. 1 In Prussia, the exemption was extended to youth under the age of 16 in 1851.Prussian Criminal Law (1851), § 43 nr. 1 For the first time, all juveniles were excluded for the death penalty by the North German Confederation in 1870,North German Confederation Criminal Law (1870), § 57 par. 1 nr. 1 which was continued by the German Empire in 1872.German Criminal Law (1872), § 57 par. 1 nr.

"Huelen Zant" (Hollow tooth), the remains a tower of one of the fortress gates, on the Bock rock. During the demolition works, after 1871, the tower was only half destroyed and transformed to look like the ruins of a medieval castle.After the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the German Confederation was dissolved. In its place, under Prussian leadership, the North German Confederation was founded, which did not include Luxembourg.

August Giacomo Jochmus (after 1859:) Freiherr von Cotignola (born February 27, 1808 in Hamburg, Germany, died 14 September 1881 in Bamberg, Germany) was an Austrian lieutenant field marshal, and minister of the German Confederation. He spent his life in Greek, English, Spanish and Turkish service, was briefly foreign minister and Navy minister of the Frankfurt Parliament of the German Confederation in 1849 and finished his career as an Austrian Lieutenant Field Marshal.

Early types of Prussian polygonal forts built at Cologne in 1817 and 1825. After the final fall of Napoleon I in 1815, the Congress of Vienna founded the German Confederation, an alliance of the numerous German states, dominated by the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Their priority was to establish a defensive system with the Fortresses of the German Confederation against France in the west and Russia in the east.Kaufmann & Kaufmann p.

In foreign affairs, the Tornaco government had to face a profound crisis from 1866 to 1867, which threatened Luxembourg's independence. The German Confederation was dissolved after the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. Although Luxembourg did not join the new North German Confederation formed by Prussia, the latter continued to maintain a garrison in the fortress of Luxembourg. At the same time, France now demanded a territorial compensation for having stayed neutral during the conflict.

The rulers of the Electorate of Hesse became the only Prince-Electors in the German Confederation, even though there was no longer a Holy Roman Emperor for them to elect.

This may be considered largely the brainchild of Georg Paucker, who (as representative of the German Confederation of Trade Unions) applied himself particularly to the reform negotiations regarding the Verkehrsschrift.

In mid-1870, a diplomatic crisis concerning the Spanish throne led eventually to the Franco- Prussian War. During the war, in November 1870, the North German Confederation and the south German states of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden (together with the parts of Hesse-Darmstadt which had not originally joined the confederation) united to form a new nation state. It was originally called Deutscher Bund (German Confederation), but on 10 December 1870 the Reichstag of the North German Confederation adopted the name Deutsches Reich (German Realm or German Empire) and granted the title of German Emperor to the King of Prussia as Bundespräsidium of the Confederation. On 1 January 1871 the new constitution gave the country the name 'German Empire' and the title of Emperor to King William.

The Constitution of the German Confederation of 1871 incorporated agreements between the North German Confederation and some the South German states that joined the Confederation: with Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt, but not Bavaria and Württemberg. The new constitution appeared on 31 December 1870 in the Bundesgesetzblatt des Norddeutschen Bundes (North German Federal Law Gazette) and came into effect the following day. Already on 16 April 1871 the country exchanged it with another constitution which was valid until the end of the German Empire in 1918. There are four different constitutions or texts to distinguish between: # The 'Constitution of the North German Confederation' (Verfassung des Norddeutschen Bundes, Norddeutsche Bundesverfassung, NBV) from 16 April 1867. It came into effect on 1 July 1867.

The German Confederation in 1815 Following the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna founded the German Confederation, a loose league of 39 sovereign states. The appointment of the Emperor of Austria as the permanent president reflected the Congress's rejection of Prussia's rising influence. Disagreement within restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements, followed by new measures of repression by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich. The Zollverein, a tariff union, furthered economic unity.

In connection with the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the Reichstag voted on the accession of the states of Baden, Hesse, Bavaria and Württemberg. At the request of the Federal Council and with the consent of the Reichstag, the North German Confederation was renamed Deutsches Reich on 9 December 1870. The Reichstag of the North German Confederation was then replaced by the Reichstag of the German Empire, with new elections scheduled for March 3, 1871.

Traditionally, the Rothschilds represented the banking interests of the Austrian-controlled German Confederation in Europe.Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichröder and the Building of the German Empire, p. 15. In the conflict between the rapidly rising and expanding nation of Prussia and the "pro- Austrian" German Confederation, the Rothschild Bank was largely caught in an uncomfortable position in the middle of the conflict.Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichroder and the Building of the German Empire, p. 15.

The German Confederation was dissolved, and Prussia impelled the 21 states north of the Main River into forming the North German Confederation. Prussia was the dominant state in the new confederation, as the kingdom comprised almost four-fifths of the new state's territory and population. Prussia's near-total control over the confederation was secured in the constitution drafted for it by Bismarck in 1867. Executive power was held by a president, assisted by a chancellor responsible only to him.

The result was a system of German alliance under the hegemonic domination of Prussia. After the Prussian victory at the Battle of Hradec Kralove, and against the wishes of the Habsburgs, Bismarck succeeded in forming the North German Confederation as a military alliance in August 1866 without Austria. A year later, the North German Confederation made a constitution and became a state. In 1868, Spanish queen Isabella II was dethroned in a military coup (Glorious Revolution).

Only Bundesgebiet (federal territory = territory within the boundaries of the confederation) was protected by the military provisions of the German Confederation. In March 1848, revolution broke out in Germany and other European countries. The Federal Assembly, the only organ of the German Confederation, elected a National Assembly to work out a constitution for a German federal state. The German National Assembly also installed a provisional head of state (the uncle of the Austrian Emperor) and government.

Austria came out weakened by the Italian War of the previous year while Prussia sought to gain the approval of the national movement. Several proposals were made to reform the German Confederation, most notably in 1863 at the Frankfurter Fürstentag. At this moment, the networks of the political elites in Lesser Germany were already quite separate from the Austrian ones. In April and June 1866, Prussia proposed to convert the German Confederation into a federal state without Austria.

The Dresden Conference (December 23, 1850 to May 16, 1851) took place at Dresden, Kingdom of Saxony, after the Prussian humiliation at the Punctation of Olmütz. It was a largely fruitless exercise to settle the constitutional problems of Germany, but affirmed Prussian recognition of the German Confederation and resulted in Prussia signing a secret alliance with the Austrian Empire to assist each other in case of attacks on the German Confederation or either of their empires.

The federal archive for institutions and authorities in Germany, the first precursor to the present- day Federal Archives, was established in Potsdam, Brandenburg in 1919, a later date than in other European countries. This national archive documented German government dating from the founding of the North German Confederation in 1867. It also included material from the older German Confederation and the Imperial Chamber Court. The oldest documents in this collection dated back to the year 1411.

The political system (and the political parties) remained essentially the same in the years after 1870. The North German Confederation had nearly 30 million inhabitants, of whom eighty percent lived in Prussia.

Otto Daniel Livonius (1 April 1829 – 9 February 1917) was a Vizeadmiral (Vice Admiral) of the German Imperial Navy, serving in the predecessor Prussian Navy and the Navy of the North German Confederation.

The Food, Beverages and Catering Union (, NGG) is a trade union in Germany. It has a membership of 205,900 and is one of eight industrial affiliates of the German Confederation of Trade Unions.

The population and the successor to the throne, Louis IV, also supported the Lesser German solution. Accordingly, the government abandoned the Greater Germany idea and entered into negotiations with the North German Confederation.

The Four Kings' Alliance of February 27, 1850, was an alliance between Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover and Württemberg. These four kingdoms, under the influence of Austria, supported essentially the Austrian plan of a Greater Austria ( __): a German Confederation with all of Austria as a member, including a customs union. But they wanted to enrich the German Confederation with more power and institutions than Austria initially had planned. The background was Prussia's effort to create a federal state in Germany without Austria (kleindeutscher Bundesstaat).

In 1817, Friedrich Koenig and Andreas Bauer founded Schnellpressenfabrik Koenig & Bauer (the world's first steam-driven printing press manufacturer). The Hep-Hep riots from August to October 1819 were pogroms against Ashkenazi Jews, beginning in the Kingdom of Bavaria, during the period of Jewish emancipation in the German Confederation. The antisemitic communal violence began on August 2, 1819 in Würzburg and soon reached the outer regions of the German Confederation. Many Jews were killed and much Jewish property was destroyed.

Since the end of the Austro- Prussian War in 1866 and the foundation of the North German Confederation by Prussia in 1867, the policy for unification had been stalled. As a rule, the southern German states were not affected by the idea of joining the North German Confederation. In this situation, Bismarck wondered how to keep the German question moving. On 7 January 1870, Bismarck discussed his plan with the Prussian Crown Prince Frederick, who had good connections to England.

Schleswig was a duchy created by the King of Denmark, and eventually the title reverted to the Danish Crown. Holstein was a fief of the Holy Roman Empire that also was inherited by the King of Denmark. After Napoleon's defeat Holstein joined the German Confederation. German nationalist movements within the duchies and a succession dispute to the duchies led to the Second Schleswig War in which the German Confederation led by Austria and Prussia defeated Denmark, forcing its king to renounce the duchies.

The Emperor appointed the Chancellor, the head of government and chairman of the Bundesrat, the council of representatives of the German states. Laws were enacted by the Bundesrat and the Reichstag, the Imperial Diet elected by male Germans above the age of 25 years. The constitution followed an earlier constitution of 1 January 1871, the Constitution of the German Confederation. That constitution already incorporated some of the agreements between the North German Confederation and the four German states south of the River Main.

The Reichstag deputies of the Kingdom of Saxony were elected by male suffrage over the age of 25 across the Kingdom of Saxony from 1867 until the abolition of the Kingdom in 1918. Following the North German Confederation Treaty the Kingdom of Saxony entered the North German Confederation in 1866. As a consequence, the Kingdom returned Deputies to the Reichstag. After the founding of the German Empire on 18 January 1871, the deputies were returned to the Reichstag of the German Empire.

Elections to the Reichstag of the North German Confederation were held on 31 August 1867,Jonathan Steinberg (2011) Bismarck: A Life, Oxford University Press with run-off elections during the following weeks. The National Liberal Party continued to serve as the largest party, winning 81 seats. These were the first regular and last elections during the North German Confederation. In July 1870 the Reichstag members decided not to hold new elections during the Franco-Prussian war, in spite of the three-year period.

In 1814 he was appointed privy cabinet- councillor (Geheimer Kabinettsrat) by the king of Hanover, and in 1816 went as representative of the king to the diet of the new German Confederation at Frankfort.

Alfred Cuno Paridam Freiherr von dem Knesebeck-Milendonck (29 August 1816 – 14. December 1883) was a soldier, landowner and member of the Prussian House of Representatives and the Reichstag of the North German Confederation.

Also, as the administrations of Holstein and Lauenburg were members of the German Confederation, not pulling back might have caused a severe political crisis and perhaps war with Great Britain, guarantor of the London Protocol.

Following the Napoleonic Wars, Metternich was the chief architect of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The Austrian Empire was the main beneficiary from the Congress of Vienna and it established an alliance with Britain, Prussia, and Russia forming the Quadruple Alliance. The Austrian Empire also gained new territories from the Congress of Vienna, and its influence expanded to the north through the German Confederation and also into Italy. Due to the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Austria was the leading member of the German Confederation.

Inaugural meeting of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation on February 24, 1867 The Reichstag was the Parliament of the North German Confederation (), founded after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. It functioned until the establishment of the German Empire in 1871. Parliamentary sessions were held in the same building as the Upper House of the Prussian Landtag, the Prussian House of Lords, located at 3 Leipziger Straße in Berlin, Germany. The same location is now the home of the German Federal Bundesrat.

The state was created by the Frankfurt Parliament in spring 1848, following the March Revolution. The empire officially ended when the German Confederation was fully reconstituted in the Summer of 1851, but came to a de facto end in December 1849 when the Central German Government was replaced with a Federal Central Commission. The Empire struggled to be recognized by both German and foreign states. The German states, represented by the Federal Convention of the German Confederation, on July 12, 1848, acknowledged the Central German Government.

Germany is traditionally a country organized as a federal state. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the German-speaking territories of the empire became allied in the German Confederation (1815–1866), a league of states with some federalistic elements. After the war between Austria and Prussia of 1866, Prussia led the Northern states into a federal state called North German Confederation of 1867–1870. The Southern states joined the federal state in 1870/71, which was consequently renamed German Empire (1871–1918).

The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was a territory in Northern Germany, held by the younger line of the House of Mecklenburg residing in Neustrelitz. Like the neighbouring Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, it was a sovereign member state of the German Confederation and became a federated state of the North German Confederation and finally of the German Empire upon the unification of 1871. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–19 it was succeeded by the Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

This so-called Erfurt Union would have been, given the present situation, limited mostly to Northern Germany. The four kingdoms wanted to answer this Prussian effort with a counter proposal, in order to reform the German Confederation. Finally, both efforts failed, and in 1851 the old German Confederation was fully re-established. The paper of the four kingdoms wanted to expand the purpose of the confederation to unify the technical-administrative infrastructure of Germany, with regard to customs, measures and weights, the railway, post services etc.

Verlag De Gruyter, Berlin 1992, , p. 340 books.google It embodied agreements between the two principal powers of the German Confederation, Prussia and Austria, over the governing of the 'Elbe Duchies' of Schleswig, Holstein and Saxe-Lauenburg.

In exchange, William also gained control over the Duchy of Luxembourg, which was elevated to a grand duchy and placed in personal and political union with the Netherlands, though it remained part of the German Confederation.

The North German Confederation were divided into 297 single-member electoral constituencies, of which 236 were in Prussia. All men over the age of 25 and not in receipt of public assistance were eligible to vote.

Three wars led to military successes and helped to persuade German people to do this: the Second Schleswig War against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, and the Franco- Prussian War in 1870–1871. The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 between the constituent Confederation entities of the Austrian Empire and its allies on one side and the Prussia and its allies on the other. The war resulted in the partial replacement of the Confederation in 1867 by a North German Confederation, comprising the 22 states north of the Main River. The patriotic fervour generated by the Franco-Prussian War overwhelmed the remaining opposition to a unified Germany (aside from Austria) in the four states south of the Main and during November 1870 they joined the North German Confederation by treaty.

The treaty allowed Prussia to create a new (a new kind of federation) in the North of Germany. The South German states were allowed to create a South German Confederation but this did not come into existence.

The Austro-Prussian War, provoked by Kingdom of Prussia against the Austrian Empire, for domination of the German Confederation and its allies led to the defeat of the Federal Army in 1866 and thus to its disbandment.

On the basis of the new Constitution, a constituent parliament was elected on the basis of universal suffrage on 12 February 1867. The area of the North German Confederation was divided into 297 electoral districts, where an absolute majority vote directly elected a Member of Parliament. If no candidate reached an absolute majority on the first ballot, a runoff between the top two candidates was conducted. Despite considerable criticism of the North German Confederation, especially in areas that Prussia had annexed in 1866, there were no boycotts of the election.

The Austro- Prussian War, from 16 June to 23 August 1866, which involved south and north German states on both sides as well as the emerging Italy, increased Prussia's power. Austria was defeated in the key Battle of Königgrätz (or Sadowa) on 3 July 1866. The preliminary Peace of Nikolsburg, 26 July, was followed by the Peace of Prague, 23 August. Bismarck thus managed to expel Austria from the German Confederation, to set up and dominate the North German Confederation (north of the Main) and to secure Prussian territorial gains.

Schleswig (until 1864 Danish fief), Holstein and Lauenburg (until 1864 German Confederation) The Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein had been united under Danish rule since 1460. While Schleswig north of the Eider River was a Danish fief, the Duchies of Holstein officially remained an estate of the Holy Roman Empire which the Kings of Denmark held as an Imperial fief. In 1815 King Frederick VI of Denmark also acquired the adjacent Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg. Both Holstein and Lauenburg were member states of the German Confederation since 1815.

The Vienna Congress of 1815 confirmed Bremen's—as well as Frankfurt's, Hamburg's, and Lübeck's—independence after pressuring by Bremen's emissary, and later burgomaster, Johann Smidt. Bremen became one of 39 sovereign states of the German Confederation. In 1827 the state of Bremen bought the tract of land from the Kingdom of Hanover, where future Bremerhaven would be established. Bremen became part of the North German Confederation in 1867 and became an autonomous component state of the newly founded German Empire in 1871 and stayed with Germany in its following forms of government.

The Prussian Navy Department (Marineministerium) (1861 to 1871) grew out of that established by the Frankfurt National Assembly (1848-1849) for its ‘Imperial Fleet' Reichsflotte. From 1866 it served additionally as the Navy Department of the North German Confederation. The Reichsflotte 1849 In June, 1848 the Frankfurt National Assembly created the first Navy Department with businessman Arnold Duckwitz as Minister for Navy Affairs (Minister für Marineangelegenheiten). After the closure of the Frankfurt National Assembly in May 1849, Austrian Lieutenant Fieldmarshal August von Jochmus became Navy Minister of the revived German Confederation.

The constitution of 1 January 1871 was one step from the North German Confederation to the German Empire. Those steps did not create a new state but concerned the accession of the South German states. The North German Confederation was renamed, and some of its organs received a new title. The constitution of 1 January 1871 did have lasting significance in the German Empire despite of the new constitution of 4 May 1871: article 80 (not repeated in the new constitution) transformed most of the North German laws into Imperial laws.

In the German Confederation, the reactions to the announcement of the engagement were mixed: several members of the Hohenzollern family and conservatives opposed it, and liberal circles welcomed the proposed union with the British crown.Herre 2006, p. 41.

Its Austrian part would become the SPÖ. The ADAV was the first German Labour Party, formed in Prussia prior to the establishment of the German Empire. It was active in the German Confederation, which included the Austrian Empire.

These territorial gains also meant the doubling of Prussia's population. In exchange, Prussia withdrew from areas of central Poland to allow the creation of Congress Poland under Russian sovereignty. In 1815 Prussia became part of the German Confederation.

The Storming of Freiburg () took place on 24 April 1848 during the Baden Revolution. Units of the VIII Army Corps of the German Confederation stormed the town of Freiburg im Breisgau, which was occupied by republican volunteers (Freischärlern).

Mocked by Heinrich Heine as "old Germanic rubbish", it nevertheless remained the official flag of the German Confederation, "revitalized" in 1866 as the banner of Austria and her allies in the War with Prussia and the North German states.

The Imperial Plan of 1870 was a diplomatic initiative set out by the Prussian Minister President and Federal Chancellor of the North German Confederation, Otto von Bismarck. Accordingly, the Prussian King was able to assume the title of Emperor.

The Holy Roman Empire in 1789 The 39-state German Confederation (1815–1866) still included several microscopic states. A German cartoon from 1834 poking fun at the microscopic size of the Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe, one of the many tiny states of the German Confederation Early 19th century anti- Kleinstaaterei cartoon calling for the elimination of the myriad custom barriers between statelets The hyper-fragmented Principality of Ansbach The ancient Prince-Bishopric of Liège, with its tormented geography, was the French-speaking counterpart of German Kleinstaaterei. Liège was part of the Holy Roman Empire for 800 years. ' (, "small-state-ery") is a German word used, often pejoratively, to denote the territorial fragmentation in Germany and neighboring regions during the Holy Roman Empire (especially after the end of the Thirty Years' War), and during the German Confederation in the first half of the 19th century.

Jewish History and You, KTAV, , p. 42: estimated at more than 100,000 Jews killed. The outbreak of violence against Jews (Hep-Hep riots) occurred at the beginning of the 19th century as a reaction to Jewish emancipation in the German Confederation.

Bock was born on January 6, 1837 in the German Confederation. In 1857, Bock moved to St. Louis, Missouri. Later that year, he settled in Cassville, Wisconsin. During the American Civil War, Bock served in the 2nd Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment.

Adam was born in Dienheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, German Confederation, on March 7, 1860; received a common school in Germany and came to Wisconsin in 1874, and settled at Milwaukee, where he continued his education and resided. He became a brewer.

The North German Confederation Act of 9 November 1867 about the obligation for wartime military service and the Reich law about the Landsturm of 12 February 1875 restricted the obligation to the period from 17 to 42 years of age.

The West German counterpart was the Federal Foreign Office, that still exists as the current German foreign ministry, and considers itself to be the direct continuation of the Foreign Office that was established in 1870 in the North German Confederation.

The two groups were halted independently by the troops of the German Confederation before they could combine forces. The Hecker Uprising was the first large uprising of the Baden Revolution and became, along with its leader, part of the national myth.

Most importantly, they were successful bringing the final abolition of serfdom or its remnants across the German Confederation, the Austrian Empire and Prussia. ; The leader of the anti- serfdom peasant movement was Hans Kudlich, subsequently revered as Bauernbefreier ('liberator of peasants').

At this time Denmark was in a personal union between kingdom of Denmark and the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg called The Unitary State (Danish: Helstaten), but the Schleswig-Holstein question was causing tension. Under the slogan Denmark to the Eider, the National Liberals campaigned for Schleswig to become an integral part of Denmark, while separating Holstein and Lauenburg from Denmark. Holstein and Lauenburg were then part of the German Confederation, while Schleswig was not. On the other side, German nationalists in Schleswig were keen to keep Schleswig and Holstein together, and wanted Schleswig to join the German Confederation.

The 1849 Constitution was proclaimed by the Frankfurt Parliament, during its meeting in the Paulskirche church on 27 March 1849, and came in effect on 28 March,Verfassung des Deutschen Reichs ("Paulskirchenverfassung") vom 28. März 1849 when it was published in the Reichs-Gesetz-Blatt 1849, pp. 101–147. Thus, a united German Empire, as successor to the German Confederation, had been founded de jure. De facto, however, most Princes on German soil were not willing to give up sovereignty and resisted it, so it did not succeed on land, with the German Confederation being restored a year later.

In June 1867 a conference took place between Prussia and the south German states, who were not members of the North German Confederation. After pressure from Prussia, new Customs Union (Zollverein) treaties were signed the following month. Henceforth, the governing bodies of the Customs Union were the Bundesrat and Reichstag of the North German Confederation, augmented by representatives of the south German governments in the former and members from these states elected in the same way as the others in the latter. When augmented thus for customs matters, the institutions were known as the Federal Customs Council and the Customs Parliament (Zollparlament).

According to some historians, Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck deliberately provoked the French into declaring war on Prussia in order to draw four independent southern German states—Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt—into an alliance with the North German Confederation dominated by Prussia. Some historians contend that Bismarck exploited the circumstances as they unfolded. None, however, dispute the fact that Bismarck must have recognized the potential for new German alliances, given the situation as a whole. France mobilised its army on 15 July 1870, leading the North German Confederation to respond with its own mobilisation later that day.

This caused a deadlock for practical lawmaking. Moreover, Danish opponents of this so-called Unitary State (Helstaten) feared that Holstein's presence in the government and simultaneous membership of the German Confederation would lead to increased German interference with Schleswig, and even in purely Danish affairs. At the same time, liberal German politicians came to power in Schleswig and Holstein; their goal was to unify the two duchies, to gain independence from the Danish king and to join the German Confederation as a sovereign state. The objectives of the Danish and German liberals were therefore incompatible, which in 1848 ultimately led to war.

Eventually the Main line became the southern boundary of the North German Confederation. As such, the Main line did not follow the Main river exactly; rather, the line went east to west: first, along the northern border of the Kingdom of Bavaria; then, along the river Main to Mainz; and finally, along the Western border of the Grand Duchy of Hesse and the Bavarian Palatinate towards the French border. The line split Hesse at Frankfurt am Main; however, the entirety of Frankfurt am Main belonged to the North German Confederation. Today, Main line is viewed as the boundary between North and South Germany.

The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund 1815–1866) was a loose federation of 35 monarchical states and four republican free cities, with a Federal Assembly in Frankfurt. They began to remove internal customs barriers during the Industrial Revolution, and the German Customs Union (Zollverein) was formed among the majority of the states in 1834. In 1840 Hoffmann wrote a song about the Zollverein, also to Haydn's melody, in which he praised the free trade of German goods which brought Germans and Germany closer. After the 1848 March Revolution, the German Confederation handed over its authority to the Frankfurt Parliament.

In addition, there were also substantial German speaking populations that remained outside the confederation. In 1841 Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the song Das Lied der Deutschen,Note: Deutschlandlied has been the national anthem since 1922 giving voice to the dreams of a unified Germany (Deutschland über Alles) to replace the alliance of independent states. In this era of emerging national movements, "Germany" was used only as a reference to a particular geographical area. In 1866/1867 Prussia and her allies left the German Confederation, which led to the confederation being dissolved and the formation of a new alliance, called the North German Confederation.

The County of Waldeck (later the Principality of Waldeck and Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont) was a state of the Holy Roman Empire and its successors from the late 12th century until 1929. In 1349 the county gained Imperial immediacy and in 1712 was raised to the rank of Principality. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 it was a constituent state of its successors: the Confederation of the Rhine, the German Confederation, the North German Confederation, the German Empire and, until 1929, the Weimar Republic. It comprised territories in present-day Hesse and Lower Saxony (Germany).

As Austria and Prussia escaped the French 'exporting the revolution', and Napoleon was happy to maintain satellite monarchies in most German territories under his control (members of the Confederation of the Rhine), the more democratic principles of the Enlightenment would have less effect in the German-speaking lands, or only much later. In 1815 the German Confederation ("Deutscher Bund") was founded as successor of the Holy Roman Empire. § 13 of the "Bundesakte" (the constitution of the German Confederation) forced the German states to pass constitutions and implement parliaments called Landstände or Landtag. The first constitution was passed in Nassau in 1814.

A map of the German Confederation. The idea of grouping all Germans into one nation-state had been the subject of debate in the 19th century from the ending of the Holy Roman Empire until the ending of the German Confederation. The Habsburgs and the Austrian Empire favored the Großdeutsche Lösung ("Greater German solution") idea of uniting all German- speaking peoples into one-state. On the other hand, the Kleindeutsche Lösung ("Lesser German solution") sought only to unify the northern German states and not include Austria; this proposal was largely advocated by the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Prussia.

Boundaries of the German Confederation with Prussia in blue, Austria in yellow, and the rest in grey The German Confederation () was an association of 39 predominantly German-speaking sovereign states in Central Europe, created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as a replacement of the former Holy Roman Empire, which had been dissolved in 1806. The German Confederation did not include certain German-speaking lands in the eastern portion of the Kingdom of Prussia (East Prussia, West Prussia and Posen), the German-speaking cantons of Switzerland, and the French region of Alsace, which was predominantly German- speaking. The Confederation was weakened by rivalry between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire and the inability of its multiple members to compromise. The German revolutions of 1848–49, motivated by liberal, democratic, socialist and nationalist sentiments, attempted to transform the Confederation into a unified German federal state with a liberal constitution (usually called the Frankfurt Constitution in English).

The newspaper was seen as an intellectual one, and as a leading publication due to its high standards of quality, but it also constantly ran at a financial loss due to deliberately gearing its business towards the entire German Confederation. As its co-founder, publisher and most important financial backer, Bassermann definitively became the mouthpiece of the liberal movement in the states of the German Confederation, and a champion of the German unification movement. On 15 April 1844, in connection with a motion by Welcker from 1831, Bassermann gave a speech in the Second Chamber, in which he demanded for the first time that an all-German parliament should be set up, to create a German nation-state. This demand was rejected as by the Baden government under Alexander von Dusch as being outside its scope, but it corresponded to sentiments widely held in practically all the states of the German Confederation.

German Army hussars on the attack during maneuvers, 1912 Draftees of the German Army, 1898 The states that made up the German Empire contributed their armies; within the German Confederation, formed after the Napoleonic Wars, each state was responsible for maintaining certain units to be put at the disposal of the Confederation in case of conflict. When operating together, the units were known as the Federal Army ('). The Federal Army system functioned during various conflicts of the 19th century, such as the First Schleswig War from 1848–50 but by the time of the Second Schleswig War of 1864, tension had grown between the main powers of the confederation, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia and the German Confederation was dissolved after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Prussia formed the North German Confederation and the treaty provided for the maintenance of a Federal Army and a Federal Navy (' or ').documentArchiv.

Hallwachs was born in 1859 in Darmstadt to Ludwig and Emilie Hallwachs. His father was a high ranking public official (Geheimer Staatsrat) with the Ministry of the Interior and Justice of the Grand Duchy of Hesse, then part of the German Confederation.

In 1840 the poet August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben published, in his Unpolitische Lieder, a song entitled Der deutsche Zollverein which ironically compares the economic advantages of a customs union to the political unity which the German Confederation had failed to achieve.

Band 2: Vom Reichsdeputationshauptschluß bis zur Auflösung des Deutschen Bundes. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1983, p. 155–165, here p. 164. The Frankfurt Parliament assumed in general that the territory of the German Confederation was also the territory of the new state.

Ebden was born in 1811 at the Cape of Good Hope in the Cape Colony, the son of merchant, banker and politician John Bardwell Ebden and his wife Antoinetta. He was educated in England and also in Karlsruhe in the German Confederation.

The title "German Emperor", along with the great title as King of Prussia, was only used by third parties (e.g.g in textbooks). It was the transformation and renaming of the North German Confederation. The king was the owner of the Federal Presidency.

In 1806 Napoleon incorporated Liechtenstein in the Confederation of the Rhine and made it a sovereign state. At the Vienna Congress the sovereignty of Liechtenstein was approved. Liechtenstein became a member of the German Confederation in 1815. This membership confirmed Liechtenstein’s sovereignty.

On July 1, 1867, the North German Confederation was established as a confederal state. The Reichstag, elected by the North German men, was one legislative body. The other one was the Bundesrath (old spelling). This organ was expressly modelled after the old diet.

In 1851, his newspaper was forbidden in Prussia. The senate drew courage from the changing tenor of the times. In 1852, an intervention in Bremen was resolved upon by the German Confederation, and 10,000 troops stood on the outskirts of town. Dulon's days were numbered.

According to this treaty the new duchy (without the cities of Maastricht and Venlo), was joined to the German Confederation. After the collapse of this confederation in 1866, Limburg as a duchy ceased to exist and became a province of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

Although acting as President for this party and standing successfully for them in the Chemnitz Reichstag constituency during the August 1867 election for the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, he started to step back from active politics, resigning from the Reichstag in April 1870.

With Austria's defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, the northern German states quickly unified into the North German Confederation, with the Prussian king leading the state. Bavaria's previous inhibitions towards Prussia changed, along with those of many of the south German states, after French emperor Napoleon III began speaking of France's need for "compensation" from its loss in 1814 and included Bavarian-held Palatinate as part of its territorial claims. Ludwig II joined an alliance with Prussia in 1870 against France, which was seen by Germans as the greatest enemy to a united Germany. At the same time, Bavaria increased its political, legal, and trade ties with the North German Confederation.

On 10 December 1870, the North German Confederation Reichstag renamed the Confederation the "German Empire" and gave the title of German Emperor to William I, the King of Prussia, as Bundespräsidium of the Confederation. The new constitution (Constitution of the German Confederation) and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871. During the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution, adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, was substantially based upon Bismarck's North German Constitution.

On 1 January 1871, the country adopted a new constitution, which was written under the title of a new "German Confederation" but already gave it the name "German Empire" in the preamble and article 11. The federal constitution established a constitutional monarchy with the Prussian king as the bearer of the ', or head of state. Laws could only be enabled with the consent of the ' (a parliament based on universal male suffrage) and the Federal Council (a representation of the states). During the four years of the North German Confederation, a conservative- liberal cooperation undertook important steps to unify (Northern) Germany with regard to law and infrastructure.

Thus Kiel belonged to Germany, but it was ruled by the Danish king. Even though the empire was abolished in 1806, the Danish king continued to rule Kiel only through his position as Duke of Holstein, which became a member of the German Confederation in 1815. When Schleswig and Holstein rebelled against Denmark in 1848 (the First Schleswig War), Kiel became the capital of Schleswig-Holstein until the Danish victory in 1850. During the Second Schleswig War in 1864, Kiel and the rest of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were conquered by a German Confederation alliance of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia.

The unification of Germany under Prussian leadership in 1871 was the defining point for the desire of German nationalists to have a great, world class navy. The newly created emperor, Wilhelm I, as king of Prussia, was head of state of the strongest state forming part of the new empire. His Prussian Navy had become the navy of the North German Confederation in 1867, and now became the Imperial German Navy. The Prussian Navy and that of the North German Confederation had been relatively small with the limited purpose of protecting the Baltic and North Sea coasts and 'showing the flag' around the world.

But new links to Poland developed, because since 1618 the prince-electors of Brandenburg ruled the Duchy of Prussia, then a Polish vassal state, in personal union. In 1657 Prussia gained sovereignty, so in 1701 the electors could upgrade their simultaneously held Prussian dukedom to the Kingdom of Prussia, dropping the title of elector of the Holy Roman Empire at its dissolution in 1806. In 1815 the kingdom joined the German Confederation, in 1866 the North German Confederation, which enlarged in 1871 to united Germany. By the 17th century most of the population, consisting of autochthon Poles and German settlers, had mingled and assimilated to German language.

The German Confederation lacked a monarch or a central government with real unifying force. As a result, dualism within the German Confederation laid foundation to the diplomatic tension between Prussia and Austria, who had ambitions to create a unified Germany under their different proposals. Austria proposed to unite the German states in a union centered on, and dominated by, the Habsburgs; Prussia, however, hoped to become the central forces in unifying the German states and to exclude Austria out of its affairs. In 1834, Prussia succeeded in creating a German Customs Union with northern German states with the hope of political union as its next step.

Rohl-Smith became a professor at the Copenhagen Academy in 1885. Rohl-Smith was already recognized as a prominent sculptor in Denmark and Austria-Hungary. He contributed a number of architectural figures for Frederik's Church (also known as the Marmorkirken, or Marble Church) in Copenhagen, the Austrian Parliament Building in Vienna (the Akroterie, and the Winged Nike over the main entrance), and for numerous parks and public spaces in Denmark, the North German Confederation, and states of the former German Confederation. Perhaps his best known work in Europe was a bronze statue of Ajax, commissioned in 1878 for the second Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen.

The proclamation later played an important role in the nineteenth century during the nationalist awakening in both the German Confederation and Denmark. German nationalists, seeking the Unification of Germany, cited the Treaty of Ribe and wished to integrate the ethnically mixed Schleswig as well as the all-German Holstein, which until 1806 had been part of the Holy Roman Empire and then was part of the German Confederation, into a new German Empire. Danes refused to abandon Schleswig and sought to integrate the duchy into the Danish kingdom. The status of Holstein as part of the confederacy, on the other hand, was not questioned.

A draft dated 28 May 1849 created a league of the three kingdoms of Prussia, Hannover, and Saxony for one year in which to formulate an acceptable constitution for Germany. With the dissolution of the National Assembly, those politicians who supported Gagern's Erbkaiserlich policy of a hereditary monarchy led by King Frederick William supported Prussia's Unionspolitik in the Gotha Post- Parliament and the Erfurt Union Parliament. This policy was based on Prussia's insistence that both the National Assembly and the German Confederation were defunct. However, Austria's policy was that the German Confederation had never ceased to exist; rather, only the Confederate Diet had dissolved itself on 12 July 1848.

Band V: Die geschichtlichen Grundlagen des deutschen Staatsrechts, C.H. Beck, München 2000, Rn. 127. The Kingdom of Württemberg was supported by Greater Germany-Austria. Under the influence of the Württemberg German Party, the cabinet, governed by King Charles I, sent an envoy to the German headquarters in France on 12 September, to conduct negotiations with the North German Confederation about forming an association. The government of the Grand Duchy of Hesse supported the idea of a Greater Germany, but the Upper Hesse region and the troops of South Hesse belonged to the North German Confederation, which meant a certain predicament for the government under Grand Duke Louis III.

He was afraid that it would overshadow the Prussian crown. Since 1867, the presidency (Bundespräsidium) of the North German Confederation had been a hereditary office of the kings of Prussia. The new constitution of 1 January 1871, following Reichstag and Bundesrat decisions on 9/10 December, transformed the North German Confederation () into the German Empire (). This empire was a federal monarchy; the emperor was head of state and president of the federated monarchs (the kings of Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, the grand dukes of Baden, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Hesse, among others, as well as the principalities, duchies and of the free cities of Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen).

Germany was ruled by monarchs from the beginning of division of the Frankish Empire in August 843 to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in August 1806. During most of 19th century, independent German principalities were organized into various confederations, such as the Confederation of the Rhine dominated by Napoleon (1806-1913) and the German Confederation created by the Congress of Vienna (1814-1866). The Prussian-led North German Confederation (1866-1871) subsequently morphed into a modern nation state, the German Reich, which was ruled by emperors from 1871 to the collapse of all German monarchies in 1918. The President of Germany replaced the monarch in 1919.

Schliemann was born January 6, 1822 Heinrich Schliemann in Neubukow, Mecklenburg-Schwerin (part of the German Confederation). His father, Ernst Schliemann, was a Lutheran minister. The family moved to Ankershagen in 1823 (today their home houses the Heinrich Schliemann Museum). Heinrich's father was a poor Pastor.

The union was undermined by the creation of the Zollverein in 1834, the 1848 revolutions, the rivalry between Prussia and Austria and was finally dissolved in the wake of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, to be replaced by the North German Confederation during the same year.

The German Confederation was abolished. Prussia annexed Hannover, Nassau, Hesse-Kassel and Frankfurt and small parts of Hesse- Darmstadt and Bavaria. Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt remained independent, but had to sign military alliances with Prussia. In Bavaria a fundamental army reform followed in 1868.

On 13 December 1813 he resigned from the Confederation of the Rhine and sent his troops with his allies in 1814 and 1815 to Belgium and France. On 8 June 1815 he joined the German Confederation. Duke Alexius Frederick Christian died at Ballenstedt on 24 March 1834.

Later, in February, Prussia also relented and accepted a reduced claim of 40% of the territory of Saxony. Austria was granted significant influence in Germany as head of the Federal Convention of the German Confederation. Having achieved its aims, the treaty was annulled on 8 February.

Federalism has a long tradition in German history. The Holy Roman Empire comprised many petty states, numbering more than 300 around 1796. The number of territories was greatly reduced during the Napoleonic Wars (1796–1814). After the Congress of Vienna (1815), 39 states formed the German Confederation.

Below is an incomplete list of diplomats from the United Kingdom to Prussia, specifically Heads of Missions sent to the Elector of Brandenburg and to the Kingdom of Prussia from its formation of in 1701. From 1868, the ambassadors were attributed to the North German Confederation.

By the nineteenth century, transportation and communications improvements brought these regions closer together. This changed drastically after the Holy Roman Empire's defeat and dissolution by France in 1806, and even though a German Confederation was re-established in 1815 after the defeat of France, the beginnings of an unprecedented wave of German nationalism swept through Germany during the first half of the 19th century. By mid-century, Germany had already seen movements supporting centralization, with or without the traditionally ruling Austrian Habsburgs. The rival German-speaking power, Prussia, a former vassal of the Habsburgs, attempted to weaken the German Confederation from both within (Prussia had representation in the German diet, a tradition carried over from the Holy Roman Empire era, thus could directly interfere into Austrian affairs in parliament) and from the outside (Prussia allied with the German Confederation in the Second Schleswig War for the purpose of creating a casus belli between the two powers over the spoils, which would eventually occur in the Austrian-Prussian War of 1866).

Schaumburg-Lippe joined the Confederation of the Rhine on 15 December 1807 and was raised to a principality: Georg Wilhelm became the first Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe. In 1815 Schaumburg-Lippe joined the German Confederation. Georg Wilhelm died at Bückeburg and was succeeded as Prince by his son Adolf.

The German National Association, or German National Union () was a liberal political organisation, precursor of a party, in the German Confederation that existed from 1859 to 1867. It was formed by liberals and moderate democrats and aimed at forming a liberal, parliamentary Lesser German ("kleindeutsch"), Prussia-led national state.

There are three police unions in Germany: the Trade Union of the Police (), one of eight industrial affiliations of the German Confederation of Trade Unions (DGB); the Deutsche Polizeigewerkschaft, affiliated with the German Civil Service Federation; and the Bund Deutscher Kriminalbeamter, which is exclusively for members of the Kriminalpolizei.

Nassauers fallen at the Battle of Waterloo At the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the Duchy of Nassau joined the German Confederation. The capital of Nassau was moved from Weilburg to Wiesbaden, and the city became the ducal residence. Building activity started to give the city a magnificent appearance.

She traveled in the German Confederation, France and Italy. In 1841 she published her first novel in her cousin August Lewald's periodical Europa, under the title Der Stellvertreter. In 1845, she settled in Berlin. Here, in 1854, she married the author Adolf Stahr, a cultural and art historian.

Kohrs-Bielenberg ranch, c. 1880 Conrad Kohrs was born on August 5, 1835, in Wewelsfleth, in Holstein province, which was then a part of the German Confederation. At the age of 22, he became a citizen of the United States. He went to California during the gold rush days.

In 1870, after the abolition of direct diplomatic relations with the Hanse Towns when they joined the North German Confederation, Ward left Hamburg. The rest of his life he spent in retirement, at Dover and in Essex, writing his Reminiscences. Ward died at Dover on 1 September 1890.

Two regiments of infantry and two cavalry squadrons fought for more than five years in the Peninsular war; only half of them came back. In November 1813, Nassau joined the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Nassau was a member of the German Confederation.

Ernst Otto von Diederichs (7 September 1843 in Minden, Westphalia, Kingdom of Prussia (now in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany) - 8 March 1918 in Baden- Baden, Germany) was an Admiral of the Imperial German Navy (Kaiserliche Marine), serving in the Prussian Navy and the Navy of the North German Confederation.

Carl Friedrich Justus Emil von Ibell (29 October 1780 – 6 October 1834) was a senior government official (Amtmann) who famously survived an assassination attempt in 1819, and who ended up as president of the government in Hesse- Homburg which by this time was part of the German Confederation.

Federal states of Germany Germany and the European Union present the only examples of federalism in the world where members of the federal "upper houses" (the German Bundesrat, i.e. the Federal Council; and the European Council) are neither elected nor appointed but comprise members or delegates of the governments of their constituents. The United States had a similar system until 1913, where prior to the 17th Amendment, Senators were delegates of the state elected by the state legislatures rather than the citizens. Already the Holy Roman Empire, the Confederation of the Rhine, the German Confederation, the North German Confederation, the German Empire and the Weimar Republic were federal complexes of territories of different political structures.

Map of the North German Confederation (red), four Southern German States (orange) and Alsace-Lorraine (beige) The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are strongly rooted in the events surrounding the unification of the German states under Otto von Bismark in 1871. In the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prussia had annexed numerous territories and formed the North German Confederation. This new power disrupted the European balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon III, then the emperor of France, demanded compensations in Belgium and on the left bank of the Rhine to secure France's strategic position, which the Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, flatly refused.

At the same time, a Polish national committee gathered at Poznań and demanded independence. The Prussian Army under General Friedrich August Peter von Colomb at first retired. King Frederick William IV of Prussia as well as the new Prussian commissioner, Karl Wilhelm von Willisen, promised a renewed autonomy status. However, both among the German-speaking population of the province as well as in the Prussian capital, anti-Polish sentiments arose. While the local Posen (Poznań) Parliament voted 26 to 17 votes against joining German Confederation, on 3 April 1848Andrzej Chwalba - Historia Polski 1795-1918 Wydawnictwo Literackie 2000 Kraków the Frankfurt Parliament ignored the vote, forcing status change to a common Prussian province and its integration in the German Confederation.

Therefore, the Austrian Emperor's position as President of the German Confederation was still in force. Archduke John attempted to resign his office once more in August 1849, stating that the Regency should be jointly held by Prussia and Austria through a committee of four until 1 May 1850, by which time all of the German governments should have decided on a new Constitution. The two governments agreed in principle, and a so-called Compact of Interim was signed on 30 September, transferring all responsibilities of the Provisional Central Power to the two states, though not relieving the Regent of his office as yet. By signing this compact, Prussia tacitly accepted Austria's policy that the German Confederation still existed.

Proclamation of Archduke John as Reichverweser; 15 July 1848 The Provisorische Zentralgewalt (, Provisional Central Power) was the provisional government of the Frankfurt Parliament (1848–49). Since this all-German national assembly had not been initiated by the German Confederation, it was lacking not only major constitutional bodies, such as a head of state and a government, but also legal legitimation. A modification of the Bundesakte, the constitution of the German Confederation, could have brought about such legitimation, but as it would have required the unanimous support of all 38 signatory states this was practically impossible. Partially for this reason, influential European powers such as France and Russia declined to recognize the Parliament.

While the Brandenberg portion was a part of the Holy Roman Empire and later the German Confederation, Prussia (later called East Prussia) was not included within those territorial boundaries. In the ensuing two centuries the city, first as part of the Kingdom of Prussia, then from 1866 as part of the North German Confederation, and then from 1871 as part of the German Empire, continued to flourish and many iconic landmarks of Königsberg were built. The city had around 370,000 inhabitants and was a cultural and administrative center of Prussia and the German Empire. Immanuel Kant and E. T. A. Hoffmann, the notable sons of the city, were born during this time.

Norbert Metz, who was pro-Belgian and hostile to the German Confederation, made his mark on the Willmar government's foreign policy. The turf war between the Administrator General for Finances and the director of German customs in Luxembourg irritated the Prussian authorities to the extent that they threatened to not renew the customs union agreement, which was due to expire in 1854. Moreover, the government shied away from the demands of the German Confederation by refusing to send a Luxembourgish contingent against Schleswig, and compromised relations with its partner in personal union by dragging out the negotiations on Luxembourgish participation in the reimbursement of the debt of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 252–53. Germany had not yet been unified into a nation-state, but Nietzsche was born a citizen of Prussia, which was then part of the German Confederation. His birthplace, Röcken, is in the modern German state of Saxony-Anhalt.

Engelberg 1985, pp. 553-554 Despite the familial relations of the Prince of Wales with Copenhagen, the British government refused to intervene in the war between the German Confederation and Denmark. This had a certain importance in the royal family, which was deeply divided by the conflict.Dobson (ed.) 1998, p. 431.

The Allgemeines Deutsches Handelsgesetzbuch (ADHGB; English: General German Commercial Code (GGCC)) was the first comprehensive commercial code in Germany. The term "Allgemein" (General) emphasized the whole German Confederation as the scope of application.(German) Karsten Schmitt, in: Münchener Kommentar zum HGB, 3. Auflage, München 2010, Vorbemerkungen zu § 1 Rz. 21.

Though part of Austrian Galicia, Zator and Oświęcim from 1818 to 1866 belonged the German Confederation. Until 1918, the Emperor of Austria also called himself Duke of Zator as a part of his grand title. When the Second Polish Republic was established in 1918, even the ducal title ceased to exist.

To ensure the neutrality, Prussian observation troops of there were stationed in Lippe. In 1806 Napoleon initiated the so-called Confederation of the Rhine. Prussia responded with the North German Confederation and solicited members. Pauline saw that Lippe's independence was threatened and sought to join the Confederation of the Rhine.

Luxembourg is a trilingual country; French, German, and Luxembourgish are official languages. Although a secular state, Luxembourg is predominantly Roman Catholic. Until 1867, the city of Luxembourg, the Gibraltar of the north, was a federal fortress of the German confederation. In the 20th century, Luxembourg was twice occupied by German armies.

He was called to the diplomat career, being the Brazilian ambassador to the States of the German Confederation, he also server in other European countries. He was given the title of Baron on June 6, 1867; and Viscount on July 17, 1871. Both titles were given by Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil.

During the French Revolutionary Wars, Luxembourg was annexed to the department of Forêts. Following agreement at the 1815 Congress of Vienna, some of the former duchy's territory became the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg under the rule of, but not part of, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, after which it joined the German Confederation.

The allies of Austria had formed the VIIth and VIIIth Federal Corps of the German Confederation. Both corps had advanced northward to support Hanover. When Hanover surprisingly surrendered the VIIth Corps, built by the Bavarians, stood in Thuringia. The VIIIth Corps, built by troops of Hesse, Baden and Wuerttemberg, stood north of Frankfurt.

Also, a naval war ensign used these colours. In May 1849, the larger states actively fought the revolution and the Frankfurt parliament. In late 1850, the German Confederation was definitely restored under Austrian-Prussian leadership. The tricolour remained official but was no longer used before 1863 at a conference of the German governments.

William appointed the then Minister President of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck, as minister for Saxe-Lauenburg. In 1866, Saxe-Lauenburg joined the North German Confederation. However, its vote in the Bundesrat was counted along with those of Prussia. In 1871, Saxe-Lauenburg was one of the component constituent states founding united Germany.

The southern German states took the side of Prussia in accordance with their defensive alliances.Lothar Gall, 1871 – Fragen an die deutsche Geschichte. Ausstellungskatalog, Bonn 1971, S. 128. Victories in August and September 1870, over the French armies led to the willingness of the Southern German princes to join the North German Confederation.

The Battle of Tauberbischofsheim was an engagement of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, on the 24 July at Tauberbischofsheim in the Grand Duchy of Baden between troops of the German Confederation and the Kingdom of Prussia. It was part of the campaign of the Main and ended with a Prussian victory.

The land-rabbins simultaneously fulfilled religious and state functions, like supervising Jewish elementary schools and the teaching of Jewish religion in all schools. The Kingdom of Hanover was thus one of the few states within the German Confederation, where rabbis held a similar semi-state authoritative position as to Jews as did, e.g.

After June 21, 1849 it struggled to receive this recognition. When the Central Power ended its activities in December 1849, the Bundeszentralkommission took over. In May 1850 the US, the Netherlands (as a member of the German Confederation), Belgien, Sardinia, Turkey, Portugal, Naples, Spain, Greece and conditionally France had accepted the flag.

Frederick Louis of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (13 June 1778 - 29 November 1819) was a hereditary prince of the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, one of the constituent states of the German Confederation. He was the son of Frederick Francis I, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and of Princess Louise of Saxe- Gotha-Altenburg.

Birthplace of Levi Strauss Levi Strauss was born to an Ashkenazi Jewish family in Buttenheim on February 26, 1829, in the Franconia region of the Kingdom of Bavaria in the German Confederation. He was the son of Hirsch Strauss and his second wife Rebecca Strauss (née Haas).Dietze, Joachim. "Levi Strauss" (family tree).

After the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the North German states had allied under Prussian leadership as the North German Confederation. Out of the Prussian Navy grew the North German Federal Navy, which after the Franco- Prussian War changed its name again to become the Imperial Navy of the new German Empire.

However, this was as part of the convention which integrated the division with the Prussian-led army of the North German Confederation. The division already existed as part of the autonomous Saxon Army. It was originally formed in 1849 as the 1st Division and from July 1, 1850, the 1st Infantry Division.

North German merchant flag, 1868 After the war and the breakup of the German Confederation, the Prussian-led North German Confederation was established at the instance of Minister-President Otto von Bismarck to answer the German question. Another colour scheme was desired, as the black and gold colours were associated with Habsburg Austria. From 1867, the black, white, and red colours became the flag of the newly established federated state; the tricolour derived from the combination of the Prussian black and white with the white and red flag of the North German Hanseatic League. Since the 13th century, a black cross on white coat had been carried by medieval Teutonic Knights which had founded the State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia.

Alexander Siemens (22 January 1847 - 16 February 1928) was a German electrical engineer.Obituary Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 66 (1928), 1242–3 Siemens was born in Hanover, then a kingdom within the German Confederation, to Gustav and Sophie Siemens of the Siemens family, an old family of Goslar which can be traced back to 1384. His father was a judge and a cousin of William Siemens the famous electrical engineer. He was educated in Hanover and moved to Woolwich, London in 1867 to work with at the Siemens Brothers factory.J. D. Scott, Siemens Brothers, 1858–1958 (1958) He returned to the German Confederation in 1868 to study at the University of Berlin, interrupting his studies there to lay telegraph cables in the Middle East.

Bismarck hinted vaguely that, in the event of a war between Austria and Prussia, French neutrality would be rewarded with some sort of territory as a compensation. Napoleon III had Luxembourg in mind.Milza, 2006, p. 649 In 1866, relations between Austria and Prussia worsened and Bismarck demanded the expulsion of Austria from the German Confederation.

He mentioned that Prussia would dissolve the Senate and take over the government. The Burgerschaft would remain undisturbed, as would the population, if they kept quiet. Otherwise, 10,000 Prussian troops would occupy the city. Friedrich Krüger, the Hanseatic plenipotentiary at the Bundestag of the German Confederation at Frankfurt had been in Hamburg since 22 June.

Pro-Belgian and anti-German Confederation,Thewes (2006), p. 17 after the first elections, Metz was appointed Administrator-General for Finances and Administrator-General for Military Affairs. On 21 May 1834, he married the 21-year-old Marie-Barbe- Philippe-Eugénie Tesch, who had three children before dying on 29 January 1845.Mersch (1963), p.

