Hardware connections established via the sphenoid and magnum foramina allow control of sensorimotor and semi-autonomous systems.
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The holes, known as foramina, have also been found in crocodiles and are thought to have housed hundreds of trigeminal nerves.
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The nasal foramina are foramina which run through the nasal bones.
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Therefore, the olfactory foramina are necessary for the human sense of smell. These foramina vary in size and number with age.
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The describing authors indicated five distinguishing traits. They were autapomorphies, unique derived characters, in which Albadraco differs from all other known Azhdarchidae. The cutting edges and sides of the beak show a high foramina density. The premaxilla has split- like foramina on the lower and side surfaces but also two rows of foramina on the side.
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Heliscomyids are distinguished from other geomyoid rodents by several characteristics of the skull including fusion of three cranial foramina, elongation of the incisive foramina, and an unusual position of the mental foramen (Korth et al., 1991).
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The interventricular foramina connect the lateral ventricles to the third ventricle. This allows cerebrospinal fluid produced in the lateral ventricles to reach the third ventricle and then the rest of the brain's ventricular system. The walls of the interventricular foramina contain choroid plexus, a specialized structure that produces cerebrospinal fluid. The choroid plexus of the third ventricles continues through the foramina into the lateral ventricles.
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Additionally, the front of the skull contains more foramina than any known mammal.
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These nutrient foramina are most apparent in A. weltoni, whose holotype has the best-preserved palate. The development of nutrient foramina and teeth are closely intertwined in mysticetes: first, an alveolar groove on the palate of the developing mysticete. The deciduous teeth form in the groove, and then are reabsorbed, while development of rudimentary baleen plates begin. The alveolar groove fills with bone until the laterial nutrient foramina form.
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These are evident in what are known as nutrient foramina. These nutrient foramina, present on the maxillae of the whale, are associated with grooves and sulci, or fissures, which in life are occupied by branches of the superior alveolar artery and nerve. This superior alveolar artery supplies nutrients to the epithelial, or surface cells of the body, from which the baleen continuously develops. In all known archaeocetes and odontocetes, nutrient foramina are absent.
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These nerves then travel through identically named foramina in the orbital surface of the zygomatic bone.
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Foraminacephale (meaning "foramina head") is a genus of pachycephalosaurid dinosaur from Late Cretaceous (Campanian stage) deposits of Canada.
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The neck vertebrae and rear back vertebrae have paired small foramina in the base of the neural spine.
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The olfactory foramina, also known as the cribriform foramina (cribr- is "a sieve" in Greek), is the grouping of holes located on the cribriform plate. The cribriform plate forms the roof of the nasal cavity, and the olfactory foramina are in the two depressions lateral to the median blade of the cribriform plate called the crista galli. There is a pair of olfactory bulbs of the brain that rest in these two depressions. These holes that make up the olfactory foramina allow passage for about 20 bundles of nerve fibers that make up the olfactory nerve, also known as Cranial Nerve I (CNI), from the nasal cavity to meet with the olfactory bulbs.
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It communicates with the nasal and oral cavities, infratemporal fossa, orbit, pharynx, and middle cranial fossa through eight foramina.
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In the brain, the interventricular foramina (or foramina of Monro) are channels that connect the paired lateral ventricles with the third ventricle at the midline of the brain. As channels, they allow cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) produced in the lateral ventricles to reach the third ventricle and then the rest of the brain's ventricular system. The walls of the interventricular foramina also contain choroid plexus, a specialized CSF-producing structure, that is continuous with that of the lateral and third ventricles above and below it.
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In mammalian anatomy, the cribriform plate, horizontal lamina or lamina cribrosa (from Latin cribrum, "sieve" + -form) of the ethmoid bone is received into the ethmoidal notch of the frontal bone and roofs in the nasal cavities. The cribriform plate is narrow with deep grooves supporting the olfactory bulb, and is perforated by olfactory foramina allowing the passage of the olfactory nerves. The foramina in the middle of the groove are small and allows the passing of the nerves to the roof of the nasal cavity. The foramina at the medial part of the groove allow the passage of the nerves to the upper part of the nasal septum while the foramina at the lateral part transmit the nerves to the superior nasal concha.
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The sternocostal triangle or foramina of Morgagni are small zones lying between the costal and sternal attachments of the thoracic diaphragm. Important vessels that pass through these bilateral foramina include the superior epigastric arteries as terminations of the internal thoracic arteries, with accompanying veins and lymphatics. Also known as sternocostal hiatus or (Larrey's) triangle.
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More than in other Juliomys species, the front part of the zygomatic arches is bended forward and the zygomatic plates are bended outward. Furthermore, the zygomatic notch, the notch between the zygomatic plate and arch, is deep, not shallow as in J. ossitenuis and J. rimofrons. The incisive foramina (openings in the palate between the incisors and the molars) are broad and long, extending to the front margins of the first upper molar (M1). Wilfredomys has even longer incisive foramina, extending between the molars, but the foramina are shorter in J. ossitenuis and J. pictipes.
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In the cervical region, the transverse processes are placed in front of the articular processes, lateral to the pedicles and between the intervertebral foramina. In the thoracic region they are posterior to the pedicles, intervertebral foramina, and articular processes. In the lumbar region they are in front of the articular processes, but behind the intervertebral foramina. ;Lateral surfaces The sides of the vertebral column are separated from the posterior surface by the articular processes in the cervical and thoracic regions and by the transverse processes in the lumbar region.
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The inferior runs obliquely across the front of the piriformis and the sacral nerves to the medial side of the anterior sacral foramina, descends on the front of the sacrum, and anastomoses over the coccyx with the middle sacral and opposite lateral sacral artery. In its course it gives off branches, which enter the anterior sacral foramina; these, after supplying the contents of the sacral canal, escapes by the posterior sacral foramina, and are distributed to the muscles and skin on the dorsal surface of the sacrum, anastomosing with the gluteal arteries.
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A reconstruction of the vertebral arteries from a CT scan, seen from the front. From the bottom, V1 is from the subclavian artery to the foramina, V2 is from the foramina to the second vertebra, V3 is between the foramina until entry into the skull, and V4 is inside the skull embedded in the dura mater. They merge into the basilar artery, which then divides into the posterior cerebral artery. The vertebral arteries arise from the subclavian artery, and run through the transverse foramen of the upper six vertebrae of the neck.
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The pia spans every surface crevice of the brain other than the foramina to allow the circulation of CSF to continue.
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The term obelion is applied to that point of the sagittal suture which is on a level with the parietal foramina.
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The dentary is wedge-shaped elongated and preserves 31 alveoli. In a dorsal view, it is U-shaped and flattened at the back with an expansion lying across. The lateral and ventral surfaces in the symphyseal region bears a series of foramina that measure in diameter. Isolated foramina are connected internally by a complex neurovascular canal.
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In anatomy and osteology, a foramen (;OED 2nd edition, 1989.Entry "foramen" in Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. plural foramina, or foramens ) is an open hole that is present in extant or extinct amniotes. Foramina inside the body of animals typically allow muscles, nerves, arteries, veins, or other structures to connect one part of the body with another.
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The post orbital notably has a deeply forked posterior margin. This characteristic is seen in some other basal cynodonts, but is widely variable. The maxilla forms a good portion of the side of the face and is dotted with small foramina, mostly above the canines. These foramina likely housed nerves, and were perhaps associated with whiskers.
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The interventricular foramina are two holes (, pl. foramina) that connect the left and the right lateral ventricles to the third ventricle. They are located on the underside near the midline of the lateral ventricles, and join the third ventricle where its roof meets its anterior surface. In front of the foramen is the fornix and behind is the thalamus.
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Reflecting the overall sex differences between male and female pelvises, the obturator foramina are oval in the male and wider and more triangular in the female. Additionally, unilateral pelvis hypoplasia can cause differences in size between the obturator foramina, and there are even rare reports of individual pelvises featuring a double obturator foramen in one of the hip bones.
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The species is solely known from the premaxilla. Martill e.a. indicated some distinguishing traits. The occlusal surface (palate) of the snout is pierced by only a limited number of slit-like foramina combined with a single row of foramina parallel to and close to the jaw edge and positioned far apart, at about one opening per centimetre.
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The average size of the orifice is 0.3 to 0.4 mm in diameter. There can be two or more foramina separated by a portion of dentin and cementum or by cementum only. If more than one foramen is present on each root, the largest one is designated as the apical foramen and the rest are considered accessory foramina.
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This close association leads Demere and Berta to hypothesize that Aetiocetus displays an ancient ontogeny, or growth sequence. These nutrient foramina are also present on A. cotylalveus and another related aetiocetid, Chonecetus goedertorum. Compared to other edentulous, or toothless, mysticetes, the pattern of nutrient foramina is most similar to extant balaenopterids (blue whales and other rorquals) and fossil cetotheres.
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Subsequent research has, however, distinguished M. paulensis based on various features like smaller upper canines, absence of palatine fenestrae and longer incisive foramina.
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The skulls of vertebrates have foramina through which nerves, arteries, veins, and other structures pass. For example, a human skull has parietal foramen.
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Foramen rotundum The foramen rotundum is one of the several circular apertures (the foramina) located in the base of the skull, in the anterior and medial part of the sphenoid bone. The mean area of the foramina rotunda is not considerable, which may suggest that they play a minor role in the dynamics of blood circulation in the venous system of the head.
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The foramen spinosum is a foramen through the sphenoid bone situated in the middle cranial fossa. It is one of two foramina in the greater wing of the sphenoid bone. The foramen ovale is one of these two cranial foramina, situated directly anterior and medial to the foramen spinosum. The spine of sphenoid falls medial and posterior to the foramen.
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The cerebral hemispheres are derived from the telencephalon. They arise five weeks after conception as bilateral invaginations of the walls. The hemispheres grow round in a C-shape and then back again, pulling all structures internal to the hemispheres (such as the ventricles) with them. The intraventricular foramina (also called the foramina of Monro) allows communication with the lateral ventricles.
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31 The incisive foramina are very long, extending well between the molars. The posterolateral palatal pits are well-developed and recessed into a fossa (depression).
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Lateral pleurocoels are present on some vertebrae, as well as small lateral foramina. These foramina are known in some titanosaurs and non-titanosaurs, but their phylogenetic distribution is poorly understood. Like in all titanosauriformes, the neural arch is on the anterior portion of the centrum, and the neural spines are elongate and rectangular. The variation along the caudal series is similar to Epachthosaurus and Malawisaurus.