The Austrian Kaiser, also wishing unity, appears unconcerned with the northern province. His interest rests in asserting control over the German Confederation. Wilhelm I, unable to control the parliament, is on the verge of abdication. The crown prince and his English wife wish the installation of a British style government which may undermine German unity.

Several different principalities of the House of Reuss which had previously existed had by the time of the formation of the German Confederation become part of the two remaining lines (the Elder and the Younger lines). Before then, they had been part first of the Holy Roman Empire, and then the Confederation of the Rhine.

In 1815, Schaumburg-Lippe joined the German Confederation, and in 1871 the German Empire. In 1918, it became a republic. The tiny Free State of Schaumburg-Lippe existed until 1946, when it became an administrative area within Lower Saxony. Schaumburg-Lippe had an area of 340 km², and a population of 51,000 (as of 1934).

In between and afterwards, Hasenclever - like many artisans of the time - took to the road, taking on various short-term jobs and visiting most member states of the North German Confederation, Switzerland, northern Italy and southern France. His experiences, which made him aware of the problems of the proletariat, greatly influenced his later political stance.

In 1856, Arendrup graduated from Sorø Academy (Sorø Akademi) on the island of Zealand and the following year, he started at the Royal Danish Military Academy (Hærens Officersskole) where he graduated as Engineering Second Lieutenant À la suite. He went to Fredericia in 1861 to join preparations for the impending war with the German Confederation.

The changes relate mainly to the agreements with the South German states regarding their accession to the North German Confederation. For example the number of delegates to the Federal Council were adjusted. All this was executed in a rather messy way. Constitutional historian Ernst Rudolf Huber called the constitution of 1 January 1871 a 'Monstrum'.

Max Niemeyer Verlag: Tübingen, 2007. Page 125. This new tune made the song very popular among the German population that desired the transformation of the German Confederation into a united empire, instead of the previous situation where there were multiple duchies. Joachim Raff used Reichhardt's tune as a leitmotif in his symphony An das Vaterland.

Roeloffs was born on 2 May 1844 in Hamburg, then an independent free city and member of the German Confederation. He grew up in Hamburg and had to leave school at the age of 13 to contribute to the family's livelihood. During the economic crisis of 1857 he became a clerk in the law firm Dres. Albrecht & G. Hertz.

Lord Augustus William Frederick Spencer Loftus, (4 October 1817 – 7 March 1904) was a British diplomat and colonial administrator. He was Ambassador to Prussia from 1865 to 1868, to the North German Confederation from 1868 to 1871 and to the Russian Empire from 1871 to 1879 and Governor of New South Wales from 1879 to 1885.

The city was besieged for over a year by Allied forces (mostly Russian, Swedish and German). Russian forces under General Bennigsen finally freed the city in 1814. From 1814 to 1866 Hamburg was a sovereign country (like United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Kingdom of France or Prussia) and member of the German Confederation.

Upon moving to Leipzig, she worked for Reclam. At Reclam, she worked on creating publications focused around the history of the German Confederation through the beginning of World War I in Germany. Outside of working at Reclam, Adolf also wrote poetry and studied subjects like religion and psychology. She also translated literature, including Sainte Thérèse d'Avila by Jeanne Galzy.

Clodfelter In 1814, Austria was part of the Allied forces that invaded France and brought to an end the Napoleonic Wars. It emerged from the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as one of the continent's four dominant powers and a recognised great power. The same year, the German Confederation () was founded under the presidency of Austria.

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was born in 1857 in Hamburg, then a sovereign state of the German Confederation, into a prosperous and cultured Hanseatic family. His father was Gustav Ferdinand Hertz. His mother was Anna Elisabeth Pfefferkorn. While studying at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums in Hamburg, Hertz showed an aptitude for sciences as well as languages, learning Arabic and Sanskrit.

From 1867 he was Consul General of the North German Confederation (from 1871, the German Empire) in Belgrade. In 1875, Rosen returned to Detmold, where, in May 1907, the Rosenstraße was named in his honor.Rüdiger Henke, Die Straßen der Detmolder Kernstadt, Ortsverein Detmold im Lippischen Heimatbund e.V., Detmold, 2013 Rosen was a friend of E. A. Wallis Budge.

In the Confederation of the Rhine he was made Minister of the Grand Duchy of Frankfurt 1810. Albini was a member of the Conference of Ministers administrating Frankfurt 30 September - 23 December 1813, then Presidential Envoy to the Federal Parliament of the German Confederation in Frankfurt 5 October - 16 December 1815. He died in 1816 in Dieburg.

H. W. Kock, A History of Prussia (Dorset Press,: New York, 1978), p. 207. However, Prussia was clearly the weaker power in this dual authority within the German Confederation. Economically, the Austrian Empire based itself on the landowning aristocracy. This landowning aristocracy required the Austrian state to maintain high tariffs against the cheap imports of raw farm products.

Kessler was born in Frankfurt am Main. She worked as a Clerk for Deutsche Bundespost, studied at the Akademie der Arbeit in Frankfurt and worked for the German Confederation of Trade Unions from 1967. From 1971 to 1991 she worked for the Printing and Paper Union, later the Media Union. She was vice chairwoman of IG Medien until 1995.

58 With the dissolution of the empire the following year, these colonial ambitions could not be realised, but in 1867 Adalbert of Prussia became commander of the Navy of the North German Confederation and began setting up the overseas naval stations planned in 1848, thereby finally providing the required military infrastructure for the future acquisition of German colonies.

Carl Ewald was born October 15, 1856 in Bredelykke by Gram in the Duchy of Schleswig (present-day Denmark). He was named after and he had twelve siblings. His father, was an author. He was educated at the University of Copenhagen, where his family had moved to after the Duchy of Schleswig fell to the German Confederation in 1864.

Born in Langenfeld, Prussia, German Confederation, Krekel emigrated to the United States in 1832. He attended St. Charles College and read law to enter the bar in 1844. He was a surveyor in St. Charles County, Missouri. He was a justice of the peace there from 1841 to 1843, and was in private practice beginning in 1844.

Thereupon, the Grand Duchy joined the North German Confederation and the reconstituted Zollverein. Also in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71, the Kingdom of Prussia received valuable assistance from Mecklenburg-Strelitz. In 1871 both Mecklenburg- Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz became States of the German Empire. Mecklenburg-Strelitz returned one member to the Bundesrat chamber of states.

On the same day, the new Constitution of the German Confederation came into force, thereby significantly extending the federal German lands to the newly created German Empire.Karl Kroeschell: Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, Bd. 3: Seit 1650, 5. Aufl., Böhlau/UTB, Köln/Weimar/Wien 2008, S. 235.Michael Kotulla: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: Vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495–1934), 2008, Rn. 2042.

No ISBN. However, many rejected dog tags as a bad omen for their lives. So until eight months after the Battle of Königgrätz, with almost 8,900 Prussian casualties, only 429 of them could be identified. With the formation of the North German Confederation in 1867 Prussian military regulations became binding for the militaries of all North German member states.

Unruh was a member of the Parliament of the North German Confederation in 1867 and the Reichstag until 1879. On April 9, 1874, as a vice-president of the Reichstag, he implemented the Hammelsprung (lit: mutton skip), a special kind of division, still used in the modern German Bundestag. Unruh died on February 4, 1886 in Dessau.

In 1862, Johann II issued Liechtenstein's first constitution. Later, after Liechtenstein left the German confederation in 1866 and after World War I, Johann II granted a new constitution in 1921. It granted considerable political rights to common Liechtensteiners, the latter making the principality a constitutional monarchy. This constitution survives today but with revisions, most notably in 2003.

The objective of this was to remove the Athus-Arlon road from the influence of the German Confederation; in Arlon, it joined up with the road leading to Brussels. The mixing-up of the applied criteria may explain the sometimes arbitrary nature of the line of demarcation. In many cases it separated families, as well as economic entities.

Friedrich Wilhelm Emil Försterling (3 September, 1827, Dresden – 10 March, 1872 , Dresden) was a German Social Democratic politician. He was President of the General German Workers' Association (ADAV) and a member of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation. Försterling was a coppersmith by trade. By 1849 he was chairman of a workers' association in Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Lower Saxony.

In addition to redrawing the political map it created a new entity out of the ashes of the Holy Roman Empire, the German Confederation. Achieving the presidency of this new entity was Austria's greatest gain from the Congress. What the Congress could not do was to recover the old order on which Austrian and Habsburg authority had rested.

As a result of these wars Austria had now lost all its Italian territory and was now excluded from further German affairs, that were now reorganised under Prussian dominance in the new North German Confederation. The Kleindeutschland concept had prevailed. For the Austrians in Italy, the war had been tragically pointless, since Venetia had already been ceded.

Chancellor Metternich about 1820, painting by Thomas Lawrence ''''' (; English: pre-March) was a period in the history of Germany preceding the 1848 March Revolution in the states of the German Confederation. The beginning of the period is less well-defined: some place the starting point directly after the fall of Napoleon and the establishment of the German Confederation in 1815; others, typically those emphasizing the Vormärz as a period of political uprising, place the beginning at the French July Revolution of 1830. Internationally known as the Age of Metternich, it was characterized by Austrian and Prussian police states, which practiced censorship on a massive scale in response to revolutionary calls for liberalism. In a cultural sense, the same period is known as Biedermeier as a conclusion of the Romanticist era.

The area around the town of Wyrzysk, then part of the Duchy of Warsaw, became part of the Grand Duchy of Posen on May 15, 1815 as accorded at the Congress of Vienna. The rather titulary Grand Duchy of Posen, held by the Hohenzollern, the ruling family in the Kingdom of Prussia, was in fact an autonomous province within Prussia, but not belonging to those territories covered by the loose league called the German Confederation. Its constitutional peculiarity had been abolished on December 5, 1848 when it was converted into the Prussian Province of Posen, by way of which it was transformed into one of Prussia's regional subdivisions, but still no part of the German Confederation. The Rittergut in Brostowo On July 1, 1816 the county of Wyrzysk (German: Kreis Wirsitz) was formed.

In relation to the German Confederation, the German nation was feeling an overwhelming aversion towards its highest authority, and a good relationship could only be restored through a constitution. Thus, Bassermann partly triggered the March Revolution in Germany. The movement that resulted from this demand led to the Heidelberg meeting of 5 March 1848, which in turn led to the Vorparlament of 31 March – 5 April in the Frankfurt Paulskirche. Bassermann participated in both events, where, together with other moderate liberals, he could work towards ensuring that the majority of those present regarded the creation of a constitution in consultation with the German Confederation and in the context of a national constitutional assembly as the highest priority, and not the formation of a revolutionary government as demanded by Hecker und Struve.

Its capital was Luxembourg City. After Napoleon was defeated in 1814, most of it became part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, with the part on the east side of the rivers Our and Sauer becoming part of Prussia (now Germany). At the Congress of Vienna in 1815 some of the land of the former Duchy of Luxemburg was given to Prussia to satisfy a dynastic claim and the remainder was created as a new Grand Duchy of Luxemburg which also became a member of the German Confederation and given to King William I of the Netherlands in a personal union with the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Unlike the Netherlands, however, Luxembourg was part of the German Confederation established in 1815, and a garrison of the Kingdom of Prussia was stationed there.

Borders of the German Confederation, c. 1840The Rhine crisis of 1840 was a diplomatic crisis between the Kingdom of France and the German Confederation, caused by the demand by French minister Adolphe Thiers that the river Rhine be reinstated as France's border in the east, at a loss of some 32.000 km² of German territory. The territories of the Left Bank of the Rhine, which French troops had conquered in 1795, had been returned to German (mostly Prussian) control after the 1815 Congress of Vienna, forming the Rhine Province. After a diplomatic defeat in the Oriental Crisis of 1840 France shifted its focus to the Rhine, and the French government, led by Adolphe Thiers, restated its claim to areas on the left bank, to re-establish the Rhine as a natural border.

Despite the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Austrian Empire remained, in most people's eyes, the most important member of the German Confederation: its continuing leadership role was taken for granted both by Prince Metternich and by Marschall von Bieberstein. Metternich replied promptly, on 31 July 1819, thanking Marschall von Bieberstein for his letter which had, yet again, confirmed him in his own opinion that the member governments of the German confederation needed to work much more closely together. Otherwise the states of Germany would face a downfall which would be of their own making. Metternich was confident that the time for a decision was approaching fast: "A few weeks will be enough to shed light on the future path and to determine whether reason or revolution will prevail".

Westphalia is known for the 1648 Peace of Westphalia which ended the Thirty Years' War, as the two treaties were signed in Münster and Osnabrück. It is one of the regions that were part of all incarnations of the German state since the Early Middle Ages: the Holy Roman Empire, the Confederation of the Rhine, the German Confederation, the North German Confederation, the German Empire, the Weimar Republic and National Socialist Germany. After World War II it was a part of the British occupation zone which merged with the American zone to become the Bizone in 1947 and again merged with the French zone to become the Trizone in 1948. The current Federal Republic of Germany was founded on these territories making Westphalia a part of West Germany.

Anhalt-Dessau was a principality of the Holy Roman Empire and later a duchy of the German Confederation. Ruled by the House of Ascania, it was created in 1396 following the partition of the Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst, and finally merged into the re-united Duchy of Anhalt in 1863. The capital of the state was Dessau in present-day Saxony-Anhalt.

A region named Germania was documented before AD 100. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation. Following the Napoleonic Wars and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the German Confederation was formed in 1815.

Skirmish of Århus or Rytterfægtningen on 31 May 1849 was a skirmish during the First Schleswig War between Denmark and Prussia under the German Confederation, a few kilometers north of the city of Aarhus, Denmark. The skirmish was a Danish victory that had the effect of stopping the Prussian advance through the peninsula of Jutland at the city of Aarhus.

Bismarck hoped that the Zollverein might become the vehicle of German unification. But in the 1868 Zollparlament election the South Germans voted mainly for anti-Prussian parties. On the other hand, the two Mecklenburg duchies and three Hanseatic cities were initially not members of the Customs Union. The Mecklenburgs and Lubeck joined soon after the North German Confederation was formed.

Engelberg 1985, pp. 623-636 Frederick welcomed the creation of the North German Confederation, which joined Prussia and some Germanic principalities, because he saw that it was the first step toward German unification. However, the Confederation was far from adopting the liberal ideas of the crown prince. Despite being democratically elected, the Reichstag did not have the same powers as a British Parliament.

In early 1828, Feodora married Ernst I, Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (1794–1860), at Kensington Palace. The match was arranged by Queen Adelaide of Great Britain, as Prince Ernst I was her first cousin. Prior to that, she had only met him twice. After their honeymoon, she returned to the German Confederation, where she lived until her death in 1872.

Since 1851, Otto von Bismarck had been serving as the Prussian ambassador to the German Confederation headquartered at Frankfurt-am- Main, a free city of the Confederation in what is now western Germany.Jonathan Steinberg, Bismarck: A Life (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011) p. 110. However, in March 1858, Bismarck was appointed ambassador to the Russian Empire.Jonathan Steinberg, Bismarck: A Life, p. 146.

On a proposal from the Kingdom of Bavaria the Federal Convention (Bundesversammlung also Bundestag) of the German Confederation establish a commission, that should elaborate a commercial code. That was 21 February 1856. King Maximilian II Joseph of Bavaria is said to have motivated the project in person.(German) Christoph Bergfeld: Preußen und das Allgemeine Deutsche Handelsgesetzbuch, in: Ius Commune, Bd. XIV (1987), .

On 31 May 1861 this "Nuremberg Draft" („Nürnberger Entwurf“)(German) Gerhard Köbler: Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte – Ein systematischer Grundriss, 6. Aufl., München 2005. of an Allgemeines Deutsches Handelsgesetzbuch (ADHGB) was recommended to be introduced in the individual states by the General Assembly of the German Confederation.(German) Hartmut Oetker, in: Claus-Wilhelm Canaris, Mathias Habersack, Carsten Schäfer (Hrsg.) Staub HGB, Bd. 1, 5. Aufl.

The congregation was founded in 1853 by Jewish immigrants from German Confederation member states, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia; pioneer Reform rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise had considerable influence in the congregation's establishment.Kerry M. Olitzky, The American Synagogue: A Historical Dictionary and Sourcebook (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996), , pp. 165–167. Excerpts available at Google Books. Its first home was on Hanover Street near Camden Yards.

From 1830 to 1838 he was minister plenipotentiary to the German Confederation in Frankfurt. He was knighted as a Knight Grand Cross, Hanoverian Order in 1834. From 1838 to 1850 he was envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary in Stockholm, where he was among a group of British residents who helped to set up regular Anglican church services in the city.

In the Austrian Empire, the early 1860s were a period of significant constitutional reforms. The revolutions and unfortunate wars of the late 1840s-1850s had created a national sense of discontent. The disastrous war in Italy demonstrated openly the weaknesses of the Austrian bureaucracy and army. The burgeoning influence of Prussia and the German Confederation was also a cause for concern.

For centuries, the Habsburgs had been in control of the German states. Even when the German Confederation of States formed in 1815, Austria maintained its influence. With the rise of Prussia in Eastern Europe, that influence was threatened. The Emperor saw the expansion and centralization of Parliament as a way to gain internal strength that would transfer into external power.

TRANSNET, which stands for Transport, Service, and Networks, was a trade union in Germany and one of eight industrial affiliations of the German Confederation of Trade Unions. Since autumn 2005, TRANSNET worked together with the "rival" union GDBA. On November 30, 2010, the delegates of a union convention in Fulda decided to merge with GDBA to the new union EVG.

Germany around 1866-1871. The red line marks the southern border of the Northern German states. The Main line (from the German Mainlinie, or line on the Main River) refers to the historical and political boundary between North and South Germany. The line delimitates the spheres of influence of Austria and Prussia within the German Confederation during the 19th century.

In 1866 Saxony fought on the Austrian side in the Austro-Prussian War. Finally, after the defeat of the Battle of Königgrätz, Saxony joined the North German Confederation and in 1871 the German Empire under the hegemony of the Kingdom of Prussia. The King died two years later, aged seventy-one. Beyond his political work, Johann was busy with literature.

In the peace treaty with Austria, and already before with France, Prussia promised not to expand the North German state to southern Germany. Austria still tried to be a player in the German question. In summer 1870, war broke out between France and the North German Confederation. The south German states were loyal to their military conventions with the North.

Blake (1967), p. 429 In 1862, Disraeli met Prussian Count Otto von Bismarck for the first time and said of him, "be careful about that man, he means what he says".Weintraub, p. 395 The party truce ended in 1864, with Tories outraged over Palmerston's handling of the territorial dispute between the German Confederation and Denmark known as the Schleswig-Holstein Question.

The Auswärtiges Amt was established in 1870 to form the foreign policy of the North German Confederation, and from 1871 of the German Empire. The Foreign Office was originally led by a secretary of state (therefore not called a ministry), while the Chancellor, who usually also held the office of Prussian Minister of Foreign Affairs, remained in charge of foreign affairs.

Boundaries of the German Confederation. Prussia is blue, Austria-Hungary yellow, and the rest grey. Another institution key to unifying the German states, the Zollverein, helped to create a larger sense of economic unification. Initially conceived by the Prussian Finance Minister Hans, Count von Bülow, as a Prussian customs union in 1818, the Zollverein linked the many Prussian and Hohenzollern territories.

After the peace Saxony was forced to join the North German Confederation. According to the Military Convention of 7 February 1867 its army formed the XII Corps, which was placed under Prussian command. Saxony had to hand over the Fortress Königstein to Prussia. The Kingdom of Saxony took part in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War on the side of Prussia.

From 1980 until 2001, the foundation jointly awarded the Hans-Böckler-Preis with the German Confederation of Trade Unions. The prize was given annually to individuals or organizations for their achievements in improving the working and living conditions of workers and their families and promoting social cohesion and solidarity. The first recipient was Oswald von Nell- Breuning.Bundesarbeitsblatt (1983), Issues 1-6, p. 21.

The Grand Duchy of Baden was unconditionally behind the unity. Grand Duke Frederick I and Prime Minister Julius Jolly articulated requests on 3 September 1870. They had already applied to be a part of the North German Confederation in 1867 and repeatedly during the Spring of 1870, which the North German government rejected Bismarck's foreign policy considerations.Klaus Stern: Das Staatsrecht der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.

The de la Fontaine government tried to bring about a strong integration in the German Confederation, fearing revolutionary influences from France and Belgium. The government, against the wishes of public opinion, took an active part in German politics, and even supported the decision of the Constituent Assembly to send Luxembourgish delegates to the Diet of Frankfurt, where they debated over German unity.

Austria brought the continuing dispute over Holstein before the German diet and also decided to convene the Holstein diet. Prussia, declaring that the Gastein Convention had thereby been nullified, invaded Holstein. When the German diet responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia, Bismarck declared that the German Confederation was ended. Thus this may be considered a Third Schleswig War.

Using this to his advantage, Bismarck declared the German Confederation of 1815 null and void, and created a new network of states under Prussian control. Frankfurt-am-Main, Hannover, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), Holstein, Nassau, and Schleswig were annexed outright while Hesse-Darmstadt, Mecklenburg, Saxony, the Thuringian duchies, as well as the cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck were combined into a new North German Confederation that governed nominally and was actually controlled by Prussia herself. Napoleon III, Emperor of the French Bismarck was approached soon after the end of the war by Napoleon III's ambassador to Prussia, Vincent Benedetti. Benedetti brought with him a secret proposal by Napoleon III that France would approve of Bismarck's acquisition of the northern German states and their control over the southern German states if Prussia remained neutral while France annexed Belgium and Luxembourg.

The conference of the six Great Powers (which for the first time included Italy) which met in London in May 1867, to settle the political order of northern Europe after the disruption of the German Confederation in 1866, is known as the London Conference of 1867. It resulted in the Treaty of London of 11 May 1867. The immediate occasion of the conference was the necessity of settling the status of the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, which, after the downfall of the First Napoleon, had been added to the dominions of the King of the Netherlands as a separate and independent state and made a member of the German Confederation. Notwithstanding the dissolution of the confederation, Luxemburg continued to be occupied by Prussian troops, the French government insisting upon the removal of these troops and threatening war to enforce the demand.

Because of unsolved social, political, and national conflicts, the German lands were shaken by the 1848 revolutions aiming to create a unified Germany.Johnson 36 Map of the German Confederation (1815–1836) with its 39 member states The various different possibilities for a united Germany were: a Greater Germany, or a Greater Austria or just the German Confederation without Austria at all. As Austria was not willing to relinquish its German-speaking territories to what would become the German Empire of 1848, the crown of the newly formed empire was offered to the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. In 1864, Austria and Prussia fought together against Denmark and secured the independence from Denmark of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. As they could not agree on how the two duchies should be administered, though, they fought the Austro-Prussian War in 1866.

Austria's attention was drawn away from Italy at a time when it appeared the ironclad arms race between the two nations was fading. In late 1863, the Schleswig-Holstein Question once again captured the attention of most of the German Confederation after Christian IX of Denmark became King of Denmark and Duke of Schleswig and Holstein. He declared the Duchy of Schleswig an integral part of Denmark in a violation of the London Protocol of 1852, which emphasized the status of the Kingdom of Denmark as distinct from the independent Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The annexation of the largely German populations of Schleswig and Holstein gave the German Confederation a casus belli to use against Denmark, and the Second Schleswig War began when Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the border into Schleswig in February 1864.

Following the Prussian annexations after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the administrative region of Wiesbaden was founded on February 22, 1867, comprising the formerly independent Duchy of Nassau, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg and the formerly Free City of Frankfurt, previously states of the German Confederation. The Wiesbaden Region was one of the two political subdivisions (along with Kassel Region) within the province of Hesse-Nassau (the Prussian province formed in 1868 including, besides the Wiesbaden Region, further the former Electorate of Hesse, previously another member of the German Confederation). In 1945 the northwestern part of region was dissected, when the Wiesbaden Region was divided between the American and the French zone of occupation in Germany. The bulk of region with the city of Wiesbaden continued to exist as a region within the new state of Hesse.

By the time of the downfall of the French Empire in 1814 the battalions in Dutch service had disappeared, but Waldeck now supplied three Infantry and one Jäger Companies to the newly formed German Confederation. Cockade of Waldeck, worn on a Pickelhaube By 1866, the Waldeck contingent was styled Fürstlisches Waldecksches Füselier-Bataillon, and in the Austro- Prussian War of that year Waldeck (already in a military convention with Prussia from 1862) allied with the Prussians; however the Battalion saw no action. Joining the North German Confederation after 1867, under Prussian leadership, the Waldeck Fusilier Battalion became the III (Fusilier) Battalion of the Prussian Infantry Regiment von Wittich (3rd Electoral Hessian) No. 83, and as such it remained until 1918. The position of regimental 'Chef' (an honorary title) was held by the Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont.

Luxembourgers were, much like Austrians, historically considered to be a regional subgroup of ethnic Germans and viewed themselves as such until the collapse of the German Confederation. Luxembourg became independent, while remaining in personal union with the Netherlands, after the signing of the Treaty of London in 1839. The personal union proved short-lived as it was bilaterally and amicably dissolved in 1890.Cole (2011), p.

Even before the unification of Germany, in the days of the North German Confederation, monuments were built in honour of Bismarck. The first Bismarck Monument, a 12 metre high obelisk, was erected in 1868 in Gross-Peterwitz in Silesia. A year later, a Bismarck tower was opened as an observation tower in Ober-Johnsdorf in Silesia . Both monuments were the result of private initiatives.

He accepted the title on 18 January 1871. This latter date was later regarded as the creation of the Empire, although it had no constitutional meaning. A new Reichstag was elected on 3 March 1871. The constitutions of 1 January and 16 April 1871 constitution of the Empire were nearly identical to that of the North German Confederation, and the Empire adopted the North German Confederation's flag.

This policy continued under his son, King Ludwig II.George Windell (1954), The Catholics and German Unity, University of Minnesota Press. Pages 17–19. In 1863, however, the King supported the project of reform proposed by Austria at the . Attempts by Prussia to reorganize the loose and un-led German Confederation, were opposed by King Maximilian, the Emperor Franz Joseph, and other allies in 1863 in Frankfurt.

Prussia and Austria signed a Nikolsburg preliminary (26 July) and a final peace treaty of Prague (23 August). Austria affirmed the Prussian view that the German Confederation was dissolved. Prussia was allowed to create a "closer federation" (einen engeren Bund) in Germany north of the river Main. Bismarck had already agreed on this limitation with the French emperor Napoleon III prior to the peace talks.

French mobilization was ordered early on 15 July. Upon receiving news of the French mobilization, the North German Confederation mobilized on the night of 15–16 July, while Bavaria and Baden did likewise on 16 July and Württemberg on 17 July. On 19 July 1870, the French sent a declaration of war to the Prussian government. The southern German states immediately sided with Prussia.

German Canadians ( or , ) are Canadian citizens of German ancestry or Germans who emigrated to and reside in Canada. According to the 2016 census, there are 3,322,405 Canadians with full or partial German ancestry. Some immigrants came from what is today Germany, while larger numbers came from German settlements in Eastern Europe and Imperial Russia; others came from parts of the German Confederation, Austria-Hungary and Switzerland.

Melle was the son of , a merchant who later became a senator of Hamburg and eventually sat in the senate of the North German Confederation. Melle's mother, Maria Geffcken, whom his father married in 1850, was the daughter of Senator Henry Geffcken. After marrying Emmy Kaemmerer, the daughter of Georg Heinrich Kaemmerer, a businessman and member of the Hamburg Parliament, in 1880, Melle fathered three daughters.

Der Hochwächter, literally "The High Guard", was a German-language newspaper published in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. It was published from 1845 to 1849. The paper was established by German political activists who fled the German Confederation after a failed revolution in 1848. In its early years, the paper was intensely rempublic and opposed to the Catholic Church, which it viewed as supporting the ancien régime.

The head of the federal government of the North German Confederation, which was created on 1 July 1867, had the title Bundeskanzler. The only person to hold the office was Otto von Bismarck, the prime minister of Prussia. The king, being the bearer of the Bundespräsidium, installed him on 14 July. Under the constitution of 1 January 1871, the king had additionally the title of Emperor.

After the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the town was close to the borders of both Russian-controlled Congress Poland, and the Kingdom of Prussia. In the 1866 war between Austria and the Prussian-led North German Confederation, a cavalry skirmish was fought at the town, in which an Austrian force defeated a Prussian incursion.Prussian General Staff, The Campaign of 1866 in Germany, 1907, page 97.

Charles Looff was born as Carl Jürgen Detlev Looff on May 24, 1852 in Bad Bramstedt, Duchy of Holstein, German Confederation (temporary occupied by Denmark in second Schleswig War). His father, Jürgen Detlef Christian Looff, was a master blacksmith and wagon builder. Watching his father, Carl learned how to work with metal and wood. To avoid the coming war, Carl emigrated to the United States.

In: Gerhard Taddey (Hrsg.): Lexikon der deutschen Geschichte, 2. Auflage, Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 1983, p. 257. The mandate from the Vienna Congress, however, established the German Confederation, but did not deal with the economic circumstances, nor did it make any effort to achieve economic and trade standardization. Instead, the articles that established the Confederation suggested that trade and transportation questions be discussed at a later date.

In 1848 he was made ambassador of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to the parliament of the German Confederation. His prominence in the United Kingdom's political circles led to resentment at what was seen to be Albert's (and, generally, German) intervention in the UK's affairs. Stockmar was raised to the rank of baron by the King of Saxony. He died at Coburg.

It consisted mostly of the rural territories around the town of Meseritz. It became part of the North German Confederation in 1867 and of the German Empire when it was founded in 1871. In 1910, Germans made up 77% of the district's population, with Poles constituting the remaining 23%. After World War I, the administration had to be reorganised because the Region of Posen was split.

In 1816 his administration took possession of the duchy. During the First Schleswig War (1848–1851), the Ritter- und Landschaft prevented a Prussian conquest by requesting Hanoverian troops as peace-keeping occupational forces on behalf of the German Confederation. In 1851 King Frederick VII of Denmark was restored as Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg. Prussian and Austrian forces invaded the duchy during the Second Schleswig War.

Following this, Ludwig von Welden became head of the army topographical office, and served during the campaign in Piedmont in 1821 as head of the general staff. He also supervised the topographical survey of the region. In 1824, he published a monography about the Monte Rosa. From 1832 until 1838, he was a delegate at the central military commission of the German Confederation in Frankfurt.

5th edition, C.H. Beck, München 2005, p. 304. The Central Power or Central Government consisted of the Imperial Regent, Archduke John, and the ministers he appointed. He usually appointed those politicians that had the support of the Frankfurt Parliament, at least until May 1849. One of the ministers, the Prussian general Eduard von Peucker, was charged with the federal troops and federal fortifications of the German Confederation.

The engines and related machinery cost £50,000 of the total price of £90,000 per ship. Fitted for 140 saloon passengers, accommodations were still sparse. America and Niagara represented additions to the fleet while Europa and Canada replaced Britannia and Acadia, which were then sold to the North German Confederation Navy. The final two units were commissioned in 1850 and were another 20% larger with 40% more power.

In November 1847 and March 1848 Radowitz was sent by Frederick William to Vienna to attempt to arrange common action for the reconstruction of the German Confederation. In the Frankfurt Parliament he was leader of the conservative Right; and, after its break-up, he was zealous in promoting the Unionist policy of Prussia, which he defended both in the Prussian diet and in the Erfurt parliament.

The Konstanz Republicans, however, opposed Hecker's plan as unrealistic and dangerous. The troops of the German Confederation were said to be stationed all around and the operation was poorly prepared. They refused to support an armed uprising as the people had only armed themselves as protection against foreign enemies. Hecker pressed for a public meeting, he hoped to find the people more open to his plan.

Hahn was born in Reutlingen, then in the German Confederation. As a young man, he attended art school in Stuttgart. In 1888 he moved to Toronto in Canada, where he started to work as a designer in an interior decorating firm. Hahn painted murals in public buildings such as the Ontario Legislature and the Toronto Old City Hall, as well as churches and residences.

The Deutsche Reichspost started officially on May 4, 1871 using initially stamps of the North German Confederation until it issued its first stamps on January 1, 1872.Michel Deutschland Spezial 1997, p.210 Heinrich von Stephan, inventor of the postcard and founder of the Universal Postal Union, was the first Postmaster-General."History of postage stamps" The most common stamps of the Reichspost were the Germania stamps.

On March 1, 1870, the Norddeutscher Postbezirk (i.e. the postal service of the North German Confederation) opened its first office in Constantinople (Istanbul) using definitive stamps without overprint. After January 1872, the Reichspost took over the management of the office and expanded it further as "Deutsche Post in der Türkei". Prior to 1884, this office used ordinary definitive German stamps without any distinctive overprint.Michel 2007: p. 266.

With the establishment of the North German Confederation in 1867, revenue sharing became necessary between the newly formed group of states. In Bismark's Imperial Constitution it was determined that the states would support the empire with Member States Contributions when its own income from tolls and excise duties was not sufficient. This was often the case and the federal government became financially dependent on the states.

Born in Schleswig-Holstein, German Confederation, Rasch received a Bachelor of Philosophy degree from Cornell College in Mount Vernon, Iowa, in 1889 and a Bachelor of Laws from Chicago College of Law (now Chicago-Kent College of Law) in 1890. He was in private practice in Helena, Montana starting in 1891. He was the United States Attorney for the District of Montana from 1902 to 1908.

He used military force to crush the revolutionaries throughout the German Confederation. From 1849 onward he converted Prussia into a constitutional monarchy and acquired the port of Wilhelmshaven in the Jade Treaty of 1853. From 1857 to 1861, he suffered several strokes and was left incapacitated until his death. His brother (and heir-presumptive) Wilhelm served as regent after 1858 and then succeeded him as King.

He was resolute in his opposition to Baden's 1818 constitution. He believed that the German confederation could best be secured of the individual states within it retained their individual sovereignty. A couple of years later, in September 1822, he was reporting to Chancellor Metternich on alarming trends in Baden itself. The people, for the most part, conducted themselves in a good and orderly manner.

The term Auswärtiges Amt was the name of the Foreign Office established in 1870 by the North German Confederation, which then became the German Empire's Foreign Office in 1871. It is still the name of the German foreign ministry today. From 1871 to 1919, the Foreign Office was led by a Foreign Secretary, and since 1919, it has been led by the Foreign Minister of Germany.

After being extended to Halle and Leipzig in 1840 it became the first international main line and had a route length of . Between 1839 and 1843, the Rhenish Railway was built from Cologne to the border station of Herbesthal, with its connection to Antwerp. The line was opened on 15 October 1843 and was the first railway line that crossed an external border of the German Confederation.

The North German Constitution was the constitution of the North German Confederation, which existed as a country from 1 July 1867 to 31 December 1870. The Constitution of the German Empire (1871) was closely based on it. A Konstituierender Reichstag was elected on 12 February 1867. Its only task was to discuss and adopt the proposal for a constitution, as presented by the allied governments.

When the North German Confederation became the German Empire in 1871, the Bundeskanzleramt was renamed to Reichskanzleramt. It originally had its seat in the Radziwiłł Palace (also known as Reichskanzlerpalais), originally built by Prince Antoni Radziwiłł on Wilhelmstraße 77 in Berlin. More and more imperial offices were separated from the Reichskanzleramt,Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Vol. III: Bismarck und das Reich.

He become one of the founders of the German National Association in 1859. He became a member of the National Liberal Party of Germany from 1870 onwards. He was a member of the Thuringian Landtag and became its president from 1865 to 1889. In February 1867 he arrived in the Reichstag (North German Confederation) and the Customs Parliament.Reichstag of the North German Federation 1867-1870.

Morse was born in Wachenheim, Bavaria, in the German Confederation, and attended the common schools there. He immigrated to the United States in 1849 and resided for about a year in Sandwich, New Hampshire. He moved to Boston, Massachusetts and worked in a clothing store, which he later purchased and operated until his death. About 1850 Morse opened a clothing store in New Bedford, Massachusetts.

With the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 the grand title was again slightly modified. Although the Austrian emperor was also the nominal head of the German Confederation, this was not included in the grand title. The grand title was not a complete listing of all the titles held; instead it ends with an etc. There were also a middle title and a small title.

Plan of the fortress in 1849 Rastatt Fortress () was built from 1842 to 1852. The construction of this federal fortress was one of the few projects that the German Confederation was able to complete. The fortress site covered the Baden town of Rastatt and, in 1849, played an important role during the Baden Revolution. It was abandoned in 1890 and most of it was eventually demolished.

The Grand Duchy of Baden was a state within the German Confederation until 1866 and the German Empire until 1918, succeeded by the Republic of Baden within the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany. From 1945 to 1952, South Baden and Württemberg-Baden were territories under French and American occupation, respectively. They were united with Württemberg-Hohenzollern to form the modern Federal State of Baden-Württemberg in 1952.

But were the revolutions a failure? It is a dominant view, if the events are observed through the anachronistic lens of nationalism. But this ideology did not become the accepted ‘normal’ way of founding and legitimizing states across Europe until after the Great War. In the mid-19th century, over 90 percent of the population in the Austrian Empire and the German Confederation were peasants.

The Grand Duchy of Oldenburg (, also known as Holstein-Oldenburg) was a grand duchy within the German Confederation, North German Confederation and German Empire that consisted of three widely separated territories: Oldenburg, Eutin and Birkenfeld. It ranked tenth among the German states and had one vote in the Bundesrat and three members in the Reichstag. Its ruling family, the House of Oldenburg, also came to rule in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Greece and Russia. The heirs of a junior line of the Greek branch are, through Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, in the line of succession to the thrones of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms after Queen Elizabeth II. As common for German houses, the ruling branch of Oldenburg, which ruled as Dukes and later Grand Dukes, holds the headship by primogeniture of the entire House of Holstein-Oldenburg with all its cadet branches.

When he ascended the throne in 1807, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt was a member of the Confederation of the Rhine which was dissolved in 1813 with the Treaty of Paris on May 30, 1814 declaring the independence of the former Confederation states with Prince Friedrich Günther becoming the ruler of an independent principality. In 1815 the German Confederation was created and Schwarzburg- Rudolstadt along with other German monarchies joining. The last years of his reign saw the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 where Prince Friedrich Günther kept Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt neutral and following the conclusion of the war the creation of the North German Confederation. Following his death at Heidecksburg castle he was succeeded as prince by his brother Prince Albert as all of his sons by his first wife had predeceased him and his son by his second wife, Prince Sizzo of Leutenberg was born from a morganatic marriage.

Hochadel ("upper nobility", or "high nobility") were those noble houses which ruled sovereign states within the Holy Roman Empire and later, in the German Confederation and the German Empire. They were royalty; the heads of these families were entitled to be addressed by some form of "Majesty" or "Highness". These were the families of kings (Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, Saxony, and Württemberg), grand dukes (Baden, Hesse and by Rhine, Luxembourg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg and Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach), reigning dukes (Anhalt, Brunswick, Schleswig-Holstein, Nassau, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen), and reigning princes (Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Liechtenstein, Lippe, Reuss, Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarzburg, and Waldeck-Pyrmont). The Hochadel also included the Empire's formerly quasi-sovereign families whose domains had been mediatised within the German Confederation by 1815, yet preserved the legal right to continue royal intermarriage with still-reigning dynasties (Ebenbürtigkeit).

The Partitions of Luxembourg Following Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna granted most of the Southern Netherlands, including Wallonia, to the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Luxembourg was placed in a personal union under the Dutch crown but also made subject to the Holy Roman Empire's successor: the German Confederation. Most of what would become the Saarland and Rhineland-Palatinate was split between the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Prussia (also within the German Confederation); the eastern portion of Luxembourg was also ceded to Prussia. The only other states to remain in the region were part of the Grand Duchy of Hesse (Rhenish Hesse), Hesse-Homburg (which was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Hesse in 1866), the Principality of Lichtenberg (which was sold to Prussia in 1834), the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg and the Duchy of Nassau (which was annexed by Prussia in 1866).

Contrary to the ADAV, the SAP followed a strict anti-Prussian line and worked towards "Großdeutsche" (greater German) unification including Austria and a federal structure, with the goal of constricting the hegemony of Prussia, which was considered reactionary and militaristic by the SAP. That was not only in conflict with the goals of the conservative Prussian president and chancellor of the North German Confederation, Otto von Bismarck, but also with Schweitzer, the controversial leader of the ADAV, who was closer to the chancellor in national matters than the more internationally-oriented SAP. After the end of his first Reichstag period Hasenclever took part in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71. After the victory of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership, the southern German states Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria joined the Confederation, forming the German Empire with the King of Prussia, Wilhelm I, as Kaiser (Emperor).

The Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria) abdicated, following a military defeat by the French under Napoleon (see Treaty of Pressburg). Napoleon reorganized much of the Empire into the Confederation of the Rhine, a French satellite. Francis' House of Habsburg- Lorraine survived the demise of the Empire, continuing to reign as Emperors of Austria and Kings of Hungary until the Habsburg empire's final dissolution in 1918 in the aftermath of World War I. The Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine was replaced by a new union, the German Confederation, in 1815, following the end of the Napoleonic Wars. It lasted until 1866 when Prussia founded the North German Confederation, a forerunner of the German Empire which united the German-speaking territories outside of Austria and Switzerland under Prussian leadership in 1871.

The Monarch of Germany was created with the proclamation of the President of the North German Confederation and the King of Prussia, William I of Prussia, as "German Emperor" during the Franco-Prussian War, on 18 January 1871 at the Palace of Versailles. The title German Emperor () was carefully chosen by Minister President of Prussia and Chancellor of the North German Confederation Otto von Bismarck after discussion until (and after) the day of the proclamation. William I accepted this title grudgingly as he would have preferred "Emperor of Germany" which was, however, unacceptable to the federated monarchs, and which would also have signalled a claim to lands outside of his reign (Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg etc.). The title Emperor of the Germans, as had proposed at the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848, was ruled out as he considered himself chosen "By the Grace of God", not by the people as in a democracy.

Later in 1868 he returned to France. He tried to negotiate treaties between Hawaii and European powers, but the conflicts leading up to the Franco-Prussian War prevented much progress. A short treaty with Russia was signed June 19, 1869. He also negotiated treaties with the North German Confederation and Denmark, but these were rejected by the Hawaiian government because they did not allow for any other reciprocity agreements.

Hamburgischer Staats Kalender 1846, publ. by Friedrich Hermann Nestler and Melle, Hamburg, 1846 Sieveking had been in charge of the Foreign Affairs of the State of Hamburg since 1820 when he became a Syndicus. After Sieveking's death, Banks was entrusted with the direction of foreign affairs. From 1848, Banks took up a number of diplomatic posts and was Hamburg's representative at the Diet of the German Confederation in Frankfurt am Main.

Sofia Ludvika Cecila Constancia Sheptytska (, 27 May 1837, Lviv, Austrian Empire, German Confederation— 17 April 1904, Prylbychi (now Yavoriv Raion Lviv Oblast Ukraine)), was a Polish countess, poet, painter. The mother of Andrey Sheptytsky, O.S.B.M., the Metropolitan Archbishop of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (1900–1944), and of the Blessed Hieromartyr Klymentiy Sheptytsky, MSU, an archimandrite of the Order of Studite monks of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church.

For this reason, Germersheim mobilised to prevent the latter project going ahead and even sent a deputation to the German Confederation in Frankfurt. The Palatinate administration turned down the Germersheim approach, so the line from Winden to Karlsruhe was built starting in 1862. Instead, it was decided to extend the Schifferstadt–Speyer railway, which opened in 1847 with the Ludwig Railway, to Germersheim. This line was opened on 14 March 1864.

The Bavarian army was defeated in Lower Franconia at the Battle of Kissingen (10 July 1866). Prince Karl Theodor of Bavaria took command, but the Bavarians were decisively beaten at Uettingen (26 July 1866). Austria was defeated, and the German Confederation was dissolved, ending Austria's influence over the lesser German states. Bavaria lost Gersfeld and Bad Orb to Prussia; they became part of the new province of Hesse-Nassau.

The first currency unions were established in the 19th century. The German Zollverein came into existence in 1834, and by 1866, it included most of the German states. The fragmented states of the German Confederation agreed on common policies to increase trade and political unity. The Latin Monetary Union, comprising France, Belgium, Italy, Switzerland and Greece, existed between 1865 and 1927, with coinage made of gold and silver.

After the deaths of the Grimm Brothers, successive linguists continued the work. The first of these were close associates of the brothers, Rudolf Hildebrand and Karl Weigand. The DWB also became an affair of state when Otto von Bismarck requested the North German Confederation Federal Council to provide state funding in 1867. The young Germanist Moritz Heyne joined the project and became one of its most important contributors.

The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 between Austrian Empire and its allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia and its allies on the other. The Confederation had 33 members immediately before its dissolution. In the Prague peace treaty, on 23 August 1866, Austria had to accept that the Confederation was dissolved.Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Vol.

His army system was adopted after 1866 by the whole North German Confederation. In later years, his army system was copied throughout continental Europe. During the Franco-Prussian War in 1870-71, Roon was in attendance on Prussian King Wilhelm I. The war was a great victory for Prussia and Roon's contribution to success was considerable. He was created a Graf (count) on 19 January 1871, just after Moltke.

He was born in Leipzig, which was part of the German Confederation. Basically a third baseman, Kuehne was able to play all positions but pitcher and catcher. He enjoyed his best years with the Pittsburgh teams, hitting .299 in 1887 as he led the National League with 138 games played in 1888. From 1883 to 1888 he averaged 15.33 triples per season, with a career-high 19 in 1895.

William I at Scheveningen on 30 November 1813 by Johan Willem Heyting (1915–1995). William I became king and also became the hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, that was part of the Netherlands but at the same time part of the German Confederation. The newly created country had two capitals: Amsterdam and Brussels. The new nation had two equal parts. The north (Netherlands proper) had 2 million people.

The Duchies of Schleswig, Holstein und Lauenburg in 1864 In the international arena, Prime Minister Bismarck tried to build German unity around Prussia. His plans were to end the Austrian influence in the German Confederation and impose Prussian hegemony in Germany. Faithful to his objectives, Bismarck involved Prussia in the War of the Duchies against Denmark in 1864. However, the prime minister counteracted with the help of Austria in the conflict.

In addition, local sovereigns were more interested in maintaining their prerogatives, and the new German constitution gave many powers to the now Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.Herre 2006, p. 153. Less enthusiastic than her husband, Vicky saw the North German Confederation as an extension of the Prussian political system she hated. Nevertheless, she remained hopeful that this situation was temporary and that a united and liberal Germany could be created.

Bernhard was born on 1 April 1851 at Meiningen in what was then the German Confederation, as the eldest son of Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen and his first wife Princess Charlotte of Prussia. He had one full sister, Princess Marie Elisabeth, and several half- brothers by his father's second marriage. From 1860 Bernhard was schooled by a Prof. Rossmann before he went to study at Heidelberg University in 1869.

A bust of Ernest at the Landestheater in Coburg. Ernest was a strong enthusiast for music and plays all his life, and was the artistic force behind many that were popular in Germany. From 1848 to 1864, Denmark and the German Confederation fought over control of the two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Historically, the duchies had been ruled by Denmark since medieval times, but there remained a large German majority.

A few months later, on 15 December 1806, it, along with the other Ernestine duchies, entered the Confederation of the Rhine. In 1815, it joined the German Confederation. In 1818, it was one of the first German states to receive a constitution. At the City Hall of Hildburghausen, two coats of arms are presented – for the Duchy of Saxe-Hilburghausen on the left and the City of Hildburghausen on the right.

Nassau, however, was annexed and became Prussian and at first part of the North German Confederation and then later the German Empire. The community and its inhabitants lived through two world wars. In a bombardment on 18 March 1944, 18 buildings were utterly destroyed. However, not only were these houses long ago rebuilt, but also the community has changed from an agricultural community to one based more on industry and services.

For the duration of the conflict, the flotilla operated out of Geestemünde. Without a naval threat from Austria, the Prussian navy therefore concentrated its effort against the Kingdom of Hanover. After the Hanoverian coastal fortresses were occupied, Blitz returned to Geestemünde on 25 September. With the war over, Blitz was deployed to the Mediterranean a second time, now to represent the interests of the newly-formed North German Confederation.

Constituent states united in a confederal union under a confederal government are more specifically known as confederated states. Some of the most notable historical examples of constituent states within a confederation are the United States under the Articles of Confederation, the States of the German Confederation and States of the Confederate States of America. In modern political practice, notable examples are Cantons of Switzerland or Entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Both Kettenis and Heerlen had been part of the Duchy of Limburg for centuries. The then borders between the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium had only recently been drawn (see Treaty of London, 1839) and regional sentiments were still much stronger than any national feelings. Limburgers still felt closer to nearby Germans than to Hollanders. The Duchy was even part of the German Confederation from 1839 to 1866 (just 8 years earlier).

The Hungarian Diet controlled Hungarian internal affairs. The new Parliament did not please either side, however. State finances continued to fail; the Germans were not happy with the power given to the diets; and the non-Germans were disappointed by the amount of power that remained in the Emperor’s hands. In addition to continuing internal problems, the Austrian Empire was plagued by outside pressures, specifically the evolution of the German Confederation.

The other members of the German Confederation did not agree, and it was even discussed to declare war on the two great powers. However, due to the military superiority of the Prussians and Austrians, this did not happen. On 14 January 1864, Austria and Prussia declared to take action against Denmark without regard to decisions of the German Confederation.Jürgen Müller: Der Deutsche Bund 1815–1866, Oldenbourg Verlag, München 2006, p.

Gagern's labours during the revolutionary year of 1848 extended far beyond his native state. He was the centre of the efforts that aimed to mediate between the Government and the people and to reorganize the German Confederation as a nation. According to the schemes Prussia was to have the supreme direction of German affairs. With this end in view Gagern negotiated with the Governments of Southern Germany and with Prussia.

It emerged from the Interessengemeinschaft der Polizeibeamtenbunde (Pool of Police Officer Federations), which had existed in the British occupation zone and West Berlin to that point. It joined the German Confederation of Trade Unions on 1 April 1978. On a European level, the GdP was part of the European Confederation of Police (EuroCOP). The GdP resigned its EuroCOP Membership in 2016, after some differences about the GdP Leadership Personnel.

In 1848 he became a member of the Frankfurt Parliament and in 1849 member of the Second Chamber of the Prussian Landtag. He was a mentor of Bethel Henry Strousberg concerning the financing of the East Prussian Southern Railwayostpreussen.net and the head of its supervisory board. In 1867, Saltzwedel was elected as a member of the Parliament of the North German Confederation (until 1870) and the Preußisches Abgeordnetenhaus (until 1869).

In 1849 he tendered his resignation out of Prussian service and became the Supreme commander of the forces of the German Confederation in the First Schleswig War in April 1850. Willisen commanded the Schleswig- Holstein troops in the Battle of Idstedt and the attack on Friedrichstadt. After the defeat of his troops Willisen resigned and lived in Paris (France), Silesia and finally Dessau, where he died on 25 February 1879.

909–910; Wawro, Chapter 11. The new North German Confederation had its own constitution, flag, and governmental and administrative structures. Through military victory, Prussia under Bismarck's influence had overcome Austria's active resistance to the idea of a unified Germany. Austria's influence over the German states may have been broken, but the war also splintered the spirit of pan-German unity: most of the German states resented Prussian power politics.

The Second French Empire, his Western European model, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War by the North German Confederation under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia. Abdulaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as unrest in the Balkan provinces continued. In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion was the beginning of further unrest in the Balkan provinces. In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians.

Since 1848, about seven million Germans have emigrated to the United States. Many of them settled in the cities of Baltimore, Chicago, Detroit and New York City. The failed German Revolutions of 1848 into 1849 (accompanied by similar upheavals that same pivotal year in the rest of Europe) accelerated emigration from Germany and the German Confederation. Those Germans who left as a result of the revolution were called the Forty-Eighters.

After the war, direct trade between the American ports of Baltimore, Norfolk, and Philadelphia and the old Hanseatic League ports of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck grew steadily. Americans exported tobacco, rice, cotton, sugar, imported textiles, metal products, colognes, brandies, and toiletries. The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) and increasing instability in the German Confederation states led to a decline in the economic relationships between the United States and the Hanse.

An important instrument for the application of the Decrees for these and other purposes was the Mainzer Zentraluntersuchungskommission. An essential attribute of the decrees was that the reactionary German Confederation understood liberal and nationalistic ideas as sedition and persecuted those spreading these ideas as demagogues. This persecution of demagogues, Demagogenverfolgung, was especially vigorous in Prussia. After the Hambach Festival in 1832 the persecution was renewed for the last time.

The establishment of the North German Confederation in 1867 created a customs union and the controls were abolished. Navigation on the Elde was improved in the Grabow area in 1868. In response, a transhipment facility was established at the railway bridge in the southern part of the station precinct, where a crane transhipped goods between boats and rail wagons. However, demand remained low and the crane was dismantled in 1885.

The last imperial ruling house (the Habsburgs) had Vienna as its permanent seat of government. After the Congress of Vienna created the formal German Confederation in 1815, a Federal Assembly convened at the Free City of Frankfurt, representing not the people of the individual German Lands but their sovereigns. Subsequently, Frankfurt briefly became the official German capital during the short-lived Revolutions of 1848 in the German states.

In Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the postal system was still under the control of the chamber and forest council until the changeover to the administration of the North German Confederation. Stamps of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Mecklenburg- Strelitz did not introduce stamps until 1864. The rectangular stamps were only intended for correspondence within the state. The value is inscribed above, the indication of the currency (Silbergroschen or Schilling) is at the bottom.

He took part in the federal execution in Baden and was head of the army organization department of the Frankfurt Parliament. Between his deployments as military representative of Bavaria at the German Confederation from 1850 to 1851 and from 1854 to 1863, he was advanced to Oberst in 1852. Shortly after he became war minister, he died in Badenweiler.Liel, Karl Friedrich von, House of the Bavarian history (HdBG).

On 30 March 1836 the Belgian government introduced a permanent local government law, in which the mayor was appointed by the king for six years. After the Treaty of London, Simpelveld became part of the Duchy of Limburg, a part of the German Confederation. The duchy was however also considered part of the Netherlands and Dutch laws applied. The mayor was appointed by the king for a term of six years.

William Hummel was born on October 22, 1832 in Neuffen, Württemberg, then a part of the German Confederation. He was reared by his paternal grandparents His grandfather was a tanner by trade. From age seven to twelve, he attended school and in 1844, his parents immigrated to the United States, taking him along. The voyage was difficult, with various problems leading to spending 138 days on a ship.

The empire's finances continued to fail, further showing the weaknesses of the current administration. Prussia and the German Confederation began to sense a weakness in the monarchy that could be exploited, while Hungarians were furious with the few reforms they had been given. Additionally, the Tsar disapproved of granting a Federal Constitution to Galicia. In the end, it was the German liberals who were eventually able to effect change.

The son of Moritz Cohn, a Jewish rabbi, and Auguste Cohn, Martin Cohn was born in Reichenbach, Silesia (current-day Dzierżoniów, Poland), which was then part of the North German Confederation. He received a classical education before joining the military. He was discharged in 1894 after suffering an injury to his arm. Moving to Berlin, Martin studied photochemistry under the direction of Professor Hermann Wilhelm Vogel at the Gewerbe Institut.

The governor and commander were appointed by Bavaria. The construction for a fortress around Landau had begun in 1688 according to plans of Sébastien le Prestre de Vauban and was continued in the 18th century. The small and in the 19th century outdated fortress consisted of a polygonal system, flanked by casemated towers. During the time of the German Confederation the fortress was enhanced by numerous detached forts.

Chamber of the Bundesrat in the Reichstag building (around 1894) Seal: "Büreau des Bundesraths" (around 1900) The Bundesrat ("Federal Council") of the German Empire was, at least in theory, the highest authority of the Empire. It existed from 1871 to 1918 and succeeded the same body of the North German Confederation. Until the 1902 spelling reform, its name was spelled Bundesrath. The Bundesrat comprised representatives of the 25 member states (Bundesstaaten).

The French under Napoleon occupied the country for a few years, but Liechtenstein retained its independence in 1815. Soon afterward, Liechtenstein joined the German Confederation (20 June 1815 – 24 August 1866, which was presided over by the Emperor of Austria). Then, in 1818, Johann I granted a constitution, although it was limited in its nature. 1818 also saw the first visit of a member of the house of Liechtenstein, Prince Alois.

While the Kingdom of Hanover was annexed by Prussia in 1866, the Duchy of Brunswick remained sovereign and independent. It joined first the North German Confederation and in 1871 the German Empire. William VIII ruled the Duchy of Brunswick for more than 50 years (1830–1884). In the 1870s, it became obvious that the then senior branch of the ruling House of Welf would die with Duke William.

The ruling body of the Confederation, the Confederate Diet, was dissolved on 12 July 1848, but was re-established in 1850 after the revolution was crushed by Austria, Prussia and other states.Deutsche Geschichte 1848/49, Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885–1892 The Confederation was finally dissolved after the victory of the Kingdom of Prussia in the Seven Weeks' War over the Austrian Empire in 1866. The dispute over which had the inherent right to rule German lands ended in favour of Prussia, leading to the creation of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership in 1867, to which the eastern portions of the Kingdom of Prussia were added. A number of South German states remained independent until they joined the North German Confederation, which was renamed and proclaimed as the "German Empire" in 1871, as the unified Germany (aside from Austria) with the Prussian king as emperor (Kaiser) after the victory over French Emperor Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870.

Historically, the most prominent example of a federal monarchy in the Western world was the German Empire (1871–1918) and, to a lesser extent, its predecessors (North German Confederation and German Confederation). The head of state of the federation was a monarch, the German Emperor, who was also head of state of the largest constituent part to the federation as King of Prussia; other constituent monarchies, such as the kingdoms of Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg and various grand duchies, duchies and principalities, retained their own monarchs and armies. Besides the 23 monarchies (22 constituent monarchies and the German emperor) there were also three republican city-states – Bremen, Hamburg and Lübeck – and Alsace-Lorraine, a semi-autonomous republic since 1912. The concept played a role in political debates in Italy and Austria-Hungary in the nineteenth century and in Yugoslavia in the twentieth century, but it was not put into effect in any of the cases.

This was not to take place, however. Officially, the Prussian garrison in Luxembourg operated as an instrument of the German Confederation. Yet since Austria, the other major German power, had given up its possessions in the Low Countries, Prussia had taken over the defence of the Western German states, and it was able to defend its own geopolitical interests as well as those of the Confederation. The timeline of its occupation of the fortress shows that Prussia was advancing its own agenda: it occupied the Luxembourg Fortress from 8 July 1814, before the Congress of Vienna had made it a federal fortress on 9 June 1815, and before the German Confederation even existed. Only after 11 years of the Prussian garrison was the fortress formally taken over by the Confederation on 13 March 1826, and it was not until one year after the Confederation dissolved (in 1866) that Prussian troops left the fortress, on 9 September 1867.

This eventually led to a German civil war, the Austro-Prussian War, in which in the Battle of Langensalza (the last battle between Germanic states on German soil) Hanover won a victory, but was so weakened by it, that it could offer no resistance to the occupation by Prussia and ceased to be an independent state. The victory of Prussia and its allies at Königgrätz in July 1866, against Austria and its allies sealed this. The result was the dissolution of the German Confederation, and the creation of the North German Confederation one year later.Dennis E. Showalter, The wars of German unification (2004) The Prussian 7th Cuirassiers charge the French guns at the Battle of Mars-La-Tour, August 16, 1870 Bismarck wanted a war with France to unify the German peoples, and French Emperor Napoleon III, unaware of his military weakness, provided the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, expecting support from Prussia's recent enemies.

In May of this year he had an important interview with Bismarck, who wished to secure his support for the reform of the German Confederation, and after the war was over at once accepted the position of a Prussian subject, taking his seat in the diet (parliament) of the North German Confederation and in the Prussian House of Representatives. He used his influence to procure as much autonomy as possible for the province of Hanover, but was a strong opponent of the Guelph Party. He was one of the three Hanoverians, Ludwig Windthorst and Johann von Miquel being the other two, who at once won for the representatives of the conquered province the lead in both the Prussian and North German parliaments. The Nationalverein, its work being done, was now dissolved; but Bennigsen was chiefly instrumental in founding a new political party, the National Liberals, who, while they supported Bismarck's national policy, hoped to secure the constitutional development of the country.

Kaiserliches Postamt sign, about 1900 Upon the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the break-up of the German Confederation in the Peace of Prague, the North German Confederation was established, instigated by the Prussian minister-president Otto von Bismarck. Originally a military alliance, it evolved to a federation with the issuing of a constitution with effect from 1 July 1867. In the course of the war, Prussian troops had occupied the Free City of Frankfurt and the King of Prussia (later to become Emperor of Germany) had purchased the remnants of the Thurn-und-Taxis Post organisation. According to article 48, the federal area of the Northern German states, de facto an enlarged Prussia, came under the united postal authority, led by director Heinrich von Stephan. With the German unification upon the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, the Deutsche Reichspost was established as a state monopoly and became the official national postal authority of the German Empire including the annexed province of Alsace- Lorraine.

A preliminary meeting was held on 1 August 1819, the day following the date on Metternich's letter to Marschall von Bieberstein, at the health resort of Teplitz in northern Bohemia: the meeting was arranged by Prince Metternich, representing Austria, in order to agree his position with King Frederick William III of Prussia and the Prussian chancellor, von Hardenberg. On 2 August 1819 the eruption of a two month period of communal and antisemitic rioting intensified the perceived need for action against the dangers of a rerun of the French revolution centred, this time, on German- speaking central Europe. Six weeks of negotiations involving leaders of the German confederation member states now took place at the health resort of Karlsbad in Bohemia, which resulted in the presentartion of the so-called Karlsbad decrees, which were accepted and ratified by the Bundesversammlung (the Frankfurt-based "parliament" of the German confederation) on 20 September 1819. The document closely followed the pre-existing agreement between the Austrian and Prussian leaderships.

The Austrian government had to face the rising "Hungarian question", that eventually led to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. On 20 September 1865, Belcredi had the 1861 February Patent suspended. "Belcredi, Richard Graf" (bio), aeiou Encyclopedia, 2008 (see below: References). Against delaying actions by Belcredi, the Compromise was achieved after the Austrian defeat in the Austro-Prussian War and the 1866 Peace of Prague, ending the monarchy's membership in the German Confederation.

At the same time, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for ceding his family's hereditary lands in Germany to Nassau-Weilburg and Prussia. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was a part of the Netherlands (until 1839) while at the same time a member state of the German Confederation. It became fully independent in 1839, but remained in a personal union with the Kingdom of the Netherlands until 1890.Thewes, Guy (2006) (PDF).

As first German confederation of unions at 14 March 1892 the Generalkommission der Gewerkschaften Deutschlands was founded in Halberstadt. It represented 57 national and some local unions with approximate 300,000 people in total. After World War I unions had to reorganise. During a congress in Nuremberg from 30 June until 5 July 1919 the Allgemeiner Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (ADGB) was founded as an umbrella organisation of 52 unions with more than 3 million members.

Bavaria and most of the south German states allied with Austria, but contributed far less to the war against Prussia. Prussia quickly defeated the Kingdom of Hanover, then won the Battle of Königgrätz (3 July 1866) against Austria, which was totally defeated by Prussia shortly afterward. The states of the German Confederation had not agreed on a common strategy in the war. Their separate armies were therefore defeated in succession by Prussia.

However, Bach's relaxed ideological views (apart from the neo-absolutism) led to a great rise in the 1850s of economic freedom. Internal customs duties were abolished, and peasants were emancipated from their feudal obligations. In her capacity as leader of the German Confederation, Austria participated with volunteers in the First War of Schleswig (1848–1850).Handbook of Austria and Lombardy- Venetia Cancellations on the Postage Stamp Issues 1850–1864, by Edwin MUELLER, 1961.

In 1863, three years after von Eulenburg's visit in Tokyo, a Shogunal legation arrived at the Prussian court of King Wilhelm I and was greeted with a grandiose ceremony in Berlin. After the treaty was signed, Max von Brandt became diplomatic representative in Japan – first representing Prussia, and after 1866 representing the North German Confederation, and by 1871 representing the newly established German Empire.Masako Hiyama: "Max von Brandt (1835–1920)". In: Brückenbauer.

The German Confederation () was founded, a loose union of 39 states (35 ruling princes and 4 free cities) under Austrian leadership, with a Federal Diet () meeting in Frankfurt am Main. It was a loose coalition that failed to satisfy most nationalists. The member states largely went their own way, and Austria had its own interests. In 1819 a student radical assassinated the reactionary playwright August von Kotzebue, who had scoffed at liberal student organisations.

The subsequent management of the two duchies led to tensions between Austria and Prussia. Austria wanted the duchies to become an independent entity within the German Confederation, while Prussia intended to annex them. The disagreement served as a pretext for the Seven Weeks War between Austria and Prussia, that broke out in June 1866. In July, the two armies clashed at Sadowa-Königgrätz (Bohemia) in an enormous battle involving half a million men.

Between 1865 and 1872 he sat as a member of the Dresden City Council, remaining active in city politics till the mid 1870s. In February 1867 he was elected as a Progress Party member to the Reichstag of the newly created North German Confederation. Both the confederation and its Reichstag proved short-lived. Following unification, however, in 1871 they were replaced by a new German state and a new national Parliament ("Reichstag").

In March 1849 Britannia was sold to the German Confederation Navy and renamed SMS Barbarossa. Fitted with nine guns, she served as the flagship of the Reichsflotte under Karl Rudolf Brommy in the Battle of Heligoland. In June 1852 she was transferred to the Prussian Navy and used as a barracks ship at Danzig. Twenty eight years later, she was decommissioned and in July 1880 she was sunk as a target ship.

Friedrich Wilhelm succeeded as Grand Duke on the death of his father on 6 September 1860. During his reign, Mecklenburg-Strelitz became a member first of the North German Confederation and then the German Empire. Friedrich Wilhelm was a large land owner with more than half of the entire grand duchy, his personal property. He died at Neustrelitz on 30 May 1904 and was succeeded by his only son, who became Adolf Friedrich V.

In Württemberg, equality was conceded on December 3, 1861; in Baden on October 4, 1862; in Holstein on July 14, 1863; and in Saxony on December 3, 1868. After the establishment of the North German Confederation by the law of July 3, 1869, all remaining statutory restrictions imposed on the followers of different religions were abolished; this decree was extended to all the states of the German empire after the events of 1870.

Tens of thousands of people were killed, and many more were forced into exile. Significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark, and the introduction of representative democracy in the Netherlands. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, the states of the German Confederation, Italy, and the Austrian Empire.William L. Langer, Political and social upheaval, 1832–1852 (1969) ch. 10–14.

Its purpose was to examine the draft proposals presented by the quasi-parliamentary . (Hamburg finally got its new constitution in 1860.) From 1849 he was travelling more, initially in connection with negotiations to try to get rid of the shipping tolls on the Elbe. Between 1851 and 1857 Kirchenpauer combined his senatorial responsibilities with service as a Permanent Representative of the city of Hamburg at the Federal Convention of the German Confederation.

Within days, the uprising was crushed. On April 14 military units of the German Confederation, under the command of General Friedrich von Gagern set themselves on the heels of Hecker's column. On the 16th, Hecker had to turn south towards Stühlingen and Bonndorf without having reached Donaueschingen, in order to avoid a clash with the Confederation troops. He was cut off from the lower Rhine; Mannheim, Heidelberg, and Karlsruhe were now unattainable.

On November 12, the parliament passed a resolution whereafter black-red-gold became the German war and merchant flag. However, as official flag of the German Confederation, the tricolour was mainly used in the small Imperial fleet (Reichsflotte), which was dissolved by 1852. The Frankfurt Constitution, adopted in 1849 and never carried into effect, omitted any provision of national symbols. After the dissolution of the Frankfurt Parliament, the tricolour vanished from public space.

At the beginning of 1848, Denmark included the Duchy of Schleswig, and the king of Denmark ruled the duchies of Holstein and Saxe-Lauenburg within the German Confederation. The majority of the ethnic Germans in Denmark lived in these areas. Germans made up a third of the country's population, and the three duchies accounted for half of Denmark's economy. The Napoleonic Wars, which had ended in 1815, had fanned both Danish and German nationalism.

However, in 1852, they had to commit themselves to treat Schleswig constitutionally no different than Holstein. This contradicted the objective of the Danish liberals to fully reintegrate Schleswig into Denmark. In 1858, the German Confederation deposed the 'union constitution' of the Danish monarchy concerning Holstein and Lauenburg, which were members of the Confederation. The two duchies were henceforth without any constitution, while the 'union constitution' still applied to Schleswig and Denmark proper.

The Day of the founding of the German Empire () was an annual celebration on the anniversary of the proclamation of the German Empire on 18 January 1871 in the Palace of Versailles. The North German Confederation had already officially adopted the name "German Reich" in its Constitution by 1 January 1871, so constitutionally speaking, 18 January was not the day of the founding. Berlin Castle, based on a painting of William Pape.

In 1845 he became Professor of Law at the University of Kiel, where he took part in the debates over the Schleswig-Holstein Question. He participated in the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848, and then became envoy of the provisional government of Schleswig-Holstein to the German Confederation. In 1849 he also became Professor of Law at the University of Freiburg, where he died in 1850. His cousin Guido von Madai was a Prussian civil servant.

Dieter Schulte (born 13 January 1940) is a German trade union leader. He was chairman of the German Confederation of Trade Unions (DGB) from 1994 to 2002. Born in Duisburg, Schulte worked as a bricklayer, then for Thyssen Stahl AG. In 1957, he joined the Building and Construction Union, then in 1958 transferred to IG Metall. From 1970, he held a variety of union posts, eventually in 1991 becoming the union's director.

The German Empire consisted of 25 constituent states and an Imperial Territory, the largest of which was Prussia. These states, or Staaten (or Bundesstaaten, i.e. federal states, a name derived from the previous North German Confederation; they became known as Länder during the Weimar Republic) each had votes in the Bundesrat, which gave them representation at a federal level. Several of these states had gained sovereignty following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.

This led to conflict with the German Confederation, which authorised the occupation of Holstein by the Confederation, from which Danish forces withdrew. In 1864, Prussian and Austrian forces crossed the border between Holstein and Schleswig initiating the Second War of Schleswig. The Austro-Prussian forces defeated the Danes, who surrendered both territories. In the resulting Gastein Convention of 1865 Prussia took over the administration of Schleswig while Austria assumed that of Holstein.

With the treaty, the southern provinces of the Netherlands, independent de facto since 1830, became internationally recognised as the Kingdom of Belgium, while the Province of Limburg was split into Belgian and Dutch parts. The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg was in a personal union with the Netherlands and simultaneously a member of the German Confederation. The treaty partitioned the grand duchy. It lost two-thirds of its territory to Belgium's new Province of Luxembourg.

The term Lesser Germany (German: Kleindeutschland, in opposition to 'Greater Germany') relates essentially to Germany without Austria. In the 19th century, a part of the Austrian Empire belonged to the German Confederation. In the revolutionary era of 1848–1850, it was discussed whether Austria or a part of Austria could belong to a new German federal state. In 1867–1871, the 'Lesser Germany' became reality: a federal state under leadership of Prussia and without Austria.

In 1870, the North German Confederation was joined by Baden, Bavaria, Great Britain, Luxembourg, and Switzerland. The year 1871 saw Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden introduce their own postals. Algeria, Chile, France, and Russia did so in 1872, and were followed thereafter by France, Japan, Romania, Serbia, Spain, and the United States between 1873 and 1874. Many of these postals included small images on the same side as the postage.

Märkischer Bahnhof in Breslau (Wrocław) in 1880 Fürstenwalde station about 1845 Around 1840 all the major countries of the German Confederation began to build main-line railways. From 1837 to 1839, the first German long-distance railway was built in Saxony, the Leipzig–Dresden railway. In 1837 Austria began building its Northern Railway. From 1838 to 1840 the first railways crossing state boundaries (the Magdeburg–Leipzig railway and the Anhalt Railway) were built.

The Congress established a loose German Confederation (1815–1866), headed by Austria, with a "Federal Diet" (called the Bundestag or Bundesversammlung, an assembly of appointed leaders) that met in the city of Frankfurt am Main. In recognition of the imperial position traditionally held by the Habsburgs, the emperors of Austria became the titular presidents of this parliament. Problematically, the built-in Austrian dominance failed to take into account Prussia's 18th century emergence in Imperial politics.

Decisive controversy arose due to the passing of the November Constitution, which brought the Duchy of Schleswig closer to the kingdom of Denmark in violation of the London Protocol, after the German Confederation had rejected the previous state constitution (Helstatsforfatning). The war ended on 30 October 1864, when the Treaty of Vienna caused Denmark's cession of the Duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia and Austria. The war resulted in a German victory.

Prior to the 1860s, Germany consisted of a multitude of principalities loosely bound together as members of the German Confederation. Bismarck used both diplomacy and the Prussian military to achieve unification, excluding Austria from a unified Germany. This made Prussia the most powerful and dominant component of the new Germany, but also ensured that it remained an authoritarian state and not a liberal parliamentary democracy.Gordon A. Craig, Germany, 1866–1945 (1978), pp. 1–21.

A cooperative credit union for the promotion of commerce and trade was founded in 1864 from which emerged the Volksbank that still exists today. After the creation of the North German Confederation and the southern German states successively falling into line by 1868 the citizens of Speyer elected their deputies for the parliament of the Zollverein. Yet, they were not convinced of the lesser German solution as most could not imagine a Germany without Austria.

Ernst Werner Siemens was born in Lenthe, today part of Gehrden, near Hannover, in the Kingdom of Hanover in the German Confederation, the fourth child (of fourteen) of a tenant farmer of the Siemens family, an old family of Goslar, documented since 1384. He was a brother of Carl Heinrich von Siemens and Carl Wilhelm Siemens, sons of Christian Ferdinand Siemens (31 July 1787 – 16 January 1840) and wife Eleonore Deichmann (1792 – 8 July 1839).

The IG Bauen-Agrar-Umwelt (IG BAU) is a trade union in Germany with a membership of 350,000 (as per end of 2007). It is the fourth largest of eight industrial affiliates of the DGB (German Confederation of Trade Unions). IG BAU is active in the sectors of construction and engineering, building materials, building cleaning, facility management, gardening, forestry and agriculture. Since 2013 Robert Feiger has been the president of IG BAU.

The (Hans Böckler Foundation) is named in Böckler's honor. It was established by the German Confederation of Trade Unions in 1977 with the merger of the Hans-Böckler- Gesellschaft (Hans Böckler Society) and the Stiftung Mitbestimmung (Co- determination Foundation). In 1995 the (Institute of Economics and Social Sciences) was integrated into the foundation. Based in Düsseldorf, the foundation has several research institutes and publishes a variety of books, journals and working papers.

Februar 2015. This office did exist until 1945. It is the basis of the "" (Court of Auditors of the North German Confederation) founded in 1868, which was soon to become the "" (Court of Auditors of the German Reich) in 1871. It was reestablished in 1948 as the "" (Court of Auditors of the United Economic Area), and with the foundation of the West-German Federal Republic it became the "" (Federal Court of Auditors).www.bundesrechnungshof.

In 1848 he was elected as deputy member of the Frankfurt Parliament of the election district Heiligenbeil/Pr. Eylau and became a member of the Parliament on 11 October 1848 after the delegate Graf Dohna-Lauck resigned his position. From 1858 till 1876 Kalckstein was the head of the administration of the district of Pr. Eylau (Landrat) and member of the North German Confederation parliament and the Reichstag from 1867 - 1873. Kalckstein died in Wogau.

The Duchy of Nassau (German: Herzogtum Nassau) was an independent state between 1806 and 1866, located in what is now the German states of Rhineland- Palatinate and Hesse. It was a member of the Confederation of the Rhine and later of the German Confederation. Its ruling dynasty, now extinct, was the House of Nassau. The duchy was named for its historical core city, Nassau, although Wiesbaden rather than Nassau was its capital.

He opposed Jewish emancipation in Baden. He worked for freedom of the press. A law for protecting freedom of the press was passed in the diet of 1831, and Rotteck saw it as a result of his efforts even though it didn't fully satisfy him. At the diet of 1833, he poured out his full measure of scorn when a decree of the German Confederation dictated an early end for the youthful Baden press freedom.

The three key points of the programme (the creation of Slovenia as a distinct entity, recognition of the Slovene language and opposition to joining the German Confederation) were signed as a petition. 51 signed sheets still exist, showing that the programme was well-supported by the masses. The signed petition was presented to the Austrian parliament; however, due to the uprising in Hungary, the Parliament was dissolved before it could even discuss the Slovene issue.

The German Confederation that same year attempted to intervene in this matter and ordered Charles to accept the new constitution from his minority. Charles disregarded it, and continued governing as his father had. He did not have his decrees cosigned, but continued as an absolute monarch, as the Guelphs had been for more than 1,000 years. The ownership of the printing presses ultimately won the battle as the popular opinion was turned against their monarch.

He was educated at Eton College and then joined the service of the Foreign Office. In 1852, Boyle was appointed Attaché to the British envoy at Frankfurt am Main, a Free imperial city maintaining its independence. Frankfurt was at the time a member of the German Confederation and served as the seat of its Bundesversammlung. From 1852 to 1853, Boyle served as Attaché to the British embassy at Vienna, capital of the Austrian Empire.

The first state-owned railway in the German Confederation was the line from Brunswick to Wolfenbüttel opened by the Duchy of Brunswick on 1 December 1838. It connected the two most important towns in the then Duchy of Brunswick. The Wolfenbüttel–Oschersleben railway, running via Jerxheim, was opened on 16 July 1843. Until the opening of the Berlin–Lehrte railway in 1871, this was part of the shortest connection between Hanover and Berlin.

Changes to the configuration of European states, as refashioned after Waterloo, included the formation of the Holy Alliance of reactionary governments intent on repressing revolutionary and democratic ideas, and the reshaping of the former Holy Roman Empire into a German Confederation increasingly marked by the political dominance of Prussia. The bicentenary of Waterloo prompted renewed attention to the geopolitical and economic legacy of the battle and to the century of relative transatlantic peace which followed.

When the war ended on July 22, the army of Liechtenstein marched home to a ceremonial welcome in Vaduz. Popular legend claims that 80 men went to war but 81 came back. Apparently an Italian liaison officer joined up with the contingent on the way back. In 1868, after the German Confederation dissolved, Liechtenstein disbanded its army of 80 men and declared its permanent neutrality, which was respected during both World Wars.

Franzos's father Heinrich (1808-1858) was a highly respected doctor in Czortków. His German identity at the time had mainly linguistic and cultural meaning, there being no state called "Germany", just a loose German Confederation. He was steeped in the humanistic ideals of the German Enlightenment as expressed by Kant, Lessing and, especially, Schiller. This brought a certain isolation: for local Poles and Ukrainians he was German, for Germans a Jew and for Jews a renegade, a deutsch.

The present building of St. Peter's is a baroque hall (three bays) with double onion dome tower façade by architect Johann Valentin Thoman.St. Peter's - A church with late-baroque elegance (digital) Until 1762 the church was completed yet. Under French occupation, the church became a stable in 1813. When the control of the Fortress of Mainz passed to the German Confederation it became the garrison church of the Prussian garrison parts, which it remained until 1918.

In 1807, with the Treaties of Tilsit, the area was annexed to the Kingdom of Westphalia, but in 1814, the Congress of Vienna restored the electorate. The state was the only electorate within the German Confederation. It consisted of several detached territories to the north of Frankfurt, which survived until the state was annexed by Prussia in 1866 following the Austro- Prussian War. It comprised a total land area of , and its population in 1864 was 745,063.

So on April 1, with the disestablishment of all naval authorities, and the release of the personnel still in service, thus ended the history of the first German navy. At this difficult time in his life, Brommy found personal happiness with his marriage to Caroline Gross, the daughter of a merchant and hotel owner of Brake. Rear Admiral Brommy took his departure on June 30, 1853. From the German Confederation he received a one- time payment of 2,500 Taler.

Addington was promoted to plenipotentiary in London for negotiations with the United States of America in 1826, and was moved to Frankfurt am Main as Minister Plenipotentiary to the German Confederation in 1828. In the following year he was appointed Envoy Extraordinary to Spain. In 1833, he returned to England and became Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1842. In 1854, he retired and was sworn of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom.

Photograph of the fortress of Luxembourg prior to demolition in 1867 After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Luxembourg was disputed between Prussia and the Netherlands. The Congress of Vienna formed Luxembourg as a Grand Duchy within the German Confederation. The Dutch king became, in personal union, the grand duke. Although he was supposed to rule the grand duchy as an independent country with an administration of its own, in reality he treated it similarly to a Dutch province.

He was born in Zeckendorf (near Bamberg), in the Kingdom of Bavaria in the German Confederation. His father, Solomon Houseman, was a merchant and manufacturer of silk and cotton goods in Zeckendorf. Houseman was educated in the national schools of Zeckendorf and Bamberg and finished with a two-year course of study at a commercial school at Munich. He then worked as dry goods clerk in a store in Bavaria, where he remained for three years.

He was born in Alzey, then part of the German Confederation, and attended gymnasiums at Mainz and Darmstadt, and then the Universities of Giessen and Heidelberg. He graduated from Heidelberg in 1848. He began the practice of law with considerable success, but in consequence of having participated in the revolutionary movements of 1848, he was obligated to leave Germany in 1850. Preetorius arrived in St. Louis in 1854, and engaged for a while in mercantile pursuits.

The allies opposing Napoleon dissolved the Confederation of the Rhine on 4 November 1813. After its demise, the only attempt at political coordination in Germany until the creation on 8 June 1815 of the German Confederation was a body called the Central Administration Council (); its President was Heinrich Friedrich Karl Reichsfreiherr vom und zum Stein (1757–1831). It was dissolved on 20 June 1815. On 30 May 1814 the Treaty of Paris declared the German states independent.

After the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, King Frederick deserted the waning fortunes of the French emperor. By a treaty made with Metternich at Fulda in November 1813, he secured the confirmation of his royal title and of his recent acquisitions of territory. He directed his forces to fight with allies in their attack on France. In 1815, the king joined the German Confederation, but the Congress of Vienna made no change in the extent of his lands.

Mueller 1961, p.H6. Diets replaced the parliament in 17 provinces, the Hungarians pressed for autonomy, and Venetia was attracted by the now unified Italy. After Austria was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the German Confederation was dissolved, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted. By this act, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria as two separate entities joined together on an equal basis to form the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.

Proclamation of the German Empire by Anton von Werner, 1885. Bismarck is at the center dressed in white. The crown prince is behind his father. On 18 January 1871 (the anniversary of the accession of the Hohenzollern dynasty to the royalty in 1701), the princes of the North German Confederation and those of South Germany (Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg and Hesse-Darmstadt) proclaimed William I as hereditary German emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.

In the meanwhile, Vienna asked the Diet of Frankfurt for a general mobilisation of the German states against Prussia, which took place on 14 June.Bérenger, pp. 624-627. Considering the mobilisation illegal, Prussia proclaimed the dissolution of the German Confederation and invaded Saxony, Hanover and Hesse-Kassel, effectively starting the so-called Austro- Prussian War. During the Battle of Königgrätz (3 July 1866), in which Crown Prince Frederick was instrumental, Austria suffered a heavy defeat and ended up capitulating.

Though Bismarck's domestic policies did not prevail against his opponents, they further strengthened the power of the state. At the same time, the influence of the parliament on those policy guidelines remained limited. Universal suffrage (for men) had been implemented already in the 1867 Reichstag election of the North German Confederation, but the MPs had few legislative powers. The German government remained responsible only to the Emperor and the Chancellor used to rule by alternating majorities.

The title of Chancellor has been used for several offices in the history of Germany. Dating from the Early Middle Ages, the term is derived from the Latin term cancellarius. The modern office of chancellor evolved from the position created for Otto von Bismarck in the North German Confederation in 1867; this federal state evolved into a German nation-state with the 1871 Unification of Germany. The role of the chancellor has varied greatly throughout Germany's modern history.

The very private relation between him and the Monarch commanded his absolute secrecy. At the end of 1865 his career as a diplomat ended and he took permanent residence in Vienna. 1866 : Battle of Königrätz, on 3 July – Defeat of the Austrian Monarchy against the Prussians. Dissolution of the German Confederation. 1867 : Franz Joseph I became Constitutional Emperor 1867 : The Emperor and his wife Elisabeth were invited by Napoleon III to visit the Paris World Exhibition (autumn).

Anhalt-Bernburg was a principality of the Holy Roman Empire and a duchy of the German Confederation ruled by the House of Ascania with its residence at Bernburg in present-day Saxony-Anhalt. It emerged as a subdivision from the Principality of Anhalt from 1252 until 1468, when it fell to the Ascanian principality of Anhalt-Dessau. Recreated in 1603, Anhalt-Bernburg finally merged into the re-unified Duchy of Anhalt upon the extinction of the line in 1863.

They were also adopted by the German Democratic Republic (1949–1990), albeit, since 1959, with an additional ('socialist') coat of arms. The colours black-white-red appeared for the first time in 1867, in the constitution of the North German Confederation. This nation state for Prussia and other north and central German states was expanded to the south German states in 1870–71, under the name German Empire. It kept these colours until the revolution of 1918–19.

With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Duchy of Holstein gained sovereignty. After the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the Duchy of Holstein became a member of the German Confederation, resulting in several diplomatic and military conflicts about the so-called Schleswig-Holstein Question. Denmark defended its rule over Holstein in the First Schleswig War of 1848-51 against the Kingdom of Prussia. However, in the Second Schleswig War (1864) Prussian and Austrian troops conquered Schleswig.

Scandinavia was supplied by the Danish or the Swedish- Norwegian post. Starting in 1796, the post to Heligoland, which belonged to Denmark at that time, was delivered by a Hamburg postal agent, as there was a Hamburg postal agency on Heligoland. On 1 January 1852, Hamburg joined the German-Austrian Postal Union. Since 1866, Hamburg was part of the North German Confederation, which took over the postal service in the North German Postal District on 1 January 1868.

Executions in Prussia were carried out by members of the Reindel family, a "dynasty of executioners" from Werben (Elbe).Evans (1996), p. 377. Friedrich Reindel, younger brother of the executioner of the North German Confederation Wilhelm Reindel who had died in 1872, started his "career" in Braunschweig in 1873. Popular European media showed ghoulish fascination with German executions, as with an illustration from Le Petit Parisien of the infamous executioner Reindel demonstrating his skill in Berlin Prison, 1891.

There was no single German state. Rather there was a vast patchwork of small principalities, dukedoms and kingdoms. As the largest and most powerful of the German-speaking states in middle Europe, the Austrian Empire assumed the role of leader of all the German-speaking states of middle Europe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 established the German Confederation which organized nearly all of the German-speaking states under the control of the dual authority of Austria and Prussia.

In 1815, the Congress of Vienna established The German Confederation (German: Deutscher Bund) as an association of 39 German-speaking states in Central Europe. This established the boundaries of Germany for much of the 19th century; as including Pomerania, East Brandenburg and Silesia, but excluding German-speaking lands in the eastern portion of the Kingdom of Prussia (East Prussia, West Prussia and Posen), as well as the German cantons of Switzerland, and the French region of Alsace..

About 50 students attacked the soldiers and policemen of the Frankfurt Police offices Hauptwache and Konstablerwache to try to gain control over the treasury of the German Confederation to start a revolution in all German states. However, because the plot had been betrayed to the police, it was easy to overcome the attackers. The attack was organized by students, most of them members of the Burschenschaft, Gustav Körner and Gustav Bunsen (:de:Gustav Bunsen), a teacher, and others.

Roland Leroux is a German manager and a leading representative of professional organisations on both the national and the European Level. Since 2012 he has been the president of FECCIA (European Federation on Managerial Staff in the Chemical and Allied Industries). In 2014 he was elected president of ULA - United Leaders Association, the German confederation of managerial organisations. Since 2011, Leroux is also a member of the board of VAA , the German organisation for managers from the chemical industry.

Her father's accession gave rise to further conflict over the fate of Schleswig- Holstein. The German Confederation successfully invaded Denmark, reducing the area of Denmark by two-fifths. To the great irritation of Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, Alexandra and Albert Edward supported the Danish side in the war. The Prussian conquest of former Danish lands heightened Alexandra's profound dislike of the Germans, a feeling which stayed with her for the rest of her life.

Stinnes was born in Mülheim, in the Ruhr Valley, North German Confederation. His father was also named Hugo, and his grandfather, Matthias Stinnes, had founded a modest enterprise in Mülheim. After passing his graduating examination from a secondary school (Realschule), young Stinnes was placed in an office at Koblenz where he received business training. In order to get a practical knowledge of mining, he worked for a few months as a miner at the Wiethe colliery.

The Education and Science Workers’ Union (, GEW) is a trade union in Germany. It has a membership of 280,343 and is one of eight industrial affiliates of the German Confederation of Trade Unions. Most members are teachers, but it also represents day care workers, social workers, private educators, researchers and professors. GEW is founding member of the Berlin Energy Table which successfully pushed for a Referendum on the recommunalization of energy supply in Berlin in 2013.

As his brother Heinrich LXII died unmarried and childless, at his death in 1854 he inherited the throne of the Principality. Under his government appointed Minister Eduard Heinrich-Crispendorf to make funds in 1856 to amend the constitution in the reactionary sense by the parliament. In 1866 he made a treaty with Kingdom of Prussia in the North German Confederation. He was considered a man of talent, knowledge and business experience and was very popular in his country.

He was ambassador to Athens from 1834 to 1849. Anton von Prokesch-Osten In 1849, Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg named Anton von Prokesch ambassador in Berlin (1849–1852), with the mission to restore the influence of Austria in Germany, weakened after the revolutions of 1848. On the way to Berlin, he believed it was possible to restore the understanding that prevailed between the Austria and Prussia and allowed both states to dominate the German Confederation after 1815.

The Duchy of Limburg was a European polity created in 1839 from parts of the Dutch Province of Limburg as a result of the Treaty of London. Its territory was the part of Limburg that remained Dutch (the western half having become Belgian), with the exception of the cities of Maastricht and Venlo. The duchy was a province of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and at the same time was a member of the German Confederation.

Thomas Biesinger (December 20, 1844 – May 9, 1931) was a German convert to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and a Mormon missionary to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Biesinger was the first Mormon missionary to preach in the present-day Czech Republic and Hungary. Biesinger was born in Wiesenstetten, Württemberg, German Confederation. In 1862, he was taught about Mormonism from LDS Church missionaries and was baptized into the LDS Church in Lake Constanze.

The Reformed Churches generally oppose on principle the traditional doctrine of ecclesiastic Apostolic Succession, e.g., not usually even recognising the church office of Bishop.Cf., Jean Calvin, Ecclesiastical ordinances (Genève 1541, 1561), reprinted in Lewis W. Spitz, editor, The Protestant Reformation (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice–Hall 1966) at 122–129, 122. Later in the 19th century, other Lutheran and Reformed congregations merged to form united church bodies in some of the other 39 states of the German Confederation, e.g.

When the North German Confederation became the German Empire in 1871, the Confederation's Bundeskanzleramt (Federal Chancellery) was renamed to Reichskanzleramt (Reich Chancellery or Imperial Chancellery). It originally had its seat in the Radziwiłł Palace (also known as Reichskanzlerpalais), built by Prince Antoni Radziwiłł on Wilhelmstraße 77 in Berlin. More and more imperial offices were separated from the Reichskanzleramt,Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Vol. III: Bismarck und das Reich. 3rd edition, Stuttgart 1988, p. 835. e.g.

Historic trading blocs include the Hanseatic League, a Northern European economic alliance between the 12th and 17th centuries, and the German Customs Union, formed on the basis of the German Confederation and subsequently the German Empire from 1871. Surges of trade bloc formation occurred in the 1960s and 1970s, as well as in the 1990s after the collapse of Communism. By 1997, more than 50% of all world commerce was conducted within regional trade blocs.Milner 2002, 450.

After further clashes the next two days at Gerchsheim, Uettingen, Helmstadt and Roßbrunn, which endet in favor of the Prussians, the federal troops withdrew to Würzburg where a truce ended the fightings. The Prussians occupied northern Württemberg and negotiated a peace in August 1866. Württemberg paid an indemnity of 8,000,000 gulden, and concluded a secret offensive and defensive treaty with her conqueror. Although not officially part of the North German Confederation, the secret treaty effectively bound Württemberg to Prussia.

Luxembourg was made an independent state (still ruled by the Dutch King in personal union) by the Treaty of London of 19 April, and the creation of a local police force was necessary. The Ordinance of 29 January 1840 created the "Grand Duchy Royal Gendarmerie". On 1842, it lost its autonomy and was incorporated into the federal contingent (of the German Confederation). Until 1877, the commandant of the Gendarmerie was under the authority of the commander of the contingent.

Palais Schaumburg, the Chancellery building in Bonn Reichstag When the North German Confederation was created as a federally organised country, in 1867, the constitution mentioned only the Bundeskanzler as the responsible executive organ. There was no collegial government with ministers. Federal Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the beginning only established a Bundeskanzleramt as his office. It was the only 'ministry' of the country until in early 1870 the Prussian foreign office became the North German foreign office.

After the revolutions of 1848, Franz Joseph attempted to rule as an absolute monarch, keeping all the nationalities in check. But the Habsburgs suffered a series of defeats. In 1859, they were driven out of Italy after defeat at the Battle of Solferino, and in 1866, they were defeated by Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War and expelled from the German Confederation. To strengthen his position, Franz Joseph was ready to improve his relations with the Hungarians.

Boundaries agreed at the Congress of Vienna, including Congress Poland and a reduced Kingdom of Saxony. The German Confederation is outlined in red. Whilst the Congress was ongoing, on 1 March Napoleon returned to France from exile, won the French Army to his cause and deposed the Bourbon king, Louis XVIII. The great powers mobilised armies against him, including an Anglo-Dutch- Belgian force under the Duke of Wellington and a Prussian Army under Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.

The parliaments of Württemberg, Baden and Hesse ratified the treaties in December 1870, Bavaria on 21 January 1871 with clear majorities. In the vote of the Northern German parliament after the third reading on 9 December 1870, the Polish, Danish and Welsh deputies voted in favour. Other opposing camps remained remote from the vote. On the same day, the Federal Council of the North German Confederation voted to change the designations to "German Empire" and "German Emperor".

At the outbreak of the Prussian war with Denmark he was officer of the watch on the steam-powered Gunboat Loreley, under command of Captain Hans Kuhn. On 17 March 1864 he participated in the naval battle at Jasmund. At the end of the war in 1866 the Prussian navy was transferred to the North German Confederation. From 1865 to 1868, Valois circumnavigated the world on the steam frigate Vineta, and subsequently on the sail corvette Nymphe.

In 1866 Hasenclever was elected secretary of the ADAV under association president Carl Wilhelm Tölcke. From 1868 to 1870 he was responsible for the party's finances. At the same time, from 1867 to 1869, he ran the tannery in Halver that belonged to his sister. In 1869 Hasenclever became the representative for Duisburg in the Reichstag (parliament) of the North German Confederation, which had been founded in 1876 after Prussia had won the Austro-Prussian War against Austria.

Napoleon III, William I and Alexander II at the Meeting of the Two Emperors at Stuttgart in 1857. In the 1850s, the polarity between Prussia and Austria came to a head in Germany. William pursued a foreign policy strategy shifting alliances and agreements with the major European powers. In the Crimean War between Russia on one hand and the Ottoman Empire, France and Great Britain on the other, he pushed for a neutrality of the German Confederation.

The Silbergroschen was a coin used in Prussia and several other German Confederation states in northern Germany during the 19th century, worth one thirtieth of a Thaler. The Silbergroschen was introduced in Prussia in 1821 and was later adopted by other states as they switched to using the Prussian currency system of 12 Pfennig = 1 Silbergroschen, 30 Silbergroschen = 1 Thaler (Vereinsthaler from 1857). Silbergroschen were replaced with 10 Pfennig pieces when the German Empire decimalized following unification in 1871.

Hinrichs was born in 1836 in Lunden in the Duchy of Holstein, which at that time was under the rule of Denmark although it was simultaneously part of the German Confederation. He attended the local polytechnic school and the University of Copenhagen. During his schooling he published several articles and books, including descriptions of the magnetic field of earth and its interaction with the aether. Hinrichs graduated in 1860, between the First and Second Schleswig Wars.

In 1825, soon after Bolivia declared its independence from Spain; the City-state of Hamburg (as a member of the German Confederation) recognized Bolivia that same year.Relaciones Bilaterales Bolivia-Alemania (in Spanish) In 1847, Bolivia appointed an Ambassador to the court of King Frederick William IV of Prussia. In 1871, Germany opened a consulate in La Paz. In the late 19th century, Germans began migrating to Bolivia, and were involved primarily in commerce and in mining.

Johan August Gripenstedt was born in the Duchy of Holstein, then part of the German Confederation, where his parents lived at the time. His father Jakob Gripenstedt was a retired Swedish officer. His mother Helena Kristina (née Weinschenck) was the daughter of a German physician. The Gripenstedt family's earliest descendant was a man named Hieronimus Berger, born in the Courland region of modern-day Latvia, who immigrated to Sweden and was ennobled with name Gripenstedt in 1691.

However, this was as part of the convention which integrated the division with the Prussian-led army of the North German Confederation. The division already existed as part of the autonomous Saxon Army. It was originally formed in 1849 as the 2nd Division and from July 1, 1850, the 2nd Infantry Division.Wegner, p. 738. It became the 2nd Infantry Division No. 24 on April 1, 1867, and the 2nd Division No. 24 on April 1, 1887.

The underage Duke Charles, the eldest son of Duke Frederick William (who had been killed in action), was put under the guardianship of George IV, the Prince Regent of the United Kingdom and Hanover. First, the young duke had a dispute over the date of his majority. Then, in 1827, Charles declared some of the laws made during his minority invalid, which caused conflicts. After the German Confederation intervened, Charles was forced to accept those laws.

After a territorial reorganisation within the Kingdom of Prussia the borders of the Kreis Wirsitz were partly redrawn so that by January 1, 1818 the municipality of Kcynia (German: Exin) became a part of the neighbouring county of Schubin (Polish: Szubin). The town of Wyrzysk (German: Wirsitz) domiciled the county administration. Being an administrative unit of the Kingdom of Prussia the Kreis Wirsitz joined the newly founded North German Confederation in July 1867, becoming thereby for the first time part of a German commonwealth. By way of unification of German states the North German Confederation had been enlarged by southern German states and constitutionally reinforced to become a united Germany on January 18, 1871 with Kreis Wirsitz being part of it. The members of the German parliament (German: Reichstag) forming the Polish National Democratic Party (Polish: Stronnictwo Narodowo- Demokratyczne), led by Władysław Taczanowski (1825–1893), protested on April 1, 1871 in the parliament of the newly founded united Germany against Prussia joining with all her provinces united Germany.

He was born on February 27, 1863, in the Free City of Frankfurt, then a member state of the German Confederation. The next year, the family emigrated to the United States, and settled in Williamsburg, Brooklyn. He became a retail, and later wholesale, produce dealer.New York Red Book (1900; pg. 133f) Hasenflug was a member of the New York State Assembly (Kings Co., 19th D.) in 1900 and 1901. In November 1901, he ran for Clerk of Kings County, but was defeated.

Max von Brandt was the son of Prussian general and military author Heinrich von Brandt. He was baptized as Protestant and attended the French College in Berlin. At first he became a Prussian officer before taking part in the Eulenburg Expedition of 1860/61 to East Asia leading to the signage of a Japanese-Prussian trade- treaty on January, 24th. Afterwards, Max von Brandt was consul and later general consul of the North German Confederation, and from 1872, German "Ministerresident" in Japan.

From earlier craft businesses grew highly productive operations. In 1866, shortly after the Austro-Prussian War broke out, the engagements near Frohnhofen between Prussia and troops of the German Confederation took place during the Campaign of the Main (Mainfeldzug). In 1984, the community of Laufach celebrated 900 years of existence. Frohnhofen and the outlying centre of Hain developed into purely residential areas in which most inhabitants earned their income in the industrial and commercial businesses in Laufach, Aschaffenburg and the surrounding area.

The Bourbon dynasty was restored to France and Spain as well as a return of other legitimate rulers to the Italian states. And, to contain the Russian empire, Poland was divided up between Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Austria and Prussia were allowed to keep some of their Polish territories while a new, nominally independent Polish kingdom was established with the Romanov dynasty of Russia as its hereditary monarchs. Also, the German Confederation was created to replace the Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine.

In 1814–1815, the Congress of Vienna redrew the continent's political map. Napoleonic creations such as the huge Kingdom of Westphalia, the Grand Duchy of Berg and the Duchy of Würzburg were abolished; suppressed states, including Hanover, the Brunswick duchies, Hesse-Kassel and Oldenburg, were reinstated. On the other hand, most members of the Confederation of the Rhine located in central and southern Germany survived with minor border changes. They, along with the reinstated states, Prussia, and Austria, formed the German Confederation.

The Czech lands were among the first industrialized countries in continental Europe during the German Confederation era. The Czech industrial tradition dates back to the 19th century, when the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were the economic and industrial heartland of the Austrian Empire and later the Austrian side of Austria-Hungary. The Czech lands produced a majority (about 70%) of all industrial goods in the Empire, some of which were almost monopolistic. The Czechoslovak crown was introduced in April 1919.

During the 1815 Congress of Vienna the 39 former states of the Confederation of the Rhine joined the German Confederation, a loose agreement for mutual defense. Attempts of economic integration and customs coordination were frustrated by repressive anti- national policies. Great Britain approved of the union, convinced that a stable, peaceful entity in central Europe could discourage aggressive moves by France or Russia. Most historians, however, concluded, that the Confederation was weak and ineffective and an obstacle to German nationalism.

Between 1815 and 1865 the population of the German Confederation (excluding Austria) grew around 60% from 21 million to 34 million. Simultaneously the Demographic Transition took place as the high birth rates and high death rates of the pre-industrial country shifted to low birth and death rates of the fast-growing industrialized urban economic and agricultural system. Increased agricultural productivity secured a steady food supply, as famines and epidemics declined. This allowed people to marry earlier, and have more children.

He threw himself with great energy into his parliamentary duties, and quickly became one of its most popular and most influential members. An optimist and idealist, he joined to a fervent belief in liberty an equal enthusiasm for German unity and the idea of the German state. His motion that Baden should be included in the North German Confederation in January 1870 caused much embarrassment to Otto von Bismarck, but was not without effect in hastening the crisis of 1870.

The 1815 restoration by the Final Act of the Vienna Congress established the German Confederation, which was not a nation but a loose association of sovereign states on the territory of the former Holy Roman Empire. While a number of factors swayed allegiances in the debate, the most prominent was religion. The would have implied a dominant position for Catholic Austria, the largest and most powerful German state of the early 19th century. As a result, Catholics and Austria-friendly states usually favored .

At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Holstein and Lauenburg became part of the German Confederation, but Schleswig did not. Although Holstein did continue to owe allegiance to the Danish King, in his role as a German duke. The First Schleswig War (1848–1851) was inconclusive, but after the Second Schleswig War of 1864, the Danish King ceded Schleswig to Prussia and Holstein and Lauenburg to Austria. In the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865, Austria sold Lauenburg to Prussia.

In the Austro-Prussian War, Herwarth commanded the Army of the Elbe which overran Saxony and invaded Bohemia by the valley of the Elbe. His troops won the actions of Hühnerwasser and Münchengrätz, and at Königgrätz formed the right wing of the Prussian army. Herwarth himself directed the battle against the Austrian left flank. Returning to command of the VIII Corps after the war, Herwarth von Bittenfeld became a member of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation from 1867 until 1870.

The Warsaw Conference of 1850 was a conference attended by representatives of the Kingdom of Prussia, the Austrian Empire and the Russian Empire on 28 October 1850, in Warsaw, Congress Poland. The aims of the conference were to re-establish order in the German states following the revolutions of 1848, and also to prevent war between Austria and Prussia over the so-called Hessian Question. The conference resulted in Russian support for Austria as well as the restoration of the German Confederation.

La Copiapó, the first locomotive in South America, was built by Norris in 1850 The Norris Locomotive Works sold many locomotives overseas, as noted above. This company was the first American exporter of locomotives—and perhaps of large mechanical devices generally. As early as 1840, thirty percent of the firm's production until then had been for foreign markets. Norris machines operated in England, France, the states of the German Confederation (including Prussia, Austria and Saxony), Belgium, Italy, Canada, Cuba and South America.

As a result, two citizens of the German Confederation, the horticulturist Wilhelm Friedrich Carl Meyer and his assistant, the gardener Franz Hörer, arrived in Bucharest, where their first work involved the floral arrangements on each side of Șoseaua Kiseleff.Giurescu, p.128, 272, 391-392 They were to become involved in redesigning Dura area: Meyer was responsible for setting up the new lanes, for planting new floral species, as well as for setting up a Romantic landscape with rocks leading down to the lake.

Whilst the federal execution in the German Confederation was directed against a member state, which did not want to fulfil its obligations, the federal intervention was a help for the member state that was beset by unrest which it could not itself suppress. The federal execution was the legal equivalent to the Reichsexekution in the Holy Roman Empire and in the German Empire. In the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany of 1949, the term "Bundeszwang" (English: federal pressure) is used.