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The holotype shows eighteen teeth in the right dentary, seventeen in the left dentary; such an asymmetry is not rare among large theropods. A row of foramina is present below and on the outer side of the tooth row. These openings are relatively large below the first four teeth; more to behind, they become smaller and their row curves downwards. From the ninth tooth onwards, the foramina merge into a groove.
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In 2011, Ryan Schott suggested a new generic name, Foraminacephale, in his Master of Science thesis, resulting in a new combination Foraminacephale brevis. It remained an invalid nomen ex dissertatione until Schott and David Evans formally renamed "S." brevis to Foraminacephale brevis in 2016. The generic name combines Latin foramina ("foramina") with cephale, Latinised Greek for "head", referring to the many pits that covered the top of its dome.
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Philadelphia : Courage Books/Running Press, 19742\. Clinically Oriented Anatomy. Moore, Keith L. Philadelphia : Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2010 (6th ed) There are five paired sacral nerves, half of them arising through the sacrum on the left side and the other half on the right side. Each nerve emerges in two divisions: one division through the anterior sacral foramina and the other division through the posterior sacral foramina.1\.
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CT scan of a human skull in 3D The skull also contains sinuses, air-filled cavities known as paranasal sinuses, and numerous foramina. The sinuses are lined with respiratory epithelium. Their known functions are the lessening of the weight of the skull, the aiding of resonance to the voice and the warming and moistening of the air drawn into the nasal cavity. The foramina are openings in the skull.
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The dorsal root ganglia lie in the intervertebral foramina. The anterior and posterior spinal nerve roots join just beyond (lateral) to the location of the dorsal root ganglion.
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They are distinguished from M. gigas by characters that include a less well developed nose-shield and two infraorbital foramina, rather than one, and had larger premolars and incisors.
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This extension was supplied by neurovascular foramina (small pits) found on the lateral surfaces. The known specimens of the therizinosaurids Erlikosaurus, Neimongosaurus and Segnosaurus preserve numerous neurovascular foramina (more notorious on Erlikosaurus), indicating that a well-developed beak was present in life. Both maxilla and premaxilla were toothed and some species of therizinosaurids had specialized, recurved dentaries such as Segnosaurus and possibly Neimongosaurus. Braincases are known from three therizinosaurids: Erlikosaurus, Neimongosaurus and N. mckinleyi.
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The laminae give attachment to the ligamenta flava (ligaments of the spine). There are vertebral notches formed from the shape of the pedicles, which form the intervertebral foramina when the vertebrae articulate. These foramina are the entry and exit conduits for the spinal nerves. The body of the vertebra and the vertebral arch form the vertebral foramen, the larger, central opening that accommodates the spinal canal, which encloses and protects the spinal cord.
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A pinched nerve caused by pressure from a disc, vertebra or scar tissue might be remedied by a foraminotomy to broaden the intervertebral foramina and relieve pressure. It can also be caused by a foramina stenosis, a narrowing of the nerve opening, as a result of arthritis. Another condition is spondylolisthesis when one vertebra slips forward onto another. The reverse of this condition is retrolisthesis where one vertebra slips backwards onto another.
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On the base of the pyramidal process, close to its union with the horizontal part, are the lesser palatine foramina for the transmission of the posterior and middle palatine nerves.
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The incisive foramina are 5.25 mm long and 1.77 mm broad. The palatal bridge (the portion of the palate between the incisive foramina and the mesopterygoid fossa behind the back end of the palate) is 4.29 mm long and 2.75 mm broad at the first molars. The upper molar row is 4.13 mm long and M1 is 1.19 mm broad.Pardiñas and Teta, 2011, table 1 These measurements make J. anoblepas the largest known species of Juliomys.
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The foramen spinosum is one of two foramina located in the base of the human skull, on the sphenoid bone. It is situated just anterior to the spine of the sphenoid bone, and just lateral to the foramen ovale. The middle meningeal artery, middle meningeal vein, and the meningeal branch of the mandibular nerve pass through the foramen. The foramen spinosum is often used as a landmark in neurosurgery, due to its close relations with other cranial foramina.
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The lacrimal bone, which usually forms the rear edge of the antorbital fenestra, has also disappeared. Grooves cover the skull roof while foramina (tiny pores) coat the skull bones near the mouth.
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The surfaces of the plate are smooth, except above, where numerous grooves and canals are seen; these lead from the medial foramina on the cribriform plate and lodge filaments of the olfactory nerves.
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The mandibular foramina are large with a pan bone long and high. The specific name kasrani comes from Qaisrani, the Baloch tribe inhabiting the type locality. The protocetid Qaisracetus is also named after them.
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Anterior premaxilla broad and blunt, in dorsal view the premaxillary-maxillary suture is oblique. The ectopterygoid is lightly built and composed of a distinct small subrectangular pterygoid process and a slender rod-like jugal process. Incipient emargination of the frontal by the external nares. A pair of foramina separated by a thin median septum in the floor of the basioccipital are interpreted as the entrance of the basilar artery, and exit the ventral surface of the basioccipital as multiple small and anteriorly placed foramina.
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The upper and lower jaws of Tyrannosaurus, like those of many dinosaurs, possessed numerous foramina, or small holes in the bone. Various functions have been proposed for these foramina, such as a crocodile-like sensory system or evidence of extra-oral structures such as scales or potentially lips. The vertebral column of Tyrannosaurus consisted of ten neck vertebrae, thirteen back vertebrae and five sacral vertebrae. The number of tail vertebrae is unknown and could well have varied between individuals but probably numbered at least forty.
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The bony palate is relatively short, with the mesopterygoid fossa extending forward to the end of the molar row or even between the third molars. The roof of the fossa is perforated by large sphenopalatine vacuities. Usually, an alisphenoid strut is present; this extension of the alisphenoid bone separates two foramina (openings) in the skull, the masticatory–buccinator foramen and the foramen ovale accessorium. The condition of various grooves and foramina of the skull indicates that the pattern of the arterial circulation of the head is derived.
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The alisphenoid strut, an extension of the alisphenoid bone of the skull that separates two foramina (openings) in the skull, is present in some individuals. The mastoid bone usually contains some openings.Weksler et al., 2006, p.
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These include "Vieussens' valve" (superior medullary velum), "Vieussens' ventricle" (cavity of septum pellucidum), "Vieussens' ansa" (subclavian loop), "Vieussens' ganglia" (celiac ganglia), "Vieussens' isthmus" (limbus of fossa ovalis) and "Vieussens' veins" (innominate cardiac veins). He also provided an early description of the tiny openings in the veins of the right atrium of the heart that are known as "Vieussens' foramina", or foramina venarum minimarum, and sometimes "Thebesian foramina" after Adam Christian Thebesius (1686–1732).another important finding named after him in the field of cardiology is the vieussens collateral, that is an arterial relation between the proximal part of the right coronary artery(RCA) to left anterior diagonal artery(LAD), providing some blood flow for the myocardium distal to the coronary lesion in the LAD. This collateral blood supply reduces ischemia and protects that part of myocardium from complete necrosis.
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Occasionally two additional canals are present in the middle line; they are termed the foramina of Scarpa, and when present transmit the nasopalatine nerves, the left passing through the anterior, and the right through the posterior canal.
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Facetectomy is a surgical procedure which involves decompression of a spinal nerve root. For example, it can be performed in severely resistant cases of cervical rhizalgia, where the cervical nerve roots within the intervertebral foramina are decompressed.
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Galleonosaurus was a small-bodied non- iguanodontian ornithopod. It is characterized by five potential autapomorphies: ascending ramus of maxilla has two slot-like foramina on the anterior margin that communicate with the neurovascular tract; neurovascular tract bifurcates internally to exit at two anteroventral maxillary foramina; lingual margin of maxillary tooth roots in midregion of tooth row form an S-bend at their bases; posterior third of maxilla on some, but not all, specimens deflects posterolaterally at an abrupt kink; and lateral end of palatine lateral ramus forms a hatchet-shaped flange.
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Infiltration analgesia is deposition of an analgesic drug close to the apex of a tooth so that it can diffuse to reach the nerve entering the apical foramina. It is the most routinely used in dental local treatment.
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Paleontologists were analyzing the jaw of a pterosaur species Lonchodraco giganteus and found foramina near the tip of its beak and were in a similar patten like extant birds which would suggest a tactile feeding habit in pterosaurs.
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It is associated with closure of the foramina of Luschka and Magendie (the outflow openings of the fourth ventricle), atrophy of the cerebellum and cerebellar vermis, dilation of the fourth ventricle, hydrocephalus, and often atrophy of the corpus callosum.
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No depressions or foramina are present at the anterior base of the ascending process, a condition typical of Eusauropoda. A process on the posterior side of the astragalar body is unique among all sauropods, making it an autapomorphy of Diamantinasaurus.
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Thus, for the usually symmetric sphenoidal emissary foramina, asymmetry is more likely the result of a pathologic process than a normal variant. Ginsberg, Pruett, Chen and Elster did not find that asymmetry indicated disease in a study under 123 CT studies.
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Those transmissions then travel through skull foramina into the skull cavity. From there, they channel into the inner ear fluids, stimulating the cochlea. Subsequently, Sonitus Medical developed SoundBite Hearing System to use those principles in a non-surgical, removable hearing system.
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The karyotype includes 64 chromosomes, with a fundamental number (FN) of 98.Ojeda et al., 2004 The skull resembles that of some Rhipidomys species. The interorbital region is narrow and the incisive foramina are long, extending between the first molars.
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Doppler ultrasound is less useful as it provides little information about the part of the artery close to the skull base and in the vertebral foramina, and any abnormality detected on ultrasound would still require confirmation with CT or MRI.
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The palatal part of the premaxilla was concave, with many randomly arranged nutrient foramina (openings). The nasal bone—which formed the upper part of the snout—was relatively wide (becoming wider towards the back), and its front was covered with irregularly spaced vascular foramina. The suture between the nasal and frontal bones was less pointed forwards in the middle than were those of Catopsbaatar's relatives. Stereo photographs showing the most complete adult skull PM 120/107 from above, the side, and below The maxilla (the main part of the upper jaw) was extensive, and formed most of the side of the snout.
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The genus is based on holotype PIMUZ A/III 1225, three non-contiguous fragments of a ramus (lower jaw) of the mandible with multicuspate teeth. Two teeth are preserved, one with three cusps, and one with four; despite this difference the authors consider them as essentially isodont. The number of teeth is estimated at a minimum of twelve and a maximum of seventeen. A row of large oval foramina runs parallel to the tooth row; foramina in the form of small holes in the anterior part of the lower jaw suggest some sort of soft-tissue structure, or a keratin covering.