NDB, p. 447 The Grand Duke however was reluctant to follow popular demands to introduce a constitution for the Grand Duchy. Although article 13 of the constitution of the German Confederation obliged Oldenburg to have a constitution, following the advice of his Russian relatives, the Grand Duke again and again postponed the promise of a constitution given in 1830. Only as a consequence of the Revolutions of 1848 did the Grand Duke reluctantly give in under pressure from his advisers.

"The Scrap of Paper – Enlist Today", a British World War I recruitment poster of 1914, Canadian War Museum. The "Bülow" mentioned is Heinrich von Bülow, Prussian ambassador to Britain. Belgium's de facto independence had been established through nine years of intermittent fighting. The co-signatories of the Treaty of London—Great Britain, Austria, France, the German Confederation (led by Prussia), Russia, and the Netherlands—now officially recognised the independent Kingdom of Belgium, and at Britain's insistence agreed to its neutrality.

Territorial changes after the Second Schleswig War The Second Schleswig War was the second military conflict as a result of the Schleswig-Holstein Question. It began on 1 February 1864, when Prussian forces crossed the border into Schleswig. Denmark fought Prussia and Austria. Like the First Schleswig War (1848–51), it was fought for control of the duchies because of succession disputes concerning the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg when the Danish king died without an heir acceptable to the German Confederation.

The Carlsbad Decrees were a set of reactionary restrictions introduced in the states of the German Confederation by resolution of the Bundesversammlung on 20 September 1819 after a conference held in the spa town of Carlsbad, Bohemia. They banned nationalist fraternities ("Burschenschaften"), removed liberal university professors, and expanded the censorship of the press. They were aimed at quelling a growing sentiment for German unification and were passed during ongoing Hep-Hep riots which ended within a month after the resolution was passed.

Contemporary illustration of the 1864 Second Schleswig War. The islands and Jutland together constituted the kingdom, whereas the monarch held the duchies in personal union with the kingdom. The duchy of Schleswig constituted a Danish fief, while the Duchy of Holstein remained a part of the German Confederation. Since the early 18th century, and even more so from the early 19th century, the Danes had become used to viewing the duchies and the kingdom as increasingly unified in one state.

Seeing how the Prussian coast was easily blockaded by the Danish navy, Bauer quickly developed a plan to build a new type of submersible ship to help break the blockade. He began studying hydraulics and ship construction. But before his studies could get very far, the troops of the German Confederation decided to withdraw and surrendered Schleswig- Holstein to Denmark. However, Bauer was determined to realize his plan at any cost and left the Bavarian Army to join the forces of Schleswig-Holstein.

Share of the Zoologische Garten in Hamburg, issued 1. August 1864 In the 1850s, Hamburg was the third-largest city in the German Confederation; only Berlin and Vienna were larger. Trading in wild animals had begun in 1820 and a road- house menagerie was in operation in the 1840s. A wealthy merchant named Ernst von Merck, a member of parliament in the German government at Frankfurt am Main in 1848 and 1849, assembled a society for the purposes of creating a zoo.

When the Prussian territories were reorganized upon the Congress of Vienna, the Province of Silesia was created out of the territories acquired by Prussia in the Silesian Wars, as well as those Upper Lusatian territories which King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony had to relinquish due to his indecisive attitude in the Napoleonic Wars. As the lands had been part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1806, Silesia was among the western Prussian provinces that laid within the borders of the German Confederation.

By the 1763 Treaty of Hubertusburg, Austria, for the third time, had to acknowledge the Prussian annexations. The usurper kingdom had prevailed against the European great powers and would play a vital future role in the "Concert of Europe". Austria and Prussia both would fight France in the Napoleonic Wars; after their conclusion, the German states were reorganized into a more unified 37 separate states of the German Confederation. German nationalists began to demand a unified Germany, especially by 1848 and its revolutions.

Although typically under English command, many of the enlisted Regulars were either Scottish or Irish. A small number of Regulars were from Prussia and other states within the German Confederation. From these multiple origins, also came the two different "Schools of Thought", the 'American' and the 'German'. The American school focused on open-formation light infantry tactics that were well suited for areas of rigid terrain, and dense forested areas, best suited against enemies that had no cavalry nor artillery.

The Consul-General of Germany in Shanghai (previously known as the Consul) is the Federal Republic of Germany's diplomatic representative within the city of Shanghai in the People's Republic of China. The consulate was first established as an office of the North German Confederation in 1869 and became the consulate of the German Empire on its formation in 1871. The present Consulate has existed since 1982 at Yongfu lu 181, with the Consul-General's residence in the same street at no. 151.

In addition, a number of Freiburg's citizens were arrested, including Karl von Rotteck junior. The commandant of the Freischärler, Georg von Langsdorff, was a member of the Freiburg Gymnastic Club of 1844. The Baden State Government disbanded the club on 25 April, because other members had taken part in the uprising. On 26 April the commander of the VIII Army Corps of the German Confederation, Prince Frederick of Württemberg entered in Freiburg and held a parade of his troops on 28 April.

Lord Ilchester was a diplomat representing Great Britain and Ireland and later a Whig politician. He served as Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs under Lord Melbourne from 1835 to 1840 and then was Minister Plenipotentiary to the German Confederation from 1840 to 1849. On his death in 1865 he left a bequest for the founding of a series of lectures in Slavonic studies, the first of which was given in 1870.The Oxford Magazine, vols 9-10 (1890), p.

From the Early modern period, the style Erlaucht has been used by the members of those comital families (Reichsgrafen) who, like the Reichsfürsten, held the status of Imperial immediacy. They retained it even after the German Mediatisation of 1802/03, confirmed by the Bundesversammlung of the German Confederation in 1828. The style was also adopted by the cadet members of some princely families like Colloredo-Mansfeld, Fugger, Khevenhüller, Salm, Schönburg, Starhemberg, Stolberg, Waldburg or Waldeck-Pyrmont. Mediate comital families were entitled to the lower style, Hochgeboren.

After 1830, he represented Hamburg at the Diet of the German Confederation in Frankfurt am Main. In 1841, the New Zealand Company proposed to establish a German colony in the Chatham Islands, which lie 500 miles east of New Zealand. John Ward for the company signed an agreement with Sieveking on 12 September 1841. However, when the Colonial Office said any Germans settling there would be treated as aliens, the proposed leader of the venture, John Beit, took the expedition to Nelson, New Zealand instead.

He later resigned his post in protest against Bismarck's policy. When the German war inevitably loomed in the early summer of 1866, the town remained loyal to the German Confederation, according to its motto "faith in federal law". On 14 June 1866, they voted for the confederate execution against Prussia, though at the same time declaring that it would not participate in the civil war. Still, the town was not able to refrain from the entanglements of war, as Prussia regarded the Frankfurt Confederate loyalty as hostile.

The population of the German Confederation (excluding Austria) grew 60% from 1815 to 1865, from 21,000,000 to 34,000,000. The era saw the demographic transition take place in Germany. It was a transition from high birth rates and high death rates to low birth and death rates as the country developed from a pre-industrial to a modernized agriculture and supported a fast-growing industrialized urban economic system. In previous centuries, the shortage of land meant that not everyone could marry, and marriages took place after age 25.

When Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the German Diet on 1 June and also decided on 5 June to convene the Diet of Holstein on 11 June, Prussia declared that the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865 had thereby been nullified and invaded Holstein on 9 June. When the German Diet responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia on 14 June, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The Prussian Army invaded Hanover, Saxony and the Electorate of Hesse on 15 June.

The Luxembourg contingent now consisted of two light infantry battalions, one in Echternach and the second in Diekirch; two reserve companies; and a depot company. In 1866, the Austro-Prussian war resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation. Luxembourg was declared neutral in perpetuity by the 1867 Treaty of London, and in accordance, its fortress was demolished in the following years. In 1867, the Prussian garrison left the fortress, and the two battalions of Luxembourg light infantry entered the city of Luxembourg that September.

It lasted until 1866 when Prussia founded the North German Confederation, a forerunner of the German Empire which united the German-speaking territories outside of Austria and Switzerland under Prussian leadership in 1871. This state developed into modern Germany. The only princely member states of the Holy Roman Empire that have preserved their status as monarchies until today are the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the Principality of Liechtenstein. The only Free Imperial Cities still existing as states within Germany are Hamburg and Bremen.

Zur 1200-Jahrfeier herausgegeben im Auftrag der Stadt Bad Homburg However, Hesse-Homburg was now a sovereign state again, joining the German Confederation as its smallest state on 7 July 1817. In 1818 his eldest son married into the British royal family by his union with George III's daughter Elizabeth. In 1819 Frederick established the Schwerterkreuz medal for military service in Hesse-Homburg's armies (now rare as it was only awarded sixteen times) and the following year he died in the castle at Bad Homburg.

She was present at the so-called "Heckerzug" (uprising) in which, on 20 April 1848, an armed civilian militia was convincingly defeated and destroyed by regular troops of the German Confederation at Kandern. Amalie and Gustav Struve survived, and with Friedrich Hecker initially escaped to the relative safety of Switzerland. However, in September 1848 the Struve's crossed back into Baden at Lörrach, where they tried again to proclaim a republic in the so-called "Struve- Putsch". Their insurrection ended in failure after just three days.

By the founding of the North German Confederation in 1867, the Zollverein covered states of approximately 425,000 square kilometres, and had produced economic agreements with several non-German states, including Sweden- Norway. After the founding of the German Empire in 1871, the Empire assumed the control of the customs union. However, not all states within the Empire were part of the Zollverein until 1888 (Hamburg for example). Conversely, though Luxembourg was a state independent of the German Reich, it remained in the Zollverein until 1919.

Angelow, Deutscher Bund, S. 63. In 1834, Baden and Württemberg joined the Prussian union, which was renamed the German Customs Union. The Tax Union or Steuerverein was formed in 1834 as a customs union first of the Duchy of Brunswick and the Kingdom of Hanover, then with the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg in 1836. By 1835, the German Customs Union had expanded to include the majority of the states of the German Confederation, even Saxony, the Thuringian states, Württemberg and Baden, Bavaria, and the Hessian states.

After the war in 1865, Delphin was tasked with surveying Eckernförde Bay outside Kiel in Holstein, which was now under the administration of the German Confederation. From 1 to 3 March, Delphin served as an ice breaker in Eckernförde Bay. In February, the naval high command had decided to send Delphin to Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, to serve as a station ship to protect German interests in the region. Accordingly, Delphin underwent a major overhaul to prepare her for the overseas deployment.

After the Napoleonic Wars, Saxe-Lauenburg was restored as a Hanoverian dominium in 1813. The Congress of Vienna established Saxe-Lauenburg as a member state of the German Confederation. In 1814 the Kingdom of Hanover bartered Saxe-Lauenburg against Prussian East Frisia. On 7 June 1815, after 14 months under its rule, the Prussia granted Saxe-Lauenburg to Sweden, receiving in return the former Swedish Pomerania, however, additionally paying 2.6 million Taler to Denmark, in order to compensate Denmark for the loss of Norway.

Until the German Revolution of 1918–19, just as other mediatized families, they also retained important political privileges. They were considered equal by birth (Ebenbürtigkeit) to the European sovereign houses. In Bavaria, Prussia and Württemberg the Princes of Hohenlohe received hereditary seats in the Houses of Lords. In 1825 the German Confederation recognized the right of all members of the house to be styled Serene Highness (Durchlaucht), with the title Fürst for the heads of its branches, and princes/princesses for the other members.

In the Holy Roman Empire, and to a degree in its successor states the German Confederation and the German Empire, so-called "free imperial cities" (nominative singular freie Reichsstadt, nominative plural freie Reichsstädte) held the legal status of imperial immediacy, according to which they were not subinfeudated to any vassal ruler and were instead subject to the authority of the Emperor alone. Examples included Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck, along with others that gained and/or lost the privileges of immediacy over the course of the Empire's history.

From 1815 to 1866, about 37 independent German-speaking states existed within the German Confederation. The ' ("Greater German solution") favored unifying all German-speaking peoples under one state, and was promoted by the Austrian Empire and its supporters. The ' ("Little German solution") sought only to unify the northern German states and did not include Austria; this proposal was favored by the Kingdom of Prussia. The solutions are also referred to by the names of the states they proposed to create, ' and ' ("Little Germany" and "Greater Germany").

He was later reassigned to his position as Prussian ambassador in London, and, after 1871, as German Imperial ambassador with the rank of minister of state, which he remained until his death in 1873. During this time, he also served as the Prussian delegate at the London Peace Conference of 1864, which led to the signing of the Treaty of Vienna. In 1867, he was also the ambassador of the North German Confederation at the negotiations for the Treaty of London, which determined the status of Luxembourg.

In 1868 he was appointed director of the commission established by the North German Confederation, and continued from 1871 by the German Empire, for the determination of standards of measurement. In this capacity, he superintended the reorganization of the German system of weights and measures on the metric basis. He was elected president of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in 1891. In 1892, he assisted in the founding of the German Society for Ethical Culture (GSEC; ), in which Albert Einstein also participated).

Emma Johanna Elisabeth Trosse was born on 6 January 1863 in Gransee, in the Kingdom of Prussia, a part of the German Confederation to Emma Emilie Therese (née Böther) and Friedrich Trosse. Early in her life Trosse demonstrated an ability as a polyglot and became proficient in seven languages. Though little is known of her early life, she came from a family of educational theorists. After attending school in Bromberg and passing her examinations, she went on to further her study at the women's gymnasium.

Albert Hänel painted by Max Liebermann Albert Hänel (10 June 1833, in Leipzig – 12 May 1918, in Kiel) was a German jurist, legal historian and liberal politician. He was one of the leaders of the German Progress Party, and served as Rector of the University of Kiel. He served as a member of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies, the Reichstag of the North German Confederation and the Imperial Reichstag, and was Vice President of both the Prussian Chamber of Deputies and the Imperial Reichstag.

He became Consul General of the North German Confederation to Bucharest in 1870 and a member of the European Donau Commission. In 1872, he was appointed as chargé d'affaires to Constantinople, before he became Director for Oriental Affairs at the Foreign Office. He was appointed as Envoy to Athens in 1874, but remained in Berlin. In 1875, he became acting Ambassador to St. Petersburg, where he offered Russia German support for Russian interests in the Balkans in exchange for Russian support for German interests in Western Europe.

Frege matriculated at the University of Jena in the spring of 1869 as a citizen of the North German Confederation. In the four semesters of his studies he attended approximately twenty courses of lectures, most of them on mathematics and physics. His most important teacher was Ernst Karl Abbe (1840–1905; physicist, mathematician, and inventor). Abbe gave lectures on theory of gravity, galvanism and electrodynamics, complex analysis theory of functions of a complex variable, applications of physics, selected divisions of mechanics, and mechanics of solids.

The Second Schleswig War (; ) was the second military conflict over the Schleswig-Holstein Question of the nineteenth century. The war began on 1 February 1864, when Prussian and Austrian forces crossed the border into Schleswig. Denmark fought the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire. Like the First Schleswig War (1848–1852), it was fought for control of the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg, due to the succession disputes concerning them when the Danish king died without an heir acceptable to the German Confederation.

Niemeyer: Tübingen, 2001. Page 167. Following the revolutions of 1848 in the German states, the ' was restored as a symbol of national unity: it became the coat of arms of the short-lived German Empire and subsequently the German Confederation from its restoration in 1850 until its dissolution in 1866. It was once again restored in 1871 when a single-headed eagle with a Prussian inescutcheon became the insignia of the German Empire; the single head was used to represent the so-called ', i.e.

After an 11-month blockade, the city of Luxembourg was taken by French Revolutionary troops in 1795. The Duchy of Luxembourg was now integrated as the "Département des Forêts" into the French Republic and later the French Empire. In 1815, after Napoleon's final defeat, the Congress of Vienna elevated Luxembourg to a Grand Duchy, now ruled in personal union by the King of the Netherlands. At the same time, Luxembourg became a member of the German Confederation, and the Luxembourgish fortress became a "federal fortress".

The proclamation of the German Empire, also known as the Deutsche Reichsgründung, took place in January 1871 after the joint victory of the German states in the Franco-Prussian War. As a result of the November Treaties of 1870, the southern German states of Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, with their territories south of the Main line, Württemberg and Bavaria, joined the Prussian-dominated "German Confederation" on 1 January 1871.Vgl. Michael Kotulla, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte. Vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495–1934), Berlin/Heidelberg 2008, Rn. 2011.

For example, in the waning years of the Second French Empire, the North German Confederation had an embassy in Paris, while Bavaria and the United States had legations. The practice of establishing legations gradually fell from favor as the embassy became the standard form of diplomatic mission. The establishment of the French Third Republic and the continued growth of the United States meant that two of the Great Powers were now republics. The French Republic continued the French Empire's practice of sending and receiving ambassadors.

Elections to the Constituent Reichstag of the North German Confederation were held on 12 February 1867, with run-off elections during the following weeks. The National Liberal Party emerged as the largest party, winning 80 seats and receiving strong support in Hanover, Kassel and Nassau.Helmut Walser Smith (2011) The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History Oxford University Press, p294 Voter turnout was around 65% in Prussian constituencies. After the Constituent Reichstag had drawn up and agreed a constitution, fresh elections were held in August.

During the Austro-Prussian War, Puttkamer acted as civil commissary in Moravia. From 1867 to 1871 he was a councillor in the chancery of the North German Confederation. In 1871 he was appointed president of the government region of Gumbinnen in East Prussia, in 1875 department president (/) of the Department of Lorraine, and in 1877 Oberpräsident of Silesia. From 1874 onward he was frequently elected to the Reichstag and the Prussian Chamber of Deputies, in which he attached himself to the German Conservative Party.

Constitutional charter of the estates of principality of Lippe 1819 The Estates protested against the restriction of their traditional rights and asked the Emperor to counter the Princess's subversive and the democratic spirit of the times.Hans Kiewning: Hundert Jahre lippische Verfassung 1819-1919, Detmold, 1935 At the instigation of Metternich, the so-called Carlsbad Decrees were taken against democratic agitation. These coincided with the bitter confrontation about the Constitution in Lippe. The Federal Assembly of the German Confederation asked Pauline to immediately repeal the Constitution.

He led the negotiations which led to a treaty of friendship between the Netherlands and Belgium following William I of the Netherlands' abjuration, which guaranteed Belgian independence. He also contributed to establishing Belgium's diplomatic relations with the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Kingdom of Naples, the Papal States and the German Confederation. In 1852 he acquired the Hôtel de la Pagerie at 17 quai Malaquais, in the 6th arrondissement of Paris, renaming it Hôtel de Chimay. It was sold in 1883 to the École des beaux-arts.

Of these the Meuse and the Adige were parts of the German Confederation during the time when the song was composed. The Belt (strait) and the Neman later became actual boundaries of Germany (the Belt until 1920, the Neman between 1920 and 1939), whereas the Meuse and Adige were not parts of the German Reich as of 1871. Today, no part of any of the four places mentioned in the "" lies in Germany. In an ethnic sense, none of these places formed a distinct ethnic border.

As Bernhard II had supported Austria in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, the prime minister of victorious Prussia, Otto von Bismarck, enforced his resignation in favour of his son Georg II, after which Saxe-Meiningen was admitted to join the North German Confederation. By 1910, the Duchy had grown to 2,468 km² and 278,762 inhabitants. The ducal summer residence was at Altenstein Castle. Since 1868, the duchy comprised the Kreise (districts) of Hildburghausen, Sonneberg and Saalfeld as well as the northern exclaves of Camburg and Kranichfeld.

He was a permanent secretary in the department of "kultus" 1855-59.Nicholas Hope, German and Scandinavian Protestantism 1700-1918. Clarendon Press, 1995. p 469. Accessed 15 February 2016 With war approaching, Monrad formed a government after the resignation of Monrad's rival, Hall, due to disagreement with Christian IX.Svend Thorsen, De danske ministerier 1848-1901, København, Pensionsforsikringsanstalten. 1967. As Council President (1863-1864), Monrad was the Danish state leader during the early part of Second Schleswig War, against the German Confederation led by Otto von Bismarck.

In the German Confederation from 1815, there was no emperor. The supreme body was a Federal Assembly (often called the Bundestag) with the presidency held by Austria. The romanticism of the time, however, meant there was a romantic idealisation of the medieval empire combined with the notion of a mighty emperor. One of the focal points of such fantasies was the 12th-century emperor, Frederick Barbarossa, who, according to the Kyffhäuser legend, slept in the mountains there, but would return one day to unite Germany.

Dietrich was born near Ottawa, Franklin County, Kansas in 1863, at the Dietrich Cabin. His parents had immigrated to the United States from the German Confederation (now Germany) in 1855, and his father, Jacob Dietrich, became a farmer. Jacob Dietrich died less than one year after the birth of his son Frank, whose name was chosen to honor American Civil War general Franz Sigel. Dietrich received an Artium Baccalaureus degree from Brown University in 1887 and an Artium Magister degree from that institution in 1890.

This act created something of a crisis, as possession of the office would be an important increase in Prussia's influence over the German Confederation, whether the King accepted the crown of Germany or not. Austria's Prime Minister Prince Schwarzenberg swiftly intervened, and convinced Archduke John to remain in office as Regent. This ensured Austria's role in German affairs did not diminish. As it was, King Frederick William formally rejected the Imperial Constitution and the crown that was to go with it on 21 April 1849.

Bünger was born on 8 October 1870 in Elsterwerda, Prussia, North German Confederation (present-day Brandenburg, Germany). He was a member of the German People's Party from 1920 to 1930 while a member of the German Bundestag. From 1924 to 1927, Bünger was Minister of Justice, 1928 Minister of Education, and from 26 June 1929 to 18 February 1930, Minister-President of Saxony. He was married to Doris Hertwig-Bünger, and lived with her in the Landhaus Carp Schampel, in the Saxon town of Radebeul.

He was Ambassador to the German Confederation from 1840 to 1849. His nephew, the fifth Earl, was Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms from 1873 to 1874 in the Liberal government of William Ewart Gladstone and also served as Lord Lieutenant of Dorset from 1885 to 1905. On the death in 1964 of his grandson, the seventh Earl, the line of the eldest son of the first Earl failed. The seventh Earl was succeeded by his fourth cousin, the eighth Earl.

The chancellor of Germany is the political leader of Germany and the head of the federal government. The office holder is responsible for selecting all other members of the government and chairing cabinet meetings. The office was created in the North German Confederation in 1867, when Otto von Bismarck became the first chancellor. With the unification of Germany and establishment of the German Empire in 1871, the Confederation evolved into a German nation- state and its leader became known as the chancellor of Germany.

Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. Page 123. The southern duchies of Holstein and Saxe-Lauenburg had already been constituent states of the Holy Roman Empire before 1806 and of the German Confederation in 1815 whereas the Duchy of Schleswig was a Danish fief with the Danish king as duke and liege. In 1840, Danish was introduced as official language in Northern Schleswig but the attempt to make Danish equal to German in the entire duchy failed due to the assembly of estates loyal to the German cause.

The movement of the March revolution within the member states of the German Confederation led to the election of Frankfurt Assembly, the first all-German parliament. This parliament proclaimed the Constitution of St. Paul's Church on 28 March 1849 that provided for the state as a hereditary constitutional monarchy. The Prussian king Frederick William IV refused the imperial crown that he was offered. On 23 April, the Bavarian king and his government rejected the constitution, which was regarded by the left as a coup.

Wilhelm Hasenclever, portrait taken in 1884 Wilhelm Hasenclever (19 April 1837, in Arnsberg, Westphalia Province – 3 July 1889, in Berlin-Schöneberg) was a German politician. He was originally a tanner by trade but later became a journalist and author. However, he is most known for his political work in the predecessors of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). In 1869 and 1870, Hasenclever was a representative for the General German Workers' Association (Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein, ADAV) in the Reichstag (parliament) of the North German Confederation.

The Generalinspekteur der Marine (Inspector-General of the Navy) was a position in the government of the German Empire. It was founded in 1871 as the command authority of the German Imperial Admiralty and lasted intermittently to 1919. The first Inspector General was Admiral Prinz Adalbert of Prussia, who had held this position in the predecessor Prussian Navy and the Navy of the North German Confederation. He served under the emperor’s direct command, controlling inspections throughout the navy to maintain regulations for the highest efficiency.

The movement of the March revolution within the member states of the German Confederation led to the election of Frankfurt Assembly, the first all-German parliament. This parliament proclaimed the Constitution of St. Paul's Church on 28 March 1849 that provided for the state as a hereditary constitutional monarchy. The Prussian king Frederick William IV refused the imperial crown that he was offered. On 23 April, the Bavarian king and his government rejected the constitution, which was regarded by the left as a coup.

The morgen was commonly set at about 60–70% of the tagwerk (literally "day work") referring to a full day of ploughing. In 1869, the North German Confederation fixed the morgen at a See :de:Morgen (Einheit) – German version of Wikipedia but in modern times most farmland work is measured in full hectares. The next lower measurement unit was the German "rute" or Imperial rod but the metric rod length of never became popular. The morgen is still used in Taiwan today, called "kah"; 1 kah is roughly .

Thurn-und-Taxis Post's 1859 15 Kreuzer stamp In 1847, a German postal conference met in Dresden which resulted in the establishment of the German-Austrian Postal Association. The association came into force on 1 July 1850. On 6 April 1850, the Thurn-und- Taxis Post joined the German-Austrian Postal Association, which was greeted with negative reactions from the government of the Kingdom of Prussia. Above all, Otto von Bismarck, as a representative of the German Confederation in Frankfurt am Main, was disparaged.

The Wolfenbüttel Line retained its independence, except from 1807 to 1813, when it and Hanover were merged into the Napoleonic Kingdom of Westphalia. The Congress of Vienna of 1815 turned it into an independent state under the name Duchy of Brunswick. The Duchy remained independent and joined first the North German Confederation and in 1871 the German Empire. When the main line of descent became extinct in 1884, the German Emperor withheld the rightful heir, the Crown Prince of Hanover, from taking control, instead installing a regent.

Bismarck's new empire was the most powerful state on the Continent. Prussia's dominance over the new empire was almost as absolute as it was with the North German Confederation. It included two-thirds of the empire's territory and three-fifths of its population. The imperial crown was a hereditary office of the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia also had a large plurality of seats in the Bundesrat, with 17 votes out of 58 (17 out of 61 after 1911); no other state had more than six votes.

By 1822, Cazenove had established himself as a successful wine and tobacco merchant in the city. In July, he was appointed by the Swiss Federal Diet to be one of the two first Swiss consuls in the United States. He performed his consular duties alongside his regular business activities in an honorary capacity until 1852, with his later service containing more formal diplomatic functions. He also performed diplomatic duties for some of the smaller states of the German Confederation, such as the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg.

The resignation of the Willmar cabinet and its replacement with a reactionary government paved the way for a revision of the liberal Constitution of 1848. The restoration of royal power that the German Confederation imposed on its member states offered a good pretext. Complying with the wishes of William III, the new government had the mission to prepare a text to put an end to parliamentary dominance, and to assure the safeguard of the sovereign's rights. In October 1856, the Simons government published its constitutional revision.

By this ceremony, the North German Confederation was transformed into the German Empire. This empire was a federal monarchy; the emperor was head of state and president of the federated monarchs (the kings of Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, the grand dukes of Oldenburg, Baden, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Hesse, as well as other principalities, duchies and of the free cities of Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen). Some organisations such as Tradition und Leben advocate a return to monarchy; however, there is currently little mainstream support for a restoration of the monarchy.

Napoleon Crossing the Elbe by Józef Brodowski (1895) In 1806, Dresden became the capital of the Kingdom of Saxony established by Napoleon. During the Napoleonic Wars the French Emperor made it a base of operations, winning there the Battle of Dresden on 27 August 1813. As a result of the Congress of Vienna, the Kingdom of Saxony became part of the German Confederation in 1815. Following the Polish uprisings of 1831, 1848 and 1863 many Poles fled to Dresden, among others composer Frédéric Chopin.

Otto von Bismarck's non-committal answers encouraged Napoleon III. The Second Schleswig War of 1864 had further advanced nationalist tensions in Germany, and, throughout 1865, it was clear that Prussia intended to challenge the position of the Austrian Empire within the German Confederation. Despite potentially holding the balance of power between the two, Emperor Napoleon III kept France neutral. Although he, like most of Europe, expected an Austrian victory, he could not intervene on Austria's side as that would jeopardise France's relationship with Italy post-Risorgimento.

His first diplomatic work of importance was the negotiation of a marriage between the grand duchess Olga and the crown prince Charles of Wurttemberg. He remained at Stuttgart for some years as Russian minister and confidential adviser of the crown princess. He foretold the outbreak of the revolutionary spirit in Germany and Austria, and was credited with counselling the abdication of Ferdinand in favour of Francis Joseph. When the German Confederation was re-established in 1850 in place of the parliament of Frankfurt, Gorchakov was appointed Russian minister to the diet.

Fourth were listed non-reigning dukes and princes, whether mediatized or not, including Arenberg, Croy, Furstenberg alongside Batthyany, Jablonowski, Sulkowski, Porcia and Benevento. In 1841 a third section was added to those of the sovereign dynasties and the non-reigning princely and ducal families. It was composed exclusively of the mediatized families of comital rank recognized by the various states of the German Confederation as belonging, since 1825, to the same historical category and sharing some of the same privileges as reigning dynasties; these families were German with a few exceptions (e.g. Bentinck, Rechteren-Limpurg).

France became the first country to adopt universal male suffrage. The Revolution of 1848 had major consequences for all of Europe: popular democratic revolts against authoritarian regimes broke out in Austria and Hungary, in the German Confederation and Prussia, and in the Italian States of Milan, Venice, Turin and Rome. Economic downturns and bad harvests during the 1840s contributed to growing discontent. In February 1848, the French government banned the holding of the Campagne des banquets, fundraising dinners by activists where critics of the regime would meet (as public demonstrations and strikes were forbidden).

The Treaty of Ribe, agreed to by the Danish King in order to gain control of the both states, seemed to indicate that Schleswig and Holstein were to remain united, though that interpretation was later challenged. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, but the German Confederation formed in 1815 also included Holstein. By the early 19th century, Holstein's population was almost entirely ethnically German, along with much of Schleswig's. Both Schleswig and Holstein had been ruled through institutions separate from the rest of the Danish Kingdom.

Loftus entered the diplomatic service in 1837 as attaché at Berlin and was likewise attaché at Stuttgart in 1844. He was secretary to Sir Stratford Canning in 1848, and after serving as secretary of legation at Stuttgart (1852), and Berlin (1853), was envoy at Vienna (1858), Berlin (1860) and Munich (1862). He was subsequently Ambassador at Berlin from 1865 to 1868, to the North German Confederation from 1868 to 1871 and to Saint Petersburg from 1871 to 1879. He then served as Governor of New South Wales from 1879 to 1885.

Several names are used for this Navy. The resolution of 14 June 1848 just calls it "Deutsche Marine", while navy minister Arnold Duckwitz in 1849 reported about the "Deutsche Kriegsmarine" and when Karl Rudolf Brommy was promoted to its first Admiral, the name used was Reichsmarine, which was used within the Navy, too. To avoid confusion with later incarnations, historians settled for Reichsflotte. The term Bundesflotte (Federal Fleet) is also used, but this is misleading, as it was not operated by the German Confederation in its first years.

From 1854 to 1863 he worked as a diplomat (Legationsrat) in the Prussian embassy in Paris. Then he was sent as Prussian royal ambassador to Kassel, and later to Munich. On 5 February 1868 he was posted as envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary of the North German Confederation to the Russian court at St. Petersburg by William I, who was still King of Prussia at that time. On 26 April 1871 he was designated the first ambassador of the German Empire by William, who had been crowned Emperor a few months earlier.

He was born in Bückeburg to Georg Wilhelm, Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe and Princess Ida of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1796–1869). He succeeded as Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe following the death of his father, Prince Georg Wilhelm on 21 November 1860. In 1866, Schaumburg-Lippe signed a military treaty with Prussia, and in 1867 entered a military union, where Schaumburgers served in the Prussian military. Also in 1867, Schaumburg-Lippe became a member of the North German Confederation, and later in 1871 became a member state of the German Empire on its founding.

In 1833 a centralized internal security service was established by the German Confederation. Headquartered in Frankfurt, the Central Investigating Agency consisted of several former investigating magistrates tasked with gathering information on seditious and subversive organizations—as well as the press, publishers, and bookstores—obtained by the police services of the member states of the Confederation. Information collected by the Central Investigating Agency was shared with the police of the German states concerned, as well as the Federal Convention. The same year, Austria established the Information Office in Mainz, which performed largely similar functions.

After the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Prussia maintained the acquired lands, that however still laid beyond the borders of the German Confederation. Their population was predominantly Catholic and Polish-speaking, while a sizable Protestant German minority settled mainly in the western parts. The annexed lands were internally re- arranged within the West Prussia Province and the Greater Polish Grand Duchy of Posen, which finally lost its semi-autonomous status after the failed Greater Poland Uprising of 1848. With Prussia, these provinces became part of the unified German Empire in 1871.

Gustav Groß was born on 12 June 1856 at Reichenberg in the Kingdom of Bohemia, a part of the Austrian Empire. His father, Gustav Robert Groß, was a railway industrialist, and a participant in the Frankfurt Parliament, as part of the 1848 revolutions across the German Confederation. Gustav Groß studied political economics at the universities of Vienna and Berlin. From 1877 to 1881, he was a political official in the province of Lower Austria and from 1885, a privatdozent (independent professor) of political economics at the University of Vienna.

Southern Germany roughly corresponds to the area of Germany south of the Speyer line, below which Upper German dialects are spoken (shown in the green are that also includes Austria, parts of Switzerland and Italy). Southern Germany primarily contrasts with Northern Germany. The term mostly corresponds to those territories of modern Germany which did not form part of the North German Confederation in the nineteenth century. Between Northern and Southern Germany is the loosely defined area known as Central Germany (Mitteldeutschland), roughly corresponding to the areal of Central German dialects (Franconia, Thuringia, Saxony).

When the Netherlands and Belgium separated in 1830, there was support for adding Limburg to Belgium, but in the end (1839) the province was divided in two, with the eastern part going to the Netherlands and the western part to Belgium. From that time, Dutch Limburg was, as the new Duchy of Limburg, also part of the German Confederation. Between 1940 and 1945, during World War II, the Germans occupied Roermond. The town was liberated on 1 March 1945 by the Recce Troop of the 35th US Infantry Division during Operation Grenade.

For the most of 1815–1848, Austria and Prussia worked together and used the German Confederation as a tool to suppress liberal and national ambitions in the German population. In 1849, the National Assembly in Frankfurt elected the Prussian king as the Emperor of a Lesser Germany (a Germany without Austria). The king refused and tried to unite Germany with the Erfurt Union of 1849–1850. When the union parliament met in early 1850 to discuss the constitution, the participating states were mainly only those in Northern and Central Germany.

Between 1806 and 1815, Napoleon organized the German states, aside from Prussia and Austria, into the Confederation of the Rhine, but this collapsed after his defeats in 1812 to 1815. The German Confederation had roughly the same boundaries as the Empire at the time of the French Revolution (less what is now Belgium). It also kept intact most of Confederation's reconstituted member states and their boundaries. The member states, drastically reduced to 39 from more than 300 (see ) under the Holy Roman Empire, were recognized as fully sovereign.

He had joined the SPD in 1956, from 1961 until 1969 and again from 1976 to 1980 he was a member of the Bundestag. In 1969 Gscheidle was a nominee for Chairman of the German Confederation of Trade Unions (DGB) but had to step down in favour of Heinz Oskar Vetter. He then served as a secretary of state at the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications and from 1974 as Minister of Transport (until 1980) and Post and Telecommunications (until 1982) under Helmut Schmidt in the latter's three terms as Federal Chancellor.

The Marinestation der Nordsee (North Sea Naval Station) of the German Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) at Wilhelmshaven came out of the efforts of the navy of the North German Confederation. The land was obtained for the Confederation from the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg by Prince Adalbert of Prussia through the Jade Treaty of 1853. The naval station was established on 19 May 1870, and became the ‘Imperial’ station with the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871. There was also a Marinestation der Ostsee in Kiel and five less formally established foreign stations.

No casualties were incurred, in fact the unit numbered 81 upon return due to an Italian joining with the unit to escape the war zone. The demise of the German Confederation in that war freed Liechtenstein from its international obligation to maintain an army, and parliament seized this opportunity and refused to provide funding for one. The Prince objected, as such a move would leave the country defenceless, but relented on 12 February 1868 and disbanded the force. The last soldier to serve under the colors of Liechtenstein died in 1939 at age 95.

The result was that the Austrian Empire was seen as one of the great powers after 1815, but also as a reactionary force and an obstacle to national aspirations in Italy and Germany.Josephine Bunch Stearns, The Role of Metternich in Undermining Napoleon (University of Illinois Press, 1948). During this time, Metternich was able to maintain an elaborate balance between Prussia, the lesser German states, and Austria in the German Confederation. Thanks to his efforts, Austria was seen as the senior partner with Prussia keeping watch over Germany as a whole.

After Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Leipzig, Friedrich August joined in the allies fighting against the French emperor. Nassau's troops fought under the command of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo. At the Congress of Vienna, the unification of the Duchy of Nassau was approved and the duchy joined the German Confederation. Friedrich August was an enlightened and liberal ruler who established reforms such as the elimination of tax privileges for the nobility, the introduction of press freedom and the constitution for a modern state.

It was a pleasant month-long trip, although it was there he received news of the death of his father at the age of 72. He visited the family estate at Königswart and then Frankfurt in late August to encourage the member states of the German Confederation to agree on procedural issues. He could also now visit Koblenz for the first time in 25 years and his new estate at Johannisberg. Travelling with Emperor Francis, he was warmly greeted by the Catholic towns along the Rhine as he progressed towards Aachen.

Theodosius Harnack Theodosius Andreas Harnack (; , St. Petersburg – , Dorpat (now )) was a Baltic German theologian. A professor of Divinity, he started his career as a Privatdozent for church history and homiletics at the University of Dorpat (in what is today Tartu, Estonia) in 1843, he was further appointed university preacher in 1847. Since 1848 he held an ordinary chair (tenure) as professor for practical and systematic theology. Between 1853 and 1866 Harnack was professor at Frederick Alexander University (merged in the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg since 1961) in Erlangen, Bavaria, German Confederation (now Germany).

The league's representatives came from the educated middle and upper classes. The establishment has to be seen against the background of the Prussian "New Era" politics under prince regent William with slight liberalisations and concessions to the bourgeoisie that started in 1858. Liberals and democrats, who met separately until 1859, united on 14 August 1859 in Eisenach and drafted the 2nd Eisenach Declaration calling for nationwide elections, creation of a central authority and end of the confederation. If necessary, the diplomatic and military powers of the German Confederation should be transferred to the Prussian government.

During the Austro-Prussian War and the foundation of the North German Confederation, the conflict between the left liberals and National liberals inside the union grew more and more heavy on the question whether or not to seek a compromise with Bismarck. Ultimately the right wing decided to accept the Indemnity bill (Indemnitätsvorlage) in 1866, leading to the final split of the left liberal, staunchly oppositional German Progress Party and the pro-government National Liberal Party, that was established in 1867. Thus, the German National Association ceased to exist.

The North German Federal Navy (Norddeutsche Bundesmarine or Marine des Norddeutschen Bundes), was the Navy of the North German Confederation, formed out of the Prussian Navy in 1867. It was eventually succeeded by the Imperial German Navy in 1871. In the war against France, in 1870-1871, the navy encountered enemy forces on a few occasions. These included several minor skirmishes in the North and Baltic Seas between German coastal forces and the French blockade fleet, along with the Battle of Havana between the gunboat and the French aviso .

Alice, Louise and Helena. Portrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1849. In the German Confederation, Prince William of Prussia and his wife Princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach were among the personalities with whom Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were allies. The British sovereign also had regular epistolary contact with her cousin Augusta since 1846. The revolution that broke out in Berlin in 1848 further strengthened the links between the two royal couples by requiring the heir presumptive to the Prussian throne to find shelter for three months in the British court.

Belgium lost Eastern Limburg, Zeeuws Vlaanderen and French Flanders and Eupen: four territories which it had claimed on historical grounds. The Netherlands retained the former two while French Flanders, which had been annexed at the time of Louis XIV remained in French possession, and Eupen remained within the German Confederation, although it would pass to Belgium after World War I in reparations. At the Treaty of London, Britain also made a guarantee of Belgian neutrality that would be the stated Casus belli of Britain's entry into World War I.

Although protecting powers have existed in diplomatic usage since the 16th century, the modern institution of protecting power originated in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. All of the belligerents appointed protecting powers, necessitated by the expulsion of diplomats and placing of restrictions on enemy aliens. The United States acted as protecting power for the North German Confederation and several of the smaller German states, while Switzerland was the protecting power for Baden and Bavaria, and Russia for Württemberg. Meanwhile, the United Kingdom served as the protecting power for France.

This was confirmed via the German Confederation Constitution of 1815, which gave Frederick back his original lands and even added the 176 km² Grand Bailiwick of Meisenheim on the west bank of the Rhine, taken from the French department of Sarre. He had hoped for better (including an increase to neighbouring Rosbach vor der Höhe and Oberusel) and complained "What should I do with this district in China?".Günther F. Anthes, Hessen-Homburg und Meisenheim. In: Mitteilungen des Vereins für Geschichte und Landeskunde zu Bad Homburg vor der Höhe, Band 35 (1982).

The "February Revolution" which triggered the French king's abdication also sparked a series of uprisings in the component states of the German Confederation. During the "March Revolution" the insurgents called for German unity in response to what many of the more politically conscious saw as illiberal policies applied by local rulers taking their lead from Vienna. In Baden there were calls for a republic from revolutionary leaders such as Friedrich Hecker and Gustav Struve which resonated powerfully with the Volksverein loosely, "popular associations". From the outset, Amalie participated actively in the action alongside her husband.

Josef von Hormayr, the prominent Austrian nationalist political leader during the Napoleonic Wars. Rally of the Fatherland's Front in 1936. The Napoleonic Wars were the cause of the final dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, and ultimately the cause for the quest for a German nation state in 19th-century German nationalism. German nationalism began to rise rapidly within the German Confederation, in 1866 the feud between the two most powerful German states Austria and Prussia finally came to a head in the German war in 1866.

Acadia had a reputation for speed, but never actually won a speed record. She was also sold in 1849 to the North German Confederation Navy for conversion to the frigate, Ersherzog Johann. When that navy was dissolved, Ersherzog Johann was sold to W. A. Fritze and Company of Bremen, Germany’s first oceangoing steamship venture. The former Acadia was converted back to an Atlantic liner and renamed Germania. In August 1853, she took the new line’s initial sailing, but required 24 days to reach New York because of boiler problems.

The environmental coalition comprised environmental organizations, the renewables industry, farmers, the metal workers unions (IGBCE and IG Metall), a German engineering association (VDMA), partly the German Confederation of Skilled Crafts (ZDH), and some industrial corporations with renewables interests. When the EEG was proposed in the late-1990s, the incumbent energy companies markedly underestimated the technological potential of renewables, believing them to be suitable only for niche roles. They were not alone, almost all politicians and scientists of the time did so too. The opposition to the EEG was therefore muted.

The legal basis for mediatisation was the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss of 1803, which had become necessary under pressure from France. The Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine of 1806 continued the process of mediatisation. The constitution of the German Confederation of 1815 confirmed the mediatisation, but preserved certain rights for the mediatised princes within their former realms, now ranked as state countries, such as first instance jurisdiction, supervision of religion and foundations. Mediatised sovereign houses rank higher than other houses of nominally equal (or higher) rank, but who never ruled a state.

The Danish post was dealt with in a similar way. The construction of the Lübeck-Büchen Railway through Danish-ruled Saxe-Lauenburg was permitted and in return, the Royal Danish Chief Post Office was allowed in Lübeck. During the transition of the postal administration to the North German Confederation on 1 January 1868, the city post office became the chief post office of the North German postal district and Mr. Lingnau became chief postal director. The Danish post office, as well as Thurn und Taxis, closed their posts.

The coverage of the North German Postal Union was described as follows: :The federal territories comprise Anhalt, Bremen, Brunswick, Hamburg, Lippe, Lübeck, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg- Strelitz, Oldenburg, Prussia together with Lauenburg, Reuss senior line, Reuss junior line, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, Grand Duchy of Saxony, Kingdom of Saxony, Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg- Sondershausen, Upper Hesse (part of Hesse north of the Main), and Waldeck. Upper Hesse was administered as part of the postal union even though the Grand Duchy of Hesse was not a member of the North German Confederation.

Napoleon was retreating from his failed invasion of Russia in 1812. With the Russian armies following up victory, the Sixth Coalition was formed with Russia, Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Sweden, Spain and other nations hostile to the French Empire. Even though the French were victorious in the initial battles during their campaign in Germany, the Coalition armies eventually joined together and defeated them at the Battle of Leipzig in the autumn of 1813. After the battle, the Pro-French German Confederation of the Rhine collapsed, thereby loosening Napoleon's hold on Germany east of the Rhine.

The nations represented were Austria-Hungary, Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, France, United Kingdom (representing the British Empire), Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, the North German Confederation (i.e., Greater Prussia), Russia, Sweden-Norway, Switzerland, the Ottoman Empire, and Württemberg.Stuart Maslen, Anti-Personnel Mines under Humanitarian Law: a view from the vanishing point, p12, Intersentia nv, 2001 The United States, not considered a major power at the time, was not invited and took no part in the convention. Brazil ratified the agreement in 1869, as did Estonia in 1991.Ratifications.

Plan of the Bundesfestung Ulm The fortress of Ulm (Bundesfestung Ulm) was one of five federal fortresses of the German Confederation around the cities of Ulm and Neu-Ulm. With its 9 km polygonal main circumvallation Ulm had the biggest fortress in Germany in the 19th century and it is still one of the biggest in Europe. After the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the victorious powers agreed to defend the states from the inside. The fortresses were one of the few realised projects of the confederation.

Martin was a member of one of the oldest timber and shipowner firms in Dublin, and a successful shipping magnate in the port of Dublin. He was appointed to several public boards of the city, including the Irish Lights Board, the Loan Fund Board, and the Port and Docks Board, where he was chairman. In 1870, he served as Prussian and North German Confederation consul in Dublin. In 1885 he was President of the Dublin Chamber of Commerce, and on 2 June 1885 was created a Baronet, of Cappagh in the county of Dublin.

Later Halstenbek suffered from Swedish-Polish Wars 1658-1660 and the War of the Spanish Succession 1701-1714. The Industrial Revolution in the early 19th century starts Halstenbeks revival. After the devastating fire of Hamburg in 1842 the agriculture specialized into plant nursery, as large quantities of trees were required for building houses and planting trees in parks and along the streets. After Prussias victory over Denmark in 1864 and the founding of the North German Confederation in 1867 Halstenbek and the district of Pinneberg were under Prussian administration.

The German Confederation's legation of sovereigns, the Bundestag (officially called the Bundesversammlung, Federal Assembly), was located in the Palais Thurn und Taxis in the center of Frankfurt, Koerner's native city. During the Frankfurter Wachensturm in 1833, a failed attempt by students to start a revolution in all states of the German Confederation, Koerner was injured and, to avoid being prosecuted by the authorities and held captive for high treason which would threaten capital punishment, he escaped in female dress to France. A warrant was out for him. He is counted as one of the Dreissiger.

The most famous of these was the clipper Cimber, which in 1857 sailed from Liverpool to San Francisco in 106 days. Fishing and various small factories also provided occupations for the population. From 1864 as a result of the Second War of Schleswig it was part of Prussia, and as such part of the North German Confederation, and from 1871 onwards, part of the German Empire. In the 1920 Schleswig Plebiscite that brought Northern Schleswig to Denmark, 55.1% of Aabenraa's inhabitants voted for remaining part of Germany and 44.9% voted for the cession to Denmark.

Trade unions in Germany have a history reaching back to the German revolution in 1848, and still play an important role in the German economy and society. The most important labor organization is the German Confederation of Trade Unions (', or DGB), which is the umbrella association of eight single trade unions for individual economic sectors, representing more than 6 million people . The largest single trade union is the IG Metall, which organizes about 2.3 million members in metal (including automobile and machine building), electronics, steel, textile, wood and synthetics industries.

With his brother Joachim, he represented Denmark at the Congress of Vienna and, as a member for the commission for the regulation of the affairs of the German confederation, was responsible for some of that confusion of Danish and German interests which was to bear bitter fruit later in the Schleswig-Holstein question. He again accompanied the allied sovereigns to Paris in 1815, returning to Copenhagen the same year. In 1817, he was appointed Danish ambassador at Berlin, his brother Joachim going at the same time to Vienna.

15 May 1864 issue, Michel #7, Scott #18 On 1 March 1864, Holstein, while under occupation by the German Confederation, issued a stamp, denominated 1¼ schillings, in blue and grey, lithographed, imperforate.This blue and grey stamp occurs with three major variations as Scott #15-#17, ; and Michel #5 Type I and II, and #6, That same day, the Austrian-Prussian occupying forces in Schleswig issued two stamps inscribed "Herzogth. Schleswig","Herzogth. Schleswig" is short for Herzogtum Schleswig, or "Duchy of Schleswig". a 1¼ schilling in green and a four schilling in carmine.

FC 1880 Frankfurt at the 1900 Olympic Games While rugby union probably reached Germany through affluent British students who attended renowned private grammar schools in the German Confederation, studied in Heidelberg, or completed military service in Hannover, there is disagreement about when the game was first played. Heidelberg's Neuenheim College (now Heidelberg College) lays claim to its students first playing rugby around 1850. By contrast, in Stuttgart William Cail is regarded as having first introduced rugby, in 1865 at Bad Cannstatt.Philipp Heineken: Erinnerungen an den Cannstatter Fussball-Club.

On February 10, 1848, the students and other citizens of Munich gathered before the king's residence and riots broke out throughout the city. In an effort to appease the population, Ludwig I reopened the university the next day and exiled his publicly loathed mistress, who fled to Switzerland on February 11. The anti-establishment sentiment growing across the German Confederation and much of Europe within the context of the March Revolution continued to intensify in Bavaria. On March 16, 1848 riots escalated again, after Montez returned to the city despite her banishment.

At the Battle of Solferino (Second Italian War of Independence) in 1859, the House of Savoy's Piedmont-Sardinia sided with the French Emperor Napoleon III against the Austrian Empire. Following Austria's defeat, Lombardy was ceded to France, who transferred Lombardy to Piedmont-Sardinia in return for Nice and Savoy. Mantua, although a constituent province of Lombardy, still remained under the Austrian Empire along with Venetia. In 1866, Prussia-led North German Confederation sided with the newly established, Piedmont-led Kingdom of Italy against the Austrian Empire in the Third Italian War of Independence.

This action caused outrage among the duchies' German population and a resolution was passed by the German Confederation at the initiative of Bismarck, calling for the occupation of Holstein by Confederate forces. The Danish government abandoned Holstein and pulled the Danish Army back to the border between Schleswig and Holstein. Most of it fortified itself behind the Danevirke. This order to retreat without combat caused adverse comment among some Danish private soldiers, but the military circumstances made it wise to shorten the frontier that needed to be defended.

On 18 February 1864, some Prussian hussars, in the excitement of a cavalry skirmish, crossed the north frontier of Schleswig into Denmark proper and occupied the town of Kolding. An invasion of Denmark itself had not been part of the original programme of the allies. Bismarck determined to use this circumstance to revise the whole situation. He urged upon Austria the necessity for a strong policy, to settle, comprehensively, the question of the duchies and the wider question of the German Confederation; Austria reluctantly consented to press the war.

However the coalition did not hold together for long. Many of the revolutions were quickly suppressed; tens of thousands of people were killed, and many more were forced into exile. Significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark, and the introduction of representative democracy in the Netherlands. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, Italy, the Austrian Empire, and the states of the German Confederation that would make up the German Empire in the late 19th and early 20th century.

The Gewerkschaft der Polizei () is a trade union in Germany. It represents 181,000 police employees, and is one of eight industrial affiliations of the German Confederation of Trade Unions (DGB). The GdP is one of the three trade unions for police employees in Germany, the other two being the Deutsche Polizeigewerkschaft - affiliated with the German Civil Service Federation - and the Bund Deutscher Kriminalbeamter, which is exclusively for members of the Kriminalpolizei. The Trade Union of the Police was founded on a federal level on 14 September 1950 in Hamburg.

Ferdinand I ( 19 April 1793 – 29 June 1875) was the Emperor of Austria from 1835 until his abdication in 1848. As ruler of Austria, he was also President of the German Confederation, King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia (as Ferdinand V), King of Lombardy–Venetia and holder of many other lesser titles (see grand title of the Emperor of Austria). Due to his rocky, passive but good-intended character, he gained the sobriquet The Benign () or The Good ().Thomas Nipperdey: Deutsche Geschichte 1800-1866. Bürgerwelt und starker Staat, C.H. Beck, broschierte Sonderausgabe 1998, S. 339.