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The morphology of the maxilla represents a more derived condition than that seen in Oromycter, where the anterior edge of the dorsal process is a sharp ridge, and the distinctive anterolateral narial shelf is restricted to the lacrimal bone. On the anterior lateral surface of the maxilla a single large anteriorly oriented foramen is present in Arisierpeton, instead of a series of relatively large labial foramina situated along the external surface of the bone. External surface sculpturing is also more modest than in Oromycter and is restricted to faint grooves associated with small foramina on the surface of the bone.
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Many saurischian dinosaurs possessed vertebrae and ribs that contained hollowed-out cavities (pneumatic foramina), which reduced the weight of the bones and may have served as a basic 'flow-through ventilation' system similar to that of modern birds. In such a system, the neck vertebrae and ribs are hollowed out by the cervical air sac; the upper back vertebrae, by the lung; and the lower back and sacral (hip) vertebrae, by the abdominal air sac. These organs constitute a complex and very efficient method of respiration. "Prosauropods" are the only major group of saurischians without an extensive system of pneumatic foramina.
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The mesopterygoid fossa, an opening located behind the end of the palate, is broad and its roof is either fully ossified or perforated by small sphenopalatine vacuities where the presphenoid and basisphenoid bones meet. An alisphenoid strut separates two foramina (openings) at the base of the skull, the buccinator-masticatory foramen and the foramen ovale accessorium. The pattern of grooves and foramina on the head indicates that the circulation of the arteries in the head of T. ucucha follows the primitive pattern. The tegmen tympani, the roof of the tympanic cavity, overlaps the suspensory process of the squamosal bone.
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The maxillary dentition appears to bear out this theory as it bears seven molariform teeth of varying sizes. The maxilla itself is mostly triangular, with a long anteroposterior base at the ventral side of which is a thin crest that covers the border of the dental alveoli. Towards the posterior end the maxilla is elongated, and it forms a long suture with the jugal beneath the large orbits. There are two large foramina at the posterior end of the maxilla, and three small foramina at the anterior end, close to the premaxillary-maxillary border where another foramen is located.
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The snout and other parts of the skull also sported numerous foramina. According to the 2017 study which described D. horneri, scaly integument as well as tactile sensitivity was correlated with the multiple rows of neurovascular foramina seen in crocodylians and tyrannosaurids. The skull was perched at the end of a thick, S-shaped neck, and a long, heavy tail acted as a counterweight to balance out the head and torso, with the center of mass over the hips. Tyrannosaurids are known for their proportionately very small two-fingered forelimbs, although remnants of a vestigial third digit are sometimes found.
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The foramina give exit to the anterior divisions of the sacral nerves and entrance to the lateral sacral arteries. Each part at the sides of the foramina is traversed by four broad, shallow grooves, which lodge the anterior divisions of the sacral nerves. They are separated by prominent ridges of bone which give origin to the piriformis muscle. If a sagittal section be made through the center of the sacrum, the bodies are seen to be united at their circumferences by bone, wide intervals being left centrally, which, in the fresh state, are filled by the intervertebral discs.
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The incisive foramina, perforations in the palate between the incisors and the molars, are shorter than in some other Nephelomys species, not extending between the molars, and closer to the molars they are wider than further to the front, also unlike in some other species of the genus. These foramina are similar in shape to those in N. nimbosus.Anthony, 1926, p. 5 The alisphenoid strut, an extension of the alisphenoid bone of the skull which separates two openings in the skull, the buccinator–masticatory foramen and the accessory oval foramen, is usually present, although it is more commonly absent in other Nephelomys.
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Right maxilla of AMNH FARB 30653 (reversed) in lateral view. Maxillary foramina indicated by arrows A complete skull articulated is not known from the multiple specimens, however, numerous elements are known such as the right maxilla, dentary, jugal, squamosal and two lacrimals, quadrate and a complete predentary. In a lateral view, the right maxilla of specimen AMNH FARB 30653 is triangular in shape with various foramina on the surface. On the inner side 26 alveolar foramen are preserved and 22 alveoli are filled with teeth but the total count may be unknown due to incompleteness, the surface of this side is rather flat.
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The rostrum is long and narrow and the palate is very long especially postdental portion. Post orbital foramina are absent. Incisors 1 pair and peg like, cheek teeth brad. First premolars are very small and slightly exceeds the incisors in the crown area.
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Among the medical signs are dacryocystitis, seizures, intellectual disability, and paralysis, each of which is a complication resulting from the diminutive foramina. A common sign reported as a result of the disease has been a difference of the size of the eyes.
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The majority of the foramina in the skull studies were round in shape. The sphenomandibular ligament, derived from the first pharyngeal arch and usually attached to the spine of the sphenoid bone, may be found attached to the rim of the foramen.
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The genus Ototylomys is most closely related to Tylomys. They both are known as climbing rats that are endemic to Central America. They both have flattened braincases, elongated skulls, highly developed supraorbital ridges and incisive foramina. They also have similar reproductive glands.
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In the maxilla, occasionally two additional canals are present in the middle line of the palatine process; they are termed the foramina of Scarpa, and when present transmit the nasopalatine nerves, the left passing through the anterior, and the right through the posterior canal.
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The humerus also lacks entepicondylar (unlike non-archosauromorph reptiles) and ectepicondylar foramina, and shows strongly developed capitellum and trochlea (unlike Helveticosaurus). Finally, its olecranon process is strongly developed, forming a single ossification with the rest of the ulna, unlike other stem archosaurs and Helveticosaurus.
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Among therapsids, only eutheriodonts (not gorgonopsians) have respiratory nasal turbinates, which help retain moisture while breathing in large quantities of air, and its evolution is typically associated with the beginning of "mammalian" oxygen consumption rates and the origins of endothermy. If gorgonopsians were inertial homeotherms, it is not impossible that they had hair. The snout is typically riddled with foramina (small holes which confer with blood vessels), which could potentially point to the existence of loose skin (as opposed to scales), hair, various skin glands (such as sweat glands), and whiskers; however, some reptiles present a similar patterning of foramina, which are instead related to dental development rather than skin.
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The tarsometatarsi (lower leg bones) of Talpanas lippa were short and stout, and the braincase shallow and wide relative to its length. It had very small orbits (eye sockets) and also very small optic foramina (holes in the skull through which the optic nerves pass as they travel from the eyes to the brain). Together, these physical characteristics show that the eyes and optic nerve of this duck were quite reduced in size, and it can be assumed that this species was probably both blind and flightless. However, the maxillo-mandibular foramina (holes through which the trigeminal nerve passes) are extremely large, indicating larger nerves were travelling through it.
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It differed from other troodontids in that the front end of the dentary of the lower jaw was downturned, similar to what is seen in therizinosaurian theropods. The (the area where the two halves of the mandible connected at the front) was short, and this region was slightly curved towards the middle. Two rows of foramina ran along the outer side of the dentary, just below the first seven dentary teeth (only one of the rows continued hindwards past the seventh of these teeth). The foramina lay in a groove, which is a distinct feature of troodontids, while the inner surface of the dentary was smooth.
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The third ventricle is a narrow, laterally flattened, vaguely rectangular region, filled with cerebrospinal fluid, and lined by ependyma. It is connected at the superior anterior corner to the lateral ventricles, by the interventricular foramina, and becomes the cerebral aqueduct (... of Silvius) at the posterior caudal corner. Since the interventricular foramina are on the lateral edge, the corner of the third ventricle itself forms a bulb, known as the anterior recess (it is also known as the bulb of the ventricle). The roof of the ventricle comprises choroid plexus, forming the inferior central portion of the tela choroidea; immediately above the superior central portion of the tela choroidea is the fornix.
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Additionally, the juvenile and the adult species have these features in common with early Homo species and early great apes. The superior transverse torus is more prominent and developed in the adult species whereas the juvenile (PA869) has a less developed superior transverse torus. In the juvenile and the adult species the lateral prominences are separated into two branches which are only similar in a single orangutan species (based off the species discussed in the paper) and not related to humans. In the juvenile there are double mental foramina on the corpora whereas the adult species and every other species mentioned in the paper have single mental foramina.
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The subfornical organ (SFO) is one of the circumventricular organs of the brain. Its name comes from its location on the ventral surface of the fornix near the interventricular foramina (foramina of Monro), which interconnect the lateral ventricles and the third ventricle. Like all circumventricular organs, the subfornical organ is well-vascularized, and like all circumventricular organs except the subcommissural organ, some SFO capillaries have fenestrations, which increase capillary permeability. The SFO is considered a sensory circumventricular organ because it is responsive to a wide variety of hormones and neurotransmitters, as opposed to secretory circumventricular organs, which are specialized in the release of certain substances.
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The coyote also carries its tail downwards when running or walking, rather than horizontally as the wolf does. Coyote tracks can be distinguished from those of dogs by their more elongated, less rounded shape. Unlike dogs, the upper canines of coyotes extend past the mental foramina.
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This is caused by a blockage of foramina within the ventricular drainage system of the central nervous system (CNS), which can lead to expansion of the ventricles, compressing the brain (the cranial cavity cannot expand to accommodate the increase in fluid volume) and possibly causing damage.
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On the surface of the maxilla there are many small nutritive foramina forming two horizontal parallel lines (Van den Brandt et al., 2018). For the premaxilla there is a gap along the midline between the premaxilla and the palatal processes (Van den Brandt et al., 2018).
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At the base of the skull, the foramen ovale (Latin: oval window) is one of the larger of the several holes (the foramina) that transmit nerves through the skull. The foramen ovale is situated in the posterior part of the sphenoid bone, posterolateral to the foramen rotundum.
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Lateral to either olfactory groove are the internal openings of the anterior and posterior ethmoidal foramina (or canals). The posterior ethmoidal foramen opens at the back part of this margin under cover of the projecting lamina of the sphenoid, and transmits the posterior ethmoidal vessels and nerve.
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Hadrocodium, whose fossils date from approximately 195 million years ago, in the early Jurassic, provides the first clear evidence of a jaw joint formed solely by the squamosal and dentary bones; there is no space in the jaw for the articular, a bone involved in the jaws of all early synapsids. Fossil of Thrinaxodon at the National Museum of Natural History The earliest clear evidence of hair or fur is in fossils of Castorocauda and Megaconus, from 164 million years ago in the mid-Jurassic. In the 1950s, it was suggested that the foramina (passages) in the maxillae and premaxillae (bones in the front of the upper jaw) of cynodonts were channels which supplied blood vessels and nerves to vibrissae (whiskers) and so were evidence of hair or fur; it was soon pointed out, however, that foramina do not necessarily show that an animal had vibrissae, as the modern lizard Tupinambis has foramina that are almost identical to those found in the nonmammalian cynodont Thrinaxodon. Popular sources, nevertheless, continue to attribute whiskers to Thrinaxodon.
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It was first named by L.S. Russell in 1968, and contains one species, C. sookensis. Like Aetiocetus, Chonecetus possessed both multicusped teeth and the nutrient foramina required for baleen.Marine Mammals: Evolutionary Biology; page 62. By Annalisa Berta, James L. Sumich, and Kit M. Kovacs, published 2005; Academic Press.
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Behind the greater palatine foramen is the pyramidal process of the palatine bone, perforated by one or more lesser palatine foramina which carry the lesser palatine nerve, and marked by the commencement of a transverse ridge, for the attachment of the tendinous expansion of the tensor veli palatini.
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The size of a small deer, J. naida probably looked somewhat like a skinny hippopotamus out-crossed with a long-legged pig. Fossilized jawbones contain a number of mental foramina, eight on each side of the jaw, indicating that the species had very sensitive lips and a mobile snout.
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The tail is scarcely furred. The front part of the skull is flat, short, and broad. The incisive foramina, openings at the front of the palate, are short, and the palate itself is broad and smooth. The root of the lower incisor is contained in a prominent capsular process.
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There are two pairs of distinct foramina anterior and posterior to the dorsal transverse suture; modern placentals only bear one. It is about 1.9 centimeters long. The dentaries are short and robust, with a convex central border. The masseteric fossa is deep, and the canine is long and deep.
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The columns (anterior pillars; fornicolumns) of the fornix arch downward in front of the interventricular foramina and behind the anterior commissure, and each descends through the grey matter in the lateral wall of the third ventricle to the base of the brain, where it ends in the mammillary bodies.
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In the human mouth, the incisive foramen, also called anterior palatine foramen, or nasopalatine foramen is a funnel-shaped opening in the bone of the oral hard palate immediately behind the incisor teeth where blood vessels and nerves pass. The incisive foramen is continuous with the incisive canal, this foramen or group of foramina is located behind the central incisor teeth in the incisive fossa of the maxilla. The incisive foramen receives the nasopalatine nerves from the floor of the nasal cavity along with the sphenopalatine artery supplying the mucous membrane covering the hard palate of the mouth. In many other species, the incisive foramina allow for passage of ducts to the vomeronasal organ.
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Juliomys anoblepas is similar to the other members of its genus in the configuration of its zygomatic plate (a bony plate on the side of the skull). It hardly extends forward in front of the connection between the plate and the main body of the skull, and that connection is relatively low on the skull. Furthermore, the incisive foramina, openings in the front part of the palate, extend to a point between the first molars, and the palate is short, with its back margin between the third molars. The living species of Juliomys differ from J. anoblepas in various characters, including shorter incisive foramina in two species and the shape of the zygomatic arch (cheekbone) in J. anoblepas.
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The fascia of the Piriformis is very thin and is attached to the front of the sacrum and the sides of the greater sciatic foramen; it is prolonged on the muscle into the gluteal region. At its sacral attachment around the margins of the anterior sacral foramina it comes into intimate association with and ensheathes the nerves emerging from these foramina. Hence the sacral nerves are frequently described as lying behind the fascia. The internal iliac artery, internal iliac vein, and their branches, on the other hand, lie in the subperitoneal tissue in front of the fascia, and the branches to the gluteal region emerge in special sheaths of this tissue, above and below the Piriformis muscle.
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31 The incisive foramina, openings in the front part of the palate, reach backward between the molars. The palate is long, extending substantially beyond the third molars, the usual condition in oryzomyines.Weksler, 2006, pp. 34–35 The back part, near the third molars, is usually perforated by prominent posterolateral palatal pits, which are recessed into fossae (depressions).Weksler, 2006, p. 35 Sphenopalatine vacuities are usually absent, but have been reported in some populations.Weksler, 2006, p. 37; Carleton and Arroyo-Cabrales, 2009, p. 117; Sánchez et al., 2001, p. 210 There is no alisphenoid strut, an extension of the alisphenoid bone that in some oryzomyines separates two foramina in the skull.Weksler, 2006, p.
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The lesser palatine canals start from the greater palatine canal, and run with them, also opening into the roof of the oral cavity. Their openings are known as the lesser palatine foramina, and they transmit the lesser palatine artery, vein, and nerve, as wll as the middle palatine vessels and nerve.
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In addition, the surface characteristics of the labial side of the dentaries are similar to those of the maxillae, showing little sculpturing, and occasional small foramina. A well-developed, anteriorly extending Meckelian canal is formed by the dentary bone, below which it would be attached to the splenial by sutures.
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The nasals have large foramina dorsolaterally and a midline fossa. No palpebrae are preserved. Though cervical vertebrae and caudal vertebrae have been preserved, their exact number is unknown. The femur is bowed and has an anterior trochanter slightly lower than the greater trochanter and a third as narrow as the latter.
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The width across the nasals is very narrow and their length is less than . They have medium-sized auditory bullae with a length of less than . The shield bullae have a shallow depth of less than . The skull also has a narrow basioccipital and is very broad across the carotid foramina.
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The nasal is also dotted with tiny foramina. Progalesaurus has a parietal foramen, which is used for light sensing in extant taxa. Posterior to the parietal foramen the parietals are fused, forming a sagittal crest. The crest narrows posterior to the foramen like Galesaurus and Cynosaurus, and unlike more derived cynodonts.
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Due to its distinctive position, the foramen is used as an anatomical landmark during neurosurgery. As a landmark, the foramen spinosum reveals the positions of other cranial foramina, the mandibular nerve and trigeminal ganglion, foramen ovale, and foramen rotundum. It may also be relevant in achieving haemostasis during trauma surgery.
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Benton, 2005. Vertebrate Palaeontology 3rd edition. Blackwell Publishing Its peculiar stunted forelimbs were tiny and the humerus was only 35 mm long (the whole animal was about 1.5 m long). Various foramina on the humeral surfaces are very similar to those seen in Ichthyostega, Acanthostega, and lobe-finned fishes like Eusthenopteron.
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The anterior surface of this bone is concave both transversely and dorsoventrally. It has two well-developed foramina endolymphatica, one on each dorsolateral extremity of the concave anterior surface. The dorsal margin is thickened and expanded. Contact with the parietals was probably not strong, hence the unfinished appearance of the dorsal surface.
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The rostrum is angled downwards, like in a dugong, and has a reduced number of incisors. Enlarged foramina in front of the orbits indicate that the rostrum had a rich blood supply. No living mammal displays this combination of characteristics. The expanded nasal is present in tapirs, but they are not aquatic animals.
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There is a fragment of the paired nasals recovered from Aumelas, it has a slight convex shape on its dorsal surface. On the center of each nasal is a pair of ventrally opening foramina, each nasal is vertically concaved with a lateral oblique wall, the nasals are narrower in their anterior portion.
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There is a strong posterior ridge along the quadrate's main axis. Above the two parts of the mandibular condyle, there is a well-defined facet for articulation with the quadratojugal. The anterior parts of the dentary are preserved, up to the first eight teeth. The lateral faces bear a series of vascular foramina.
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38–39 The pattern of grooves and foramina (openings) in the skull indicates that the circulation of the arteries of the head in T. talamancae follows the primitive pattern, as in most similar species but unlike in Hylaeamys. The mandible (lower jaw) is less robust than in T. bolivaris.Musser et al., 1998, p.
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The incisive foramina do not extend between the molars. Unlike in both Holochilus and Lundomys,Weksler, 2006, p. 35 the palate is flat, lacking a distinct ridge at the midline. The parapterygoid fossae, which are located behind the palate at the level of the molars, are excavated somewhat above the level of the palate.
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The upperparts were reddish and graded into the yellowish underparts. The tail was about as long as the head and body, sparsely haired, and darker above than below. The species differed from O. couesi in having longer nasal bones, shorter incisive foramina (perforations of the front part of the palate), and more robust zygomatic arches (cheekbones).
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It is probable that the parabasisphenoid was in contact with the prootic bone, but it was definitely not attached to the opisthotic. Two small foramina, resembling slits, are immediately anterior to the parabasisphenoid- basioccipital suture. They extend anteriorly as canals into the bone and are probably the entrances of the cerebral carotid arteries, although positioned unusually far posteriorly.
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In the skull, the facial skeleton is long and the braincase is smooth. The incisive foramina (openings in the front part of the palate) are long and the bony palate itself is smooth. The molars are somewhat hypsodont (high-crowned), though less so than in Eliurus, and the third molars are reduced in size and complexity.
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They travel sideways along the sphenoid bone of the eye socket, then upwards through the insula cortex, where final branches arise. The middle cerebral arteries send branches along their length. The vertebral arteries emerge as branches of the left and right subclavian arteries. They travel upward through transverse foramina which are spaces in the cervical vertebrae.
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This artery passes through bony holes in the vertebra. These bony holes are ten times larger in diameter than the artery that passes through it (extra space in the transverse foramina). This creates cushiony air pockets that allow for more movement of the artery when twisted. 12 of the 14 cervical vertebrae in the owls neck have this adaptation.
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The right dentary is only partial, unlike the left dentary where all the fragments are present, but the piece preserved is 9 mm long. The posterior teeth are displaced ventrally, but at least 16 teeth are present, probably 18. The right dentary also shows the presence of at least five nutrient foramina ventral to the teeth.
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In the opening of the incisive foramen, the orifices of two lateral canals are visible; they are named the incisive canals or foramina of Stensen. Through each of them ascends the terminal branch of the greater palatine artery while the nasopalatine nerve descends, to anastomose with the posterior septal branch of sphenopalatine artery and the greater palatine nerve respectively.
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The maxilla has an indentation behind the canine root, and in the same area possess several large foramina. These suggest that Abdalodon may have had whiskers. The posterior end of the maxilla bends medially, insetting the postcanines from the labial border of the snout. The dentary of Abdalodon diastematicus has a well defined masseteric fossa (a synapomorphy of cynodonts).
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The zygomatico-orbital foramina are two canals in the skull, that allow nerves to pass through. The orifices are seen on the orbital process of the zygomatic bone. One of these canals opens into the temporal fossa, the other on the malar surface of the bone. The former transmits the zygomaticotemporal, the latter the zygomaticofacial nerve.