Mensdorff- Pouilly was appointed as Foreign Minister of the Austrian Empire on 27 October 1864. Mensdorff-Pouilly's policies during his tenure as Foreign Minister for Emperor Franz Joseph were often largely a continuation of the conservative traditionalism of Rechberg, his predecessor. Mensdorff-Pouilly, like Rechberg, sought to maintain conservative dominance of the German Confederation through an alliance between Austria and Prussia (in which Prussia was the junior partner), and he steadfastly refused to consider British suggestions that Austria surrender Venetia to Italy.F. R. Bridge, The Habsburg Monarchy Among the Great Powers, 1815-1918.

Several associations tried to conduct the research systematically and across state borders. However, the still independent states of the German Confederation wanted to maintain their cultural sovereignty even after the unification of their territory into the Reich. Thus, in 1877 and 1888 in the Kingdom of Württemberg, and in 1880 in the Grand Duchy of Hesse and in the Grand Duchy of Baden State Limes Commissions were appointed, which would successfully identify the course of the Limes in several places. However, these individual researches could not answer all questions by far.

The German occupation of Belgium was the first phase in this process, which ultimately failed to come to fruition. Plans to create a Duchy of Flanders and a Grand Duchy of Warsaw were discussed as political units of future "localized" administration. The original economic plan was conceived pre-1914 by Walther Rathenau and Alfred von Gwinner, respectively, with the legal support of Hans Delbrück. It was a Customs Union consistent with a history of the and German Confederation of 19th century, in which German philosophers believed in the wider sustainability of a Greater Europe.

Franz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I (; 18 August 1830 – 21 November 1916) was Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary, Croatia, and Bohemia, and monarch of other states of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, from 2 December 1848 until his death.Francis Joseph, in Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 19 April 2009 From 1 May 1850 to 24 August 1866 he was also President of the German Confederation. He was the longest-reigning ruler of Austria and Hungary, as well as the sixth-longest-reigning monarch of any country in European history.

The first episode in the saga of German unification under Bismarck came with the Schleswig-Holstein Question. On 15 November 1863, Christian IX became king of Denmark and duke of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which the Danish king held in personal union. On 18 November 1863, he signed the Danish November Constitution and declared the Duchy of Schleswig a part of Denmark. The German Confederation saw this act as a violation of the London Protocol of 1852, which emphasized the status of the Kingdom of Denmark as distinct from the three independent duchies.

Dukes of Nassau over the Palace entrance In 1806, the counties of Nassau-Usingen and Nassau-Weilburg merged to form the Duchy of Nassau at the insistence of Napoleon. Frederick Augustus, Duke of Nassau, became the ducal head of state. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Duchy of Nassau joined the German Confederation at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The capital moved from Weilburg to Wiesbaden and the city became the ducal residence. When Frederick died childless in 1816, the dukedom was transferred to the line of Nassau-Weilburg.

Falckenstein's troops arrived the following day, and Arentschildt was forced to flee eastward into territory ringed by Prussian railways, leading to Hanover's surrender at Nordhausen on 29 June. Falckenstein's forces fought a series of engagements against south German states and entered Frankfurt on 16 July. Because of differences with the Prussian General Staff, he was forced to relinquish command to von Manteuffel and instead was made governor of Bohemia. In 1867, Falckenstein was chosen as a representative of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) to the Reichstag of the North German Confederation.

In the Armed Forces of the German Confederation Saxony provided the fourth largest contingent, after Austria, Prussia and Bavaria. The Saxon troops, together with the quotas from Hesse-Kassel and Nassau, formed the mixed IX. Army Corps. Organization of Army of Kingdom of Saxony as of 20 June 1866 When the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 began, Saxony supported Austria and mobilized its 32,000-strong army around Dresden under the command of Crown Prince Albert. After the declaration of war the Prussian Army crossed the border on 16 July 1866 near Strehla and Löbau.

The Gastein Convention marked the end of all attempts to seek a peaceful solution of the German question. It soon collapsed due to Bismarck's successful efforts to provoke a war with the Austrian Empire as well as to eliminate Austria from the German Confederation. The Austrian government had tolerated the rule of Duke Frederick VIII of Schleswig- Holstein, much to the chagrin of Prussia. On 1 June 1866 Austria asked the Federal Convention for a resolution on the status of Holstein, which Prussia regarded as a breach of the mutual agreement.

IG Metall was affiliated to the German Confederation of Trade Unions (DGB), and in 1965, Zwickel became organising secretary of its Neckarsulm branch. In 1968, he returned to IG Metall, to head up its Necarsulm branch, and then in 1984, he moved to the same role in its large Stuttgart branch. Zwickel was elected to the union's executive in 1986, with responsibility for collective bargaining, then he became vice president of the union in 1989, and president in 1993. As leader of the union, he was known as a strong negotiator and expert on tariffs.

The defeat and exile of Napoleon gave the Germans some respite, but during the Rhine Crisis of 1840, French prime minister Adolphe Thiers advanced the claim that the Upper and Middle Rhine River should serve as his country's "natural eastern border". The member states of the German Confederation feared that France was resuming her annexationist designs. Nikolaus Becker responded to these events by writing a poem called "" in which he swore to defend the Rhine. The Swabian merchant Max Schneckenburger, inspired by the German praise and French opposition this received, then wrote the poem "".

Carl Wilhelm Daniel Rohl-SmithCarr, p. 375. (April 3, 1848- August 20, 1900) was a Danish American sculptor who was active in Europe and the United States from 1870 to 1900. He sculpted a number of life-size and small bronzes based on Greco-Roman mythological themes in Europe as well as a wide number of bas- reliefs, busts, funerary monuments, and statues throughout Denmark, the German Confederation, and Italy. Emigrating to the United States in 1886, he once more produced a number of sculptures for private citizens.

Theodor Leipart was born into a Protestant family, the seventh of his parents' twelve recorded children, in Neubrandenburg, then in the eastern part of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, a grand duchy in the North German Confederation. Ernst Alexander Leipart (1831-1885), his father, was trained and had worked initially as a self- employed tailor specialising in women's dresses. By the time Theodor was born, however, his father had a more itinerant job, travelling for the "Bettfeder- Reinigungs-Anstalt" (literally, "Bed-springs cleaning institution"). His mother, born Wilhelmine Charlotte Friederike Schmidt, was the daughter of a machinist.

Bastian was born in Bremen, at the time a state of the German Confederation, into a prosperous bourgeois German family of merchants. His career at university was broad almost to the point of being eccentric. He studied law at the Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg, and biology at what is today Humboldt University of Berlin, the Friedrich Schiller University of Jena, and the University of Würzburg. It was at this last university that he attended lectures by Rudolf Virchow and developed an interest in what was then known as 'ethnology'.

Bremen joined the North German Confederation in 1867 and four years later became an autonomous component state of the new-founded German Empire and its successors. The first German steamship was manufactured in 1817 in the shipyard of Johann Lange. In 1827, Bremen, under Johann Smidt, its mayor at that time, purchased land from the Kingdom of Hanover, to establish the city of Bremerhaven (Port of Bremen) as an outpost of Bremen because the river Weser was silting up. The shipping company Norddeutscher Lloyd (NDL) was founded in 1857.

Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller (16 August 1864 – 6 August 1937), usually cited as F. C. S. Schiller, was a German-British philosopher. Born in Altona, Holstein (at that time member of the German Confederation, but under Danish administration), Schiller studied at the University of Oxford, later was a professor there, after being invited back after a brief time at Cornell University. Later in his life he taught at the University of Southern California. In his lifetime he was well known as a philosopher; after his death his work was largely forgotten.

The treaty foresaw a most favored nation- clause not only between the three city-states and Texas, but also extendable to any state of the German Confederation. Talks were initially held in Hamburg, but later moved to Paris. It took until April 1844 for the treaty to be signed, by which time Lübeck, Hamburg and Texas saw the Lone Star State's coming accession to the U.S., and didn't bother ratifying the treaty. Bremen was the only party where the treaty got ratified, coming into effect in December 1844.

In the 1855 timetable, Wendisch Warnow station was served by seven pairs of passenger trains each day, including the fast mail train.1855 timetable in: With the formation of the North German Confederation and Mecklenburg and Lübeck joining the Zollverein (customs union) in 1868, the border and customs formalities became unnecessary. On 28 August 1868, the Prussian Ministry of Finance announced that on "the day on which totally free circulation of goods commences with Mecklenburg and Lübeck" the customs office in Wendisch Warnow would be closed. The main customs office in Warnow was also closed.

According to the Congress of Vienna, put into action after the fall of Napoleon in 1815, parts of the Prussian territory partitioned from Poland were passed on to Russia. From the remainder the Grand Duchy of Posen was to be created, that was to be a nominally autonomous province under Hohenzollern rule with the rights of "free development of Polish nation, culture and language", and was outside the German Confederation. Originally the Grand Duchy was to include Chełmno and Toruń. Prussia however disregarded this promise from Congress of Vienna.

After the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the North German states had joined the North German Confederation under the leadership of Prussia. In 1870, France under Napoleon III declared war on Prussia and thus triggered the Franco-Prussian War. France was surprised by the fact that Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse had joined Prussia, although there had been mutual covenants of protection and trusts since 1867. During the war, in which the Prussians won, a near-reaching agreement emerged and the road to founding the empire was opened.

Buol was born in Vienna, a scion of a Grisons noble family descending from Fürstenau. His father Johann Rudolf von Buol (d. 1834) from 1816 until 1823 chaired the Austrian delegation to the Bundesversammlung of the German Confederation. He joined the Austrian foreign service and served successively as envoy to Baden at Karlsruhe (1828–1838), to Württemberg at Stuttgart (1838–1844), to Sardinia-Piedmont at Turin (1844–1848), to Russia at Saint Petersburg (1848–1850), to the German ministerial conference at Dresden 1850/51, and to the United Kingdom at London (1851–1852).

After defeating Napoleon III in 1870, the North German Confederation and the South German states united to form the German Empire. The German Reichspost established a uniform set of postage rates and regulations for the new country, but the uniformity ended at the German border. Different amounts of postage were required to mail a letter from Berlin to New York, depending on which ship carried the letter across the Atlantic Ocean. To bring order to the system of international mail, German Postmaster-General Heinrich von Stephan called for another International Postal Congress in 1874.

Under the Locarno Treaties, Germany accepted the western borders of the country by abandoning irredentist claims on France and Belgium, but continued to dispute the eastern borders and sought to persuade Austria to rejoin Germany, which it had been during the German Confederation of 1815 to 1866. From 1930 onwards, President Paul von Hindenburg used emergency powers to back Chancellors Heinrich Brüning, Franz von Papen and General Kurt von Schleicher. The Great Depression, exacerbated by Brüning's policy of deflation, led to a surge in unemployment.Büttner, Ursula Weimar: die überforderte Republik, Klett-Cotta, 2008, , p.

The consulate was first established as an office of the North German Confederation in 1869. Originally only titled as a 'Consul', on 12 November 1877 the serving German Consul in Shanghai, Carl Friedrich Conrad Lueder, was upgraded to the status of Consul- General. When China entered the First World War on the Allied side in 1917, China broke off diplomatic relations between Germany and German interests were thereafter managed by the Netherlands as the Protecting power. The Consulate- General in Shanghai was reestablished in 1921, following the separate peace treaty with China.

The German Confederation possessed practically no fleet of its own, but relied upon the allied powers of Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Denmark. During the First War of Schleswig of 1848–1851, the failure of this strategy became clear because Great Britain and the Netherlands remained neutral and Denmark became the enemy. Within a few days, the Danish Navy halted all German maritime trade in the North and Baltic Seas. The navy of Austria, Prussia's ally, lay in the Mediterranean and was able to intervene only later in the war.

On 3 November 1815, in the margins of the Paris Peace Conference the four victorious powers - Austria, Great Britain Prussia and Russia Mainz, Luxemburg and Landau were designated as fortresses of the German Confederation and, moreover, they envisaged that a fourth federal fortress on the Upper Rhine, for which 20 million French francs were to be set aside from the war reparations.Procès-verbal de la conférence de M. M. les plénipotentiaires des quatre puissances du 3. Novembre 1815 à Paris, Annexe B, Système défensif de la confédération germanique. Art. 10, dated 3 November 1815.

The Garde du Corps of the Kingdom of Hanover, 1835 The German Federal Army () was the military arm of the German Confederation from 1815 to 1866 whose purpose was the defence of the Confederation against external enemies. Although the Congress of Vienna in 1815 decreed the formation of the army and delimited its size and purpose, no work on its formation was begun until 1841, after the Rhine crisis brought the threat of war to Germany. Even then, only preliminary work was accomplished on troop readiness. Most work focused on the building of federal fortresses.

As a consequence of the Congress of Vienna became part of German Confederation and Luxembourg City was placed under mixed military control. The military garrison in Luxembourg City was limited to 6,000 troops; with three- quarters being Prussian and one-quarter Dutch. A German military contingent remained in Luxembourg City until 1867 when the Treaty of London mandated the demolition of the westward fortifications of Luxembourg City and the withdrawal of the Prussian garrison which had been sited in Luxembourg since 1815 in accordance with the decisions of the Congress of Vienna.

The VIII Army Corps () was a mixed corps of the army of the German Confederation (the Bundesheer), which was made up of contingents from Württemberg, Baden and Hesse. Until 1830 In 1839, the tiny contingents of the 18 small and very small states were dropped from the Army Corps' ORBAT to which they had hitherto been assigned because, tactically, they represented a hinderance due to the disparity in their training and equipment. They were incorporated into the Reserve Division. contingents from Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen, Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Liechtenstein also belonged to this corps.

Elections to the Zollparlament of the German Zollverein were held in February and March 1868. The Zollparlament consisted of the members of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation and members from the South German states. Those South German members were elected in these elections, the North Germans were the Reichstag members elected the previous year. In total, 85 South Germans were elected: 48 from Bavaria, 14 from Baden, six from Hesse-Darmstadt (additionally to the three Reichstag members in the province of Upper Hesse), and 17 from Württemberg.

In 1867, he ran, unsuccessfully, as a candidate for the Reichstag of the North German Confederation. At the beginning of 1868, together with adherents of the First International, he founded a social-democratic electoral club, and in 1869 became one of the co- founders of the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany (SDAP). Besides this, he concerned himself with municipal affairs for the city of Köln. He demanded the abolition of census suffrage and petitioned for the incorporation of the town of Deutz, and succeeded in collecting over a thousand signatures in favor.

The dissolution of the German Confederation after the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 allowed the Servais government in Luxembourg to turn its back on the German political model that had been imposed by the coup d'état of 1856, and to undertake a revision of the constitution. The resulting constitution of 1868 was a compromise between the republican text of 1848, and the monarchist charter of 1856. Ministerial responsibility and the annual vote on taxes were re-introduced. The Constitution guaranteed basic civil liberties such as freedom of the press and freedom of association again.

The Prussians defeated the Austrians in the Austro- Prussian War in 1866 which ultimately excluded Austria from Germany. Otto von Bismarck established the North German Confederation which sought to prevent the Austrian and Bavarian Catholics from forming any sort of force against the predominantly Protestant Prussian Germany. He used the Franco-Prussian War to convince other German states, including the Kingdom of Bavaria to fight against the Second French Empire. After Prussia's victory in the war, he swiftly unified Germany into a nation-state in 1871 and proclaimed the German Empire, without Austria.

Dresden itself was a centre of the German Revolutions in 1848 with the May Uprising, which cost human lives and damaged the historic town of Dresden. The uprising forced Frederick Augustus II of Saxony to flee from Dresden, but he soon after regained control over the city with the help of Prussia. In 1852, the population of Dresden grew to 100,000 inhabitants, making it one of the biggest cities within the German Confederation. As the capital of the Kingdom of Saxony, Dresden became part of the newly founded German Empire in 1871.

Therefore, Hungary represented a threat to Austria in any opposition to Prussia within the German Confederation over the German Question. Therefore, cautious discussions over concessions, referred to as Conciliation by the Hungarians (Hamann 146), started to take place. Emperor Franz Joseph traveled to Budapest in June 1865 and made a few concessions, such as abolishing the military jurisdiction, and granting an amnesty to the press. However these fell far short of the demands of the Hungarian liberals whose minimal demands were restoration of the constitution and the emperor's separate coronation as King of Hungary.

All of the Great Powers were invited to London to hammer out a deal that would prevent war. As it was clear that no other power would accept the incorporation of Luxembourg into either France or the North German Confederation, the negotiations centred upon the terms of Luxembourg's neutrality. The result was a victory for Bismarck; although Prussia would have to remove its soldiers from Luxembourg City, Luxembourg would remain in the Zollverein. The Luxembourg Crises showed the influence the public opinion could have on the actions of governments.

While the number of voters was limited by a system of census suffrage to about 40% of Brunswick's male population, the parliament of Brunswick was granted more rights than in most other German states at the time and the duke's budget and powers were significantly limited.Schildt: Von der Restauration zur Reichsgründungszeit, pp. 772–777 While William joined the Prussian-led North German Confederation in 1866, his relationship to Prussia was strained, since Prussia refused to recognize Ernest Augustus, Crown Prince of Hanover, his nearest male-line relative, as his heir.

Pillersdorf became Minister of the Interior under Count Kolowrat on 20 March, and submitted the Pillersdorf Constitution on 25 April. He was appointed Minister-President on 4 May. If he had hoped for a moment to be able to calmly and gradually reorganise the government, everything conspired against his honest intention — the turmoil in Lombardy and Hungary, the unrest in Vienna, and relations with the states of the German Confederation. The unexpected flight of Emperor Ferdinand I made it an affair of honour for the prime minister not to resign, and Pillersdorf remained true to his post.

Wessenberg efforts made a major contribution to the establishment of the German Confederation. From 1830 he again served as ambassador at Den Haag, he also took part in the proceedings after the Belgian Revolution that finally led to the 1839 Treaty of London. After the Revolutions of 1848, retired Wessenberg was appointed Minister President on 18 July, he nevertheless was forced to flee with the court from the Vienna Uprising to Olomouc, whereafter he resigned on 21 November in favour of Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg. Wessenberg spent his last years at his family's estates in Freiburg, where he also died.

Wood 2007, p. 55 Dieter Langewiesche described the code as a "revolutionary project" which spurred the development of bourgeois society in Germany by the extension of the right to own property and an acceleration towards the end of feudalism. Napoleon reorganized what had been the Holy Roman Empire, made up of more than a thousand entities, into a more streamlined forty-state Confederation of the Rhine; this helped promote the German Confederation and the unification of Germany in 1871.Scheck 2008, Chapter: The Road to National Unification The movement toward national unification in Italy was similarly precipitated by Napoleonic rule.

As a member of the Chamber in 1867 he was mainly instrumental in passing the Prussian law of association, which was extended to the North German Confederation in 1868, and later to the empire. Schulze-Delitzsch also contributed to uniformity of legislation throughout the states of Germany, in 1869, by the publication of Die Gesetzgebung über die privatrechtliche Stellung der Erwerbs- und Wirthschaftsgenossenschaften, etc. With the legislation in place, his life's work was complete; he had placed the advantages of capital and co-operation within the reach of struggling tradesmen throughout Germany. His remaining years were spent in consolidating this work.

After the uprising in Holstein and Schleswig the monarch had no interest in sharing rule with the people, many formerly rebellious. Estates of the realm, with their fear of being replaced by democratic institutions, were easier to be compromised. This caused a deadlock for practical lawmaking, hardened by ethnic tensions, and a complete inability to govern was imminent. Moreover, Danish opponents of this so-called Unitary State (Helstaten) feared that Holstein's presence in the government and, at the same time, Holstein's membership of the German Confederation would lead to increased German interference with Holstein, or even into purely Danish affairs.

The states of the German Confederation, including Prussia and the Austrian Empire, had realized the influence of commercial upon political union. Delbrück in 1851 induced Hanover, Oldenburg, and Schaumburg- Lippe, who formed the Steuerverein, to join the Zollverein; and the southern states, which had agreed to admit Austria to the union, found themselves forced in 1853 to renew the old union, from which Austria was excluded. Delbrück now began, with the support of Otto von Bismarck, to apply the principles of free trade to Prussian fiscal policy. In 1862 Delbrück concluded an important commercial treaty with France.

The Bremen State Railway () was a railway line built by the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen on Prussian state territory. In spite of its name and although owned by the state it was operated under Prussian law as a private railway. Constructionally it formed the 97 km long Uelzen–Langwedel railway, the western section of the America Line. After the annexation of the Kingdom of Hanover by Prussia and the foundation of the North German Confederation Bremen had a major interest in a shorter railway link to Berlin, in order to improve the competitiveness of its ports.

In 1859 he enrolled at Leipzig University, and in 1861, at Baden-Baden, endeavored to kill king William I of Prussia by firing two shots from a pistol, at a distance of three paces. However, the monarch suffered only a slight injury of the neck. The assailant, in a letter found upon him, stated as his motive the conviction that William was unapt of the task of uniting Germany. The assailant was sentenced to twenty years' imprisonment, but was pardoned by the Badish souvereign on William's plea, and released in 1866, with the stipulation that he should leave the German Confederation forever.

Hamburg then formed a free imperial city within the Holy Roman Empire. By 1806 the rotation of arable fields among the resident farming families - as typical within crop rotation - was replaced by coupling fields () to become fixed particular family properties, which thus could be alienated - such as by sale or compulsory auction - and therefore pledged to secure credits. So agriculture was integrated into monetary economy. Between 1811 and 1813 Großhansdorf formed a part of the First French Empire, Bouches-de-l'Elbe département, before it was restored to Hamburg, then forming a sovereign city state within the new loose German Confederation.

Count von Götzen was born into a comital family at their main residence, Scharfeneck Castle, back then in the Kingdom of Prussia, German Confederation. In present-day Poland and now called Sarny Castle, the castle and the adjoining summer palace, as well as the castle chapel in which he may have been baptized, still exist despite decades of disrepair in the communist era. Von Götzen studied law at the universities of Paris, Berlin and Kiel between 1884 and 1887. He then joined the army, and became (in 1887) a Lieutenant in the 2nd Garde-Ulanen regiment.

Prince Christian was born in Augustenburg Palace. He was the second son of Christian August, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg and his wife, Countess Louise Sophie of Danneskiold-Samsøe. In 1848, young Christian's father, Duke Christian August, placed himself at the head of a movement to resist by force the claims of Denmark upon the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, two personal possessions of the kings of Denmark, of which Holstein also was a part of the German Confederation. A year earlier, King Frederick VII acceded to the Danish throne without any hope of producing a male heir.

Krzyżowa, in 2005 Medallion of Helmuth Graf von Moltke the Elder wearing the 1870 Grand Cross of the Iron Cross. Bronze Medal by August Schabel, Munich. In October 1870, Moltke was made a Graf (Count) as a reward for his services during the Franco-Prussian War and victory at the Battle of Sedan. In June 1871, he was further rewarded by a promotion to the rank of field marshal and a large monetary grant. He served in the Diet of the North German Confederation from 1867–71, and from 1871–91 he was a member of the Reichstag (federal parliament).

A division developed among German nationalists, with one group led by the Prussians that supported a "Lesser Germany" that excluded Austria and another group that supported a "Greater Germany" that included Austria. Prussia achieved hegemony over Germany in the "wars of unification": the Second Schleswig War (1864), the Austro-Prussian War (1866), which effectively established the separation of Austria from Germany, and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/1, after which the unification of Germany was finally achieved, by the fusion of the North German Confederation (dominated by Prussia) and the South or Central German states of Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse.

In light of revolutionary movements in Europe, intellectuals and commoners started the revolutions of 1848 in the German states, raising the German Question. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of Emperor, but with a loss of power; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution, a temporary setback for the movement. King William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the Minister President of Prussia in 1862. Bismarck successfully concluded the war with Denmark in 1864; the subsequent decisive Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Confederation which excluded Austria.

This event was known as the Punctation of Olmütz but also known as the "Humiliation of Olmütz" by Prussia. This event solidified the Bavarian kingdom's alliance with Austria against Prussia. When the project to unite the German middle-sized powers under Bavarian leadership against Prussia and Austria (the so-called Trias) failed, Minister-President Von der Pfordten resigned in 1859. Attempts by Prussia to reorganize the loose and un-led German Confederation were opposed by Bavaria and Austria, with Bavaria taking part in its own discussions with Austria and other allies in 1863, in Frankfurt, without Prussia and its allies attending.

Anna Maria Tauscher van den Bosch was born in the German Confederation on 19 June 1855 to Hermann Traugott Tauscher and Pauline van den Bosch. Tauscher came from a religious background for her father was a Protestant pastor. From 1885 to 1888 she worked with those suffering mental disabilities at an institution in Cologne, but lost her job following her conversion. On 30 October 1888 she was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church. Tauscher founded the Carmelite Sisters of the Divine Heart of Jesus on 2 July 1891 after having opened a home for neglected children just prior to that in Berlin.

The Residenzschloss (city palace) of the Grand Dukes in Darmstadt The neighboring Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel had backed Prussia against Napoleon and was absorbed into the Kingdom of Westphalia. At the Congress of Vienna, Hesse-Kassel was reestablished as the Electorate of Hesse. To distinguish the two Hessian states, the grand duchy changed its name to the Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine () in 1816. In 1867, the northern half of the Grand Duchy (Upper Hesse) became a part of the North German Confederation, while the half of the Grand Duchy south of the Main (Starkenburg and Rhenish Hesse) remained outside.

The cities of Maastricht and Venlo were not included in the Confederation. Monarchs of the member states of the German Confederation (with the exception of the Prussian king) meeting at Frankfurt in 1863 The Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the largest and by far the most powerful members of the Confederation. Large parts of both countries were not included in the Confederation, because they had not been part of the former Holy Roman Empire, nor had the greater parts of their armed forces been incorporated in the federal army. Austria and Prussia each had one vote in the Federal Assembly.

He refused to actually engage France on the basis that he firmly believed that Prussia would gain a far more decisive advantage by merely opposing the sale and that Napoleon III could be thwarted due to his fear of war with Prussia.Taylor(1988) pp. 107-108 Assuming that Bismarck would not object, the French government was shocked to learn that instead Bismarck, Prussia and the North German Confederation were threatening war should the sale be completed. Napoleon III had let precious months peel away in trying to complete the transaction, allowing Bismarck time to rally support to Prussia's objection.

Cape Bismarck was first mapped by Carl Koldewey (1837–1908) during the 1869-1870 Second German North Polar Expedition.Karl Christian Koldewey, Die Zweite Deutsche Nordpolarfahrt: Unter Führung des Kapitän Koldewey. 1869 - 1870 It was named after then North German Confederation Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), who, together with King Wilhelm I, had been present at the departure ceremony of the expedition at Bremerhaven on 15 June 1869. In 1907 this headland became an important landmark for the Denmark expedition which mapped for the first time the unknown shores to the north of the cape up to Cape Bridgman in Peary Land.

Meanwhile, demands for change from below had been fomenting due to the influence of the French Revolution. Throughout the German Confederation, Austrian influence was paramount, drawing the ire of the nationalist movements. considered nationalism, especially the nationalist youth movement, the most pressing danger: German nationalism might not only repudiate Austrian dominance of the Confederation, but also stimulate nationalist sentiment within the Austrian Empire itself. In a multi-national polyglot state in which Slavs and Magyars outnumbered the Germans, the prospects of Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Polish, Serb, or Croatian sentiment along with middle class liberalism was certainly horrifying to the monarchist landed aristocracy.

After the Greater Poland Uprising of 1846, the trial against the insurgents around Ludwik Mierosławski at the Berlin Kammergericht gained large interest, and the defendants had to be pardoned by King Frederick William IV of Prussia during the March revolution due to public pressure. However, the liberal and democratic movement included a strong nationalistic element from the beginning, predominantly against the French "hereditary enemy". The states of the German Confederation reacted by increased suppression. In the failed Frankfurter Wachensturm, an attempt to storm the Bundesversammlung assembly of the princes' delegates, the Free City of Frankfurt was occupied by Austrian and Prussian troops.

Denmark again attempted to integrate Schleswig by creating a new common constitution (the so-called November Constitution) for Denmark and Schleswig in 1863, but the German Confederation, led by Prussia and Austria, defeated the Danes in the Second War of Schleswig the following year. Prussia and Austria then assumed administration of Schleswig and Holstein respectively under the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865. However, tensions between the two powers culminated in the Austro- Prussian War of 1866. In the Peace of Prague, the victorious Prussians annexed both Schleswig and Holstein, creating the province of Schleswig-Holstein.

This can be attributed to the fact that Luxembourgish Freemasons maintained close ties to their French and Belgian brothers. This was partly because only one chapter existed in Luxembourg, so that those seeking to advance to the higher degrees of Freemasonry, had to do so in France or Belgium. Additionally, from 1815 to 1867, when the country was declared neutral, the capital city was a fortress of the German Confederation, and therefore hosted a large Prussian garrison. This entailed the presence of the military Lodge "Blücher von Wahlstatt", attached to the "Große Nationale Mutterloge zu den drei Weltkugeln" in Berlin.

Russian forces under General Bennigsen finally freed the city in 1814. Hamburg re-assumed its pre-1811 status as a city-state in 1814. The Vienna Congress of 1815 confirmed Hamburg's independence and it became one of 39 sovereign states of the German Confederation (1815–1866). In 1842, about a quarter of the inner city was destroyed in the "Great Fire". The fire started on the night of 4 May and was not extinguished until 8 May. It destroyed three churches, the town hall, and many other buildings, killing 51 people and leaving an estimated 20,000 homeless.

In one of the few major actions of the German Confederation, Prince Metternich called a conference that issued the repressive Carlsbad Decrees, designed to suppress liberal agitation against the conservative governments of the German states. The Decrees terminated the fast-fading nationalist fraternities (), removed liberal university professors, and expanded the censorship of the press. The decrees began the "persecution of the demagogues", which was directed against individuals who were accused of spreading revolutionary and nationalist ideas. Among the persecuted were the poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, the publisher Johann Joseph Görres and the "Father of Gymnastics" Ludwig Jahn.

In 1839 an article on Mainz in The Penny Cyclopædia stated that Mainz was one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, and a chief bulwark of Germany against France. At the Congress of Vienna, Mainz was assigned to the Louis, Grand-Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, but it was decided that, as a fortress, it should belong to the German Confederation, with a garrison of Austrian, Prussian, and Hessian troops. This garrison in time of peace consisted of 6,000 men. The military governor, who retained his post five years, was alternately an Austrian and a Prussian general.

After the draft 1860 Constitution of Otto von Bismarck, based on a design by Lothar Bucher, the Reichstag became the official Parliament of the North German Confederation. It was specifically designed to form a counterweight to the monarchy and special interests. While the new Reichstag was significantly weaker than other federal institutions, in the Constitution it did have significant powers. In contrast to the diets of most of the Member States of Germany, it was not elected according to a census or landholder census (), but according to progressive general, equal and secret universal suffrage for men above the age of 25.

The title of Chancellor has a long history, stemming back to the Holy Roman Empire, when the office of German archchancellor was usually held by Archbishops of Mainz. The title was, at times, used in several states of German-speaking Europe. The modern office of chancellor was established with the North German Confederation, of which Otto von Bismarck became Bundeskanzler (meaning "Federal Chancellor") in 1867. With the enlargement of this federal state to the German Empire in 1871, the title was renamed to Reichskanzler (meaning "Chancellor of the Realm"). With Germany's constitution of 1949, the title of Bundeskanzler was revived.

Aerial view of the railway station's Place de la Gare and the quarter around Avenue de la Liberté The original railway station was built entirely from timber, and was opened in 1859. The position of the new station on the south bank of the Pétrusse, away from the original built-up area of the city, was on account of Luxembourg's role as a German Confederation fortress. The first connection to the city proper came in 1861, with the construction of the Passerelle viaduct. After the 1867 Treaty of London, the fortifications were demolished, leading to the expansion of the city around the station.

The Austrians favoured the Greater Germany unification but were not willing to give up any of the non-German- speaking land inside of the Austrian Empire and take second place to Prussia. The Prussians however wanted to unify Germany as Little Germany primarily by the Kingdom of Prussia, whilst excluding Austria. In the final battle of the German war (Battle of Königgrätz) the Prussians successfully defeated the Austrians and succeeded in creating the North German Confederation. In 1871, Germany was unified as a nation-state as the German Empire that was Prussian- led and without Austria.

The 1815–16 Congress of Vienna led to the creation of the German Confederation, a loose union of all remaining German states after the Napoleonic Wars. The Confederation was created as a replacement for the now-extinct Holy Roman Empire, with Francis I of Austria—the last Holy Roman Emperor—as its president. The confederation did not have a flag of its own, although the black-red-gold tricolour is sometimes mistakenly attributed to it. The flag adopted by the Jena Urburschenschaft Upon returning from the war, veterans of the Lützow Free Corps founded the fraternity in Jena in June 1815.

Virtually all international shipping that belonged to the confederation originated from either Prussia or the three Hanseatic city- states of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck. Based on this, Adolf Soetbeer, secretary of the Hamburg Chamber of Commerce, suggested in the on 22 September 1866 that any planned flag should combine the colours of Prussia (black and white) with the Hanseatic colours (red and white). In the following year, the constitution of the North German Confederation was enacted, where a horizontal black-white-red tricolour was declared to be both the civil and war ensign. See Article 55.

In 1815 Herman Cruse,Full name: Hans Wilhem Herman Cruse. a Danish–German merchant from Segeberg, now in Germany but then part of the Duchy of Holstein under the Danish Crown,Although under the Danish crown, Holstein was a state of the Holy Roman Empire in 1790, when Herman Cruse was born, and became part of the German Confederation in 1815. Herman Cruse married a German wife, Emma Raake from Bremen, and many sources count the Cruse family among the German families in France. settled in the Bordeaux region of France, where he co-founded the firm Cruse et Hirschfeld in 1819.

This majority was sparked to rebellion after Frederick VII of Denmark announced on 27 March 1848 the duchies would become an integral part of Denmark under his new liberal constitution. Prussia soon became involved, supporting the uprising and beginning the First Schleswig War. Ernest sent 8,000 men initially, adding to the army sent by the German Confederation. He also desired to be given a military job during the war, but was refused, as it was "extremely difficult to offer me a position in the army of Schleswig-Holstein corresponding to my rank", according to his memoirs.

Bosch was born in Schillingsfürst. He served as an officer in the County of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst after 1795, before he was commissioned into the Bavarian Army in the rank of Oberleutnant He was promoted to Hauptmann in 1810, Major in 1824, Oberstleutnant in 1834 and Oberst in 1839, before he was advanced to Major General and Brigadier in 1844. In the years from 1849 to 1851 he was commander of the Fortress of the German Confederation at Ulm, the so-called Bundesfestung. In 1852 he was promoted Lieutenant General and in 1861 was appointed as president of the General Auditorium.

On 18 January 1871 the German Empire is proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, painted by Anton von Werner. Late in the siege, Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Emperor on 18 January 1871 at the Palace of Versailles. The kingdoms of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Saxony, the states of Baden and Hesse, and the free cities of Hamburg and Bremen were unified with the North German Confederation to create the German Empire. The preliminary peace treaty was signed at Versailles, and the final peace treaty, the Treaty of Frankfurt, was signed on 10 May 1871.

Leopold was interested in the liberal ideas of his time, granted concessions to his subjects in 1848, and in the spring of 1849 declined to oppose the movement (see Revolutions of 1848 in the German states) which finally broke down all barriers and forced him to flee from the country on the night of 13 May. In August, he was reinstated by the troops of Prussia and the German Confederation. He acted with the greatest forbearance after regaining his power. During the last years of his reign, he admitted his son Frederick, who later succeeded him, to a share in the government.

With the order, the Frankfurt Parliament established the offices of (Imperial Regent, a provisional monarch) and imperial ministers. A second constitutional order, the Frankfurt Constitution, on March 28, 1849, was accepted by 28 German states but not by the larger ones. Prussia, along with other German states, forced the Frankfurt Parliament into dissolution. Several of this German Empire's accomplishments outlasted it: the Frankfurt Constitution was used as a model in other states in the decades to follow and the electoral law was used nearly verbatim in 1867 for the election of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation.

A major diplomatic row, and several wars, emerged from the very complex situation in Schleswig and Holstein, where Danish and German claims collided, and Austria and France became entangled. The Danish and German duchies of Schleswig-Holstein were, by international agreement, ruled by the king of Denmark but were not legally part of Denmark. An international treaty provided that the two territories were not to be separated from each other, though Holstein was part of the German Confederation. In the late 1840s, with both German and Danish nationalism on the rise, Denmark attempted to incorporate Schleswig into its kingdom.

Oldenburg did not entirely escape from the Revolutions of 1848 that swept across Europe, but no serious disturbances took place therein. In 1849 Augustus granted a constitution of a very liberal character to his subjects. Hitherto his country had been ruled in the spirit of enlightened despotism which had been strengthened by the absence of a privileged class of nobles, the comparative independence of the peasantry, and the importance of the towns; thus a certain amount of friction was inevitable. In 1852 some modifications were introduced into the constitution, yet it remained one of the most progressive in the German Confederation.

The Central Federal Bureau for Investigations ()In the present German language is this manner of writing not usual any more. in Frankfurt was set up after the revolt against the reign of the President of the German Confederation, Francis I, Emperor of Austria, his chancellor Prince Metternich and his other vassals including King Frederick William III of Prussia. These authorities assigned him number 908 with the name Gustav Peter Philipp Koerner in their infamous "black book" of revolutionary suspects. The Free City of Frankfurt was occupied by federal troops from Austria and Prussia which meant a de facto total loss of its independence.

In March 1865, the reserve formation to which Comet had been assigned was disbanded, and Comet, her sister ship , and Loreley were sent to the North Sea for additional surveying. Comet returned to Dänholm on 8 December, where she was decommissioned. At some point during the year, the boat's 24-pounder was replaced with a rifled 68-pounder gun. She was not mobilized during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, and instead next saw active service in 1868 in what was now the navy of the North German Confederation, being reactivated on 21 April for fishery protection duty.

The most famous railway built with the Abt system is the Arica–La Paz railway in Bolivia. In 1903, as president of the Gotthardbahn company, Abt led buy-back negotiations with the German Confederation during the nationalisation of private railway companies. He received many honours, including an honorary doctorate (Doctor honoris causa) from the Technical University of Hannover and the John Scott Medal in 1889. He was also a patron and connoisseur of the arts, a member of the Swiss Federal Art Commission from 1904-1907 and the President of the Swiss Art Association from 1905-1911.

It was only in 1855 that he was able to return to his family in Brandenburg. An amnesty in 1861 opened the way for a resumption of his career in politics, and between 1865 and 1870 Ziegler was back as a member of the Prussian House of Representatives, this time representing Breslau. In August 1867 he was elected to the Reichstag of the newly established North German Confederation, representing Breslau-West on behalf of the Progressive Party. In 1866 he found himself at odds with the mainstream party over his support for the war with Austria.

In October 1861, Bernstorff left London to become the Prussian Foreign Minister under the Prime Minister Charles Anthony, Prince of Hohenzollern. (He had previously been offered the position of Foreign Minister in 1848 and 1850 by King Frederick William IV without taking it up.) He thus replaced a rather passive Count Alexander von Schleinitz (an Old Liberal) and, in the Cabinet, reinforced the more conservative grouping around August von der Heydt and Albrecht von Roon. He would introduce several new policies and strategies. During this period, ideas were being discussed for the reform of the German Confederation.

The Holy Roman Empire came to an end during the Napoleonic Wars in the 1790s and 1800s, Austria and Prussia allied with each other but fought unsuccessfully against the French Empire. In 1804, Francis II, the Holy Roman Emperor, proclaimed the Austrian Empire, as the remaining German States had become clients of Napoleon's French Empire under the Confederation of the Rhine. After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, Austria created the German Confederation as a new organisation among the German States, in which Prussia and Austria became reunited. It was during this period that the ideology of Pan-Germanism started to rise.

Thodore de Lemos Theodore de Lemos (1850, Holstein, German Confederation – 12 April 1909, New York City, New York, United States), son of Hermann and Maria Grothe De Lemos of Holstein, was an architect. He graduated with honors from the Berlin Royal Academy of Buildings, and was famous for his designs in three countries, Germany, Mexico, and the United States. In 1881, de Lemos left Germany and settled in New York, where he married Margaretta Becker and had a daughter, Marie Katherine. He died in April 1909 and is interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City.

Margaretha Flesch was born in 1826 in the German Confederation to Johann Georg Flesch. Her mother died in 1832 and her father re-married not long after this. She also had seven siblings after her (thus was the oldest) and had three half-siblings from her father's second marriage; one sibling was Maria Anna while one stepbrother was Giles. The death of her mother saw them move elsewhere to Niederbreitbach as a chance to improve their economic fortunes. The death of her father in 1842 forced her to work hard to provide for her stepmother and her siblings.

Prior to the Second Schleswig War of 1864, Haderslev was situated in the Duchy of Schleswig, a Danish fief, so its history is properly included in the contentious history of Schleswig-Holstein. From 1864 it was part of Prussia, and as such part of the North German Confederation, and from 1871 onwards, part of the German Empire. In the 1920 Schleswig Plebiscite that returned Northern Schleswig to Denmark, 38.6% of Haderslev's inhabitants voted for remaining part of Germany and 61.4% voted for the cession to Denmark. It was formerly the capital of the German Kreis Hadersleben and the Danish Haderslev County.

Under the terms of the Treaty of Pressburg concluded 26 December 1805 between Napoleonic France and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, several principalities allied to Napoleon were elevated to kingdoms. One of the staunchest of these had been the prince-elector of Bavaria, Maximilian IV Joseph, and on 1 January 1806, he formally assumed the title King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. He was a member of the Wittelsbach branch Palatinate- Birkenfeld-Zweibrücken. Maximilian's successors resisted German nationalism, and Bavaria became the protector of smaller states whose leaders felt threatened by Prussia or Austria in the German Confederation.

The Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany (, SDAP) was a Marxist socialist political party in the North German Confederation during the period of unification. Founded in Eisenach in 1869, the SDAP endured through the early years of the German Empire. Often termed the Eisenachers, the SDAP was one of the first political organizations established among the nascent German labor unions of the 19th century. It officially existed under the name SDAP for only six years (1869–1875), but through name changes and political partnerships its lineage can be traced to the present-day Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).

Prior to the Second Schleswig War of 1864, Haderslev was situated in the Duchy of Schleswig, a Danish fief, so its history is properly included in the contentious history of Schleswig-Holstein. From 1864 it was part of Prussia, and as such part of the North German Confederation, and from 1871 onwards, part of the German Empire. In the 1920 Schleswig Plebiscite that returned Northern Schleswig to Denmark, 38.6% of Haderslev's inhabitants voted for remaining part of Germany and 61.4% voted for the cession to Denmark. It was formerly the capital of the German Kreis Hadersleben and the Danish Haderslev County.

In 1867, the new North German Confederation was declared by Bismarck. After Prussia's victory in the Franco- Prussian War in 1870, in which Prussian army entered and marched over Paris, Bismarck announced the creation of the German Empire and excluded Austria- Hungary solely in this unified Germany. Austria-Hungary then turned its imperial ambitions to the Balkan Peninsula; whereas the German Empire focused on building armaments in a race against the United Kingdom (Britain and Ireland). Nevertheless, both the German Empire and Austria-Hungary forged a military alliance with the Kingdom of Italy, forming the Triple Alliance (1882).

The Mennonites who remained in the Vistula delta assimilated more and more. In the liberation wars of 1813, some young Mennonites were prepared to join the forces against Napoleon. In the Spring of Nations of 1848, Mennonites joined the armed municipal militia (Bürgerwehr), which included the right to bear arms. When, after the foundation of the North German Confederation, a general conscription was invented, the Danzig community managed to receive the exceptional permission to serve only in non-combat troops; however, a group of Mennonites emigrated to North America to avoid all kind of military service.

In 1815, after the Napoleonic Wars, the Kingdom of Prussia took over within the new German Confederation. The city was one of its most socially and politically backward centres until the end of the 19th century. Administered within the Rhine Province, by 1880 the population was 80,000. Starting in 1838, the railway from Cologne to Belgium passed through Aachen.. The city suffered extreme overcrowding and deplorable sanitary conditions until 1875, when the medieval fortifications were finally abandoned as a limit to building and new, better housing was built in the east of the city, where sanitary drainage was easiest.

Since 1815, the independent and sovereign city of Hamburg was a member of the German Confederation--the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna--but not member of the German Customs Union. Following the Austro-Prussian War which established Prussian hegemony in north Germany, Hamburg was obliged to join the North German Federation.Planung und Finanzierung der Speicherstadt in Hamburg ,by Frank M. Hinz; publ. LIT Verlag Münster, 2000; page 45 However it obtained an opt-out in the form of Article 34 of the North German constitution,Constitution of the North German Federation //de.wikisource.

The preparation was known for its medicinal properties, and was manufactured by Nicholas Sanders and William White, and was soon joined by other milk chocolates around the city. From there, milk chocolate spread, first to France, where the pharmacist to Louis XVI, Sulpice Debauve, introduced the drink to the Court, and then further afield, reaching as far as the United States by 1834. Meanwhile, in Dresden in the German Confederation, Jordan & Timaeus were developing a mechanism to produce hard chocolate using steam power. On 23 May 1839, they advertised a solid chocolate containing milk, calling it "steam chocolate" ().

Tirpitz became a midshipman (Seekadett) on 24 June 1866 and was posted to a sailing ship patrolling the English Channel. In 1866 Prussia became part of the North German Confederation, the navy officially became that of the confederation and Tirpitz joined the new institution on 24 June 1869. On 22 September 1869 he had obtained the rank of Unterleutnant zur See (sub- lieutenant) and served on board . During the Franco-Prussian War the Prussian Navy was greatly outnumbered and so the ship spent the duration of the war at anchor, much to the embarrassment of the navy.

From 2 December 1848 to 23 September 1853 he was prime minister and Administrator- General (Minister) for Foreign Affairs, Justice, Religion and education. Norbert Metz, who had become Finance Minister, and who was pro-Belgian and against membership of the German Confederation and the Zollverein, had a great influence on foreign policy, which led to tensions with Germany. Relations with the Netherlands also became chilled after the death of William II in 1849. His son, William III, who had himself represented by his brother Prince Henry, led a strictly conservative and reactionary policy, and deposed the government in 1853.

During the Siege of Paris in 1871, the North German Confederation, supported by its allies from southern Germany, formed the German Empire with the proclamation of the Prussian king Wilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, to the humiliation of the French, who ceased to resist only days later. After his death he was succeeded by his son Frederick III who was only emperor for 99 days. In the same year his son Wilhelm II became the third emperor within a year. He was the last German emperor.

The town of Rastatt received its first rail connection on 6 May 1844, when the Grand Duchy of Baden State Railway () opened the Karlsruhe–Rastatt section of the Rhine Valley Railway. Since at that time Rastatt was a fortress of the German Confederation and was protected by ramparts and a ditch, the line ran to the east of the town at first. The first Rastatt station was therefore situated in what is now an industrial district. On 31 May 1869, the first section of the Murg Valley Railway was opened and Rastatt station became a junction station.

Coat of arms of the German Confederation, also called the Deutscher Bund After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna established a new European political-diplomatic system based on the balance of power. This system reorganized Europe into spheres of influence, which, in some cases, suppressed the aspirations of the various nationalities, including the Germans and Italians.Sheehan, pp. 398–410; Hamish Scott, The Birth of a Great Power System, 1740–1815, US, 2006, pp. 329–361. Generally, an enlarged Prussia and the 38 other states consolidated from the mediatized territories of 1803 were confederated within the Austrian Empire's sphere of influence.

Combined diplomatic pressure from Austria and Russia (a guarantor of the 1815 agreements that established European spheres of influence) forced Prussia to relinquish the idea of the Erfurt Union at a meeting in the small town of Olmütz in Moravia. In November 1850, the Prussians—specifically Radowitz and Frederick William—agreed to the restoration of the German Confederation under Austrian leadership. This became known as the Punctation of Olmütz, but among Prussians it was known as the "Humiliation of Olmütz."A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1914–1918, Oxford, 1954, p. 37.

The populations of the duchies, furthermore, valued their separate status. The German Confederation could use the ethnicities of the area as a rallying cry: Holstein and Lauenburg were largely of German origin and spoke German in everyday life, while Schleswig had a sizable Danish minority in its north but was majority-German overall. Diplomatic attempts to have the November Constitution repealed collapsed, and fighting began when Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the Eider river on 1 February 1864. Initially, the Danes attempted to defend their country using an ancient earthen wall known as the Danevirke, but this proved futile.

In 1866 the German Confederation dissolved; in 1871 most of its former member states joined the German Empire led by Prussia. Hajo Holborn, A History of Modern Germany 1840–1945 [volume 3] (New York: Alfred A. Knoft 1969) at 187–188, 194–199 [1866]; at 223–227 [1871]. Yet the partial nature of this list also serves to show that in Germany there remained many Lutherans who never did unite with the Reformed.E.g., the current umbrella federation of German protestant churches known as the EKD has as members 22 Church bodies: 9 regional Lutheran, 11 united Lutheran and Reformed, and 2 Reformed.

The Duchy of Schleswig (to which the Belt refers) was inhabited by both Germans and Danes, with the Danes forming a clear majority near the strait. Around the Adige there was a mix of German, Venetian and Gallo-Italian speakers, and the area around the Neman was not homogeneously German, but also accommodated Prussian Lithuanians. The Meuse (if taken as referencing the Duchy of Limburg, nominally part of the German Confederation for 28 years due to the political consequences of the Belgian Revolution) was ethnically Dutch with few Germans. Nevertheless, such nationalistic rhetoric was relatively common in 19th-century public discourse.

On 1 September 1846, the last section (Frankfurt (Oder) – Bunzlau) of the Lower Silesian-Märkisch Railway was opened, linking the two great cities of Prussia, Berlin and Breslau. At the same time the main line of the Upper Silesian Railway that started in Breslau reached Gleiwitz in October of that year. Within three years the railway network in the German Confederation had more than doubled in length. Three and a half months later, on 15 December 1846, the Berlin-Hamburg Railway went into service: a diagonal connection between the two largest cities of what became the German Empire.

For a brief period, 1805 to 1812, Pyrmont was a separate principality as a result of inheritance and partition after the death of the previous prince, but the two parts were united again in 1812. The independence of the principality was confirmed in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, and Waldeck and Pyrmont became a member of the German Confederation. From 1868 onward, the principality was administered by Prussia, but retained its legislative sovereignty. Prussian administration served to reduce administrative costs for the small state and was based on a ten-year contract that was repeatedly renewed for the duration of its existence.

Following the Second Schleswig War of 1864, Schleswig and Holstein became a Prusso-Austrian condominium, with Prussia occupying the former and Austria the latter. On 8 June 1866 Prussian general Von Manteuffel crossed the river Eider into Holstein, having warned the Austrians that he was exercising Prussia's condominate right to establish garrisons in some unoccupied points of Holstein. Austria withdrew from Holstein, but requested the Federal Diet (Bundestag) of the German Confederation to mobilise militarily against Prussia.Overthrow of the Germanic Confederation by Prussia in 1866, by Sir Alexander Malet, former British Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at Frankfort; Publ.

Germanicus found it necessary to pacify the border, which he did by a combination of scorched earth raids and offers of alliance with Rome - in short, stick and carrot. These raids also kept the army of the lower Rhine distracted from the possibility of mutiny, which had broken out on Augustus's death and only been quelled by concessions and executions. For punitive expeditions Germanicus used the Ems river, which flowed from the heart of the country occupied by the tribes that became the Franks. These were still under Arminius, who had led the German confederation to the victory in 9.

France declared war on Prussia 19 July 1870 which initiated the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871). The French Navy was, at the time far larger and superior to the North German Federal Navy, the Navy of the North German Confederation. Though the French did take a number of merchant ships bound to and from North Germany, shortages of manpower and coal, as well as conflicting orders, made the attempted blockade of Prussian ports ineffective. The French had planned a seaborne assault on the North Sea coast in order to relieve expected pressure on the front in Alsace and Lorraine.

Wilhelmplatz would remain this way for some time, remaining one of the few central places in Berlin with no cafés well into the time of the national socialist regime.Laurenz Demps: Berlin-Wilhelmstraße, S. 125–134. Seat of the Imperial Insurance Institution at Wilhelmplatz 2, around 1890 before the reconstruction Founded as the Institution of the North German Confederation in 1870, the newly created Ministry of Foreign Affairs temporarily settled in on the south side of Wilhelmplatz. In doing so, it was able to take over the corner building Wilhelmstraße 61/Wilhelmplatz 1, which had been used in the past by its Prussian counterpart.