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The lateral groove and associated foramina are located high on the outer surface of the dentary. The anterodorsal margin of the dentary is curved downward. The symphysis of the lower jaws is heavily built while the leading edge is vertical in side view. The front jaw points are wide in plan view, encountering each other at an obtuse angle.
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There is no choroid plexus in the anterior horn. In the third ventricle there is a small amount in the roof that is continuous with that in the body, via the interventricular foramina, the channels that connect the lateral ventricles with the third ventricle. A choroid plexus is in part of the roof of the fourth ventricle.
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They were amphiplatian, flat at both ends, and had rather small intervertebral foramina, the spaces between the vertebral body and the neural arch. Their spinal processes were tall and narrow in side view. Their side processes projected horizontally and were deeply excavated at the rear underside. The sides of the back vertebrae also had deep oval excavations.
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The crests on the braincase and interorbital region are weakly developed. Eremoryzomys has larger crests on its interorbital region. The incisive foramina (openings in the front part of the palate) are long, sometimes extending to between the first molars (M1). The bony palate is broad and short, with the posterior margin between the third molars (M3).
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The English word "skull" is probably derived from Old Norse "skulle", while the Latin word cranium comes from the Greek root κρανίον (kranion). The skull is made up of a number of fused flat bones, and contains many foramina, fossae, processes, and several cavities or sinuses. In zoology there are openings in the skull called fenestrae.
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Weksler, 2006, pp. 30–31 The incisive foramina, perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars, are short, not extending between the molars.Weksler, 2006, pp. 32, 34, table 5 The condition of the posterolateral palatal pits is variable, with some individuals having small pits and others having larger pits that may be recessed into a fossa (depression).
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The skull is long and narrow with a long braincase. The intraorbital region is broad; zygomatic arches are slender and not widely spreading; incisive foramina are relatively short and widest in the middle; the palate is low with slender or incomplete lateral pits, and posterior median ridge sloping and grooved; the interpterygoid fossa is wide and quadrate.
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The skull, which is short at the front, shows some typical oryzomyine characters. The palate is long, extending past the molars and the maxillary bones. The alisphenoid strut, which in some sigmodontines separates two foramina (openings) in the skull, is absent. The squamosal bone lacks a suspensory process contacting the tegmen tympani, the roof the tympanic cavity.
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Galen observed that fish had multitudes of openings (foramina), big enough to admit gases, but too fine to give passage to water. Pliny the Elder held that fish respired by their gills, but observed that Aristotle was of another opinion. The word branchia comes from the Greek , "gills", plural of (in singular, meaning a fin)."Branchia". Oxford English Dictionary.
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It is situated partly within the pelvis against its posterior wall, and partly at the back of the hip-joint. It arises from the front of the sacrum by three fleshy digitations, attached to the portions of bone between the first, second, third, and fourth anterior sacral foramina, and to the grooves leading from the foramina: a few fibers also arise from the margin of the greater sciatic foramen, and from the anterior surface of the sacrotuberous ligament. The muscle passes out of the pelvis through the greater sciatic foramen, the upper part of which it fills, and is inserted by a rounded tendon into the upper border of the greater trochanter behind, but often partly blended with, the common tendon of the obturator internus and superior and inferior gemellus muscles.
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These foramina are superficially very similar to the pneumatic openings with Saurischia. However, CAT-scans of the Jiangjunosaurus fossils revealed that the openings are not connected to inner air spaces and thus probably served as vein channels. Some dorsal ribs have a crescent-shaped flange at their lower ends. Two neck plates have been preserved, probably in their original position.
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Stereotoceras is a Middle and Upper Devonian genus in the oncocerid family Brevicoceratidae that formed a smooth, depressed, gyroconic shell with the dorsum much flatter that the venter. Sutures are straight ventrally but have dorsal lobes. Growth lines outline a ventral hyponomic sinus but are otherwise transverse. The siphuncle in ventral, nummuloidal, with discrete, irregular, actinosiphonate deposits at the septal foramina.
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The zygomatic arches (cheekbones) are narrow, but as usual in nesomyines contain a relatively long jugal bone. The interorbital region (between the eyes) is narrow and short and lacks accessory shelves and ridges. The braincase also lacks such ridges. The incisive foramina (openings in the front part of the palate) are medium in length, and do not reach the first molars.
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In the temporal bone, in the portion beneath the falciform crest are three sets of foramina; one group, just below the posterior part of the crest, situated in the area cribrosa media, consists of several small openings for the nerves to the saccule; below and behind this area is the foramen singulare, or opening for the nerve to the posterior semicircular canal.
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The proximal end is the widest part while the distal end has a large notch along its front edge creating a hooked structure. Both the ectepicondylar and entepicondylar foramina (two holes on the distal end of the humerus) are completely closed up. The proximal tips of the radius and ulna (lower arm bones) were also preserved, indicating that they were slender bones.
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In each Zahnreihe, the anteriormost tooth is the oldest and the posterior most tooth is the youngest. There is active ongoing replacement of these tooth rows. The distal portion of each tooth is compressed from side to side and is somewhat pear shaped in cross section. Restoration of E. bathystoma The palate shows two distinct regions that are covered in minute foramina.
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Each segmental medullary artery is a branch of the cervical part of the vertebral artery. These small branches penetrate into the vertebral bone through small openings such as the intervertebral foramina. These segmental arteries provide blood flow to the surface and inside the spinal canal at each segmental level. The largest anterior segmental medullary artery is also known as the artery of Adamkiewicz.
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CT of the chest demonstrates a Morgagni hernia (red arrow) This rare anterior defect of the diaphragm is variably referred to as a Morgagni, retrosternal, or parasternal hernia. Accounting for approximately 2% of all CDH cases, it is characterized by herniation through the foramina of Morgagni which are located immediately adjacent and posterior to the xiphoid process of the sternum.
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The palate itself is wide and short, with its back margin between the M3s. Oryzomyines like Oecomys and Oligoryzomys have longer palates, extending beyond the third molars. Fine openings (foramina) are present on the palate. The back margin of the palate is squared; J. anoblepas lacks a spine in the middle of the back margin, as is present in Rhipidomys.
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At the back there is a deep high furrow above it with a row of foramina that open towards the top in a series of vertical grooves. The high position is a basal characteristic. The outer lower side shows an ornamentation of pits and interweaved ridges. The front interdental plates are very high but they quickly lower towards the rear of the jaw.
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On the base of the edge small holes are visible. Their edges seem to be too sharp for them to be natural foramina in the bone wall. It was suggested that they could be tunnels made by bone-eating larvae of beetles. In 2014, it was assumed that they represented exit holes of a salt gland, unique for the entire Pterosauria.
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The vertebrae show no such damage: they were probably protected by a superior blood supply, made possible by the arteries entering the bone through the two foramina subcentralia, large openings in their undersides. Descending would have been helped by a negative Archimedes Force, i.e. being denser than water. Of course, this would have had the disadvantage of hampering coming up again.
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Each dentary has at the top inner side a rudimentary triturating shelf pierced by four small oval occlusal foramina. The same shelf has a weakly developed ridge running along its inner edge. The coronoid bone wedges into the underside of the top rear process of the dentary. Additionally, a unique combination is present of traits that in themselves are not unique.
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To the front the basiocciptal contacts the triangular basisphenoid of the underside of the braincase. The two elements are not fully fused but in side view show a clear suture, obliquely running to below. At the underside of the skull, the paired front praemaxillae form a bony secondary palate, with a concave surface. Each praemaxilla is pierced by two foramina.
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The maxilla was short and deep, and probably contained a sinus. The maxilla had a series of foramina that corresponded with each tooth position there, and these functioned as passages for erupting replacement teeth. The mandible articulated with the skull below the back of the orbit. The tooth-bearing part of the lower jaw was long, with the part behind being rather short.
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These abnormal openings form extra "soft spots" on the head, in addition to the two that newborns normally have, and unlike the usual newborn soft spots, the enlarged parietal foramina remain open throughout life. Other signs can include multiple mostly noncancerous benign bone tumours called osteochondromas (exostosis), developmental delay, vision disorders and craniofacial abnormalities. It is classified as a rare disease.
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Foramen ovale The foramen ovale is an opening in the greater wing of the sphenoid bone. The foramen ovale is one of two cranial foramina in the greater wing, the other being the foramen spinosum. The foramen ovale is posterolateral to the foramen rotundum and anteromedial to the foramen spinosum. Posterior and medial to the foramen is the opening for the carotid canal.
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The nasals of Thrinaxodon are pitted with a large number of foramina, giving the impression that this synapsid had whiskers. The nasals narrow anteriorly and expand anteriorly and articulate directly with the frontals, pre-frontals and lacrimals; however, there is no interaction with the jugals or the orbitals. The maxilla of Thrinaxodon is also heavily pitted with foramina.Estes R. 1961.
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On either side of the crista galli, the cribriform plate is narrow and deeply grooved; it supports the olfactory bulb and is perforated by foramina for the passage of the olfactory nerves. The foramina in the middle of the groove are small and transmit the nerves to the roof of the nasal cavity; those at the medial and lateral parts of the groove are larger—the former transmit the nerves to the upper part of the nasal septum, the latter those to the superior nasal concha. At the front part of the cribriform plate, on either side of the crista galli, is a small fissure that is occupied by a process of dura mater. Lateral to this fissure is a notch or foramen which transmits the nasociliary nerve; from this notch a groove extends backward to the anterior ethmoidal foramen.
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At the side of the articular processes are the four posterior sacral foramina; they are smaller in size and less regular in form than those at the front, and transmit the posterior divisions of the sacral nerves. On the side of the posterior sacral foramina is a series of tubercles, the transverse processes of the sacral vertebrae, and these form the lateral sacral crest. The transverse tubercles of the first sacral vertebra are large and very distinct; they, together with the transverse tubercles of the second vertebra, give attachment to the horizontal parts of the posterior sacroiliac ligaments; those of the third vertebra give attachment to the oblique fasciculi of the posterior sacroiliac ligaments; and those of the fourth and fifth to the sacrotuberous ligaments. Lateral surface The lateral surface of the sacrum is broad above, but narrows into a thin edge below.
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Skeleton of pale-throated sloth The sloth has nine cervical vertebrae, giving it extreme flexibility. As a result, a pale-throated sloth can bend its head backwards and forwards through 270° and rotate it through 330°. It possesses a pair of foramina in the anterodorsal nasopharynx, a feature that distinguishes it from its sister species. The females have two mammae in the chest region, a simple uterus.
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The nasal crest side is very rugose with a series of bosses and swellings. The nasal bone contributes to the upper rear part of the depression around the antorbital fenestra. This area shows a number of pneumatic openings or pneumatopores, where diverticula of the air sacks entered the bone. In the front two small foramina are present, more to the rear two large horizontal oval openings.
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The endocast was reconstructed in two sections, one on the portion of the braincase articulated with the left half of the skull and the remainder on the disarticulated portion of the braincase. Their relative position was then approximated based on cranial landmarks and comparison with other hadrosaurids. Because of weathering, many of the smaller neural canals and foramina could not be identified for certain.
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The incorporation of supraorbitals in the dome are similar if not greater than more derived pachycephalosaur. Compared to Stegoceras validum and later Campanian pachycephlosaurids, the dorsally convex frontonasal boss is short and not separated with grooves from the anterior supraorbital lobe. This region is approximately 50% of the thickness to the cerebral fossa (55 mm). Orbital fosse are only slightly concave and pierced by small foramina.
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Ribs were unearthed too, the most complete is SGO-PV-961d, though it is unknown if the ribs of Atacamatitan had pneumatic foramina as evidenced in other titanosaurs. It is anteroposteriorly compressed with the dorsoventral diameter longer than the anteroposterior one. Capitulum and tuberculum are fragmented. The fragmentary sternal plate is thin and has a smooth border; due to its fragmentary nature, it is unclear the form.
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The elaborate head crest of Guanlong, a basal tyrannosauroid from China. Bony crests are found on the skulls of many theropods, including numerous tyrannosauroids. The most elaborate is found in Guanlong, where the nasal bones support a single, large crest which runs along the midline of the skull from front to back. This crest was penetrated by several large foramina (openings) which reduced its weight.
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Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia (also known as CDD or lionitis) is an extremely rare autosomal recessive bone disorder that causes calcium to build up in the skull, disfiguring the facial features and reducing life expectancy. These calcium deposits decrease the size of cranial foramina, and can decrease the circumference of the cervical spinal canal. In the few cases recorded, most of the sufferers died in childhood.
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The skull and molars are relatively robust. O. albiventer has broad zygomatic arches (cheekbones), long incisive foramina (perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars), and long nasal bones that extend behind the premaxillary bones. Compared to its lowland relative O. couesi mexicanus, O. albiventer is larger and more brightly colored and has larger molars but narrower incisive foramina.Carleton and Arroyo-Cabrales, 2009, pp.
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Large foramina ran on the side of the maxilla, above the alveoli. A deep nutrient groove ran backwards from the subnarial pit along the base of the interdental plates (or rugosae) of the maxilla. Dilophosaurus bore a pair of high, thin, and arched (or plate-shaped) crests longitudinally on the skull roof. The crests were formed significantly by the lacrimal bones and partially by the nasal bones.
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On the maxilla, there is a distinct notch that contributes most of the border of a dorsal fenestra. It appeared to be the cranialmost of a series of maxillary foramina that extended across the lateral face of the maxilla. This most likely hinted to cutaneous blood vessels and nerves in that area. This notch is hidden by an overlap of the premaxilla by the maxilla.
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The development and shape of the ventricular system relates to the differential development of different parts of the brain, with the ventricular system ultimately arising from the neural tube. The lateral ventricles remain connected to the third ventricle throughout development, themselves developing as outpouchings from the third ventricle. The foramina develop slowly in a forward and outward direction as the fornix grows in size.
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274 In the skull, the braincase is high, the zygomatic arches (cheekbones) are broad and squared, and the incisive foramina, which perforate the palate between the incisors and the molars, are long and broad. The upper incisors are orthodont, with their cutting edge nearly vertical. Morphometrically, the skull of O. peninsulae is sharply distinct from other western Mexican Oryzomys.Carleton and Arroyo-Cabrales, 2009, pp.
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Skulls of C. sanctus and C. sp., with arrows indicating hyoid elements The skull morphology of Confuciusornis has been difficult to determine, due to the crushed and deformed nature of the fossils. The skull was near triangular in side view, and the toothless beak was robust and pointed. The front of the jaws had deep neurovascular foramina and grooves, associated with the keratinous rhamphotheca (horn-covered beak).
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The maxillae are tall and laterally compressed, forming most of the borders of the antorbital fenestra (visible on the photo above). The palatal process extends anteroventrally and is very short. A ridge extending to form a suture with the palatine is present above the sixth, seventh and eighth dental alveoli. Small infraorbital foramina are located around the edge of the antorbital fenestra, near the teeth.
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Nothing more is known of her. The shrine of St Wite in the north wall of the transept is foramina-style, with three large vesica-shaped apertures for pilgrims to insert heads, hands, arms or feet. When the shrine was opened in 1900 it was found to contain a lead casket with the inscription +HIC. REQUIESCT. RELIQU. SCE. WITE (Here rest the relics of Saint Wite).
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The skull table is highly ornamented in larger specimens, with the dermal bones well sculptured. The palate of Chanaresuchus has two elongate choanae. Two small openings anterior to the choanae may be anterior palatine foramina that could have been used for access to vomeronasal organs. The secondary palate formed between these two sets of openings may have been an adaptation for breathing through the snout while underwater.
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Vertebral foramina are roughly circular in shape. The top surface of the first thoracic vertebra has a hook-shaped uncinate process, just like the cervical vertebrae. The thoracolumbar division refers to the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae together, and sometimes also their surrounding areas. The thoracic vertebrae attach to ribs and so have articular facets specific to them; these are the superior, transverse and inferior costal facets.
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It is similar to N. keaysi, but smaller, and the fur on the underparts is buffy instead of whitish in the specimens Thomas examined. The interorbital region of the skull is narrow. The incisive foramina, which perforate the palate between the incisors and the molars, are long and narrow. The bony palate is short, with its posterior end often located between the third molars.
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Near each of the 3 corners of the inferior roof is an opening into the cisterna magna, the caudal opening being the foramen Magendie, while the lateral openings are the foramina of Luschka. The roof rises (i.e. posteriorly) to a peak, known as the fastigium (Latin for "summit"); the fastigial nucleus lies immediately above the roof of the fourth ventricle, in the cerebellum. The floor (i.e.
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The vertebral vein is formed in the suboccipital triangle, from numerous small tributaries which spring from the internal vertebral venous plexuses and issue from the vertebral canal above the posterior arch of the atlas. They unite with small veins from the deep muscles at the upper part of the back of the neck, and form a vessel which enters the foramen in the transverse process of the atlas, and descends, forming a dense plexus around the vertebral artery, in the canal formed by the transverse foramina of the upper six cervical vertebrae. This plexus ends in a single trunk, which emerges from the transverse foramina of the sixth cervical vertebra, and opens at the root of the neck into the back part of the innominate vein near its origin, its mouth being guarded by a pair of valves. On the right side, it crosses the first part of the subclavian artery.
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The anatomical neck (collum anatomicum) is obliquely directed, forming an obtuse angle with the body. It is best marked in the lower half of its circumference; in the upper half it is represented by a narrow groove separating the head from the tubercles. It affords attachment to the articular capsule of the shoulder-joint, and is perforated by numerous vascular foramina. Fracture of the anatomical neck rarely occurs.
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The pelvic portion of each sympathetic trunk is situated in front of the sacrum, medial to the anterior sacral foramina. It consists of four or five small sacral ganglia, connected together by interganglionic cords, and continuous above with the abdominal portion. Below, the two pelvic sympathetic trunks converge, and end on the front of the coccyx in a small ganglion, the ganglion impar, also known as azygos or ganglion of Walther.
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The front margin of the anterior zygomatic ridge was thickened, which produced a bulge on the side margin of the snout when viewed from the side and above. The lower part of the suture between the maxilla and the squamosal bone extended along the hind border of the anterior zygomatic ridge. The palatal processes of the maxilla formed most of the palate. The major palatine foramina had shallow grooves extending forward.
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There were triangular nutrient foramina between the plates, each containing the tip of an erupting tooth. The narial fossa (depression) in front of the bony nostril was long, relatively shallow, and less developed than that of Giraffatitan. It contained a subnarial fenestra, which was much larger than those of Giraffatitan and Camarasaurus. The dentaries (the bones of the lower jaws that contained the teeth) were robust, though less than in Camarasaurus.
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The anterior region palatal surface of the skull is obscured by the lower jaw, which tightly fixed to the palate. The transverse processes of the pterygoid sweep laterally and posteriorly. When first described the skull was considered to have a triangular interpterygoing vacuity, however upon later examination, the status of a pterygoid vacuity was left ambiguous. The dentary symphysis is covered with foramina, suggesting there may have been whiskers there.
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Thieme Atlas of anatomy (2006), pp 470-471 The plexus is formed lateral to the intervertebral foramina and passes through psoas major. Its smaller motor branches are distributed directly to psoas major, while the larger branches leave the muscle at various sites to run obliquely down through the pelvis to leave under the inguinal ligament with the exception of the obturator nerve which exits the pelvis through the obturator foramen.
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The lumbar nerves are five spinal nerves which arise from either side of the spinal cord below the thoracic spinal cord and above the sacral spinal cord. They arise from the spinal cord between each pair of lumbar spinal vertebrae and travel through the intervertebral foramina. The nerves then split into an anterior branch, which travels forward, and a posterior branch, which travels backwards and supplies the area of the back.
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A somewhat rare congenital disorder of the sternum sometimes referred to as an anatomical variation is a sternal foramen, a single round hole in the sternum that is present from birth and usually is off-centered to the right or left, commonly forming in the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th segments of the breastbone body. Congenital sternal foramina can often be mistaken for bullet holes.Byers, S.N. (2008). Introduction to Forensic Anthropology.
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The tail vertebrae possessed chevron bones. The dorsal vertebrae of plesiosaurs are easily recognisable by two large foramina subcentralia, paired vascular openings at the underside. The skull of plesiosaurs showed the "euryapsid" condition, lacking the lower temporal fenestrae, the openings at the lower rear sides. The upper temporal fenestrae formed large openings at the sides of the rear skull roof, the attachment for muscles closing the lower jaws.
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Dentition. The anterior palatine foramina are longer than in other species in the genus. The brown palm civet has a uniformly brown pelage, darker around the head, neck, shoulder, legs, and tail. Sometimes the pelage may be slightly grizzled. Two subspecies have been described on the basis of the colour of the pelage although the colour is extremely variable, ranging from pale buff or light brown to dark brown.