He was born in Holstein, a province that was ethnically and culturally German and part of the German Confederation but ruled at the time in personal union by Denmark. At age 15, he went to sea and, over the next 17 years worked as a seaman; a butcher; a sausage salesman; ran log rafts down the Mississippi; and worked in a distillery. He became a U.S. citizen in 1857. Hearing of gold in California, he traveled first there, then to the Fraser River country of Canada, and finally to the gold camps of Montana Territory in 1862.

Use of a double-headed Imperial Eagle, improved from the single-headed Imperial Eagle used in the high medieval period, became current in the 15th to 16th centuries. The double-headed Reichsadler was in the coats of arms of many German cities and aristocratic families in the early modern period. A distinguishing feature of the Holy Roman eagle was that it was often depicted with haloes. Flag used in Ravensburg, 1849 After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the double-headed eagle was retained by the Austrian Empire, and served also as the coat of arms of the German Confederation.

The name Burgenland means "castle land" due to the large number of castles in the region. The territory of present-day Burgenland was successively part of the Roman Empire, the Hun Empire, the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths, the Italian Kingdom of Odoacer, the Kingdom of the Lombards, the Avar Khaganate, the Frankish Empire, Dominion Aba belonging to the Aba (family); Aba - Koszegi, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Habsburg Monarchy, the Austrian Empire, Austria- Hungary, Austria. Burgenland is the only Austrian state which has never been part of the Archduchy of Austria, Holy Roman Empire, German Confederation nor Austria-Hungary's Cisleithania.

The Meuse (Maas) is mentioned in the first stanza of Germany's old national anthem, the Deutschlandlied. However, since its re-adoption as national anthem in 1952, only the third stanza of the Deutschlandlied has been sung as the German national anthem, the first and second stanzas being omitted. This was confirmed after German reunification in 1991 when only the third stanza was defined as the official anthem. The lyrics written in 1841 describe a then–disunited Germany with the river as its western boundary, where King William I of the Netherlands had joined the German Confederation with his Duchy of Limburg in 1839.

Not until the 1848-1852 war against Denmark did Prussia recognize the necessity of having at least a minimal naval force to protect maritime interests. But after only 15 years, Prussia handed over its young naval forces to the rising centralized German state, an act which would have been unthinkable for the Prussian Army. The Navy was handed over first to the North German Confederation and in 1871, as the Imperial Navy, to the new German Empire. The naval preference of the last Prussian king, German Emperor Wilhelm II, prepared the end of the Prussian monarchy.

499 Whilst Austria wanted to extend Ulm, Prussia and the south German states nearer to France favoured the construction of a fortress in Rastatt. In October 1836 the king of Württemberg, William I, proposed a compromise which was to build or extend both towns into fortresses. In 1838/39 Bavaria and Austria were won over. Not until the Rhine Crisis of 1840/41 did it happen, however, that the states of the German Confederation come to an understanding about defence measures against France and the federal assembly on 26 March 1841 agreed the construction of both fortresses.

The principality of Waldeck-Pyrmont retained its status after the Congress of Vienna of 1815 and became a member of the German Confederation. In 1813, the inhabitants of Pyrmont began to protest at their lack of autonomy within Waldeck–Pyrmont and the separate constitutional nature of the two territories was confirmed the following year, until a formal union was established in 1849. From 1868 onward, the principality was administered by Prussia, but retained its legislative sovereignty. Prussian administration served to reduce administrative costs for the small state and was based on a ten-year contract that was repeatedly renewed.

In 1831, a family law of the House of Guelph made William the ruling duke permanently. William left most government business to his ministers, and he spent most of his time outside of his state at his possessions in Oels. While William joined the Prussian-led North German Confederation in 1866, his relationship to Prussia was strained, since Prussia refused to recognize Ernest Augustus, Crown Prince of Hanover, his nearest male-line relative, as his heir, because of the Duke of Cumberland's claim to the throne of Hanover. William died in 1884; he passed on his private possessions to the Duke of Cumberland.

At the Treaty of Paris in 1815 the four victorious powers Austria, the United Kingdom, Prussia and the Russian Empire named the cities Mainz, Luxembourg and Landau to fortresses of the German Confederation on 3 November 1815. An additional article to the Federal War Constitution (Bundeskriegsverfassung) on 11 July 1822 enacted the Confederation's obligations under the treaty. The takeover of the fortresses by the Confederation took place after a significant delay. Control over Federal Fortress of Mainz was acquired on 15 December 1825, the Federal Fortress of Luxembourg on 13 March 1826 and the Federal Fortress of Landau on 27 January 1831.

Deutsche Bundespost 1952 stamp depicting a Thurn-und-Taxis cariole On 1 August 1808, the Kingdom of Bavaria placed the postal system under its government's control. The Grand Duchy of Baden followed suit on 2 August 1811. After Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg ceded Regensburg to Bavaria in 1810, the House of Thurn and Taxis relocated the headquarters of its postal operations to Frankfurt am Main. After the defeat and exile of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna recognized the postal claims of the House of Thurn and Taxis in several member states of the German Confederation as legitimate.

She was successful in forcing the Haitian government to relinquish the seized property. On 9 January 1869, Victoria carried the business representative for what was now the North German Confederation from Havana to La Guaira, Venezuela. The Venezuelan government was at that time attempting to force foreign businesses to pay fees that would fund the Venezuelan military, and Victoria remained in Venezuelan waters to deter the practice. Renewed unrest in Cuba during the Ten Years' War forced the ship to return to Havana from 25 March to 22 April to protect German nationals in the area.

Pichler Verlag Vienna 2011 Francis II responded by proclaiming the Empire of Austria in August, taking the new title of Emperor. In 1806, having held both titles in the interim, he resigned the imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, which then ceased to exist. Following the Congress of Vienna, Austria became part of the German Confederation till the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. In the 19th century nationalist movements within the empire became increasingly evident, and the German element became increasingly weakened, whilst most of Austria's Italian-speaking lands were gained by the new Kingdom of Italy.

Luxembourg City boasted some of the most impressive fortifications in the world,the Fortress of Luxembourg, partly designed by Marshal Vauban and improved by subsequent engineers, which gave the city the nickname "Gibraltar of the North". Since the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg had been in personal union with the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In a concession to neighbouring Prussia, Luxembourg was to be a member of the German Confederation, with several thousand Prussian soldiers stationed there. The Belgian Revolution of 1830 had divided Luxembourg into two, threatening Dutch control of the remaining territory.

It is a dominant view that the revolutions were a failure if the events are observed through the anachronistic lens of nationalism. However, that ideology did not become the usual way of founding and legitimising states across Europe until after World War I. In the mid-19th century, over 90% of the population in the Austrian Empire and the German Confederation were peasants. Most of them suffered the indignity of serfdom or some lingering elements of the system of forced labor. Peasant revolts in 1848–1849 involved more participants than the national revolutions of the period.

William Ball & Son Limited was an agricultural implements manufacturing firm based at The Royal Implements Works (Ball's Foundry), Rothwell, Northamptonshire from 1809 to about 1900, when it was bought by the Burgess Group and subsequently disestablished in the 1970s. The firm was established by William Ball (1766-ca.1820-40), and following his death run by his son William Ball (1803 County Sligo, Ireland- 20 March 1877, Rothwell, Northamptonshire). The firm attained Royal Patronage from the Kingdom of England, French Empire, Kingdom of Belgium & German Confederation and is notable for attaining First Class Medals at the Paris Exhibition 1855, The Great Exhibition 1851 & Great Industrial Exhibition 1853.

In the Revolutions of 1848, the Austrian-dominated German Confederation was dissolved, and the Frankfurt Assembly sought to establish new constitutions for the multitude of German states. The effort, however, ended in the Assembly's collapse, after King Frederick William IV refused the German crown. The Prussian government, under the influence of General Joseph Maria von Radowitz, who sought to unite the landed classes against the threat to Junker domination, seized the opportunity to initiate a new German federation under the leadership of the Hohenzollern monarch. At the same time, Frederick William IV acceded to his people's demands for a constitution, also agreeing to become leader of a united Germany.

In 1867 he became the first president of the chancery of the North German Confederation, and represented Bismarck on the federal tariff council (Zollbundesrath), a position of political as well as fiscal importance owing to the presence in the council of representatives of the southern states. In. 1868 he became a Prussian minister without portfolio. In October 1870, when the union of Germany under Prussian headship became a practical question, Delbrück was chosen to go on a mission to the South German states, and contributed greatly to the agreements concluded at Versailles in November. In 1871 Delbrück became president of the newly constituted Reichskanzleramt.

After Napoleon's final defeat and abdication, the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) dissolved the grand-duchy and Frankfurt became a fully sovereign city state with a republican form of government. Frankfurt entered the newly founded German Confederation (till 1866) as a free city, becoming the seat of its Bundestag, the confederal parliament where the nominally presiding Habsburg Emperor of Austria was represented by an Austrian "presidential envoy". After the ill-fated revolution of 1848, Frankfurt was the seat of the first democratically elected German parliament, the Frankfurt Parliament, which met in the Frankfurter Paulskirche (St. Paul's Church) and was opened on 18 May 1848.

Taylor wrote in his 1945 book The Course of German History that the Nazi regime "represented the deepest wishes of the German people", and that it was the first and only German government created by the Germans as the Holy Roman Empire had been created by France and Austria, the German Confederation by Austria and Prussia and the Weimar Republic by the Allies.Taylor, A.J.P. The Course of German History, Hamish Hamilton 1945 page 213. By contrast, Taylor argued "But the Third Reich rested solely on German force and impulse; it owed nothing to alien forces. It was a tyranny imposed upon the German people by themselves".

Upon his death in 1755, Prince Augustus Louis was succeeded by his second-born son Karl George Leberecht. During the Seven Years' War, Karl George tried to ease the impact on his principality; in 1751 he joined the Prussian Army and became a general in the Habsburg Imperial Army in 1789; soon after he was killed in the Siege of Belgrade. He was succeeded by his son Augustus Christian, who received parts of the extinct Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1793 and was elevated to a duke (Herzog) by Napoleon in 1806. Anhalt-Köthen became a member of the German Confederation of the Rhine in 1807.

After the defeat and exile of Napoleon, Therese took the interests of the Princely House to the Congress of Vienna in 1814 where many political negotiations took place between Talleyrand, Tsar Alexander I, Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich, and other political leaders in her salon. Not least because of Article 17 of the Federal Act from the year 1815, the revenue of the former post offices of the House of Thurn and Taxis in several states of the German Confederation as a legitimate claim was established. Private postal services were established and were intended to have a reasonable compensation obligation to the Princely House of Thurn and Taxis.Dallmeier, Schad, a. a.

In 1870, war erupted between France and Prussia in the Franco- Prussian War. The Bavarian Army was sent under the command of the Prussian crown prince against the French army. King Ludwig II With France's defeat and humiliation against the combined German forces, it was Ludwig II who proposed that Prussian King Wilhelm I be proclaimed German Emperor or "Kaiser" of the German Empire ("Deutsches Reich"), which occurred in 1871 in German-occupied Versailles, France. The territories of the German Empire were declared, which included the states of the North German Confederation and all of the south German states, with the major exception of Austria.

The boundary between the spheres of political influence of Prussia (Northern Germany) and Austria (Southern Germany) within the German Confederation (1815-1866) was known as the "Main line" (Mainlinie, after the River Main), Frankfurt am Main being the seat of the federal assembly. The "Main line" did not follow the course of the River Main upstream of Frankfurt, however, it corresponded rather, to the northern border of the Kingdom of Bavaria. Linguistically, Southern Germany corresponds to the Upper German dialects. Southern Germany is culturally and linguistically more similar to German-speaking Switzerland, Austria, and German-speaking South Tyrol than to Central and Northern Germany.

Prussia with its provinces are shown in blue) The North German Confederation ()An alternative translation is "North German Federation." was the German federal state which existed from July 1867 to December 1870. Although de jure a confederacy of equal states, the Confederation was de facto controlled and led by the largest and most powerful member, Prussia, which exercised its influence to bring about the formation of the German Empire. Some historians also use the name for the alliance of 22 German states formed on 18 August 1866 ('). In 1870–1871, the south German states of Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Württemberg and Bavaria joined the country.

The Battle on the Scheideck ( or Scheidegg), also known as the Battle of Kandern (Gefecht bei Kandern) took place on 20 April 1848 during the Baden Revolution on the Scheideck Pass southeast of Kandern in south Baden in what is now southwest Germany. Friedrich Hecker's Baden band of revolutionaries encountered troops of the German Confederation under the command of General Friedrich von Gagern. After several negotiations and some skirmishing a short battle ensued on the Scheideck, in which von Gagern fell and the rebels were scattered. The German Federal Army took up the pursuit and dispersed a second revolutionary force that same day under the leadership of Joseph Weißhaar.

The territories recuperated by the Habsburg dynasty were transformed into a multinational state, first as the Austrian Empire and later as a dual monarchy, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which lasted until 1918. Additionally, the leadership of Prussia in the recently created German Confederation brought about the constitution of the Second German Empire in 1871. Simultaneously, the relations of the Pope with the French Revolution and Napoleon, as with ideological liberalism itself, oscillated between direct opposition and forced coexistence. In 1860, the new Kingdom of Italy, formed by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, conquered the Papal States' territorial base (called Marche) in the center of Italy.

Trade unions in Germany have a history reaching back to the German revolution in 1848, and still play an important role in the German economy and society. In 1875 the SPD, the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which is one of the biggest political parties in Germany, supported the forming of unions in Germany. The most important labour organisation is the German Confederation of Trade Unions (Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund – DGB), which represents more than 6 million people (31 December 2011) and is the umbrella association of several single trade unions for special economic sectors. The DBG is not the only Union Organization that represents the working trade.

Early in the 19th century, Austria established its own empire, which became a great power and the leading force of the German Confederation but pursued its own course independently of the other German states. Following the Austro-Prussian War and the compromise with Hungary, the Dual Monarchy was established. Austria was involved in World War I under Emperor Franz Joseph following the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, the presumptive successor to the Austro- Hungarian throne. After the defeat and the dissolution of the Monarchy, the Republic of German-Austria was proclaimed with the intent of the union with Germany, which eventually failed because of the Allied Powers and the state remained unrecognized.

Other innovations included the separation of powers, the separation of Church and State, freedom of the press, of assembly and association. Hamburg became a member of the North German Confederation (1866–1871) and of the German Empire (1871–1918), and maintained its self-ruling status during the Weimar Republic (1919–1933). Hamburg acceded to the German Customs Union or Zollverein in 1888, the last (along with Bremen) of the German states to join. The city experienced its fastest growth during the second half of the 19th century when its population more than quadrupled to 800,000 as the growth of the city's Atlantic trade helped make it Europe's second-largest port.

While the majority of the Prussian armies marched to Bohemia, where they defeated the Austrian and Saxon troops on 3 July at Königgrätz (Sadova), the Prussian western army first moved into the Kingdom of Hanover. After the surrender of Hanover on June 29 these troops were grouped under the name Mainarmee (German for: Army of the river Main) and pushed southward towards the river Main against the allies of Austria in southern Germany. The Bavarian troops, who formed the VIIth Federal Corps of the German Confederation, withdrew after several lost battles to Kissingen. There they wanted to prevent the Prussians from crossing the river Franconian Saale.

The external borders of the Empire did not change noticeably from the Peace of Westphalia – which acknowledged the exclusion of Switzerland and the Northern Netherlands, and the French protectorate over Alsace – to the dissolution of the Empire. By then, it largely contained only German-speaking territories, plus the Kingdom of Bohemia. At the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, most of the Holy Roman Empire was included in the German Confederation. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the earlier ancient Western Roman Empire in 476.

Growing discontent with the political and social order imposed by the Congress of Vienna led to the outbreak, in 1848, of the March Revolution in the German states. In May the German National Assembly (the Frankfurt Parliament) met in Frankfurt to draw up a national German constitution. But the 1848 revolution turned out to be unsuccessful: King Frederick William IV of Prussia refused the imperial crown, the Frankfurt parliament was dissolved, the ruling princes repressed the risings by military force, and the German Confederation was re-established by 1850. Many leaders went into exile, including a number who went to the United States and became a political force there.

Flag of the North German Confederation (1866–71) and the German Empire (1871–1918) Imperial Germany 1871–1918 Chancellor Otto von Bismarck determined the political course of the German Empire until 1890. He fostered alliances in Europe to contain France on the one hand and aspired to consolidate Germany's influence in Europe on the other. His principal domestic policies focused on the suppression of socialism and the reduction of the strong influence of the Roman Catholic Church on its adherents. He issued a series of anti-socialist laws in accord with a set of social laws, that included universal health care, pension plans and other social security programs.

The Reduit of the Fortress of Mainz Provisions Magazine of Mainz; on the ground floor with restaurant The Fortress of Mainz was a fortressed garrison town between 1620 and 1918. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, under the term of the 1815 Peace of Paris, the control of Mainz passed to the German Confederation and became part of a chain of strategic fortresses which protected the ConfederationJean Dennis G.G. Lepage, French fortifications 1715-1815, Mayence p. 243-245. With the dissolution of the Confederation and the Austro-Prussian War, control of the fortress first passed to Prussia, and, after the 1871 Unification of Germany, to the German Empire.

The Second Schleswig War of 1864 brought an end to Krüger's activity in Copenhagen. He then took over the representation of the free cities in the Bundestag of the German Confederation at Frankfurt. On 14 June 1866 he addressed its last session, before the outbreak the Austro-Prussian War which ended that institution. At that time Schleswig and Holstein were a Prusso-Austrian condominium, with Prussia occupying the former and Austria the latter. On 8 June 1866 Prussian general Von Manteuffel crossed the river Eider into Holstein, having warned the Austrians that he was exercising Prussia’s condominate right to establish garrisons in some unoccupied points of Holstein.

The United States was initially a popular choice for protecting power, going back to its protection of the North German Confederation during the Franco-Prussian War. The pinnacle of American diplomatic protection came during World War I, when the United States accepted reciprocal mandates from five of the largest belligerents on both sides: Britain, France, Austria- Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire. Between 1914 and 1917, the United States accepted a total of 54 mandates as protecting power. When the United States entered the war on the Allied side in 1917, the American mandates were transferred to smaller neutrals, with the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland being popular choices.

Common unofficial flag variant with the coat of arms of Germany The flag of Germany () is a tricolour consisting of three equal horizontal bands displaying the national colours of Germany: black, red, and gold (). The flag was first adopted as the national flag of Germany in 1848 by the German Confederation and then, in the modern nation state, in the Weimar Republic (1919-1933). Since the mid-19th century, Germany has two competing traditions of national colours, black-red-gold and black-white-red. Black-red-gold were the colours of the 1848 Revolutions, the Weimar Republic of 1919–1933 and the Federal Republic (since 1949).

King Wilhelm I of Prussia was satisfied with the colour choice: the red and white were also taken to represent the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Imperial elector state that was a predecessor of the Kingdom of Prussia. The absence of gold from the flag also made it clear that this German state did not include the "black and gold" monarchy of Austria. In the Franco-Prussian War, the remaining southern German states allied with the North German Confederation, leading to the unification of Germany. A new constitution of 1871 gave the federal state the new name of German Empire and the Prussian king the title of Emperor.

Their spokesman, the economist Friedrich List, feared that the German people would end up as "drawers of water and hewers of wood for Britain".Friedrich List, found in Wehler, Gesellschaftsgeschichte, v.2, p. 133. Similarly, Karl Friedrich Nebenius, later president of the Ducal Ministry in the Grand Duchy of Baden and the author of Baden's 1819 proposed customs initiative with the German Confederation, offered a widely publicized description about the difficulties of surmounting such protections: In 1820, Württemberg planned to start a customs union among the so-called Third Germany: the middle-sized German states, including itself, Baden, Bavaria, and the two Hessian states (Hesse- Darmstadt and Hesse-Kassel).

The theology of the Ohio Synod was initially shaped by that of the Pennsylvania Ministerium and the Tennessee Synod, and by unionism and the New Measures of the Second Great Awakening. In 1820 the synod discussed joining the Lutheran General Synod being organized, but, for "practical reasons" rather than theological ones, decided not to. The establishment of relations with Johann Konrad Wilhelm Löhe and the immigration of additional Lutheran pastors from the German Confederation (Germany) in the early 1840s resulted in an increasing conservative right-ward movement with the synod taking a stronger stance in support of the Lutheran doctrinal confessions contained in the Book of Concord of 1580.

After heir presumptive Archduke Franz Karl had renounced the succession, Ferdinand abdicated in Olomouc on December 2. Schwarzenberg formed a new government with conservative politicians like Interior Minister Count Franz von Stadion but also liberal allies like Baron Alexander von Bach, Karl Ludwig von Bruck and Anton von Schmerling as well as the Bohemian federalist Education Minister Count Leopold von Thun und Hohenstein. Learning from Metternich's fate, Schwarzenberg was determined not only to fight, but overcome revolution. Against the perceptions in the Frankfurt Parliament concerning the German question, he advocated the idea of an Austrian-German federation, including all Austrian crown lands in and outside the German Confederation.

Benedikt Niese Jürgen Anton Benedikt Niese (24 November 1849 - 1 February 1910), also known as Benedict, Benediktus or Benedictus Niese, was a German classical scholar. Niese was born in Burg, on the island of Fehmarn, then part of the German Confederation but ruled by King Frederick VII of Denmark. His father was Emil August Niese, pastor in the town, and his mother was born Benedicte Marie Matthiessen. He was educated at the Domgymnasium in Schleswig and then from 1867 at Bonn and Kiel, studying under Alfred von Gutschmid. After volunteering for the army during the Franco-Prussian War, he was awarded a PhD in 1872.

The Pestalozzi-Stiftung Hamburg in Hamburg (Germany) provides people support and the help to self-help Children´s foster home of the Pestalozzi-Stiftung Hamburg in Volksdorf (Hamburg, Germany) in 1906 The Pestalozzi-Stiftung Hamburg ("Pestalozzi foundation Hamburg") is a social and charitable organization founded in 1847 in Hamburg, German Confederation. Over a period of more than hundred years, the organisation ran a children's foster home which changed its location several times within Hamburg. Constant adjustments have taken place over the last decades. Recently, the organisation has maintained facilities and projects in many parts of Hamburg and to a lesser extent in Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen) and Schleswig-Holstein.

Frederick succeeded his father Duke of Saxe- Hildburghausen in 1780, when only seventeen years old; because of this, his great grand uncle, the prince Joseph of Saxe-Hildburghausen, assumed the regency on his behalf, this regency only ended in 1787 at the death of Prince Joseph. Until 1806 he was subject to the restrictions of the imperial debit commission, which had placed the duchy of Saxe-Hildburghausen under official administration, because of his predecessors' dissolute financial policy. In 1806 Frederick joined the Confederation of the Rhine, and in 1815 the German Confederation, under whose guarantee he gave 1818 the duchy a new basic condition.

Hitler announcing the Anschluss on the Heldenplatz, March 1938 On the plaza, there are two equestrian statues designed by Anton Dominik Fernkorn with socles by Eduard van der Nüll. The statue of Archduke Charles of Austria, modelled on a popular painting by Johann Peter Krafft, was inaugurated already in 1860. It was meant to glorify the Habsburg dynasty as great Austrian military leaders and underline the leadership of Austria within the German Confederation, though they just had suffered a crushing defeat at the bloody Battle of Solferino. The second statue of Prince Eugene of Savoy was inaugurated in 1865, one year before the Austrian defeat in the Battle of Königgrätz.

Christian VI of Denmark with a black slave In the 18th and 19th centuries the Duchy of Holstein was part of the Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation, although its duke was the king of Denmark. In particular, the Holstein city of Altona, not yet part of Hamburg, maintained a lively trade with the Danish West Indies.Petra Schellen: Altona, gebaut aus Sklaven-Gold, in: taz, 12 June 2017, accessed 16 September 2017. It was an important centre for the cowrie trade - French slavers in particular purchased cowries sourced in the Indian Ocean, exchanged in Altona, and used to buy slaves in West Africa.

They planned to publish a journal in summer 1835. However, it was seized and banned by the German government even before the delivery of its first edition. In November 1835, Wienbarg's writings, together with those of Heinrich Heine, Ludwig Börne, Karl Gutzkow, Heinrich Laube and Theodor Mundt, were first banned in Prussia and subsequently in all the member states of the German confederation. Wienbarg was forced to leave Frankfurt and escaped to Heligoland, then a British island popular with political refugees from Germany. In the autumn of 1836, he returned to Hamburg where he resumed his activities as a journalist and editor for different journals.

Benjamin Franklin Wedekind was born on July 24, 1864, in Hanover, German Confederation, Große Aegdienstraße 13 (today: Friedrichswall 10). His mother was Swiss and became pregnant with him in San Francisco. His father, a German, had a Swiss castle in which Wedekind grew up, after the family had left Hanover in 1872. Until World War I, when he was forced to obtain a German passport, he was an American citizen and traveled throughout Europe. He lived most of his adult life in Munich, though he had a brief period working in advertising, for the Maggi soup firm, in Switzerland in 1886.Willett (1959, 98n).

Important alterations were made in the administrative system in 1855 and again in 1868, and government oversight on church affairs was ordered by a law of 1863. In 1863, Peter II, who had ruled since the death of his father Augustus in 1853, seemed inclined to press a claim to the vacant duchy of Schleswig and duchy of Holstein, but ultimately in 1867 he abandoned this in favor of the Kingdom of Prussia and received some slight compensation. In 1866 he had sided Prussia against the Austrian Empire during the Seven Weeks War and joined the North German Confederation. In 1871 the grand duchy became a state of the German Empire.

The European Trade Union Confederation was set up in 1973 to promote the interests of working people at the European level and to represent them in the European Union institutions. It is recognized by the European Union, the Council of Europe, and the European Free Trade Association as the only representative cross-sectoral trade union organization at the European level. Some countries, such as Germany, Austria, Belgium, Sweden, Finland, and the other Nordic countries, have strong, centralized unions, where every type of industry has a specific union, which are then gathered in large national union confederations. The largest union confederation in Europe is the German Confederation of Trade Unions.

Relations between Austria and Germany are close, due to their shared history and language, with German being the official language of both countries. Modern-day Austria and Germany were united until 1866: their predecessors were part of the Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation until the unification of German states under Prussia in 1871, which excluded Austria. In 1918 after the end of World War I, Austria renamed itself the Republic of German-Austria in an attempt for union with Germany but this was forbidden by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919). In 1938, the Third Reich, led by Austrian-born Adolf Hitler, annexed Austria in the Anschluss.

One of the founders of the Liberal Party in Schleswig-Holstein after the annexation of the duchies to Prussia in 1866, he was elected to the Prussian Chamber of Deputies and the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, and subsequently to the Imperial Reichstag. He became known as a leader of the so-called “Fortschrittspartei” or Progressists. After the fusion with the Secessionists in 1884, “Fortschrittspartei” was styled as the “Deutschfreisinnige Partei.” Upon the breakup of the party in 1893, he represented the ‘Freisinnige Vereinigung’ (Liberal Union), but in the elections of the same year to the Reichstag he was defeated by the Social-Democratic candidate.

The first mission established, was from Austria (then Habsburg Monarchy) in 1570, the Slovak Republic's consulate was the 100th in 2006, and the last one was the consulate of the Palau (as of 2009), former German colony from 1899 until 1918/19. The first missions visiting Hamburg often were trade missions of foreign countries. During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) constant diplomatic missions were needed, most of those envoys or residents were Hamburg citizens--only large and most influential states sent own nationals. Some countries sent their missions from 1815 - 1886, at this time Hamburg was an independent and sovereign state of the German Confederation.

On 18 November 1863, King Christian IX of Denmark signed the so-called "November constitution" establishing a shared law of succession and a common parliament for both Schleswig and Denmark. This was seen by the German Confederation as a violation of the 1852 London Protocol. On 28 November, the German Diet removed the Danish delegate for the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg pending resolution of the succession issue and the naming of a new delegate from a government recognized by the Diet. On 24 December 1863, Saxon and Hanoverian troops marched into Holstein on behalf of the Confederation (as part as the federal execution (Bundesexekution) against Holstein).

The Peace Conference broke up without having arrived at any conclusion; the outcome of the war was unfavorable to Denmark and led to the incorporation of Schleswig into Prussia in 1865. Holstein was likewise incorporated into Austria in 1865, then Prussia in 1866, following further conflict between Austria and Prussia. Following the loss, Christian IX went behind the backs of the Danish government to contact the Prussians, offering that the whole of Denmark could join the German Confederation, if Denmark could stay united with Schleswig and Holstein. This proposal was rejected by Bismarck, who feared that the ethnic strife in Schleswig between Danes and Germans would then stay unresolved.

Italia und Germania, painted by Johann Friedrich Overbeck before Italian and German Unification. Relations were established after the Unification of Italy. The two countries historically enjoy a special relationship since they fought together against the Austrian Empire and parts of their respective territories belonged to the Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation. Italy and Germany were both part of the Triple Alliance but they became enemies during World War I. Both countries eventually became members of the Axis powers during World War II, formed an alliance during the Cold War (West Germany), were among the inner six and became two of the G6 nations after their economic miracle.

He was born the son of a bricklayer in the Thuringian town of Zeulenroda, then part of the sovereign Principality of Reuss within the German Confederation. Seeling upon his apprenticeship received further academic training at the college for civil engineering in Holzminden in the Duchy of Brunswick and studied at the Prussian Bauakademie in Berlin, capital of the German Empire since 1871. Stadttheater Bromberg, 1909 After studies in Vienna and Italy, Seeling began his career working as an assistant in the studios of Hugo Licht, Hermann Ende and Wilhelm Böckmann in Berlin. In 1882/83 he unsuccessfully competed with Paul Wallot in an architectural contest to erect the new Reichstag building.

Regulation of the conditions of labour in industry throughout the German empire is provided for in the Imperial Industrial Code and the orders of the Federal Council-based thereon. By far the most important recent amendment socially is the law regulating child-labour, dated 30 March 1903, which relates to establishments having industrial character in the sense of the Industrial Code. This Code is based on earlier industrial codes of the separate states, but more especially on the Code of 1869 of the North German Confederation. It applies in whole or in part to all trades and industrial occupations, except transport, fisheries and agriculture.

After the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, Frederick deserted the French emperor and, by a treaty with Metternich at Fulda in November 1813, he secured the confirmation of his royal title and of his recent acquisitions of territory. Meanwhile, his troops marched into France with the allies. In 1815, the King joined the German Confederation, but the Congress of Vienna made no change to the extent of his lands. In the same year, he laid before the representatives of his people the outline of a new constitution, but they rejected it, and in the midst of the commotion that ensued, Frederick died on 30 October 1816.

Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2003. . p. 64. Thus, the surrender of Luxembourg made it possible for France to take control of the southern parts of the Low Countries and to annex them to her territory. The city's great significance for the frontier between the Second French Empire and the German Confederation led to the 1866 Luxembourg Crisis, almost resulting in a war between France and Prussia over possession of the German Confederation's main western fortress. The 1867 Treaty of London required Luxembourg's fortress to be torn down and for Luxembourg to be placed in perpetual neutrality, signalling the end of the city's use as a military site.

The mobilisation of the army for the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 was only concluded on 22 June, by which time the Prussian Army was almost in Bohemia. The war went very badly for the Bavarians. The Bavarian Commander-in-Chief Prince Karl, who also commanded the southern forces of the German Confederation, was hurrying to the aid of the Kingdom of Hanover when he heard of the Hanoverians' surrender after the Battle of Langensalza. The rapid Prussian advance meant that Karl was unable to link up with the western forces of the Confederation under Prince Alexander of Hesse, so the Bavarian troops withdrew to Bad Kissingen.

At the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleon's defeat, Prussia acquired rich new territories, including the coal- rich Ruhr. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. The Kingdom ended in 1918 along with other German monarchies that collapsed as a result of the German Revolution.

The main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white national colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights and by the Hohenzollern dynasty. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a black cross with gold insert and black imperial eagle. The combination of the black and white colours with the white and red Hanseatic colours of the free cities Bremen, Hamburg and Lübeck, as well as of Brandenburg, resulted in the black-white-red commercial flag of the North German Confederation, which became the flag of the German Empire in 1871.

Following victory under Bismarck's and Prussia's leadership, Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria, which had remained outside the North German Confederation, accepted incorporation into a united German Empire. The empire was a "Lesser German" solution (in German, "kleindeutsche Lösung") to the question of uniting all German-speaking peoples into one state, because it excluded Austria, which remained connected to Hungary and whose territories included non-German populations. On 18 January 1871 (the 170th anniversary of the coronation of King Frederick I), William was proclaimed "German Emperor" (not "Emperor of Germany") in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles outside Paris, while the French capital was still under siege.

His proposal was denied on grounds of being too radical and officials did not believe anyone would willingly give up their privacy. In October 1869, the post office of Austria-Hungary accepted a similar proposal (also without images), and 3 million cards were mailed within the first 3 months. With the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in July 1870, the government of the North German Confederation decided to take the advice of Austrian Dr. Emanuel Herrmann and issued postals for soldiers to inexpensively send home from the field. The period from 1870 to 1874 saw a great number of countries begin the issuance of postals.

The line ran through the territories of five then independent countries within the German Confederation: the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, two duchies ruled over by the King of Denmark (Holstein and Lauenburg), the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the Kingdom of Prussia. Since Bergedorf was a condominium, jointly owned by the Free Hanseatic City of Lübeck and Hamburg, Lübeck was also affected by its construction. On 8 November 1841, these countries jointly signed a treaty that specified the route and transit tariffs. A company was established, which obtained the rights to construct and operate the railway in these countries in 1845.

Historians debate whether Otto von Bismarck—Minister President of Prussia—had a master plan to expand the North German Confederation of 1866 to include the remaining independent German states into a single entity or simply to expand the power of the Kingdom of Prussia. They conclude that factors in addition to the strength of Bismarck's led a collection of early modern polities to reorganize political, economic, military, and diplomatic relationships in the 19th century. Reaction to Danish and French nationalism provided foci for expressions of German unity. Military successes—especially those of Prussia—in three regional wars generated enthusiasm and pride that politicians could harness to promote unification.

By 1815 there were 39 separate German-speaking states, loosely joined (for free trade purposes) in the German Confederation, under the leadership of Prussia and Austria. Under the leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Prussia united the German states and defeated both Austria and France, 1866 to 1871, allowing the formation of a powerful German Empire, which lasted until 1918. Bismarck after 1871 dominated European diplomacy, and set up a complex system of balances that kept the peace. He was replaced in 1890 by the young Kaiser Wilhelm II, who built up a powerful Navy to challenge the British, and engaged in reckless diplomacy.

England was bankrupt after years of war and mismanagement; pressure against Hanseatic cities trade on the southern coast of the Baltic sea had to be foregone, while Cologne and other German cities had opposed, and were therefore temporarily excluded from, the Hansa. The treaty declared peace between Lubeck and the German Confederation with England, restoring the Hanseatic privileges in the Port of London. These included immunity for Hanseatic franchises from the Tunnage and Poundage levy, which had been guaranteed by the Utrecht Treaty of 1437. It did not however halt the league's long-term decline across Germany, a fact the Prussians recognised during Anglo-Hanse Conference at Utrecht in 1451.

The Province of Hanover () was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Free State of Prussia from 1868 to 1946. During the Austro-Prussian War, the Kingdom of Hanover had attempted to maintain a neutral position, along with some other member states of the German Confederation. After Hanover voted in favour of mobilising confederation troops against Prussia on 14 June 1866, Prussia saw this as a just cause for declaring war; the Kingdom of Hanover was soon dissolved and annexed by Prussia. The private wealth of the dethroned House of Hanover was then used by Otto von Bismarck to finance his continuing efforts against Ludwig II of Bavaria.

Chasseloup-Laubat was the descendant of a minor noble family from Saintonge whose members were Huguenot but converted to Catholicism in the 17th century. He was the youngest son of the General François de Chasseloup-Laubat, 1st Marquis of Chasseloup-Laubat (1754-1833), and of his wife Anne-Julie Fresneau de La Gataudière, granddaughter of François Fresneau de La Gataudière who had discovered the properties of rubber. His godparents were Emperor Napoleon I and his first wife Empress Josephine. His brother, Justin (1800-1847), 2nd Marquis of Chasseloup-Laubat, was a military and politician and died as he was serving as French ambassador to the German Confederation.

At first this seemed like a victory for Augustenburg, but Bismarck soon removed him from power by making a series of unworkable demands, namely that Prussia should have control over the army and navy of the duchies. Originally, it had been proposed that the Diet of the German Confederation, in which all the states of Germany were represented, should determine the fate of the duchies; but before this scheme could be effected, Bismarck induced Austria to agree to the Gastein Convention. Under this agreement signed on 20 August 1865, Prussia received Schleswig, while Austria received Holstein. In that year Bismarck was given the title of Count (Graf) of Bismarck- Schönhausen.

There followed a brief assignment as a captain in Valparaiso in Chile, before he returned to Europe, disembarking in Hamburg. Hamburg was part of the German Confederation whereas Schleswig, despite growing pressure from commercial interests, was not. In his linguistically divided home town of Apenrade the Jebsen family were part of the German-speaking community, and in an age of growing nationalist sentiment the cultural distinctions which might have gone unnoticed a few years earlier were gaining in practical significance. In 1861 Captain Michael Jebsen acquired Hamburg citizenship, one visible sign of which was that ships under his command were no longer required to fly the Dannebrog (Danish flag).

The regiment was captured by the Americans and only a small number returned to Germany, where some formed part of a newly raised 5th Battalion (1784). By the time of Napoleon's conquest of Germany, the Waldeck Regiments in Dutch service had been dissolved when, as the Batavian Republic, Holland was made into a kingdom ruled by Napoleon's brother Louis. Reduced to battalion strength, they now formed the 3rd battalions of the 1st and 2nd Infantry Regiments of the Kingdom of Holland. The 5th Battalion was disbanded, and Waldeck was now also obliged to provide two companies to the II Battalion, 6th German Confederation (i.e.

During the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, Saxony sided with Austria, and the Saxon army was generally seen as the only ally to bring substantial aid to the Austrian cause, having abandoned the defense of Saxony itself to join up with the Austrian army in Bohemia. This effectiveness probably allowed Saxony to escape the fate of other north German states allied with Austria – notably the Kingdom of Hanover – which were annexed by Prussia after the war. The Austrians and French insisted as a point of honour that Saxony must be spared, and the Prussians acquiesced. Saxony nevertheless joined the Prussian-led North German Confederation the next year.

The Battle of Gravelotte (or Battle of Gravelotte–St. Privat) on 18 August 1870 was the largest battle of the Franco-Prussian War. Named after Gravelotte, a village in Lorraine, it was fought about west of Metz, where on the previous day, having intercepted the French army's retreat to the west at the Battle of Mars-La-Tour, the Prussians were now closing in to complete the destruction of the French forces. The combined German forces under King Wilhelm I were the Prussian First and Second Armies of the North German Confederation with 210 infantry battalions, 133 cavalry squadrons, and 732 heavy cannons totaling 188,332 officers and men.

Koiszków(Koischaku) was originally a Prussian/German settlement in the Kingdom of Prussia then it was reunited with the German Empire.The native language of Koischaku was German and the German Silesian dialect. After 1945 the Village was given to Poland. Koischkau was ruled by Germans for over 700 years after The kingdom of Bohemia which was in the Holy Roman Empire controlled the land then it was a part of the German Confederation,Shortly later it was incorporated into the German Empire,after the treaty of Versailles it was still part of the Weimar Republic but after the Nazi government took power it was made a city in Nazi Germany.

After the Napoleonic Wars and the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the Prussian lands were re-arranged into ten provinces, three of them—East Prussia, West Prussia and the Grand Duchy of Posen—beyond the borders of the German Confederation. The provinces were internally divided into up to six Regierungsbezirke and further into the districts on local level, headed by a Landrat administrator. The districts usually took the name of their capital (Kreisstadt), seat of the administrative office (Landratsamt). A typical district had a rough diameter of , in order to ensure that even the remotest villages could be reached by carriage within a day, though few were circular in shape.

In 1748 the castle was the administrative seat of the imperial post office, then operated by the Thurn und Taxis family, and from 1805 to 1813 it was the residence of the Prince Primate and Grand Duke of Frankfurt, Karl Theodor von Dalberg. After the restoration of the Free City of Frankfurt, it held the Bundestag of the German Confederation from 1816 to 1866. In 1895 Prince Albert I von Thurn und Taxis sold the Palais to the Imperial Post. In 1905 the city of Frankfurt took over the palace and used it to house the Museum of Ethnology for the collections of the African explorer Leo Frobenius.

Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of the North German Confederation, pressed for diplomatic access to the remaining sovereign states, the Grand Duchy of Baden, the Grand Duchy of Hesse, the Kingdom of Württemberg and the Kingdom of Bavaria, in the sens of the Lesser German solution. Their governments differed in their unity. It therefore needed diplomatic skills to maintain the sovereignty of the southern German states at the same time and to anchor the unity of constitutional law. In addition, the foreign policies attracted the suspicion of the remaining European powers (Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) and had to be avoided.

Upon the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Free Imperial City of Hamburg became a sovereign state with the official title of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg. Hamburg was briefly annexed by Napoleon I to the First French Empire, however, Russian forces under General Bennigsen freed the city in 1814. Hamburg re-assumed its pre-1811 status as a city-state in 1814 when Rumpff returned to his hometown. He joined the diplomatic service and served as attaché at the Congress of Vienna which confirmed Hamburg's independence and it became one of 39 sovereign states of the German Confederation.

Hegeler was born on September 13, 1835 in Bremen, then a part of the German Confederation. He was the youngest son of Herman Dietrich Hegeler and Anna Catharine (née von Tungeln) Hegeler. His father, originally of Oldenburg, had traveled in the United States and wished one of his sons to settle there and chose Edward for this task. Edward's father had his education mapped out with this purpose in view, educating him in the academy of Schnepfenthal and then having him attend the Polytechnic Institute at Hanover from 1851 to 1853, and later the School of Mines at Freiberg, Saxony from 1853 to 1856.

On 30 August, she joined the Prussian ironclad squadron—the first time the unit had been activated—for exercises in Kiel. Grille received orders in mid-September to join a squadron that consisted of the steam frigates , , and and the gunboat to attend the opening ceremonies of the Suez Canal in Ottoman Egypt at the invitation of Sultan Abdülaziz of the Ottoman Empire. After stopping in Piraeus, Greece on 22 October, Grille embarked Prince Friedrich, who was to represent the North German Confederation at the ceremonies. The ships traveled first to the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, where Friedrich met with Abdülaziz from 24 to 29 October.

Field Marshal Karl Friedrich von dem Knesebeck The most famous member of the family is Karl Friedrich von dem Knesebeck, who served as Adjutant-General to Frederick William III of Prussia during the Napoleonic Wars and rose to the rank of field marshal. He is best known for his diplomatic role maintaining a Russo-Prussian alliance and for designing the campaign plan of the Battle of Leipzig and the subsequent invasion of France.A. von dem Knesebeck: Haus und Dorf Carwe in der Grafschaft Ruppin. Berlin 1865 His son, Alfred, became a member of the Prussian House of Representatives and the Reichstag of the North German Confederation.

Denmark was satisfied that the treaty empowered the king- duke to restore his authority in Holstein with or without the consent of the German Confederation. Augustenborg was ousted from power, as Danish troops marched in to subdue the duchies. The question of the Augustenburg succession made an agreement between the major powers impossible, and on March 31, 1852 the duke of Augustenburg resigned his claim in return for a money payment. Duke Christian sold his rights to the Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein to Denmark in aftermath of Treaty of London, but later renounced his rights to the Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein in favor of his son Frederik August.

As early as 1852 the Westphalian constituency of Beckum-Ahaus had elected him to the Prussian House of Representatives, and he took part in the founding of the "Catholic Fraction" for the defense of the rights and liberties of the church, which from 1859 was known as the Centre Party. When the House of Representatives was dissolved in 1863, owing to the debate on the military law, Mallinckrodt lost his mandate. In 1867, however, he was elected to the Constituent Diet of the North German Confederation, and in 1868 returned to the Prussian Lower House. In the North German Diet he was the leading member of the federal constitutional union.

From 1 July 1867, the district was part of the North German Confederation and from 1 January 1871 it was part of the German Empire. On 30 September 1929, there was a reorganization of borders in the district of Regenwalde, as in the rest of Prussia, in the course of which all of the formerly independent manors () were dissolved and assigned to neighbouring municipalities (). On 1 October 1938, the district of Regenwalde was transferred from the government region of Stettin to the government region of Köslin. As of 1 January 1939, the district of Regenwalde had the title ' (rural district), in accordance with nationwide naming conventions.

What Prussia had obtained, with the addition of some old Prussian districts, was formed into the Province of Saxony. The Kingdom of Saxony had left only an area of with a population at that era of 1,500,000 inhabitants; under these conditions it became a member of the German Confederation that was founded in 1815. King John (1854–73) sided with Austria in the struggle between Prussia and Austria as to the supremacy in Germany. Consequently, in the War of 1866, when Prussia was successful, the independence of Saxony was once more in danger; only the intervention of the Austrian Emperor saved Saxony from being entirely absorbed by Prussia.

Although the dissolution of the German Confederation, and Luxembourg's neutrality as stipulated in the Treaty of London provided for the Grand Duchy's political independence with regards to Germany, the country entered more and more into the German Empire's economic orbit through the Zollverein. Despite this growing dependence, Luxembourg did not participate in the deliberations of the Zollverein, and had no influence on customs policy. The government took steps to be involved in the decision-making. Félix de Blochausen suggested to William III to propose to the German government to admit a Luxembourgish representative in the Bundesrat, who would be able to vote on customs matters.

Monument to Prince Wilhelm in Karlsruhe, sculpted by Hermann Volz. In 1866, during the Austro-Prussian War between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire, Wilhelm assumed command of the Baden Division of the 8th Federal Corps () siding with the Austrian-led German Confederation. The dissolution of the 8th Federal Corps began on 30 July 1866 when Wilhelm sent a flag of truce along with a letter to the Prussian headquarters at Marktheidenfeld. The letter stated that Wilhelm's father Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden, had entered into direct negotiations with Wilhelm I of Prussia and that King Wilhelm I granted the Baden troops permission to return to their homes.

The terms German Prince or German Princess are often used to refer to members of royalty that were from a German state. Today Germany is one nation, but until 1914, Germany and Central Europe was ruled over by a large number of independent states. Until World War I, the term German could have referred to peoples from areas of what is today the states Germany, Poland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, and even Croatia, and the Netherlands. From 1815 to 1860 this number was 35 separate German sovereign states (including Prussia and Austria) plus another 4 free cities, who together formed the German Confederation.

Most of them suffered the indignity of serfdom or some lingering elements of this system of forced labor. Peasant revolts in 1848-1849 involved more participants than the national revolutions of this period. And most importantly, they were successful bringing the final abolition of serfdom or its remnants across the German Confederation, in the Austrian Empire and Prussia.The Nation in the Village: The Genesis of Peasant National Identity in ..., By Keely Stauter-Halsted; Freedom's Price: Serfdom, Subjection, and Reform in Prussia, 1648-1848, By S. A. Eddie The leader of this anti-serfdom peasant movement was Hans Kudlich, subsequently revered as Bauernbefreier (‘liberator of peasants’).

Meanwhile, Austria, having overcome its difficulties – the fall of Metternich, the abdication of Ferdinand I, and constitutional revolts in Italy and Hungary – began a renewed active resistance against Prussia's union plan. The Saxon and Hanoverian withdrawals from their alliance with Prussia can also be attributed in part to Austrian encouragement. Vienna contemplated restoration of the German Confederation recalling the German Diet, and rallied the Prussian nobility and feudal-corporate and anti-national groups around the Prussian General Ludwig Friedrich Leopold von Gerlach to increasingly successfully oppose Union policy. In Prussia itself, a congress of princes held in Berlin in May 1850 explicitly decided against the merits of introducing a constitution at the point in time.

The railway line was not the first in what constituted Denmark at the time (as Holstein was part of the German Confederation), but it was nonetheless the first to be built under the Danish monarchy. In 1840, technician Søren Hjorth and accountant Johan Christian Gustav Schram published the paper Jærnbane mellem Kjøbenhavn og Roeskilde, in which they argued that a railway between Copenhagen and Roskilde would be profitable. However, there was no further interest in this project until 1841, when cooperation with Industriforeningen had been established. In 1843, after substantial financial recalculations, they applied for a concession to construct a railway from Copenhagen via Roskilde to a coastal town on West Zealand.

After peace was made and Saxony had entered the North German Confederation, he gained the command of the Saxon army, which had now become the XII army corps of the North German army, and in that position, he carried out the necessary reorganisation. He proved a firm adherent of the Prussian alliance. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, he again commanded the Saxons, who were included in the 2nd army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia, his old opponent. At the Battle of Gravelotte, they formed the extreme left of the German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out the attack on St Privat, the final and decisive action in the battle.

On March 27, 1848, Frederick VII of Denmark announced to the people of Schleswig the promulgation of a liberal constitution under which the duchy, while preserving its local autonomy, would become an integral part of Denmark. This led to an open uprising by Schleswig-Holstein's large German majority in support of independence from Denmark and of close association with the German Confederation. The military intervention of the Kingdom of Prussia supported the uprising: the Prussian army drove Denmark's troops from Schleswig and Holstein, beginning the First Schleswig War (1848–51), which ended in a Danish victory at Idstedt; with the London Protocol, the international community agreed on the Duchies' status. A second crisis emerged due to a succession dispute.

Austria played a major role in the final defeat of France—in recognition of this, Francis, represented by Clemens von Metternich, presided over the Congress of Vienna, helping to form the Concert of Europe and the Holy Alliance, ushering in an era of conservatism in Europe. The German Confederation, a loose association of Central European states was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to organize the surviving states of the Holy Roman Empire. The Congress was a personal triumph for Francis, who hosted the assorted dignitaries in comfort, though Francis undermined his allies Tsar Alexander and Frederick William III of Prussia by negotiating a secret treaty with the restored French king Louis XVIII.

In 1848, Wrangel commanded the II Corps of the army of the German Confederation during the First Schleswig War, was promoted to General of Cavalry and won several battles. However, the other European powers pressured Prussia to withdraw its forces, and King Frederick William IV accordingly ordered Wrangel to withdraw his troops from the duchies. Wrangel refused by asserting that he was under the command of not the king of Prussia but the regent of Germany. He proposed that at the very least, any treaty concluded should be presented for ratification to the Frankfurt Parliament, which was dominated by the liberals, which gave Liberals the rather mistaken idea that Wrangel was on their side.

Stephan was born in Stolp (Słupsk), Pomerania, in the Kingdom of Prussia. He began his career as a local postal clerk in the service of the Prussian post in 1849. In 1866 he was put in charge by the Prussian government of federalizing the postal service that had long been privately run by the noble Thurn und Taxis family. In 1870 he was named director of postal services for the North German Confederation. Stephan's career then moved quickly up the ranks, as he was named Postmaster General of the German Empire in 1876, the Undersecretary of State in charge of the post office in 1880, and the Minister of Postal Services for Germany in 1895.

Jérôme Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, and Queen Catharina Napoleon made his brother King of Westphalia, a short-lived realm (1807–13) created by Napoleon from several states and principalities in northwestern Germany (in the former thousand-year old Holy Roman Empire, which was reorganized by Napoleon into the Confederation of the Rhine). After Napoleon's subsequent defeat, the Allies reorganized the German states into a German Confederation with Austrian leadership, largely overriding prior claim of lesser states. The Napoleonic realm of Westphalia had its capital in Kassel (then: Cassel). Jérôme was married, as arranged by Napoleon before he was divorced with Elizabeth, to Princess Catharina of Württemberg, the daughter of Frederick I, King of Württemberg.

During that war, voluntary units like Van Dams' Jagers and several Voluntary Student Companies, were dressed and equipped as Jagers, including a mounted Jager detachment; after the war, these voluntary units were disbanded. In 1995, after a long history as separate units, the Guard Grenadiers and Jagers were united into the Grenadiers' and Rifles Guard Regiment. In 1950, several Infantry Regiments were disbanded; their traditions were transferred to a new regiment, which was located and closely tied to Limburg Province. Since it took over the traditions of the Jager Contingent of the German Confederation, which was provided by Limburg Province, the Regiment was called the Limburgse Jagers and adopted the French horn in their emblem.

Chancellor Bismarck, the visionary statesman who unified Germany with his skillful political moves Wilhelm I in 1884 The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris. Bourgeois revolutions of 1848, associated with highly educated and middle class were crushed in favor of peasants, artisans and Otto von Bismarck's pragmatic Realpolitik. Bismarck sought to extend Hohenzollern hegemony throughout the German states; to do so meant unification of the German states and the exclusion of Prussia's main German rival, Austria, from the subsequent German Empire. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany.