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Septal necks are short, brims long and recumbent. Connecting rings are thin and poorly known. Bullettes at the apical end of the connecting rings, which grasp the periphery of the previous septal foramina and connect to the inside of the previous septal necks, are never swollen. Endocones are formed by overlapping parietal deposits that line in inner side of the siphuncle in the apical part of the shell.
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It was first described in 1982 by Hassoun. Central neurocytomas are rare brain tumors that are located most of the times in the lateral ventricles near the Monro foramina. They were first discovered by Hassoun and co-workers in 1982, and were classified as grade II tumors. In 1985, Wilson had also described a rare case of "differentiated neuroblastoma" in the lateral ventricle that resembles oligondendroglioma on light microscopy.
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The vacuities are much larger in Eremoryzomys. The alisphenoid strut, a piece of bone that separates two foramina (openings), is present in all Drymoreomys specimens examined, except in one juvenile specimen. The mandible (lower jaw) is long and low. The coronoid process, the frontmost of the three main processes (projections) at the back of the jawbone, is large and about as high as the condyloid process behind it.
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The posterior divisions of the sacral nerves are small and diminish in size as they move downward; they emerge, except the last, through the posterior sacral foramina. In some rare cases these nerves break and cause the person's legs to become weak and eventually wither away under the person's weight. The upper three are covered at their points of exit by the multifidus and divide into medial and lateral branches.
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The mandibular incisive canal (indicated here by coral green arrows) continuing anteriorly (to the right) from the mandibular canal (purple arrows) after the mental foramen (light green circle). The mental foramen is one of two foramina (openings) located on the anterior surface of the mandible. It transmits the terminal branches of the inferior alveolar nerve and vessels (the mental artery). The mental foramen descends slightly in toothless individuals.
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The , where the two halves of the lower jaw connected at the front, was particularly short. The rest of the lower jaw was fragile; the hind third was much thinner than the front, with a blade-like appearance. The front part of the dentary curved outwards to accommodate the large front teeth, and this area formed the mandibular part of the rosette. The dentary–like the snout—had many foramina.
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Humans have between 10 and 20 million olfactory receptor neurons. In vertebrates, ORNs are bipolar neurons with dendrites facing the external surface of the cribriform plate with axons that pass through the cribriform foramina with terminal end at olfactory bulbs. The ORNs are located in the olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity. The cell bodies of the ORNs are distributed among all three of the stratified layers of the olfactory epithelium.
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The following terms are used to describe cavities that connect to other areas: A foramen is any opening, particularly referring to those in bone. Foramina inside the body of humans and other animals typically allow muscles, nerves, arteries, veins, or other structures to connect one part of the body with another. A canal is a long, tunnel-like foramen, usually a passage for notable nerves or blood vessels.
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The nasal bones seem to be highly pneumatized. The lower part of the premaxillae (at the tip of the snout) features several irregularly distributed pits, which probably represent foramina which allowed blood vessels to flow, indicating a keratinous sheath (rhamphotheca) over a beak similar to ornithomimids. The ventral side (underside) of the premaxillae is highly broken up, which could indicate the bone was lightweight, perhaps being pneumatized. Corythoraptor was toothless.
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The foramina allow the entry and exit of the spinal nerves from each vertebra, together with associated blood vessels. The articulating vertebrae provide a strong pillar of support for the body. There are seven processes projecting from the vertebra; a spinous process, two transverse processes, and four articular processes. A major part of a vertebra is a backward extending spinous process (sometimes called the neural spine) which projects centrally.
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The incisive foramina, openings in the front part of the palate, reach backward between the molars. The palate is long, extending substantially beyond the third molars. The back part, near the third molars, is usually perforated by prominent posterolateral palatal pits, which are recessed into fossae (depressions). The mesopterygoid fossa, the gap behind the end of the palate, is perforated by sphenopalatine vacuities, which are set far to the front.
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207 Compared to that of Nectomys, the skull is lightly built and has narrow nasals and a broad, round braincase without conspicuous ridges on it. The zygomatic plate is broad. The incisive foramina (perforations of the front part of the palate) extend between the first molars and are broadest in their back halves. The broad mesopterygoid fossa, the gap behind the end of the palate, is perforated by sphenopalatine vacuities.
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Apical delta refers to the branching pattern of small accessory canals and minor foramina seen at the tip or apex of some tooth roots. The pattern is said to be reminiscent of a river delta when sectioned and viewed using a microscope. Because the anatomy of this area is very small and complex with several portals of entry to the root canal i.e. more than one apical foramen.
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On average, males are slightly larger than females.Allen, 1899, pp. 204–205 Joel Asaph Allen, who named the species, classified it as a member of Oryzomys, Oryzomys maculiventer, and compared it to the species now known as Nephelomys meridensis and Nephelomys albigularis. He described it as one of the largest members of Oryzomys as he understood the genus and also noted its distinctive coloration and the relatively short incisive foramina.
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The top surface is thin and overlapped by the ventral border of the premaxilla joint that is developed from the rear to the bottom. On the bottom surface, a large and elliptical foramen is visible, allowing the connection for the rostral joint of the jugal. On the posterior surface another foramen is present, ending on the ventral surface where the exit is located. These foramina are connected through the lacrimal channel.
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Its length was about with a weight of . Araripesuchus can be distinguished by their laterally bulged edges of the snout, with the bulge being the most prominent around the area of an enlarged maxillary tooth. The snout and premaxilla are also smoother than that of most crocodyliforms, without foramina or the typical rugose texture. There are six valid species within this genus, all with slightly differing maxillary or dentary structure.
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It is perforated by numerous foramina for the passage of the nutrient vessels; is channelled at the back part of its lateral border by a groove, sometimes a canal, for the transmission of the descending palatine vessels and the anterior palatine nerve from the spheno- palatine ganglion; and presents little depressions for the lodgement of the palatine glands. When the two maxillae are articulated, a funnel-shaped opening, the incisive foramen, is seen in the middle line, immediately behind the incisor teeth. In this opening the orifices of two lateral canals are visible; they are named the incisive canals or foramina of Stenson; through each of them passes the terminal branch of the descending palatine artery and the nasopalatine nerve. On the under surface of the palatine process, a delicate linear suture, well seen in young skulls, may sometimes be noticed extending laterally and forward on either side from the incisive foramen to the interval between the lateral incisor and the canine tooth.
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The yellow-pine chipmunk will be smaller and less reddish than N. sonomae and will lack a white-edged tail. N. sonomae can be distinguished from the Townsend's chipmunk by having longer ears, tail, and legs, being paler, and having a bushier tail. The skulls of Sonoma chipmunks have the distinct post orbital process that is found in all sciurids. The skull has a deep rostrum, a long braincase, and small incisive foramina.
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The incisive foramina, openings in the palate before the molars, are short. In the holotype, the head and body length is , the tail length is , the hindfoot length is , the ear length is , and the skull length is . It was first described in 1894 by Oldfield Thomas, who named it Oryzomys meridensis and considered it to be close to O. albigularis (currently Nephelomys albigularis) and O. velutinus (currently included in Hylaeamys megacephalus).Thomas, 1894, p.
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Rubeostratilia is differentiated from other amphibamiforms by: (1) a pterygoid sutured only to the ectopterygoid anteriorly; and (2) the presence of four, equally sized foramina along the surface of the lacrimal that forms the anterior orbital margin. It shares a number of features with Pasawioops mayi, which at the time was known only from the Richards Spur locality in Oklahoma but which was subsequently reported from the Archer City Formation in Texas.
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The surangular bone has a deep oval excavation to the rear of its bone shelf and four rear surangular foramina, while other theropods possess at most two. A long narrow groove runs along the suture between the surangular and the prearticular bone. The notch in the suture between the articular and prearticular is pierced by a foramen. The front neck vertebrae possess an additional pneumatic foramen excavating the parapophysis, the lower rib contact.
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The premaxilae bear strong teeth, with the anterior most tooth being placed directly behind the beginning of the snout. Large nerve foramina are placed close to the dorsal surface of the paired premaxilae. The maxillae bones are unusual for mosasaurids, as they bear teeth which extend posterior to the front of the orbit. It is uncertain exactly how many teeth there were in the maxilla due to breakage, but there is probably around eleven.
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Proterochampsids have small holes called dorsal fenestrae at the top of their skulls. Unlike other early archosauromorphs, they do not have parietal foramina, which in many reptiles holds a parietal eye. The postorbital bones behind the eye sockets have thick, jagged crests. As another diagnostic feature of the group, the holes that allow the passage of the internal carotid artery through the braincase open at the sides of a bony projection called the basipterygoid process.
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Rabbits and hares move by jumping, pushing off with their strong hind legs and using their forelimbs to soften the impact on landing. Pikas lack certain skeletal modifications present in leporids, such as a highly arched skull, an upright posture of the head, strong hind limbs and pelvic girdle, and long limbs. Also, pikas have a short nasal region and entirely lack a supraorbital foramen, while leporids have prominent supraorbital foramina and nasal regions.
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The incisive foramina, which perforate the palate between the incisors and the molars, are short and do not reach near the first molars; they are longer in T. hylophilus. They are widest where the premaxillary and maxillary bones meet. The palate itself is also short, not extending beyond the third molars, and is broad and lacks ridges or grooves. There are simple posterolateral palatal pits at the back of the palate, near the third molars.
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Behind these are the orbits, and then an additional pair of capsules enclosing the structure of the inner ear. Finally, the skull tapers towards the rear, where the foramen magnum lies immediately above a single condyle, articulating with the first vertebra. There are, in addition, at various points throughout the cranium, smaller foramina for the cranial nerves. The jaws consist of separate hoops of cartilage, almost always distinct from the cranium proper.
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Most of the upper dentition has been eroded away, but the dental formula of Ancalecetus most likely was . Tooth wear show that Ancalecetus, like other basilosaurids, fed on larger prey, probably fish, that required mastication before swallowing and that the type specimen survived into adulthood. The unfused mandibular symphysis reaches as far posteriorly as P2. The large mandibular foramina, which contain the auditory fat pad in modern whales, is very well-preserved in Ancalecetus.
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Medium in size for its genus, it was first described as a separate species, but later lumped into other, widespread species until it was reinstated as separate in 2009. It is distinctive in fur color—grayish brown on the forequarters and reddish brown on the hindquarters—and in some dimensions of its skull, with a high braincase, robust zygomatic arches (cheekbones), and long incisive foramina (perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars).