With this in mind, many Catholics especially in Southern Germany feared that Prussia might one day might attempt to engineer a similar sort of secession crisis within a united Germany and use it as a pretext to launch a violent repression against Catholicism throughout Germany. Thus, it was Bismarck's intention to make the new federal state look like a confederation in the tradition of the German Confederation, and explains the name of the country and several provisions in the draft constitution - Bismarck needed to make the federal state more attractive (or at least less repulsive) to southern German states which might later join.Christoph Vondenhoff: Hegemonie und Gleichgewicht im Bundesstaat. Preußen 1867–1933: Geschichte eines hegemonialen Gliedstaates. Diss.

After being annexed by the French in the Napoleonic Wars, Luxembourg was elevated to a Grand Duchy and awarded to the Dutch King by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. While it was supposed to be ruled by him in personal union, rather than as part of his kingdom, the King-Grand Duke William I treated it merely as a province of the Netherlands. (At the time, modern Belgium was part of the Netherlands, so Luxembourg was not separated from Dutch territory.) The Grand Duchy would also be part of the German Confederation (the successor to the Holy Roman Empire), and its fortress therefore garrisoned by Confederation troops. Luxembourg was profoundly affected by the Belgian Revolution of 1830.

Torcy in September 1870 The German army comprised that of the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia, and the South German states drawn in under the secret clause of the preliminary peace of Nikolsburg, 26 July 1866, and formalised in the Treaty of Prague, 23 August 1866. Recruitment and organisation of the various armies were almost identical, and based on the concept of conscripting annual classes of men who then served in the regular regiments for a fixed term before being moved to the reserves. This process gave a theoretical peace time strength of 382,000 and a wartime strength of about 1,189,000. German tactics emphasised encirclement battles like Cannae and using artillery offensively whenever possible.

This was maintained by the pre-1939 practice of Jewish congregations in Germany, which denied Jewesses who married Gentiles, to be precise non-converts to Judaism, to keep their membership in a congregation. This turned the Jewesses, if they did not convert to another faith, legally into irreligionists. On the other hand, Jews marrying Gentile women could (stay) enroll(ed) as member of a Jewish congregation. However, in urban areas and after 1900, actual interfaith marriages occurred more often, with interfaith marriages legally allowed in some states of the German Confederation since 1847, and generally since 1875, when civil marriage became an obligatory prerequisite for any religious marriage ceremony throughout the united Germany.

Sleswig did not become a member in the short time between this war and the dissolution of the Confederation. # # # # Luxembourg, with the Dutch king being the grand duke # # # # Prussia. The Province of Prussia and the Grand Duchy of Posen were only federal territory in 1848–1850. # , elder line # , younger line # (became Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1826) # (partitioned and became Saxe-Altenburg in 1826) # (duchy partitioned and ruler became Duke of Saxe-Altenburg in 1826) # # # Saxony # # # # # # # # # In 1839, as compensation for the loss of part of the province of to Belgium, the Duchy of Limburg was created and became a member of the German Confederation (held by the Netherlands jointly with Luxembourg) until the dissolution of 1866.

324x324px The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795–1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and the northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria. Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes.

178, 211)) Chlodwig's appointment as Minister-President occurred at the instigation of the composer Richard Wagner. As head of the Bavarian government Chlodwig's principal task was to discover some basis for an effective union of the South German states with the North German Confederation. During the three critical years of his tenure of office he was, next to Bismarck, the most important statesman in Germany. He carried out the reorganization of the Bavarian army on the Prussian model, brought about the military union of the southern states, and took a leading share in the creation of the customs parliament (Zollparlament), of which on 28 April 1868 he was elected a vice-president.

In 1839, William I became a party to the Treaty of London by which the Grand-Duchy lost its western, francophone territories to the Belgian province of Luxembourg. Due to the country's population having been halved, with the loss of 160,000 inhabitants, the militia lost half its strength. Under the terms of the treaty, Luxembourg and the newly formed Duchy of Limburg, both members of the German Confederation, were together required to provide a federal contingent consisting of a light infantry battalion garrisoned in Echternach, a cavalry squadron in Diekirch, and an artillery detachment in Ettelbruck. In 1846, the cavalry and artillery units were disbanded and the Luxembourg contingent was separated from that of Limburg.

In 1830, most of Luxembourg (with the exception of the capital) sided with the Belgian Revolution against the Dutch King William I. The King-Grand Duke therefore sought to prevent young Luxembourgers from attending Belgian universities, which were hotbeds of anti- Dutch revolutionary sentiment. Belgian academic degrees were no longer recognised in Luxembourg from 1832, and an 1835 decree forced Luxembourgish students to study exclusively in the states of the German Confederation. This Germanisation policy continued with the Friedemann reform in 1837, which had the goal of turning the Athénée de Luxembourg into a preparatory school for German universities, and abolished the academic courses that had existed there since 1817, depriving Luxembourg of its embryo of higher education.Elz, Marco.

After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, Prince Metternich served as state chancellor of the Austrian Empire (1821–1848), likewise Prince Hardenberg acted as Prussian chancellor (1810–1822). The German Confederation of 1815–1866 did not have a government or parliament, only the Bundestag as representative organ of the states. In the now defunct German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany), which existed from 7 October 1949 to 3 October 1990 (when the territory of the former GDR was reunified with the Federal Republic of Germany), the position of chancellor did not exist. The equivalent position was called either Minister President (Ministerpräsident) or Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the GDR (Vorsitzender des Ministerrats der DDR).

In some of the middle-ranking German states, including Saxony and Baden, this led to the so- called May [1849] insurrection, in which the activists urged acceptance of the "Frankfurt Constitution" by individual states, even if its adoption across the German Confederation as a whole could not be accomplished. Amalie Struve played her full part, notably in the desecration on 11 May 1849 of the garrison in the fortress at Rastatt. During the ensuing uprising her husband was released from custody on 12 May 1849 during a confused episode which involved a "political demonstration" turning up outside the prison in which he was being detained and a badly frightened prison guard. On 14 May 1849 the Grand Duke fled.

Therefore, the colours black, red, and gold eventually became symbolic of this desire for a unified German state. The Ministerial Council of the German Confederation, in its determination to maintain the status quo, enacted the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819 that banned all student organisations, officially putting an end to the . Hambach Festival (May 1832), contemporary lithograph The 1832 Ur-Fahne In May 1832, around 30,000 people demonstrated at the Hambach Festival for freedom, unity, and civil rights. The colours black, red, and gold had become a well established symbol for the liberal, democratic and republican movement within the German states since the Wartburg Festival, and flags in these colours were flown en masse at the Hambach Festival.

The Prussian Navy planned to reactivate Cyclop in December 1863 owing to rising tensions between Prussia and Austria of the German Confederation and Denmark over the latter's November Constitution, which integrated the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg with Denmark, a violation of the London Protocol that had ended the First Schleswig War. Crew shortages and poor weather prevented Cyclop from being commissioned until January 1864. Following the outbreak of the Second Schleswig War in February, Cyclop served as the flagship of the III Division, which helped to defend the Prussian coast from the superior Danish fleet. In April, the III Division was deactivated and the gunboats were transferred to the Reserve Division.

In late 1863, tensions began to rise between Prussia and Austria of the German Confederation and Denmark over the latter's November Constitution, which integrated the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg with Denmark, a violation of the London Protocol that had ended the First Schleswig War. On 1 March 1864, after the start of the Second Schleswig War, Delphin was reactivated and stationed in Dänholm off Stralsund. There, she was assigned to the II Flotilla Division. On 14 April, after a minor action off the island of Hiddensee, in which Delphin did not take part, the Prussian gunboat flotilla was reduced to a reserve formation and took no further active part in the war.

The government of Denmark attempted to integrate Schleswig, by creating a new common constitution (the so-called November Constitution) for Denmark and Schleswig. On 18 November 1863 Christian IX of Denmark signed the constitution, merging Schleswig into Denmark and separating Schleswig from Holstein. On 28 December a motion was introduced in the Federal Assembly by Austria and Prussia, calling on the German Confederation to occupy Schleswig as a pledge for the observance by Denmark of compacts of London Protocol 1852. This implied the recognition of the rights of Christian IX, and was indignantly rejected by Denmark; whereupon the Federal Assembly was informed that the Austrian and Prussian governments would act in the matter as independent European powers.

Like the First Schleswig War (1848–51), it was fought for control of the duchies because of succession disputes concerning the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg when the Danish king died without an heir acceptable to the German Confederation. Decisive controversy arose due to the passing of the November Constitution, which integrated the Duchy of Schleswig into the Danish kingdom in violation of the London Protocol. Reasons for the war were the ethnic controversy in Schleswig and the co-existence of conflicting political systems within the Danish unitary state. The war ended on 30 October 1864, when the Treaty of Vienna caused Denmark's cession of the Duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Saxe- Lauenburg to Prussia and Austria.

Despite the early and systematic state support of railway construction, it was another 10 years before the opening of the first railway in Württemberg. In the other larger states of the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), such as Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, Austria, Brunswick, Baden, and Hanover, at least one, and in some cases, several railways had been put into service by that time. The late adoption was caused by the conclusion that the expensive construction of railways would not be cost-efficient in the relatively poor state. The total cost of building the main railways was thought to be about 30 million guilders, which was the equivalent of three years of the gross domestic product of Württemberg.

100 thaler banknote from 1857 The Kingdom of Hanover () was established in October 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian territories after the Napoleonic era. It succeeded the former Electorate of Hanover (known formally as the Electorate of Brunswick- Lüneburg), and joined 38 other sovereign states in the German Confederation in June 1815. The kingdom was ruled by the House of Hanover, a cadet branch of the House of Welf, in personal union with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland since 1814. Since its monarch resided in London, a viceroy, usually a younger member of the British Royal Family, handled the administration of the Kingdom of Hanover.

The new kingdom was also greatly expanded, becoming the fourth-largest state in the German Confederation (behind Prussia, Austria and Bavaria) and the second- largest in north Germany. Under George III's six-year reign, he never visited the Kingdom. Having succumbed to dementia prior to the elevation of Hanover, it is unlikely he ever understood that he had gained an additional kingship nor did he take any role in its governance. Functional administration of Hanover was usually handled by a viceroy, which during the later years of George III's reign and the reigns of kings George IV and William IV from 1816 to 1837, was Adolph Frederick, George III's youngest surviving son.

When Queen Victoria succeeded to the British throne in 1837, the 123-year personal union of Great Britain and Hanover ended. Unlike in Britain, Semi-Salic law operated in Hanover, which excluded the accession to the throne by a female while any male of the dynasty survived. Instrad, of Victoria, her uncle in the male-line of the House of Hanover, Ernest Augustus, now the eldest surviving son of George III, succeeded to the throne of the new kingdom as King of Hanover; Adolph Frederick the younger brother, and long-time Viceroy, returned to Britain. During the Austro-Prussian War (1866), Hanover attempted to maintain a neutral position, along with some other member states of the German Confederation.

The Kingdom of Hanover was thus one of the few states within the German Confederation, where rabbins held a similar semi-state authoritative position as to Jews as did, e.g., Lutheran clergy towards Lutherans.After the Prussian annexation the constitution of Hanover's four land-rabbinates came under threat to be abolished, because in Prussia proper the government hindered as much as possible the establishment of nationwide Jewish organisations, let alone such which it would grant official recognition. In the end, Prussia respected the existing Hanoverian land-rabbinate constitution, which continued to exist — modified according to the separation of state and religion in 1919 by the Weimar constitution — until the Nazi Reich's government de facto abolished the constitution in 1938.

Karl-Maria Kertbeny coined the word homosexual in this 1868 letter. The word homosexual translates literally as "of the same sex", being a hybrid of the Greek prefix homo- meaning "same" (as distinguished from the Latin root homo meaning human) and the Latin root sex meaning "sex". The first known public appearance of the term homosexual in print is found in an 1869 German pamphlet 143 des Preussischen Strafgesetzbuchs und seine Aufrechterhaltung als 152 des Entwurfs eines Strafgesetzbuchs für den Norddeutschen Bund ("Paragraph 143 of the Prussian Penal Code and Its Maintenance as Paragraph 152 of the Draft of a Penal Code for the North German Confederation"). The pamphlet was written by Karl-Maria Kertbeny, but published anonymously.

Prior to the German unification of 1871, individual German states and entities started to release their own stamps, Bavaria first on November 1, 1849 with the one kreuzer black. States or entities that issued stamps subsequently were Baden (1851), Bergedorf (1861), Brunswick (1852), Bremen (1855), Hamburg (1859), Hanover (1850), Heligoland (1867), Lübeck (1859), Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1856), Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1864), Oldenburg (1852), Prussia (1850), Saxony (1850), Schleswig-Holstein (1850), and Württemberg (1851). Also Thurn und Taxis, while not a state, had the authority to issue stamps and transport mail and released stamps (1852). The northern German states joined in the North German Confederation in 1868 and united their postal services in the "North German Postal District" (Norddeutscher Postbezirk).

Since the 1860s, there has been a competing tradition of national colours as black, white, and red, based on the Hanseatic flags, used as the flag of the North German Confederation and the German Empire. The Weimar Republic in 1919 opted to re-introduce the black, red, and gold tricolour. This was controversial, and as a compromise, the old flag was reintroduced in 1922 to represent German diplomatic missions abroad. As a reaction, Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold was an organization formed in 1924 representing the parties supporting parliamentary democracy, and for the remainder of the existence of the Weimar Republic, black-red-gold represented the centrist parties supporting parliamentary and black-white-red represented its nationalist and monarchist opposition.

In the 1860s, Monrad is now Council President (prime minister), and has become a convinced nationalist. He actively tries to provoke a war with Prussia over the Schleswig-Holstein Question, still encouraged by Mrs Heiberg. Monrad tries to persuade the new king, Christian IX, that declaring war would show the people that Christian, who was born in Schleswig and grew up speaking German, is a true Dane. In Berlin, King Wilhelm, his minister-president, Otto von Bismarck, and his chief of the general staff, General Helmuth von Moltke, greet Denmark's sabre-rattling with disbelief but also relief as such a war would fit perfectly into Bismarck's plan of placing Prussia as the dominant power in the German Confederation.

He formulated the goal of the negotiations: to come to an understanding over disarming, and how this was to be organised. Whilst Braun and Giesberts tried to make as few concessions as possible, Severing kept to the 9-points-program, which the chairman of the Allgemeiner Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (General German Confederation of Trade Unions) Carl Legien had agreed with Friedrich Ebert, which provided for a strengthening of the political influence of the workers' movement in German politics. In the end, a commission agreed on precisely that. The negotiated Bielefeld Agreement at first contained wording similar to an agreement reached a short while previously on a national level between trade unions and the government.

Shortly after the outbreak of the Franco- Prussian War in 1870, the North German Confederation also entered into conventions on military matters with states that were not members of the confederation, namely Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden. Through these conventions and the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire, an Army of the Realm (') was created. The contingents of the Bavarian, Saxon and Württemberg kingdoms remained semi-autonomous, while the Prussian Army assumed almost total control over the armies of the other states of the Empire. The Constitution of the German Empire, dated April 16, 1871, changed references in the North German Constitution from Federal Army to either Army of the Realm (') or German Army (').documentArchiv.

Revolutionaries in Berlin in March 1848, waving the revolutionary flags The "March Revolution" in the German states took place in the south and the west of Germany, with large popular assemblies and mass demonstrations. Led by well-educated students and intellectuals,Louis Namier, 1848: The Revolution of the Intellectuals (1964) they demanded German national unity, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly. The uprisings were poorly coordinated, but had in common a rejection of traditional, autocratic political structures in the 39 independent states of the German Confederation. The middle-class and working-class components of the Revolution split, and in the end, the conservative aristocracy defeated it, forcing many liberals into exile.

Some of the Round Table parties strove for a "third way" model of democratic socialism and therefore agreed with Modrow to slow down or block a reunification with capitalist West Germany. As the SED-PDS regime grew weaker, Modrow on 1 February 1990 proposed a slow, three-stage process that would create a neutral German confederation and continued to oppose "rapid" reunification. The collapse of the East German state and economy in early 1990 and the approaching East German free elections allowed Helmut Kohl's government in Bonn to disregard Modrow's demand for neutrality. From 5 February 1990 on, Modrow included eight representatives of opposition parties and civil liberties groups as ministers without portfolio in his cabinet.

Nonetheless, the Austrian garrison eventually surrendered, and as a consequence, Luxembourg was annexed by the French Republic, becoming part of the département of Forêts, with Luxembourg City as its préfecture. Under the 1815 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Napoleonic Wars, Luxembourg City was placed under Prussian military control as a part of the German Confederation, although sovereignty passed to the House of Orange-Nassau, in personal union with the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. After the Luxembourg Crisis, the 1867 Treaty of London required Luxembourg to dismantle the fortifications in Luxembourg City. Their demolition took sixteen years, cost 1.5 million gold francs, and required the destruction of over of underground defences and of casemates, batteries, barracks, etc.

At the death of his father on 28 June 1800, he succeeded as the Prince Reuss of Greiz. After the devastation of Greiz by a fire in 1802, he ordered to rebuild the city in a neoclassical style, and he moved his residence from the Oberes Schloss (Upper Castle) to the Unteres Schloss (Lower Castle), to be more in contact with the people and social life of the Principality. Henry also distinguished himself in his military service to Austria as a field marshal, to the point of being considered one of the best friends of the Emperor Joseph II . Henry XIII joined the Confederation of the Rhine in 1807 and later was a member of the German Confederation.

As was common in Protestant parts of Germany, the constitution placed the church under state control. The Lutheran and Reformed churches agreed to unite into the single Protestant Church in Nassau in 1817, at the Unionskirche in Idstein, making it the first united Protestant church in the German Confederation. Even in 1804 there was an effort to establish a Catholic diocese of Nassau, but it was only in 1821 that the Duchy of Nassau and the Holy See came to an agreement on the establishment of the diocese of Limburg, which was formally established in 1827. Alongside the actual church policy, there were other points of interaction between state politics and ecclesiastical matters.

Whatever interest Gutzkow's novel might have attracted from its own merits was enhanced by the action of the German federal diet, which condemned Gutzkow to three months' imprisonment, decreed the suppression of all he had written or might yet write, and prohibited him from exercising the functions of editor within the German confederation. During his term of imprisonment at Mannheim, Gutzkow wrote his treatise Zur Philosophie der Geschichte (1836). On obtaining his freedom he returned to Frankfurt, whence he went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a new epoch of his literary activity by bringing out his tragedy Richard Savage (1839), which immediately made the round of all the German theatres.

The Hanoverian and Hessian troops systematically destroyed the railways during their retreat, while Falckenstein delayed in pursuing them, preferring instead to let his troops rest in Hanover. He eventually directed his three divisions to Göttingen, even after learning that Austria's allies had abandoned the city. Moltke ordered Falckenstein to finish off the Hanoverian army, but Falckenstein wanted to let a lack of supplies force Major General Friedrich von Arentschildt and King George V of Hanover to surrender. After losing contact with the Hanoverians on 22 June and upon the advice of Otto von Bismarck, Falckenstein began marching south to Frankfurt to prevent a union of the disorganized forces of the German Confederation.

The French emperor, Napoleon, forced the Emperor of Austria to step down as Holy Roman Emperor in 1806. Some of the German countries were then collected into the Confederation of the Rhine, which remained a military alliance under the "protection" of Napoleon, rather than consolidating into an actual confederation. After the fall of Napoleon in 1815, these states created a German Confederation with the Emperor of Austria as president. Some member states, such as Prussia and Austria, included only a part of their territories within the confederation, while other member states brought territories to the alliance that included people, like the Poles and the Czechs, who did not speak German as their native tongue.

As early as 1814-15, when the establishment of the German Confederation was still being discussed, Baron vom Stein had demanded a German emperor as head of the federation. Up to 34 smaller and medium-sized states followed suit. But the disunity between Prussia and Austria, as well as that between the other larger states, meant that this was not realised, either in the form of an emperor or of a directorate (Direktorium) or committee (Deutscher Ausschuss) made up of the five largest states. As Stein explained to the Russian Tsar in a memorandum on 17 February 1815, Austria was to appoint the German Emperor in order to bind it firmly to Germany.

Following the ultimate collapse of the First French Empire with the fall of Napoleon, conservative elements took control in Europe, led by the Austrian noble Klemens von Metternich, ideals of the balance of power between the great powers of Europe dominated continental politics of the first half of the 19th century. Following the Congress of Vienna, and subsequent Concert of Europe system, several major empires took control of European politics. Among these were the Russian Empire, the restored French monarchy, the German Confederation, under the dominance of Prussia, the Austrian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. The conservative forces held sway until the Revolutions of 1848 swept across Europe and threatened the old order.

The Second Schleswig War had resulted from Denmark's November Constitution, passed in 1863, which integrated the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg with Denmark, a violation of the London Protocol that had ended the First Schleswig War. The crisis between Denmark and the German Confederation erupted into open conflict on 1 February 1864, after the Prussian and Austrian Empires delivered an ultimatum to Denmark to cede the disputed duchies to Austro-Prussian control. At the time, the Danish fleet was far superior to the Prussian naval forces available, which allowed the Danes to blockade the German coast. To assist the Prussians, the Austrian Navy sent Kommodore Wilhelm von Tegetthoff with the screw frigates and to break the Danish blockade.

There, the Austrian ships were trapped, as the Italian forces outnumbered them two-to-one. But the Italian fleet was prevented from pressing the attack on the Austrian fleet, as Trieste was located in the part of Austria that was included in the German Confederation and the Frankfurt Parliament informed the Sardinians and Neapolitans that an attack on Trieste would be treated as an attack on the Confederation. The Neapolitans were withdrawn after a revolt toppled their government, prompting the Sardinians to send every available vessel of their fleet to reinforce the Italian squadron. By now, the Sardinian contingent consisted of four frigates, two corvettes, two brigs, and eight steamships, commanded by Vice Admiral Giuseppe Albini.

With the end of the Provisional Central Power (Provisorische Zentralgewalt) of the Frankfurt National Assembly in December 1849, the first Naval Department dissolved and authority in naval matters again came under the sovereignty of individual members of the German Confederation. A Royal Naval Division (Königliche Marine-Abteilung ) was established in Berlin, as a department of the Prussian Minister of War, with Lieutenant Colonel von Wangenheim Bogun as head in the years 1848-1853. He administered the Prussian Navy under the Naval High Command (Oberkommando der Marine). Then, on 14 November 1853 by a Prussian royal cabinet order (König Kabinettsordre) the Naval Division was combined into an Admiralty Council (Admiralität), which would provide united command and administrative authority.

Her father Count Fyodor Rostopchin was lieutenant- general and, later, Minister of Foreign Affairs for Russia. In 1812, he was governor of Moscow during the invasion of the Grande Armée under Napoleon I of France. While facts concerning the origin of the great fire of Moscow are disputed by historians, Sophie Rostopchine's father has been said by some to have organized (despite opposition from the wealthy property-owners in the city) the great fire which forced Napoleon to make a disastrous retreat. In 1814 the Rostopchine family left Imperial Russia for exile, going first to the Duchy of Warsaw, then to the German Confederation and the Italian peninsula and finally in 1817 to France under the Bourbon Restoration.

In 1816, the part of the former French Département which is known today as Rhenish Hesse () was awarded to the Hesse-Darmstadt, Mainz being the capital of the new Hessian province of Rhenish Hesse. From 1816 to 1866, to the German Confederation Mainz was the most important fortress in the defence against France, and had a strong garrison of Austrian, Prussian and Bavarian troops. In the afternoon of 18 November 1857, a huge explosion rocked Mainz when the city's powder magazine, the Pulverturm, exploded. Approximately 150 people were killed and at least 500 injured; 57 buildings were destroyed and a similar number severely damaged in what was to be known as the Powder Tower Explosion or Powder Explosion.

The Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France. Napoleon III and Bismarck after the Battle of Sedan The Franco-Prussian War was a conflict between France and Prussia, while Prussia was backed up by the North German Confederation, of which it was a member, and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. The complete Prussian and German victory brought about the final unification of Germany under King Wilhelm I of Prussia. It also marked the downfall of Napoleon III and the end of the Second French Empire, which was replaced by the Third Republic.

On 5 May 1814 he resigned from the Russian Army, and after attending the Congress of Vienna, was given the rank of a major-general in the Prussian Army on 24 May. He was a member of the commission which reorganized the Prussian Cadet Corps, and was responsible for the military education of the future Wilhelm I. He also joined the reformatory Gesetzlose Gesellschaft zu Berlin. In 1818, he was sent by Frederick William III of Prussia to serve as his country's plenipotentiary in the Military Commission of the German Confederation, which directed the union's armed forces. He remained in this position until his retirement, at the rank of general, on 12 March 1836.

Flag Chef der Admiralität Prussian warship, circa 1867 The German Imperial Admiralty () was an imperial naval authority in the German Empire. By order of Kaiser Wilhelm I the Northern German Federal Navy Department of the North German Confederation (1866–71), which had been formed from the Prussian Navy Department (Marineministerium), became on 1 January 1872 the German Imperial Admiralty (Kaiserliche Admiralität). The head of the Admiralty (Chef der Admiralität) administered the Imperial Navy under the authority of the imperial chancellor and the supreme command of the Emperor (Kaiserliche Kommandogewalt). It lasted until 1889, undergoing several reorganizations, but proved an impractical arrangement given the constant growth and the expansion of the Imperial Navy.

Understandably, Prussia was indignant at this increasing French meddling in the affairs of Germany (without its involvement or even consultation) and viewed it as a threat. Napoleon had previously attempted to ameliorate Prussian anxieties by assuring Prussia he was not adverse to its heading a North German Confederation, but his duplicity regarding Hanover dashed this. A final spark leading to war was the summary arrest and execution of German nationalist Johann Philipp Palm in August 1806 for publishing a pamphlet which strongly attacked Napoleon and the conduct of his army occupying Germany. After giving Napoleon an ultimatum on 1 October 1806, Prussia (supported by Saxony) finally decided to contend militarily with the French Emperor.

Nevertheless Rotteck's judgement on the questions of the day still had great influence, especially after he founded his organ, the Allgemeine politischen Annalen, where he commented on all worldly affairs from his pulpit of the liberal point of view. His theories, sometimes growing wildly from the foundations of rational law, expressly justified revolution as long as it didn't formally conflict with rational law. These ideas seemed to the authorities of the German Confederation to begin to become dangerous as he started to mint them in the small change of political agitation in articles in The Independent () which was targeted at the public at large. He had founded this journal in 1832 in Freiburg in cooperation with Carl Welcker.

Peter Kosler's map of the Slovene Lands, designed during the Spring of Nations in 1848, became the symbol of United Slovenia. United Slovenia ( or ) is the name of an unrealized political programme of the Slovene national movement, formulated during the Spring of Nations in 1848. The programme demanded (a) unification of all the Slovene-inhabited areas into one single kingdom under the rule of the Austrian Empire, (b) equal rights of the Slovene language in public, and (c) strongly opposed the planned integration of the Habsburg Monarchy with the German Confederation. The programme failed to meet its main objectives, but it remained the common political program of all currents within the Slovene national movement until World War I.

Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia (1712–86) Germany, or more exactly the old Holy Roman Empire, in the 18th century entered a period of decline that would finally lead to the dissolution of the Empire during the Napoleonic Wars. Since the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the Empire had been fragmented into numerous independent states (Kleinstaaterei). In 1701, Elector Frederick of Brandenburg was crowned "King in Prussia". From 1713 to 1740, King Frederick William I, also known as the "Soldier King", established a highly centralized state. The term German dualism describes the long conflict between the two largest German states Austria and Prussia from 1740 to 1866 when Prussia finally forced Austria out of the German Confederation.

William I is proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles, France (painting by Anton von Werner) The title was carefully chosen by Otto von Bismarck, Minister President of Prussia and Chancellor of the North German Confederation, after discussion which continued until the proclamation of King William I of Prussia as emperor at the Palace of Versailles during the Siege of Paris. William accepted this title grudgingly on 18 January, having preferred "Emperor of Germany" (). However, that would have signaled a territorial sovereignty unacceptable to the South German monarchs, as well as a claim to lands outside his reign (Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg, etc.).Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789.

Wilcken left Holstein, then ruled as a Duchy by the King of Denmark as Duke of Saxony, while a member of the German Confederation, A History of Modern Europe: 1815-1900 Thomas Henry Dyer, Arthur Hassall; G. Bell and sons; 1901 page 114 in 1857, ahead of his wife Eliza Christina Carolina Reiche Wilcken (1830-1906) and two small children. He planned to emigrate to Argentina to join his brothers there; however, while waiting in London to sail, he ran out of funds and could only afford to go to New York City. Wilcken's family joined him in the U.S. in 1860. Wilcken eventually had three additional wives and fathered 18 children.

Victor de Tornaco, Prime Minister 1860-1867 The Tornaco Ministry was in office in Luxembourg from 26 September 1860 until 3 December 1867. It was reshuffled six times. The government of Victor de Tornaco saw several important developments in international politics, such as the dissolution of the German Confederation in 1866 after the Austro-Prussian war, and an attempt by Napoleon III to purchase Luxembourg off William III of the Netherlands, which was prevented by Otto von Bismarck. A solution to this crisis was found in London, and made official in the Second Treaty of London: the Prussian garrison had to withdraw, the fortress of Luxembourg was demolished and Luxembourg was declared neutral and independent.

Journalism in the German Confederation during the 1830s was governed by press laws. All publications up to twenty printed pages had to be submitted to the censor, and incurred a stamp tax which was calibrated so as to limit discussion of political matters as far as possible. The way in which the Pfennig-Magazin restricted itself to subjects such as ethnology, archaeology, art history, religious, technical and natural history themes was based not on some conception of what was appropriate for popular education, but on the desire to minimise taxes driven by items on current affairs and politics. During the 1840s the appearance of rival illustrated magazines forced the Pfennig-Magazin to adapt itself to changes in consumer taste.

In the end, however, Austria, which was seen as the natural ally of the princes, was more interested in alliance with the medium-sized German states like Württemberg than in asserting its traditional role as protector of the smaller sovereigns of the old Empire; and Frederick was allowed to retain his dubiously acquired lands. Frederick, along with the other German princes, joined the new German Confederation in 1815. He died in Stuttgart in October of the next year. When he became King, he granted his children and further male-line descendants the titles Princes and Princesses of Württemberg with the style Royal Highness, and he styled his siblings as Royal Highnesses with the titles Dukes and Duchesses of Württemberg.

The history of Austria covers the history of Austria and its predecessor states, from the early Stone Age to the present state. The name Ostarrîchi (Austria) has been in use since 996 AD when it was a margravate of the Duchy of Bavaria and from 1156 an independent duchy (later archduchy) of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (Heiliges Römisches Reich 962–1806). Austria was dominated by the House of Habsburg and House of Habsburg-Lorraine (Haus Österreich) from 1273 to 1918. In 1808, when Emperor Francis II of Austria dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, Austria became the Austrian Empire, and was also part of the German Confederation until the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.

Germania, possibly by Philipp Veit, hung inside the Frankfurt parliament, the first national parliament in German history The German revolutions of 1848–49 (), the opening phase of which was also called the March Revolution (), were initially part of the Revolutions of 1848 that broke out in many European countries. They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the Austrian Empire. The revolutions, which stressed pan-Germanism, demonstrated popular discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic political structure of the thirty-nine independent states of the Confederation that inherited the German territory of the former Holy Roman Empire. This process began in the mid 1840s.

The Imperial Free City of Trieste and its Suburbs was a Holy Roman Empire possession from the 14th century to 1806, called in German as Reichsunmittelbare Stadt Triest und ihr Gebiet and in Italian as Città Imperiale di Trieste e Dintorni. In 1719 it was declared a free port by Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor; the construction of the Austrian Southern Railway (1841–57) turned it into a bustling seaport, through which much of the exports and imports of the Austrian Lands were channelled. Trieste was part of the Holy Roman Empire and, later, of the German Confederation and the Austrian Littoral. The city administration and economy were dominated by the city's Italian population element; Italian was the language of administration and jurisdiction.

In 1849-1850 he was compelled to bring Saxony into the "three kings' union" of Prussia, Hanover and Saxony, but he was careful to keep open a loophole for withdrawal, of which he speedily availed himself. In the crisis of the Erfurt Union, Saxony was on the side of Austria, and he supported the restoration of the diet of the German Confederation. In 1854 he took part in the Bamberg conferences, in which the smaller German states claimed the right to direct their own policy independently of Austria or of Prussia, and he was the leading supporter of the idea of the Trias, i.e., that the smaller states should form a closer union among themselves against the preponderance of the great monarchies.

The Congress of Vienna awarded the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg to the King of the Netherlands in personal union, as his private property, though it also became part of the German Confederation. King William I therefore became King-Grand Duke. He, however, administered Luxembourg essentially as part of the Netherlands, and Luxembourg was represented in the Dutch Estates-General from 1816. In the Belgian Revolution of 1830, the southern provinces of the Netherlands split off to become the Kingdom of Belgium; many Luxembourgers wished to become part of this new Belgian state as well. In the 1839 Treaty of London, however, a compromise was found: the large French-speaking part of Luxembourg became part of Belgium, as the province of Luxembourg.

In the winter and spring of 1864, when the German Confederation invaded and occupied the German-speaking provinces of Denmark (Schleswig and Holstein), Napoleon III recognized the threat that a unified Germany would pose to France, and he looked for allies to challenge Germany, without success. The British government was suspicious that Napoleon wanted to take over Belgium and Luxembourg, felt secure with its powerful navy, and did not want any military engagements on the European continent at the side of the French. The Russian government was also suspicious of Napoleon, whom it believed had encouraged Polish nationalists to rebel against Russian rule in 1863. Bismarck and Prussia, on the other hand, had offered assistance to Russia to help crush the Polish patriots.

The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the War of 1870, was a conflict between the Second French Empire (and later, the Third French Republic) and the German states of the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. Lasting from 19 July 1871, the conflict was caused primarily by France's determination to restore its dominant position in continental Europe, which it had lost following Prussia's crushing victory over Austria in 1866.Éric Anceau, "Aux origines de la Guerre de 1870", in France-Allemagne(s) 1870-1871. La guerre, la Commune, les mémoires, (under the direction of Mathilde Benoistel, Sylvie Le Ray-Burimi, Christophe Pommier) Gallimard-Musée de l'Armée, 2017, p. 49–50.

Six other major states had one vote each in the Federal Assembly: the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Kingdom of Saxony, the Kingdom of , the Electorate of Hesse, the Grand Duchy of Baden, and the Grand Duchy of Hesse. Three member states were ruled by foreign monarchs: the King of Denmark as Duke of the Duchy of Holstein and Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg; the King of the Netherlands as Grand Duke of Luxembourg and Duke of the Duchy of Limburg; and the King of Great Britain (until 1837) as King of Hanover were members of the German Confederation. Each of them had a vote in the Federal Assembly. The four free cities of , , , and shared one vote in the Federal Assembly.

When the military alliance of the North German Confederation was reorganised as a federal state with effect from July 1, 1867, the office of a Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler) was implemented at Berlin and staffed with the Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck. After the unification of Germany on January 18, 1871 by accession of the South German states, Bismarck became Reich Chancellor of the new German Empire. In 1869 the Prussian state government had acquired the Rococo city palace of late Prince Radziwiłł on Wilhelmstraße No. 77 (former "Palais Schulenburg"), which from 1875 was refurbished as the official building of the Chancellery. It was inaugurated with the meetings of the Berlin Congress in July 1878, followed by the Congo Conference in 1884.

At the beginning of the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states the battalion, among other units, fought the riots in Berlin on 18 March 1848. While Karl August Varnhagen von Ense reported about fraternisations between riflemen and revolutionaries in his Journal der Märzrevolution, there is no other evidence for this. After that day the battalion was withdrawn from the city. Captain de Gélieu, commanding the 4th Company of the Guards Rifles, welcoming William I of Prussia after the fighting at Lípa, 1866 (Battle painting by Carl Röchling) During the First Schleswig War 1848–1849 the battalion fought for the German Confederation near Schleswig (23 April), during the bombardment of Fredericia (8 May) and near Vester Sottrup/Horsens (5 June).

He praised the "remarkable character" of Hanoverian men and likewise commended Hanoverian society as having "an instinctive preference for hierarchy" with the commoners always deferring to the nobility, which he explained on racial grounds. Reflecting his lifelong interest in the Orient, Gobineau joined the Société Asiatique in 1852 and got to know several French Orientalists, like Julius von Mohl, very well. In January 1854, Gobineau was sent as First Secretary to the French legation at the Free City of Frankfurt. Of the Federal Convention of the German Confederation that sat in Frankfurt—also known as the "Confederation Diet"—Gobineau wrote: "The Diet is a business office for the German bureaucracy—it is very far from being a real political body".

The Military Merit Cross (Militärverdienstkreuz) was established by Friedrich Franz II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin on August 5, 1848. Mecklenburg- Schwerin, a grand duchy located in northern Germany, was a member of the German Confederation and later the German Empire. In several respects, Mecklenburg-Schwerin's Military Merit Cross was patterned after the Prussian Iron Cross. Both came in two classes, a pinback 1st Class and a 2nd Class worn from a ribbon, both were awarded without regard to rank (most other orders and medals of both states were awarded in different classes based on the rank or status of the recipient), and both were awarded for specific campaigns, as indicated by a date on the bottom arm of the cross.

In many cases Japan was effectively forced into a system of extraterritoriality that provided for the subjugation of foreign residents to the laws of their own consular courts instead of the Japanese law system, open up ports for trade, and later even allow Christian missionaries to enter the country. Shortly after the end of Japan's seclusion, in a period called "Bakumatsu" (幕末, "End of the Shogunate"), the first German traders arrived in Japan. In 1860 Count Friedrich Albrecht zu Eulenburg led the Eulenburg Expedition to Japan as ambassador from Prussia, a leading regional state in the German Confederation at that time. After four months of negotiations, another "unequal treaty", officially dedicated to amity and commerce, was signed in January 1861 between Prussia and Japan.

Karl Baedeker writing in 1864 stated that Mainz was amongst the strongest fortresses of the German Confederation. It was surrounded by a threefold line of fortifications: first ring, the chief rampart consisting of 14 bastions comprising the citadel; second ring, a line of advanced forts, connected by glacis; third ring, by still more advanced entrenchments, erected partly by the Prussian, partly by the Austrian engineers, of which the principal were the Weisenauer Lager, the Hartenberg, and the Binger Thurm. On the north side of the town stood a vast Military Hospital, facing the Schlossplatz. In time of peace the garrison consisted of 3,000 Prussian, and a similar number of Austrian troops; in time of war the number of soldiers could be trebled.

Livonius became a naval cadet, on 7 December 1848 in Stettin. He attended Stettin Naval School. During the Second Schleswig War 1864 he was Kapitänleutnant and First Officer on the Prussian frigate . At the naval action off Jasmund (Isle of Rügen) on 17 March 1864, he was wounded and conferred with the Order of the Red Eagle. In 1866 Prussia became part of the North German Confederation, the navy officially became that of the confederation and Livonius joined the new institution. In 1869 he was Commander of . During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 he commanded the warship . At the outbreak of the war Arminius was stationed in Kiel, but Captain Livonius managed to break through the French blockade by hugging the Swedish coast.

This knight has later been identified with Saint George, then considered to be the patron of Dithmarschen. The conquerors – King Frederick II, Duke Adolf, and Duke John II the Elder – divided Dithmarschen into two parts: the south became a part of Holstein in personal union with Denmark while the north came into the possession of the other Duke of Holstein. From 1773 all of Holstein was united in personal union with Denmark and remained so until 1864, when, following the Second Schleswig War, the Duchies of Holstein and of Schleswig became an occupied territory of the German Confederation. Two years later, following the Austro-Prussian War, Dithmarschen became part of the Kingdom of Prussia, which annexed Holstein and Schleswig making them subsequently the Province of Schleswig-Holstein.

Ernest II (German: Ernst August Karl Johann Leopold Alexander Eduard; 21 June 181822 August 1893) was the sovereign duke of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha from 29 January 1844 to his death. He was born in Coburg; his father Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, became Duke Ernest I of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1826 through an exchange of territories. In 1842, Ernest married Princess Alexandrine of Baden in what was to be a childless marriage. As reigning Duke, he supported the German Confederation in the Schleswig-Holstein Wars against Denmark, sending thousands of troops and becoming the commander of a German corps; as such, he was instrumental in the 1849 victory at the battle of Eckernförde against Danish forces.

Half of the real estate in the district belonged to the Prince of Pless; the Hohenlohes owned much of the rest. who had represented the constituency of the districts of Pless and Rybnik in the North German parliament of the North German Confederation, ran in the first election to the Imperial German Reichstag in 1871, Hans Heinrich XI, Prince of Pless, endorsed him, and was able to enlist even the constabulary, servants of the Prussian state, as election workers; he also threatened the economic well- being of those who opposed his candidate. But the Prince's power was not absolute; the opposition candidate, the "already semi-canonized" Father Eduard Müller, a priest born in Quilitz near Glogau who was active as Catholic missionary in Protestant Berlin, won anyway.

The National Liberal Party (, NLP) was a liberal party of the North German Confederation and the German Empire which flourished between 1867 and 1918. During the Prussian-led unification of Germany, the National Liberals became the dominant party in the Reichstag parliament. While supporting the common ideals of liberalism and nationalism, the party contained two wings which reflected the conflicting claims of its Hegelian and idealistic heritage; one which emphasized the power of the state through the Nationalstaat, and the other which emphasized the civil liberties of the Rechtsstaat. Although this cleavage later proved fatal for its unity, the National Liberals managed to remain the pivotal party in the decades after unification by cooperating with both the Progressives and the Free Conservatives on various issues.

As Minister to France, Washburne played a major diplomatic and humanitarian role during the Franco-Prussian War.David McCullough, The Greater Journey: Americans in Paris, Simon & Schuster, 2011, This was the first major war in which all belligerents appointed protecting powers to represent their interests in enemy capitals, and the United States agreed to be the protecting power for the North German Confederation and several of the German states. Washburne arranged for railroad transportation to evacuate 30,000 German civilians who had been living in France, and was responsible for feeding 3,000 Germans during the Siege of Paris. Although the State Department gave him permission to evacuate the American Legation at his discretion, Washburne chose to remain in Paris throughout the war and the Commune of Paris.

All used the same design - a combined coat of arms of the Free Cities of Lübeck and Hamburg (the two city states which were the sovereign lords over the Bi-Urban Condominium) - but the higher values were larger stamps. All values were printed in black on different coloured papers, except for the 3s stamp, which was printed in blue on pink paper. With Lübeck's sale of its share in the condominium to Hamburg in 1867 the territory was integrated into the adjacent city state of Hamburg as the Rural Seigniory of Bergedorf and the separate Bi- Urban Mail became part of Hamburg's postal service without any more separate stamps. Hamburg, including its Rural Seigniory of Bergedorf began using stamps of the North German Confederation in 1868.

Publication in the Reich Law Gazette on August 24, 1896 The introduction in France of the Napoleonic code in 1804 created in Germany a similar desire for obtaining a civil code (despite the opposition of the Historical School of Law of Friedrich Carl von Savigny), which would systematize and unify the various heterogeneous laws that were in effect in the country. However, the realization of such an attempt during the life of the German Confederation was difficult because the appropriate legislative body did not exist. In 1871, most of the various German states were united into the German Empire. In the beginning, civil law legislative power was held by the individual states, not the Empire (Reich) that was composed of those states.

Long Market in Danzig in 1906 St. Mary's Church circa 1920 In 1816 about 70 percent of the populace were Lutheran, 23.6 percent Catholics, the share of Catholics would grow to 33 percent in 1910. With the Industrial Revolution and the steam engine trains, industrial machinery and Ferdinand Schichau's Schichau-Werke company gained the upper hand for Elbing over Danzig. Schichau later constructed a large shipyard in Danzig as well, however. From 1824 until 1878, East and West Prussia were combined as a single province within the Prussian Kingdom. As a part of Prussia Danzig was a member of the Zollverein and elected its representatives to the German National Assembly of 1848, but lay outside of the borders of the 1815–1866 German Confederation.

His Essai historique et politique sur la révolution belge (1838) won for him the praise of Palmerston and the cross of the Legion of Honor from French king Louis Philippe. In 1837 he became minister of public works, and to him was largely due the rapid development of the Belgian railway system, and the increase in the mining industry. In 1840 he was sent as Belgian envoy to the German Confederation, and in 1841, on the fall of the Lebeau ministry, he organized the new cabinet, reserving for himself the portfolio of minister of the interior. In 1845 he was defeated, and retired from the Belgian Parliament, but he held a number of diplomatic appointments before his death in Berlin.

After the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Prussian-led unification of Germany under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1871, Austria had to abandon its claim to leadership and thereafter used to refer to the lands of Austria-Hungary in the Danube basin. In Austria, the concept evolved as an alternative to the German question, equivalent to an amalgamation of the states of the German Confederation and the multi-ethnic Austrian Empire under the firm leadership of the Habsburg dynasty. Political and ethnic visions of a began to dominate in Germany. After the Revolutions of 1848 liberal theorists like Friedrich List and Heinrich von Gagern, socialists and then later groups like the German National Liberal Party would adopt the idea.

Born sometime between 1800 and 1810, Grigore Alexandru was a member of the Ghica family of boyars, and a descendant of Phanariotes. After being educated in France and the German Confederation, he returned to his native country and rallied with the nationalist and liberal opposition to Prince Mihail Sturdza under the Regulamentul Organic regime."Ghika, Grégoire", in Nouvelle biographie générale depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours, Tome 20, Firmin Didot, Paris, 1857, p. 394 Following the 1848 Revolution and Sturdza's deposition, despite his political choices, with Russia's approval, the Moldavian Divan appointed Ghica as ruler for a seven-year term (recognition from the Ottoman Empire, the country's other overseer, was obtained through the Convention of Balta Liman).

However, regional mobility was low, especially in the countryside, which generally did not attract newcomers, but experienced rural exodus, so that today's denominational make-up in Germany and Switzerland still represents the former boundaries among territories ruled by Calvinist, Catholic, or Lutheran rulers in the 16th century quite well. In a major departure, the legislature of the North German Confederation instituted the right of irreligionism in 1869, permitting the declaration of secession from all religious bodies. The Protestant Church in Germany was and is divided into geographic regions and along denominational affiliations (Calvinist, Lutheran, and United churches). In the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, the then- existing monarchies and republics established regional churches (Landeskirchen), comprising the respective congregations within the then- existing state borders.

A German caricature mocking the Carlsbad Decrees, which suppressed freedom of expression Several other factors complicated the rise of nationalism in the German states. The man-made factors included political rivalries between members of the German confederation, particularly between the Austrians and the Prussians, and socio-economic competition among the commercial and merchant interests and the old land- owning and aristocratic interests. Natural factors included widespread drought in the early 1830s, and again in the 1840s, and a food crisis in the 1840s. Further complications emerged as a result of a shift in industrialization and manufacturing; as people sought jobs, they left their villages and small towns to work during the week in the cities, returning for a day and a half on weekends.

The idea of including the Austrian Empire into a German nation-state was a problem because it included many non-German ethnic groups and many areas which had never been part of the Holy Roman Empire or the later German Federations and did not want to become part of a German nation-state. In 1866, the feud between Austria and Prussia finally came to a head. In the final battle of the German war (Battle of Königgrätz) the Prussians defeated the Austrians and proceeded to create the North German Confederation with some south German states, including Austria, remaining independent. In 1870, after France attacked Prussia, Prussia and its new allies in Southern Germany (among them Bavaria but excluding Austria) were victorious in the Franco-Prussian War.

During this war and other conflicts, the city belonged at various times to the Austrians, the French, the Swedes, the Spaniards, and various members of the German Confederation. Between 1648 and 1805, when the city was not under French occupation it was the administrative headquarters of Further Austria, the Habsburg territories in the southwest of Germany. In 1805, the city, together with the Breisgau and Ortenau areas, became part of Baden. In 1827, when the Archdiocese of Freiburg was founded, Freiburg became the seat of a Catholic archbishop. The Martinstor, one of the original city gates in Freiburg On 22 October 1940, the Nazi Gauleiter of Baden, Robert Heinrich Wagner, ordered the deportation of all of Baden's and 350 of Freiburg's Jewish population.

Memorial stone to the Ems Dispatch in Bad Ems The Ems Dispatch (, ), sometimes called the Ems Telegram, was published on 13 July 1870 and incited the Second French Empire to start the Franco-Prussian War and to declare war on the Kingdom of Prussia on 19 July 1870. The actual dispatch was an internal message from Prussian King Wilhelm I's vacationing site to Otto von Bismarck in Berlin, reporting demands made by the French ambassador. Bismarck, the chancellor (head of government) of the North German Confederation, released a statement to the press that stirred up emotions in France and Germany. The name referred to Bad Ems, a resort spa east of Koblenz on the Lahn river, then in Hesse-Nassau, a new possession of Prussia.

Prime Minister Bismarck, 1862 Bismarck's negotiation skills had apparently been underestimated by Blome. Though Prussia benefitted from the treaty, the minister-president noted that the 'bonding of cracks' did not answer the German question nor did it ease the Austria–Prussia rivalry. Moreover the treaty ran counter to the legal basis of the German Confederation, which led to the refusal by the smaller Confederation states and turned out detrimental to the reputation especially of the Austrian side. The European powers reacted strongly, the French emperor Napoleon III responded with protest, while the British saw their interests in the North Sea as threatened; the treaty was nevertheless appreciated by Russia in view of her enmity with Austria after the Crimean War.

When Goethe visited his native city for the last time in 1815, he encouraged the councilmen with the words: "A free spirit befits a free city…..It befits Frankfurt to shine in all directions and to be active in all directions." The city took good heed of this advice. When in 1831 Arthur Schopenhauer, a lecturer at the time, moved from Berlin to Frankfurt, he justified it with the lines: "Healthy climate, beautiful surroundings, the amenities of large cities, the Natural History Museum, better theater, opera, and concerts, more Englishman, better coffee houses, no bad water… and a better dentist." In 1833 a revolutionary movement attempted to topple the Diet of the royalist German Confederation, which sat at Frankfurt, and was quickly put down.

Historians debate whether Bismarck wanted this annexation or was forced into it by a wave of German public and elite opinion. France was also required to pay an indemnity; the indemnity figure was calculated, on the basis of population, as the precise equivalent of the indemnity that Napoleon I had imposed on Prussia in 1807. Historians debate whether Bismarck had a master plan to expand the North German Confederation of 1866 to include the remaining independent German states into a single entity or simply to expand the power of the Kingdom of Prussia. They conclude that factors in addition to the strength of Bismarck's Realpolitik led a collection of early modern polities to reorganize political, economic, military, and diplomatic relationships in the 19th century.

These analyses of William Shakespeare's heroines are remarkable for their delicacy of critical insight and fineness of literary touch. They are the result of an incisive, essentially feminine mind, applied to the study of individuals of its own sex, detecting characteristics and defining differences not perceived by the ordinary critic and entirely overlooked by the general reader. German literature and art had aroused much interest in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and Jameson paid her first visit to the German Confederation in 1833. The conglomerations of hard lines, cold colours and pedantic subjects which decorated Munich under the patronage of King Ludwig I of Bavaria, were new to the world, and Jameson's enthusiasm first gave them an English reputation.

Frankfurt was the seat of the Provisorische Zentralgewalt of the Frankfurt Parliament and of the Federal Assembly of the German Confederation The practical tasks of the Provisional Central Power were performed by a cabinet, consisting of a college of ministers under the leadership of a prime minister (Ministerpräsident). At the same time, the Provisional Central Power undertook to create a government apparatus, made up of specialized ministries and special envoys, employing, for financial reasons, mainly deputies of the assembly. The goal was to have a functional administration in place at the time of the Constitution's passage. Whatever form the final government of united Germany was to take would be defined by the Constitution, and necessary changes to the Provisional Central Power would be made accordingly.

He went on conducting the business affairs of his father's estate at Rosenau near Zwettl in the rural Waldviertel region of Lower Austria, where he became known as a generous patriarch of the local peasants and great benefactor. Shaken by the Austrian defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, the dissolution of the German Confederation and the foundation of the German Empire in 1871, young Schönerer became a political activist and ardent admirer of the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Indeed, Schönerer wrote passionately admiring letters to Bismarck, and continued doing so even after Bismarck made it clear that he rejected any sort of Austrian-German nationalism and would not allow the pan-Germans in Austria to jeopardize the Dual Alliance.

By 1811, all of the Imperial Cities had lost their independence — Augsburg and Nuremberg had been annexed by Bavaria, Frankfurt had become the center of the Grand Duchy of Frankfurt, a Napoleonic puppet state, and the three Hanseatic cities had been directly annexed by France as part of its effort to enforce the Continental Blockade against Britain. Hamburg and Lübeck with surrounding territories formed the département of , and Bremen the . When the German Confederation was established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen, and Frankfurt were once again made Free Cities, this time enjoying total sovereignty as all the members of the loose Confederation. Frankfurt was annexed by Prussia in consequence of the part it took in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.

On 20 September 1819 Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich called a meeting of representatives from across the German Confederation to create the Carlsbad Decrees which outlawed the Burschenschaften and put limits on freedom of the press and the rights of members of such organizations, banning them from public office, teaching or studying at universities.Full text of Carlsbad Decrees Alexandre Dumas, père wrote about Sand's life and published excerpts from his journals and letters in Karl Ludwig Sand,Karl Ludwig Sand by Alexandre Dumas, père part of Celebrated Crimes.Celebrated Crimes, Alexandre Dumas, père Prior to writing his story, Dumas visited Widmann's son in Mannheim in 1838 to gather information about Sand's character. Alexander Pushkin also memorialized Sand in his poem about assassins entitled "Kinzhal" (The Dagger).

In the wake of this call there were republicanist motivated uprisings, for example in the Kingdom of Saxony (May Uprising in Dresden), in the then Bavarian Palatinate (Palatine Uprising), in the Prussian provinces of Westphalia (1847 Iserlohn Uprising) and Rhineland (the Storming of the Zeughaus in Prüm and the Elberfeld Uprising of May 1849) and especially in the Grand Duchy of Baden (see Baden Revolution) where, for a short time, a republic was proclaimed. With the military defeat of this last rebellion, primarily by Prussian troops, the March Revolution of 1848/1849 in the states of the German Confederation finally ended on 23 July 1849 with the capture of Rastatt Fortress, the last bastion of the Baden revolutionaries, by federal forces under Prussian leadership.

Archiepiscopal residence, postcard, In 1866, the Austrian Empire had lost the war against Prussia ending the German Confederation, followed by the foundation of the German Empire in 1871. In turn, the Habsburg emperor Francis Joseph I concentrated on strength and displays of power in his eastern crown lands. Plans for a Germanophone university were modelled on the 1872 establishment of the Straßburg Kaiser- Wilhelms-Universität, named after German Emperor William I, in annexed Alsace- Lorraine. After the Lviv University had declared Polish teaching language in 1871, a Bukovina committee led by the jurist and liberal politician Constantin Tomashchuk (1840–1889), a member of the Imperial Council, called for the foundation of a German college in multilingual Czernowitz about "beyond" Vienna.

The movement of the March revolution within the member states of the German Confederation led to the election of Frankfurt Assembly, the first all-German parliament. This parliament proclaimed the Constitution of St. Paul's Church on 28 March 1849 that provided for the state as a hereditary constitutional monarchy. The Prussian king Frederick William IV refused the imperial crown that he was offered. On 23 April, the Bavarian king and his government rejected the constitution, which was regarded by the left as a coup. On 2 May, it was decided to set up a ten-member National Committee for the Defence and Implementation of the Constitution and on 7 May 1849 the representative of the Central Power for the Palatinate, Bernhard Eisenstuck, legitimized the National Defence Committee.

Hesse-Homburg joined the German Confederation as a sovereign state on July 7, 1817. The Landgraviate was the only principality that was not one of the founding members of the Confederation, apart from the Duchy of Limburg ruled by the King of the Netherlands (added in 1839) and the Duchy of Schleswig (1848-1851) ruled by the Danish king. On 24 March 1866, Hesse-Homburg was inherited by the grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, while Meisenheim fell to Prussia. On 20 September of that same year, these territories were taken from Hesse-Darmstadt again, and the former landgraviate was combined with the Electorate of Hesse- Kassel, duchy of Nassau, and the free city of Frankfurt to form the Prussian Province of Hesse-Nassau.

The constitution of the German Empire was essentially an amended version of the constitution of the North German Confederation. However, the seeds for future problems lay in a gross disparity between the imperial and Prussian systems. The empire granted the vote to all men over 25. However, Prussia retained its restrictive three-class voting system, in which the well- to-do had 17½ times the voting power of the rest of the population. Since the imperial chancellor was, except for two periods (January–November 1873 and 1892–94) also prime minister of Prussia, this meant that for most of the empire's existence, the king/emperor and prime minister/chancellor had to seek majorities from legislatures elected by two completely different franchises.

Petre joined the Diplomatic Service in 1846 as an attaché at the British Legation in Frankfurt, then the capital of the German Confederation, and he was there during the revolutions of 1848. He moved to Hanover in 1852, Paris in 1853, The Hague in 1855 and Naples in 1856, where he was chargé d'affaires from July 1856 when the ambassador, Sir William Temple, left due to illness, until October of that year when diplomatic relations with the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies were broken off. Petre was transferred, as Secretary of Legation, back to Hanover where he was chargé d'affaires between envoys. He moved on to Copenhagen where in 1865 he assisted at the investiture of King Christian IX with the Order of the Garter.

Illustration of Augusta underway Augusta was reactivated on 23 August 1867 for an extended cruise to Central American waters. In the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, Prussia created the North German Confederation, and the Prussian Navy became the North German Federal Navy. To protect the expanded scale of North German maritime commerce and overseas interests, the new Federal Navy began to examine plans to acquire foreign stations where warships could be based. Initial plans called for bases in East Asia and Central America or the Caribbean, but Chancellor Otto von Bismarck was averse to provoking a conflict with the United States over its Monroe Doctrine, and so instructed the ship's captain, KK Franz Kinderling to avoid the appearance of having colonial designs on the region.

Outbreaks of yellow fever and cholera strained the crew, and by this time, the ship's hull was in need of maintenance. The ship's captain requested permission to take the vessel to a shipyard in St. Pierre or Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, but in the absence of an answer he took the ship to visit Colombia and various ports in the Caribbean Sea. While in Veracruz, Mexico in June, the ship received false rumors that a war had broken out between France and the North German Confederation. She therefore steamed to Havana to seek confirmation of the political situation; there, the crew learned that the countries were not at war, and they also received orders to return home on 25 July.

With Austria's expulsion from the German Confederation following its defeat by Prussia in the war in 1866 the Dual Monarchy with Hungary was created by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise in 1867. This succeeded in reducing but not removing nationalist tensions as it left mostly Slavic peoples and Romanians dissatisfied; dissatisfactions which were to boil over with the 1914 assassination of the heir to the throne of Austria- Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, and the ensuing chain reaction resulting in the First World War. The losses of the war resulted in the collapse of the empire and dynasty in 1918. The non-German ethnic groups broke away leaving Austria's current boundaries as German Austria, which was proclaimed an independent republic.

The second tier consisted of high- ranking nobles whose princely title did not, however, imply equality with royalty. These distinctions evolved within the Empire, but were codified by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 when it created the German Confederation and recognised a specific, elevated status (Standesherren or Mediatized Houses) for the mediatized princes of the defunct Empire. The actual titles used by Imperial nobles varied considerably for historical reasons, and included archdukes, dukes, margraves, landgraves, counts palatine, princely counts (Gefürstete Grafen), as well as princes and prince-electors. Moreover, most of the German fiefs in the Empire (except electorships) were heritable by all males of a family rather than by primogeniture, the princely title (or whatever title the family used) being likewise shared by all agnatic family members, male and female.

The Prussia–Austria conflict worsened by autumn that year, as disagreements over the question of federal executions in Holstein (dispute with Denmark) and the Electorate of Hesse almost escalated into a military conflict. Since 1848 the Austrians had been allied with the Russian Empire; after the Berlin government refused Austrian demands at the Warsaw Conference of October 28, 1850, the souring relations degenerated further on Prussia's November 5 announcement that it was mobilising its army and preparing for war, in response to troops of the German Confederation advancing into the Electorate of Hesse. War was avoided when Prussian leaders closely associated with the nobility threw their support behind Gerlach with the , known informally as the Kreuzzeitungspartei after the Kreuzzeitung newspaper, which supported Austria in advocating a return to the Confederation.

In the 1830s, England and North Germany planned to construct a railway line between the cities of Hamburg and Lübeck to ease transport between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. The Copenhagen government frowned on this, as they wanted to retain waterway traffic through Øresund, but to preempt these efforts, the Danish government set up the first Danish railway commission in 1835 to establish the layout of a railway line through the Duchy of Holstein. Consequently, the railway between Altona and Kiel was opened by King Christian VIII on 18 September 1844. However, the Duchy of Holstein was only in personal union with Denmark, with the King of Denmark being Duke of Holstein, and as a result of the Second War of Schleswig, Holstein was ceded to the German Confederation in 1864.

Francis II (; 12 February 1768 – 2 March 1835) was the last emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, ruling from 1792 until 6 August 1806, when he abdicated soon after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon. On 11 August 1804, as a response to the coronation of Napoleon as emperor of the French earlier that year, he announced that he would henceforth assume the title of hereditary emperor of Austria, ruling from 1804 to 1835 as Francis I. He was also king of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia. He also served as the first president of the German Confederation following its establishment in 1815. Francis II continued his leading role as an opponent of Napoleonic France in the Napoleonic Wars, and suffered several more defeats after Austerlitz.

After the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss in 1803, with many others of the nobility, the members of the house were named as Standesherren, and the family with once sovereign territorial lordship had to forfeit its judicial and legal rights, but retained its social and cultural standing as a sovereign family mediatized to Saxony. In 1818, the House petitioned the German Confederation to recognize the family; in 1828 the Parliament vouchsafed the personal and family rights that had been abrogated in 1806. The House was granted two seats in the Upper House of the Kingdom of Saxony in 1831. In 1878 they lost their last rights of partial sovereignty, however the King of Saxony decreed that all members of the family were to be known as Illustrious Highness, while members of the princely lines were a Serene Highness.

Many in Luxembourg supported the cause of the Belgian secessionists, and indeed most of the country was de facto annexed by the new Belgian state, while only the capital Luxembourg City remained loyal to the Dutch King, as it was garrisoned by Prussian troops. The situation was only resolved in 1839, when the Dutch King consented to the partition of Luxembourg. In the Treaty of London of 1839, the French-speaking parts of Luxembourg were carved off to form part of Belgium, while the remaining German-speaking part made up the rump Grand-Duchy, and would continue to be ruled by the Dutch King-Grand Duke, even though it was now territorially separated from the Netherlands. It would also remain in the German Confederation. In 1841, William II authorised the first constitution of Luxembourg.

In 1867, Luxembourg's independence was confirmed, after a turbulent period which even included a brief time of civil unrest against plans to annex Luxembourg to Belgium, Germany, or France. The crisis of 1867 almost resulted in war between France and Prussia over the status of Luxembourg, which had become free of German control when the German Confederation was abolished at the end of the Seven Weeks War in 1866. William III, king of the Netherlands, and sovereign of Luxembourg, was willing to sell the grand duchy to France's Emperor Napoleon III in order to retain Limbourg but backed out when Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, expressed opposition. The growing tension brought about a conference in London from March to May 1867 in which the British served as mediators between the two rivals.

Hendrina Stenmanns was born in Issum in the German Confederation in mid 1852 as the eldest of seven children to Wilhelm Franz Stenmanns (1821-1887) and Anna Maria Wallboom (1825-1 December 1878)."Our Roots", Holy Spirit Missionary Sisters -USA During her childhood she became concerned for poor people and for those who suffered and visited them with her mother to provide them with both spiritual and material comfort. Stenmanns worked as a silk weaver after finishing school - which she began in the spring of 1858 - in order to contribute to the household income. Stenmanns became professed as a member of the Third Order of Saint Francis in 1871 due to feeling called to live a life for the poor - but she harbored an ardent desire for the monastic life.

In 1857, the Prussian king Frederick William IV suffered a stroke and his brother William served as regent until 1861 when he became King William I. Although conservative, William was very pragmatic. His most significant accomplishment was the naming of Otto von Bismarck as Prussian minister president in 1862. The cooperation of Bismarck, Defense Minister Albrecht von Roon, and Field Marshal Helmut von Moltke set the stage for the military victories over Denmark, Austria, and France, that led to the unification of Germany.Holborn, A History of Modern Germany: 1840–1945 pp 131–67Edgar Feuchtwanger, Bismarck: A Political History (2nd ed., Routledge, 2014) pp 83–98 In 1863–64, disputes between Prussia and Denmark over Schleswig escalated, which was not part of the German Confederation, and which Danish nationalists wanted to incorporate into the Danish kingdom.

In the course of the Revolutions of 1848, representatives from those crown lands of the Austrian Empire incorporated in the German Confederation met in a "Imperial Diet" at Vienna. The convention was inaugurated by Archduke John on 22 July 1848 and after the Vienna Uprising of October moved to Kroměříž () in Moravia. It not only abolished the last remnants of serfdom in the Austrian lands, but also undertook to draw up a constitution that would reflect the Empire's character of a multinational state, especially in view of the Austroslavic movement led by the Czech politician František Palacký. On 4 March 1849, however, minister-president Felix zu Schwarzenberg took the initiative and imposed the March Constitution, which promised the equality of all Austrian people and also provided for a bicameral "Imperial Diet".

The Battle of Havana on 9 November 1870 was an indecisive single ship action between the German gunboat and the French aviso Bouvet off the coast of Havana, Cuba during the Franco-Prussian War. The battle was the only naval engagement of the war, and showed the inability of either navy to gain a decisive advantage over the other. The Franco-Prussian War was a conflict between the Second French Empire (and later, the Third French Republic) and the various states of the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 January 1871, the conflict was caused by Prussian ambitions to expand German unification and French fears of the shift in the European balance of power that would result if the Prussians succeeded.

The Fulda Gap roughly corresponds to the route along which Napoleon chose to withdraw his armies after defeat (16 – 19 October 1813) at the Battle of Leipzig. Napoleon succeeded in defeating a Bavarian-Austrian army under Wrede in the Battle of Hanau (30 – 31 October 1813) not far from Frankfurt; from there he escaped back to France. From 1815, the area appeared of minimal strategic importance, as it lay deep within the borders of the German Confederation and (from 1871) of the German Empire, and German military planning presumed any war would be effectively lost long before an enemy reached that far into the homeland. The route became important again at the end of World War II when the U.S. XII Corps used it in their advance eastward in late March and early April 1945.

Pavel Ubri Graf Pavel Petrovich Ubri (; 1820-1896) was a Russian diplomat. As First Adviser of the Embassy of Russia in Vienna, Ubri was the right-hand of Prince Alexander Gorchakov in the lead up of the Crimean War during the Vienna Conference of 1853. He transferred to Paris in 1856 as First Adviser of the Russian embassy in Paris, and during this time he became friends with Otto von Bismarck, and nurtured friendly links between the royal courts in Berlin and Saint Petersburg when in 1863 he was appointed as Russian Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in Berlin, and was also accredited concurrently to the North German Confederation in 1868, and later to the German Empire on 30 December 1871. In 1880, he was appointed as Russian ambassador in Vienna.

He delegitimized the Frankfurt assembly by recalling the Austrian delegates and preempted the federalist ideas of the Austrian Kremsier Parliament with the promulgation of the March Constitution in 1849. Together with the new Emperor, Schwarzenberg called in the Imperial Russian Army to help suppress the Hungarian revolt, and thus give Austria free rein to attempt to thwart Prussia's drive to dominate Germany. He undid democratic reforms and re-established monarchist control in Austria, with the 1849 March Constitution that transformed the Habsburg Empire into a unitary, centralized state. In matters of German dualism, he was able to impose the Punctation of Olmütz on Prussia, forcing it to abandon, for the moment, its plan of unifying Germany under its own auspices, and to acquiesce in the reformation of the old German Confederation.

However, Austria posed a problem because the Habsburgs ruled large chunks of non-German-speaking territory. The largest such area was the Kingdom of Hungary, which also included large Slovak, Romanian and Croat populations. Austria further comprised numerous possessions with predominantly non-German populations, including Czechs in the Bohemian lands, Poles, Rusyns and Ukrainians in the Galician province, Slovenes in Carniola, and Italians in Lombardy–Venetia and Trento, which was still incorporated into the Tyrolean crown land, all together making up the larger part of the Austrian Empire. Except for Bohemia, Carniola and Trento, these territories were not part of the German Confederation because they had not been part of the former Holy Roman Empire, and none of them desired to be included into a German nation state.

The Battle of Heligoland by Josef Carl Berthold Püttner; Blitz and the other Prussian vessels are visible in the left background The crisis between Denmark and the German Confederation erupted in the Second Schleswig War, which began on 1 February 1864, after the Prussian and Austrian Empires delivered an ultimatum to Denmark to cede the disputed duchies to Austro-Prussian control. At the time, the Danish fleet was far superior to the Prussian naval forces initially available, which allowed the Danes to blockade the German coast. To assist the Prussians, the Austrian Navy sent Kommodore (Commodore) Wilhelm von Tegetthoff with the screw frigates and to break the Danish blockade. The Austrian and Prussian squadrons rendezvoused in Texel, the Netherlands, and Blitz and the other Prussian vessels came under Tegetthoff's command.

The Battle of Heligoland by Josef Carl Berthold Püttner; Basilisk and the other Prussian vessels are visible in the left background The crisis between Denmark and the German Confederation erupted in the Second Schleswig War, which began on 1 February 1864, after the Prussian and Austrian Empires delivered an ultimatum to Denmark to cede the disputed duchies to Austro-Prussian control. At the time, the Danish fleet was far superior to the Prussian naval forces initially available, which allowed the Danes to blockade the German coast. To assist the Prussians, the Austrian Navy sent Kommodore (Commodore) Wilhelm von Tegetthoff with the screw frigates and to break the Danish blockade. The Austrian and Prussian squadrons rendezvoused in Texel, the Netherlands, and Basilisk and the other Prussian vessels came under Tegetthoff's command.

Selections from the entertaining journal he kept from 1818 to 1830 were published in 1923, edited by his cousin and eventual heir Lord Ilchester (The Journal of the Hon. Henry Edward Fox). In it, he records his life in British high society and his travels, his encounters with such notables as Talleyrand, Samuel Rodgers, Sydney Smith and Lord Byron (and Byron's mistress, Teresa Guiccioli, with whom Fox had an affair which he recounts in some detail). He briefly held the seat of Horsham from 1826 to 1827 before joining the Diplomatic Service in 1831, after which he was Secretary to the Legation at Turin from 1832 to 1835, Attaché at St Petersburg, Secretary at the Embassy in Vienna from 1835 1838, to the German Confederation in 1838, and to Florence from 1839 to 1846.

The historical science assumes a timocratic or oligarchic character of Hamburg's constitution, being the reason why Hamburg at the Congress of Vienna was accepted by the princes of the German states as a member of the German Confederation – Peter Borowsky, ', in: ', Hamburg, p. 93) Hamburg was strictly republican, but it was not a democracy, but rather an oligarchy. The Hanseaten were regarded as being of equal rank to the (landed) nobility elsewhere in Europe, although the Hanseaten often regarded the (rural) nobility outside the city republics as inferior to the (urban and often more affluent, and in their own view, cultivated) Hanseaten. Thomas Mann, a member of a Lübeck Hanseatic family, portrayed this class in his Nobel Prize-winning novel Buddenbrooks (1901), for which he received the 1929 Nobel Prize for Literature.

However, during the revisions of the 1848 constitution in the late 1850s and early 1860s, Holstein refused to acknowledge the revision, creating a crisis in which the parliament in Copenhagen ratified the revision but Holstein did not. In 1863, Frederick VII died, and the new Danish king ordered that the new constitution should apply to Schleswig and Denmark, but not to Holstein. This was a clear breach of the 1851 peace treaty and the London Protocol of 1852 and gave Prussia and the German Confederation a casus belli against Denmark. The German position was considerably more favorable than it had been thirteen years before, when Prussia had to give in due to the risk of military intervention by Britain, France and Russia on behalf of Denmark: France had colonial problems, not least with Britain.

The Austrian troops were led by General Ludwig von Gablenz. Prussian and Austrian troops crossed into Schleswig on 1 February 1864 against the resistance of the Federal Assembly of the German Confederation, and war became inevitable. The Austrians attacked towards the refortified Dannevirke frontally while the Prussian forces struck the Danish fortifications at Mysunde (on the Schlei coast of Schwansen east of Schleswig town), trying to bypass the Danevirke by crossing the frozen Schlei inlet, but in six hours could not take the Danish positions, and retreated. Austrian illustration of the battle for Königshügel In the Battle for Königshügel (Danish Kongshøj, translated King's Hill) near Selk on 3 February 1864, Austrian forces commanded by General Gondrecourt pushed the Danes back to the Dannevirke. The Danish 6th Brigade had an important part.

Following the loss, Christian IX went behind the backs of the Danish government to contact the Prussians, offering that the whole of Denmark could join the German confederation, if Denmark could stay united with Schleswig and Holstein. This proposal was rejected by Bismarck, who feared that the ethnic strife in Schleswig between Danes and Germans would then stay unresolved. Christian IX's negotiations were not publicly known until published in the 2010 book Dommedag Als by Tom Buk- Swienty, who had been given access to the royal archives by Queen Margrethe II. The Peace of Prague in 1866 confirmed Denmark's cession of the two duchies, but promised a plebiscite to decide whether north Schleswig wished to return to Danish rule. This provision was unilaterally set aside by a resolution of Prussia and Austria in 1878.

Together with the rest of Schleswig-Holstein- Gottorf the village fell under frequent change of rule. After being resigned by empress Catherine II of Russia to Denmark at the end of the 18th century Holstein came under joint austro-prussian administration after the Second Schleswig War in 1864 until both powers abandoned this condominium in the Gastein Convention and the Austrian Empire got sole control of Holstein in 1865. But in 1866 Austria lost the Austro-Prussian War and had to surrender its Holstein possessions to the Kingdom of Prussia that merged its duchies of Schleswig and Holstein to the prussian Province of Schleswig-Holstein. The neighboring Kiel in 1867 was declared Baltic Naval Station of the North German Confederation and later of the German Empire in 1871.

Upon the establishment of the Prussian Kingdom, the region became a single province, later divided again into West and East and the northernmost area of Greater Poland (Sępólno Krajeńskie, Złotów and Wałcz) was adjoined to it. Its population remained partly Polish and partly German, partly Catholic and partly Lutheran (both divisions overlapping especially in the west). Though the Kingdom of Prussia was a member of the German Confederation from 1815 to 1866, the provinces of Posen and Prussia were not a part of Germany until the creation of the German Empire in 1871 during the unification of Germany. As agreed upon in the Treaty of Versailles, most of West Prussia that had belonged to the Kingdom of Prussia and the German Empire since the Partitions of Poland was ceded to the Second Polish Republic.

Welker was born on April 25, 1819, in Knox County, Ohio . His father was an immigrant from the German Confederation and an early European pioneer in Ohio.Smith 1898 Volume I : 75 Welker left the family farm at the age of 14 to take a job as a clerk in a store in Millersburg, Ohio.Smith 1898 Volume I : 76 He attended the common schools and read law in 1840. He was admitted to the bar and entered private practice in Millersburg from 1840 to 1846. He was clerk of the Holmes County, Ohio, Court of Common Pleas from 1846 to 1851. In 1848, Welker was the Whig nominee for the 31st United States Congress, but lost in the largely Democratic district.Smith 1898 Volume II : 329 In 1850, he again was offered the nomination, but declined it.

Battle of Langensalza (1866) Hanoverian Medal, awarded by George V to his troops fighting in that battle. Obverse. The Crown Prince succeeded his father as the King of Hanover and Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg as well as Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale, in the Peerage of Great Britain and Earl of Armagh, in the Peerage of Ireland, on 18 November 1851, assuming the style George V. From his father and from his maternal uncle, Prince Charles Frederick of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, one of the most influential men at the Prussian court, George had learned to take a very high and autocratic view of royal authority. During his 15-year reign, he engaged in frequent disputes with the Hanoverian Landtag (parliament). George was generally supportive of Austria in the Diet of the German Confederation.

Prince Felix Constantin Alexander Johann Nepomuk of Salm- Salm, was born at Anholt Castle, the Residenz of the former Principality of Salm, which had been incorporated into the Prussian Province of Westphalia by 1815. He was the third and youngest son of Prince Florentin, the formerly reigning Prince of Salm-Salm (1786–1846), and his wife Flaminia di Rossi (1795-1840), a Corsican noblewoman and niece of Prince Felice Pasquale Baciocchi. The 1815 Congress of Vienna confirmed the Salm dynasty's loss of sovereignty but recognized the retention of royal privileges of the Princes of Salm-Salm as a Mediatized House in the German Confederation. Felix grew up training to be a soldier at a cadet-school in Berlin and became an officer in the Prussian 11th Hussar Regiment in 1846.

In May 1859, on the eve of the Second Italian War of Independence (1859), he was appointed Austrian minister of foreign affairs and minister-president, surrendering the latter post to the Archduke Rainer in the following year. The five years during which Rechberg held the portfolio of foreign affairs covered the war with Piedmont and France, the insurrection in Poland, the attempted reform of the German Confederation through the Frankfurt Fürstentag, and the Austro-Prussian war with Denmark. After the defeat of Magenta Rechberg accompanied the emperor to Italy, and he had to meet the crisis caused by a war for which he was not responsible. He began the concessions to Hungary and in the Polish question, and was responsible for the adhesion of Austria to the alliance of the Western Powers.

In addition, it demanded radical disarmament in both the East and West, solidarity between people, and responsible management of nature. It stated that the GDR's social values and achievements should be preserved, stating these to include the right to work, the system of children's institutions, the involvement of cooperative and public property in the economy, and anti- fascism and internationalism. Central to its platform were demands to maintain the status quo with regard to the continued employment of the former SED members and land reform undertaken by the SED. Instead of unification with the West, the PDS advocated the creation of a confederal structure between the two countries while preserving statehood, and sought a gradual transition to a neutral and demilitarized German confederation within the framework of European unity.

Emerging modes of transportation facilitated business and recreational travel, leading to contact and sometimes conflict among German speakers from throughout Central Europe. The model of diplomatic spheres of influence resulting from the Congress of Vienna in 1814–15 after the Napoleonic Wars endorsed Austrian dominance in Central Europe through Habsburg leadership of the German Confederation, designed to replace the Holy Roman Empire. The negotiators at Vienna took no account of Prussia's growing strength within and declined to create a second coalition of the German states under Prussia's influence, and so failed to foresee that Prussia would rise to challenge Austria for leadership of the German peoples. This German dualism presented two solutions to the problem of unification: , the small Germany solution (Germany without Austria), or , the greater Germany solution (Germany with Austria).

But before the crises over the Dardanelles and the Rhine could escalate into a European war, the Thiers government, whose politics of prestige had started the crisis in the first place, was brought down. A new cabinet, with Guizot as Secretary of State, sailed a more conciliatory course, and the London Straits Convention (13 July 1841) settled the matter of the Dardanelles, defusing tension in Europe. In Germany the consequences of the Rhine crisis were described thus by Heinrich Heine: "Thiers drummed our fatherland into this great movement which awakened political life in Germany; Thiers brought us back on our feet as a nation." The crisis led the German Confederation to extend the fortifications of Mainz, Ulm, and Rastatt, while the Kingdom of Bavaria built the fortress at Germersheim.

The flag of Germany, for instance, was a tricolour of black-white-red under the German Empire, inherited from the North German Confederation (1866). The Weimar Republic that followed adopted a black-red-gold tricolour. Nazi Germany went back to black-white-red in 1933, and black-red-gold was reinstituted by the two successor states, West Germany and East Germany, with East Germany's flag being defaced with Communist symbols, following World War II. Similarly the flag of Libya introduced with the creation of the Kingdom of Libya in 1951 was abandoned in 1969 with the coup d'état led by Muammar Gaddafi. It was used again by National Transitional Council and by anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War in 2011 and officially adopted by the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration.

The first nation state named "Germany" began in 1871; before that Germany referred to a geographical entity comprising many states, much as "the Balkans" is used today, or the term "America" was used by the founders of "the United States of America." In German constitutional history, the expressions Reich (reign, realm, empire) and Bund (federation, confederation) are somewhat interchangeable. Sometimes they even co-existed in the same constitution: for example in the German Empire (1871–1918) the parliament had the name Reichstag, the council of the representatives of the German states Bundesrat. When in 1870–71 the North German Confederation was transformed into the German Empire, the preamble said that the participating monarchs are creating einen ewigen Bund (an eternal confederation) which will have the name Deutsches Reich.

The German nobility () and royalty were status groups of the medieval society in Central Europe, which enjoyed certain privileges relative to other people under the laws and customs in the German-speaking area, until the beginning of the 20th century. Historically, German entities that recognized or conferred nobility included the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806), the German Confederation (1814–1866) and the German Empire (1871–1918). In August 1919, at the beginning of the Weimar Republic (1919–1933), Germany's first democratic constitution officially abolished royalty and nobility, and the respective legal privileges and immunities appertaining to an individual, a family or any heirs. Today, German nobility is no longer conferred by the Federal Republic of Germany (1949- ), and constitutionally the descendants of German noble families do not enjoy legal privileges.

Bundestag translates accurately as "League Council", literally meaning "bound day". "Tag" (day), short for "Tagung" (meeting for a day), came to mean "meeting in conference" — another example being Reichstag — because a council gathering would happen on a given day of the week, month, or year.Online Etymology Dictionary — Bundestag With the dissolution of the German Confederation in 1866 and the founding of the German Empire (Deutsches Reich) in 1871, the Reichstag was established as the German parliament in Berlin, which was the capital of the then Kingdom of Prussia (the largest and most influential state in both the Confederation and the empire). Two decades later, the current parliament building was erected. The Reichstag delegates were elected by direct and equal male suffrage (and not the three-class electoral system prevailing in Prussia until 1918).

The tone between Paris and Berlin worsened even further after Bismarck published the humiliating Ems Telegram on 13 July 1870. Six days later, the government of Napoleon III declared war on Prussia and the states of the German Confederation offered support to Prussia, which then appeared as the victim of French imperialism. It was in this difficult context that Sophie was christened the following month, though all the men present were in uniform, as France had declared war on Prussia. Sophie's mother described the event to Queen Victoria: "The Christening went off well, but was sad and serious; anxious faces and tearful eyes, and a gloom and foreshadowing of all the misery in store spread a cloud over the ceremony, which should have been one of gladness and thanksgiving".

The Prussian Navy (German: Preußische Marine), officially the Royal Prussian Navy (German: Königlich Preußische Marine), was the naval force of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1701 to 1867. The Prussian Navy was created in 1701 from the former Brandenburg Navy upon the dissolution of Brandenburg-Prussia, the personal union of Brandenburg and Prussia under the House of Hohenzollern, after the elevation of Frederick I from Duke of Prussia to King in Prussia. The Prussian Navy fought in several wars but was active mainly as a merchant navy throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, as Prussia's military consistently concentrated on the Prussian Army. The Prussian Navy was dissolved in 1867 when Prussia joined the North German Confederation, and its naval forces were absorbed into the North German Federal Navy.

Wilhelm von Kardorff in 1903. Wilhelm von Kardorff (8 January 1828 in Neustrelitz – 21 July 1907) was a German landowner and politician who supported the Free Conservative Party. From the founding of the North German Confederation in 1867 until his death he was one of the most influential members of his party.Sidney B. Fay, 'Reviewed Work: Wilhelm von Kardorff: Ein Nationaler Parliamentarier im Zeitalter Bismarcks und Wilhelms II, 1828-1907 by Siegfried von Kardorff', The Journal of Modern History Vol. 9, No. 4 (Dec., 1937), pp. 529-530 He was educated at Heidelberg and Halle, where he fought 31 duels.Carlton J. H. Hayes, 'Reviewed Work: Wilhelm von Kardorff, ein nationaler Parliamentarier im Zeitalter Bismarcks und Wilhelms II, 1828-1907 by Siegfried von Kardorff', The American Historical Review Vol.

Most of the kingdom, aside from the Provinces of East Prussia, West Prussia, and Posen, became part of the new German Confederation, a confederacy of 39 sovereign states (including Austria and Bohemia) replacing the defunct Holy Roman Empire. Frederick William III submitted Prussia to a number of administrative reforms, among others reorganising the government by way of ministries, which remained formative for the following hundred years. As to religion, reformed Calvinist Frederick William III—as Supreme Governor of the Protestant Churches—asserted his long- cherished project (started in 1798) to unite the Lutheran and the Reformed Church in 1817, (see Prussian Union). The Calvinist minority, strongly supported by its co-religionist Frederick William III, and the partially reluctant Lutheran majority formed the united Protestant Evangelical Church in Prussia.

The kingdom, however, was obliged to join the North German Confederation of which Prussia was the head. In 1871 Saxony became one of the states of the newly founded German Empire. King John was followed by his son King Albert (1873–1902); Albert was succeeded by his brother George (1902–04); the son of George is King Frederick Augustus III. Prince Maximilian (born 1870), a brother of the present king, became a priest in 1896, was engaged in parish work in London and Nuremberg, and since 1900 has been a professor of canon law and liturgy in the University of Freiburg in Switzerland. The Kingdom of Saxony is the fifth state of the German Empire in area and third in population; in 1905 the average population per square mile was 778.8.

The yard’s first warships were three ‘war steamers’ for the navy of the German Confederation, two sisterships Inca and Cacique of 628 tons bm and the larger Cora of 970 tons bm each built with auxiliary steam in 1849, renamed Großherzog von Oldenburg (Inca), Frankfurt (Cacique) and Der Königliche Ernst August (Cora).Owen/Reichert: Marine an der Unterweser, Bremerhaven 2004 These were wooden paddle vessels with low power engines and a full sail plan and built to a strong design on Lang’s improved principle diagonally fastened upon the plan of Sir Robert Seppings.Farr, Graeme (1971). Bristol Shipbuilding in the Nineteenth Century Bristol Branch of the Historical Association, The University Bristol. p20 In 1856, Patterson built two gunboats of the Albacore class, HMS Ernest and HMS Escort carrying 1-68pdr, 1-32pdr and 2-20pdrs,Colledge, JJ (2006).

The Jutland peninsula showing Holstein in yellow, southern Schleswig in brown, northern Schleswig in red, and the other Danish parts of Jutland in terracotta (dark red) Schleswig and Holsten before the Second Schleswig War. The Schleswig-Holstein Question (; ) was a complex set of diplomatic and other issues arising in the 19th century from the relations of two duchies, Schleswig () and Holstein (), to the Danish crown, to the German Confederation, and to each other. The British statesman Lord Palmerston is reported to have said: "Only three people have ever really understood the Schleswig-Holstein business—the Prince Consort, who is dead—a German professor, who has gone mad—and I, who have forgotten all about it."Lytton Strachey, Queen Victoria, 1921. Schleswig was a part of Denmark during the Viking Age, and became a Danish duchy in the 12th century.

The Frankfurt Constitution (, FRV) or Constitution of St. Paul's Church (Paulskirchenverfassung), officially named the Constitution of the German Empire (Verfassung des Deutschen Reiches) of 28 March 1849, was an unsuccessful attempt to create a unified German nation state in the successor states of the Holy Roman Empire organised in the German Confederation. Adopted and proclaimed by the Frankfurt Parliament after the Revolutions of 1848, the constitution contained a charter of fundamental rights and a democratic government in the form of a constitutional monarchy. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was designated head of state as "Emperor of the Germans" (Kaiser der Deutschen), a role he rejected. The constitution is called by its more common names in order to distinguish it from the Constitution of the German Empire enacted in 1871 and initiated by Otto von Bismarck.

Arms of Mallet: Azure, three escallops or Caricature of Sir Edward Malet by Leslie Ward published in the British magazine Vanity Fair (1884) Sir Edward Baldwin Malet, 4th Baronet (10 October 1837 – 29 June 1908) was a British diplomat. Edward Malet came from a family of diplomats; his father was Sir Alexander Malet, British minister to Württemberg and later to the German Confederation. After three years at Eton College, Edward Malet entered the foreign service at the age of 17. He served as attaché to his father in Frankfurt, then in Brussels. He was trained in the diplomatic service by Richard Lyons, 1st Viscount Lyons, and was a member of the Tory-sympathetic 'Lyons School' of British diplomacy. He served as Secretary of Legation at Peking (1871–1873), Athens (1873–1875), Rome (1875–1878), and Constantinople (1878–1879).

Kingdom of Württemberg as it existed from the end of the Napoleonic Wars to the end of World War I. From 1815 to 1866 it was a member state of the German Confederation and from 1871 to 1918 it was a federal state in the German Empire. Monument to the Constitution of Baden (and the Grand Duke for granting it), in Rondellplatz, Karlsruhe, Germany The Grand Duchy of Baden (Großherzogtum Baden) within Germany at the time of the German Empire In the wars after the French Revolution in 1789, Napoleon, the emperor of the French, rose to be the ruler of the European continent. An enduring result of his policy was a new order of the southwestern German political world. When the French Revolution threatened to be exported throughout Europe in 1792, Baden joined forces against France.

The Great Powers at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 aimed to restore Europe (as far as possible) to its pre-war conditions by combating both liberalism and nationalism and by creating barriers around France. With Austria's position on the continent now intact and ostensibly secure under its reactionary premier , the Habsburg empire would serve as a barrier to contain the emergence of Italian and German nation-states as well, in addition to containing France. But this reactionary balance of power, aimed at blocking German and Italian nationalism on the continent, was precarious. After Napoleon's final defeat in 1815, the surviving member states of the defunct Holy Roman Empire joined to form the German Confederation ()—a rather loose organization, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, each feared domination by the other.

The Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks' War (also known as the German Civil War, the Unification War, the War of 1866, the Fraternal War, the Brothers War , in Germany as the German War (German: Deutscher Krieg), and also by a variety of other names) was a war fought in 1866 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, with each also being aided by various allies within the German Confederation. Prussia had also allied with the Kingdom of Italy, linking this conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification. The Austro-Prussian War was part of the wider rivalry between Austria and Prussia, and resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states. The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian hegemony.

Imperial standard of the Austrian Empire with the lesser coat of arms (used until 1915 for Austria-Hungary) Imperial standard of the Austrian Empire with the medium coat of arms (used until 1915 for Austria-Hungary) Merchant ensign from 1786 until 1869 and naval and war ensign from 1786 until 1915 (de jure, de facto until 1918) The Austrian Empire (, modern spelling ') was a Central European multinational great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs. During its existence, it was the third most populous empire after the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom in Europe. Along with Prussia, it was one of the two major powers of the German Confederation. Geographically, it was the third largest empire in Europe after the Russian Empire and the First French Empire (621,538 square kilometres; 239,977 sq mi).

The Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and Limburg in 1839 1, 2 and 3 United Kingdom of the Netherlands (until 1830) 1 and 2 Kingdom of the Netherlands (after 1830) 2 Duchy of Limburg (1839–1867) (in the German Confederacy after 1839 as compensation for Waals-Luxemburg) 3 and 4 Kingdom of Belgium (after 1839) 4 and 5 Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (borders until 1839) 4 Province of Luxembourg (Waals-Luxemburg, to Belgium in 1839) 5 Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (German Luxemburg; borders after 1839) In blue, the borders of the German Confederation. William I, who reigned from 1815 to 1840, had great constitutional power. An enlightened despot, he accepted the modernizing transformations of the previous 25 years, including equality of all before the law. However, he resurrected the estates as a political class and elevated a large number of people to the nobility.

Diplomatic missions of Germany This is a list of diplomatic missions of Germany. Historically, the German state of Prussia and several smaller German states had sent emissaries abroad prior to the establishment of the North German Confederation, the precursor to the modern Federal Republic of Germany. In 1874, Germany had only four embassies (in London, Paris, Saint Petersburg, and Vienna), but this was complemented by non-ambassadorial representation in the form of 14 ministerial posts (in Athens, Bern, Brussels, The Hague, Constantinople, Copenhagen, Lisbon, Madrid, Rome, Stockholm, Peking, Rio de Janeiro, Washington, D.C., and to the Holy See), seven consulates-general with diplomatic status (in Alexandria, Belgrade, Bucharest, London, New York, Budapest, and Warsaw), and 37 consulates and vice-consulates headed by consular officers. By 1914, five additional embassies were established in Constantinople, Madrid, Rome, Washington, D.C., and Tokyo.

He played a part in sending workers' delegates to the Reichstag of the short-lived North German Confederation. In 1869 he participated, with August Bebel, in the founding in Eisenach of the Social Democratic Workers' Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands / SDAP), which turned out to be a precursor of the SPD. Shortly afterwards he established a local party branch in Crimmitschau, in 1868 dissolving the local Arbeiterbildungsverein (Workers' Educational Association) to make way for the new SDAP. In May 1869 Motteler was a founder, in Leipzig, of the "Trades Union of Manufacturing, Industrial and Craft workers of both sexes" ("Gewerksgenossenschaft der Manufactur-, Fabrik- und Handarbeiter beiderlei Geschlechts") which quickly became one of the country's largest trades unions, although it proved short-lived, being closed down by the police on 10 December 1878, after the legislators outlawed trades unions in 1878.

Liechtenstein formally came into existence on 23 January 1719, when Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor decreed the lordship of Schellenberg and the countship of Vaduz united and raised to the dignity of a principality. Liechtenstein was a part of the Holy Roman Empire until the Treaty of Pressburg was signed on 26 December 1805; this marked Liechtenstein's formal independence, though it was a member of the Confederation of the Rhine and the German Confederation afterwards. While Liechtenstein was still closely aligned with Austria-Hungary until World War I, it realigned its politics and its customs and monetary institutions with Switzerland instead. Having been a constitutional monarchy since 1921, Hans- Adam II demanded more influence in Liechtenstein's politics in the early 21st century, which he was granted in a referendum held on 16 March 2003, effectively making Liechtenstein a semi-constitutional monarchy again.

Language map from a German atlas, printed in 1881 These efforts were finally terminated by Austria's humiliating defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. After the Peace of Prague, the Prussian chancellor , now at the helm of German politics, pursued the expulsion of Austria and managed to unite all German states except Austria under Prussian leadership, while the Habsburg lands were shaken by ethnic nationalist conflicts, only superficially resolved with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. At the same time, Bismarck established the North German Confederation, seeking to prevent the Austrian and Bavarian Catholics in the south from being a predominant force in a mainly Protestant Prussian Germany. He successfully used the Franco-Prussian War to convince the other German states including the Kingdom of Bavaria to stand with Prussia against the Second French Empire; Austria-Hungary did not participate in the war.

He issued several scientific works and many political pamphlets, many of which were suppressed in the states of the German Confederation, among them writings by Bruno Bauer, Friedrich Engels, Ludwig Feuerbach, Arnold Ruge, Friedrich Wilhelm Schulz, and David Strauss, as well as poems by Georg Herwegh, Hoffmann von Fallersleben and Gottfried Keller. Fröbel (1st row, 2nd from left) with the members of the Left faction in the Frankfurt Assembly In 1846, Fröbel moved to Dresden, Saxony. Upon the Revolution of 1848, he became a leader of the democrats, and was elected a member of the Frankfurt Parliament. Afterward, he accompanied the radical Robert Blum to the Austrian capital Vienna, where both joined the bloody October Uprising. Fröbel was arrested and condemned to death by the court-martial that also convicted Blum, who was shot on 9 November.

Scott #8 & #9, The green 1¼ schilling stamp is pictured on cover at Subsequently, on 15 May, the German Confederation administration issued a second stamp in a new design, in blue with rose hatching, which was also 1¼ schillings and imperforate, but produced typographically.This stamp is listed as Scott #18, , and Michel #7, . 1¼ s. stamp (Scott #4, Michel #9) used in Uetersen, 11 July 1867. Beginning in February 1865, the joint Prussian-Austrian administration issued a set of five stamps for the combined Schleswig-Holstein, similar to the previous year's issue, but inscribed "Schleswig-Holstein".Scott #3 through #7, , and Michel #8 through #12, . On 1 November 1865, the newly Prussian only administration of Schlewig issued a set of five in the same denominations, but with the "Herzogth. Schleswig" design and in new colors.Scott #10 through #14, , Michel #13 through #17, .

Mediatized Houses generally possessed greater rights than other German noble families. Whilst they lost sovereignty and certain rights (such as legislation, taxation, appellate jurisdiction, and control over policing and conscription) in their territories, they often still retained their private estates and some feudal rights, which may have included exclusive or primary access to local forestry, fishing, mining or hunting resources, jurisdiction over policing and lower level civil and criminal court cases. Mediatized Houses also possessed the right to settle anywhere within the German Confederation while retaining their territorial prerogatives. The Congress of Vienna specified that the Mediatized Houses were recognised as the first vassals in their respective states, were usually entitled to membership in the legislative upper chambers in which their lands lay (such as the Austrian or Prussian House of Lords), and held rank equivalent to ruling houses.

Latour was born at Linz the son of Count Maximilian Anton Karl Baillet de Latour (17371806), a Feldmarschall-Leutnant in Austrian service during the Revolutionary Wars of Walloon descent. After a military and engineering training at the Theresian Military Academy, he entered the corps of engineers in 1799 and became a member of the general staff of the Austrian Imperial and Royal Army in 1804. Latour took part in various military campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars in which he distinguished himself and was highly decorated. During European Restoration he filled an array of leadership roles in the military ranks up to a Feldzeugmeister, and in addition served as the head of the military commission attached to the Bundesversammlung (assembly) of the German Confederation at Frankfurt, contributed to the design of the fortifications at Rastatt, and finally was director of engineering.

The places he visited ranged from the Kingdom of Italy and the German Confederation (where his steamboat journeys on the Rhine would provide a significant inspiration in his later life), to the Australian colonies of the British Empire and the Pacific Islands. In early 1878, Malmgren – aged 27 – founded Bohusläns Boktryckeri AB. By August the same year the publishing company had been established in a building owner by the skipper Bengtsson on the corner of the intersecting streets Norra Drottninggatan and Lilla Norrgatan, where the newspaper he soon founded would remain until 2013, a whole 135 years. In September he gained permission to publish Bohusläningen, covering Uddevalla, the province of Bohuslän, and south-western Dalsland. A first test issue was put out on 21 October, and given out to households for free, followed by a second test issue.

This interpretive culture was perpetuated in the memory of venerated martyrs like Theodor Körner. The red and black colours with a golden oak leaf cluster were adopted as couleur by the first German national Urburschenschaft student fraternity established on 12 June 1815 in Jena, and publicly displayed on the 1817 Wartburg Festival. The students' hopes of a national awakening dashed with the implementation of the German Confederation, not a nation state but a loose federation of the German monarchs, who by the 1819 reactionary Carlsbad Decrees banned any fraternity activities. Since then the black-red-gold tricolour became a widespread symbol of the pursuit of liberty, democracy and liberal unity, thus the colours were used on horizontal tricolour flags by Lützow veterans and other democratic revolutionaries of the Hambach Festival in 1832, and in the Revolutions of 1848.

Kingdom of Bavaria within the German Confederation 1816, including the Rhenish Palatinate The Kingdom of Bavaria was established at the Peace of Pressburg (1805), in the wake of the French victory at Austerlitz. The kingdom's territory fluctuated greatly over the following years, eventually fixed at the Treaty of Paris (1814), which established most of what remain the borders of the modern state. The kingdom in 1837 was divided into eight administrative regions (Regierungsbezirke), Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Upper Palatinate and Palatinate. Ludwig I of Bavaria changed his royal titles to Ludwig, King of Bavaria, Duke of Franconia, Duke in Swabia and Count Palatinate of the Rhine. As of 1818, the total population of the kingdom was at 3.7 million, rising to 4.4 million by 1840 and to 6.2 million by 1900, reaching 6.5 million in 1910.

Military clashes in Schleswig/Slesvig In 1848, Denmark received its first liberal constitution. At the same time, and partly as a consequence, the secessionist movement of the large German majority in Holstein and southern Schleswig was suppressed in the First Schleswig War (1848–51), when the Germans in both territories failed in their attempt to become a united, sovereign and independent state: At the time, the king of Denmark was also duke of the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig. However, the movement continued throughout the 1850s and 1860s, as Denmark attempted to integrate the Duchy of Schleswig into the Danish kingdom while liberal proponents of German unification expressed the wish to include the Danish-ruled duchies of Holstein and Schleswig in a Greater Germany. Holstein was completely ethnically German, had been a German fief before 1806 was a part of the German Confederation.

He was born in Rudolstadt the son of Prince Albert of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and his wife Princess Augusta of Solms-Braunfels (1804–1865). Princess Augusta was the daughter of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels (1770–1814) and his wife Duchess Frederica of Mecklenburg- Strelitz (1778–1841), the daughter of Grand Duke Charles II. Following the death of his uncle Friedrich Günther on June 28, 1867 his father Albert ascended the throne thereby making Georg the heir apparent with the title Hereditary Prince. His father died on November 26, 1869 two years after ascending the throne, with Georg becoming the new sovereign prince. During his reign the North German Confederation was dissolved following the victory of the Kingdom of Prussia backed by states of the confederation in the Franco- Prussian War over the Second French Empire.

At the instigation of Amsberg, the Brunswick state ministry finally made the decision to build a railway line from Brunswick southwards to Wolfenbüttel and the exclave of Bad Harzburg (until 1892: Neustadt) - the Brunswick–Bad Harzburg railway - and thereby pre-empt the intent of the Hanoverian government to build an eastern railway via Halberstadt to Magdeburg, which would bypass Brunswick to the south. On 1 August 1837 construction began on the first section from Brunswick in southern direction and on 30 November 1838 the route was inaugurated by Duke William riding on a train to Wolfenbüttel hauled by a Blenkinsop locomotive. Opened to traffic the next day, it was the first German state railway and the fourth railway line to be built in the German Confederation. On 31 October 1841 the line to Bad Harzburg via Vienenburg was completed.

The Seven Weeks' War between Austria and Prussia in 1866 led to the collapse of the German Confederation. To clarify the position of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the Duchy of Limburg, which were possessions of the Dutch King but also been member states of the Confederation, the Second Treaty of London in 1867 affirmed that Limburg was an "integral part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands", while Luxembourg was and had been an independent state in personal union with the Kingdom of the Netherlands since 1839. The style "Duchy of Limburg" continued to be used in some official capacities until February 1907. An idiosyncrasy that survives to this day is that the King's Commissioner for the province is still informally addressed as "Governor" in Limburg, although his formal style does not differ from that used in other provinces.

Treaty of London, Article IV The Austro-Prussian War had led to the collapse of the German Confederation. Two former members, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and the Duchy of Limburg, had the Dutch king as their head of state (as Grand Duke of Luxembourg and Duke of Limburg). To clarify the position in the wake of the death of the Confederation further, the Treaty of London affirmed the end of the Confederation and stated that Limburg was henceforth to be considered with all its "territories" an "integral part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands".Treaty of London, Article VI The independent Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, still linked to the Netherlands by a personal union, would rejoin the newly re-established German customs union, the Zollverein, in which it would remain until 1 January 1919, long after the personal union had ended (1890).

When in 1858 the Danish national liberal Council President Carl Christian Hall drafted the 'November Constitution' in order to link Schleswig more closely to the Danish kingdom, he sparked German protests, and troops of the German Confederation eventually occupied Holstein and Lauenburg in 1863. In the following Second Schleswig War, Denmark was defeated and according to the Treaty of Vienna signed on 30 October 1864 had to cede the Elbe Duchies to victorious Prussia and Austria. After the war, the two powers faced the issue of governing the provinces formerly held by the Danish royal House of Glücksburg in personal union. Prussia aimed at the annexation of the territories as provinces with her state territory, against the strong resistance of the Austrians, who persisted on the status of autonomous duchies of the Confederation ruled as a condominium.

The Battle of Bov was the first significant conflict of the First Schleswig War which was essentially a separatist rebellion by Schleswig and Holstein, territories which formed the southern part of the Danish kingdom but which also had increasing links to Germany, intensified by migration pressures and a shifting language frontier. To the south Holstein had also, till its abolition in 1806, formed part of the Holy Roman Empire, and now combined its ties to the Danish crown with membership of the German Confederation. In a century of rising nationalism the tensions this situation created could only increase, and the rebellion took on the character of an international war when Prussia intervened on behalf of the separatists. By July the Danish army had succeeded in stopping the rebels and their Prussian allies, although the underlying tensions that had triggered the war remained unresolved.

Some of his strategic decisions were portrayed as gratuitously whimsical. However, he was also constrained by political considerations during the summer of 1848: the Danish government position was widely backed by foreign powers (aside from those in the German confederation), but there was a growing risk that allies might initiate peace talks on Denmark's behalf. When he resigned in November 1848 Tscherning was not convinced that a further three years of war was desirable and he increasingly came to the view that, while rebellion should be seen for what it was and put down accordingly, that did not mean that regional differences and language rights should be ignored. In political terms, his belief in democratic structures and principals was very much on display between 1849 and 1864, the years that he spent as a member of parliament.