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The vertebrae show no such damage: they may have been protected by a superior blood supply, made possible by the arteries entering the bone through the two foramina subcentralia, large openings in their undersides. Descending would have been helped by a negative buoyancy, but this would have been a disadvantage when surfacing. Young plesiosaurs show pachyostosis, an extreme density of the bone tissue, which would have decreased buoyancy. Adult individuals have more spongy bone.
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This absence is proposed as a diagnostic feature. A study of accipitrid skeletons found procoracoid incisurae (as opposed to foramina) in some specimens of the eagles Aquila gurneyi and A. chrysaetos, but not in four other Aquila species. The notch was variably open or weakly ossified in Spizastur melanoleucos, Lophoaetus occipitalis, Spizaetus ornatus, and Stephanoaetus coronatus. Also the buteonine hawks Buteo brachyurus and B. hemilasius had incisurae, differing from 17 other Buteo species.
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The holotype of Coronosaurus is TMP 2002.68.1. It is a large adult-sized parietal with an almost complete midline bar and a partial posterior bar with left P1–P3 processes and the partially eroded right P1-P2. The specimen lacks the extreme anterior margin of the midline bar that forms the posterior wall of the frontal fontanelle and the paper-thin lateral margins that define the medial margins of the supraorbital foramina.
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The two premaxillae are very long and run up over the snout to meet the prefrontals at the orbit. At the anterior tip they are narrow and triangular in cross-section. They form the classic rhynchosaurian beak, and there is evidence on the fossil showing that it was probably covered by a keratinous sheath. The maxilla carries a massive tooth plate and has numerous foramina for nerves and blood vessels to reach the gums through.
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The upper surfaces of the laminae are rough to give attachment to the ligamenta flava. These ligaments connect the laminae of adjacent vertebra along the length of the spine from the level of the second cervical vertebra. Above and below the pedicles are shallow depressions called vertebral notches (superior and inferior). When the vertebrae articulate the notches align with those on adjacent vertebrae and these form the openings of the intervertebral foramina.
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The tibiotarsus of DPC 20919 preserves most of the bone and is as long as the complete tarsometatarsus already (34 cm); an overall tibiotarsus length of c. 40–50 cm, as found in the small slow-moving elephant bird Mullerornis agilis and the nimble emu, is a reasonable estimate.Amadon (1947), Rasmussen et al. (1987, 2001) The tarsometatarsus had a small hypotarsus with a single simple crest and devoid of foramina for tendons.
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Their back margin is angular, not rounded as in eastern voalavo. The diastema (the gap between the upper incisors and molars) is shorter than in eastern voalavo. The bony palate is broad and lacks notable ridges and other features, except for a pair of foramina (openings) near the place where the first and second molars (M1 and M2) meet. The back border of the palate is at the level of the middle of the third molars (M3).
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A laminotomy is typically used to relieve pressure from the spinal canal. Excessive pressure in the spinal canal causes the spinal canal and spinal nerves to be compressed which can be very painful and can impair motor control and/or sensation. A common disorder that causes increased pressure in the spinal canal is lumbar spinal stenosis. Lumbar spinal stenosis is formally defined as a decline in diameter length of either the neural foramina, lateral recess, or spinal canal.
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Quite often, the swelling is present along with cystic lesions in the third ventricle or surrounding periventricular structures. In reference to bobble-head doll syndrome, a third ventricular cystic lesion causes an obstruction in the foramina of Monro, which communicates with the lateral ventricles, and the proximal, cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius, which communicates with the fourth ventricle. It has also been reported to be caused by a cystic choroid plexus papilloma of the third ventricle and obstructive hydrocephalus.
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Another theory exists behind the cause of bobble-head doll syndrome. It states that the constant head movements create a temporary relief in intraventricular obstruction by both shifting the cyst to the posterior—away from the foramina of Monro—and a reduction in cyst size. This points to the fact that the bobbing may be a “learned behavior” and a way to relieve the symptoms of hydrocephalus.Wiese, J. A., Gentry, L. R., & Menezes, A. H. (1985).
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These trabeculae may also be thought of as the rims of two large foramina that incise the posterior edge of the sternum, and extend almost its whole length. Tinamous have a proper semicircular furcula, with no trace of a hypocleidium.Eyton, T.C. (1867) There is an acute angle between the scapula and coracoid, as in all flying birds. The pelvis has an open ilio–ischiatic fenestra that incises the posterior edge between the ilium and ischium, as in all paleognathes.
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The length of Thanos has been estimated at . Despite the incompleteness of the material, a number of diagnostic features are present; a well-developed keel becoming wider and deeper posteriorly on the ventral surface; two lateral small foramina separated by a relatively wide wall on each lateral surface of the centrum; and well-developed and deep prezygapophyseal spinodiapophyseal fossae. In view of these features, Thanos may have been more derived than other abelisaurids at the time.
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237 The incisive foramina, openings in the front part of the palate, extend back to a point between the front roots of the M1s. The bony palate itself is broad and lacks many indentations and protuberances present in other species. Its posterior margin is at the level of the upper third molars (M3s). There is no alisphenoid strut, so that the masticatory-buccinator foramen and the foramen ovale accessorium, two openings on the underside of the skull, are fused.
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The middle part of the palate is concave, not flat as in M. aelleni and M. manavi. At the palate's back margin is a short, blunt posterior palatal spine. There are often foramina (openings) in the palate near the last molar. Miniopterus brachytragos has 36 teeth in the dental formula (three incisors, one canine, three premolars, and two molars in both upper toothrows and two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars in the lower toothrows).
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It is continued as a slender twig on the filum terminale. On its course the artery takes several small branches (i.e. anterior segmental medullary arteries), which enter the vertebral canal through the intervertebral foramina. These branches are derived from the vertebral artery, the ascending cervical artery, a branch of the inferior thyroid artery in the neck, the intercostal arteries in the thorax, and from the lumbar artery, iliolumbar artery and lateral sacral arteries in the abdomen and pelvis.
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Cutaneous and visceral lesions may occur, including angiofibroma, cardiac rhabdomyomas, and renal angiomyolipomas. The central nervous system lesions seen in this disorder include hamartomas of the cortex, hamartomas of the ventricular walls, and subependymal giant cell tumors, which typically develop in the vicinity of the foramina of Monro. Molecular genetic studies have defined at least two loci for TSC. In TSC1, the abnormality is localized on chromosome 9q34, but the nature of the gene protein, called hamartin, remains unclear.
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This may suggest, based on radiological images, the presence of morbid changes, which might be the sole anatomical variation in the foramina ovalia of humans. In newborn, the foramen ovale is about 3.85 mm and in the adults about 7.2 mm in length. The average maximal length is about 7.48 mm and its average minimal length is 4.17 mm in the adult. The width extends from 1.81 mm in the newborn to 3.7 mm in adults.
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The laminae of the fifth sacral vertebra, and sometimes those of the fourth, do not meet at the back, resulting in a fissure known as the sacral hiatus in the posterior wall of the sacral canal. The sacral canal is a continuation of the spinal canal and runs throughout the greater part of the sacrum. Above the sacral hiatus, it is triangular in form. The canal lodges the sacral nerves, via the anterior and posterior sacral foramina.
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The roosterfish, Nematistius pectoralis, is a game fish found in the warmer waters of the East Pacific from Baja California to Peru. It is the only species in the genus Nematistius and the family Nematistiidae. It is distinguished by its "rooster comb", seven very long spines of the dorsal fin. The roosterfish has an unusual arrangement of its ears: the swim bladder penetrates the brain through the large foramina and makes contact with the inner ear.
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The anterior side of the coccyx has attachments to the levator ani muscle, coccygeus, iliococcygeus, and pubococcygeus, anococcygeal raphe. Attached to the posterior side is the gluteus maximus, which extends the thigh at the hip joint. The ligaments attached to the coccyx include the anterior and posterior sacrococcygeal ligaments which are the continuations of the anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments that stretches along the entire spine. The lateral sacrococcygeal ligaments complete the foramina for the last sacral nerve.
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Restoration of a pair of D. macronyx The body structure of Dimorphodon displays many "primitive" characteristics, such as, according to Owen, a very small brain-pan and proportionally short wings. The first phalanx in its flight finger is only slightly longer than its lower arm. The neck was short but strong and flexible and may have had a membranous pouch on the underside. The vertebrae had pneumatic foramina, openings through which the air sacs could reach the hollow interior.
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The most anterior part of the cranium includes a forward plate of cartilage, the rostrum, and capsules to enclose the olfactory organs. Behind these are the orbits, and then an additional pair of capsules enclosing the structure of the inner ear. Finally, the skull tapers towards the rear, where the foramen magnum lies immediately above a single condyle, articulating with the first vertebra. There are, in addition, at various points throughout the cranium, smaller foramina for the cranial nerves.
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These are the smallest, lightest vertebrae and the vertebral foramina are triangular in shape. The spinous processes are short and often bifurcated (the spinous process of C7, however, is not bifurcated, and is substantially longer than that of the other cervical spinous processes). The atlas differs from the other vertebrae in that it has no body and no spinous process. It has instead a ring-like form, having an anterior and a posterior arch and two lateral masses.
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456 In contrast, the greater big-footed mouse has a weaker, dark brown tuft. Petter's big-footed mouse has a large and robust skull with well-developed zygomatic arches (cheekbones). The interorbital region of the skull (between the eyes) is smooth, as in greater big-footed mouse, and lacks the shelves characteristic of the bastard big-footed mouse. The palate is broad and the incisive foramina (openings in the front portion of the palate) are long and broad.
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Weksler, 2006, p. 31 The incisive foramina, which perforate the palate between the incisors and the molars, are long and narrow, extending between the first molars.Voss and Myers, 1991, p. 422; Weksler, 2006, p. 31 The back margins of the zygomatic plates, the flattened front portions of the zygomatic arches (cheekbones), are located before the first molars.Weksler, 2006, p. 32, table 5 Like its close relatives Lundomys and Holochilus, Pseudoryzomys has spinous processes on its zygomatic plates.
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Laterally, the septum verum reaches the lower part of the lateral ventricles, with the septal nuclei forming a bulge into the medial side of the ventricles. Dorsally can be found the septum pellucidum, a thin membrane of glial cells and fibres that separate the ventricles, and anteriorly is the lamina terminalis. It continues caudally as the pre-optic area and hypothalamus. The subfornical organ (SFO) can also be found in this area, between the ventral side of the fornix and the interventricular foramina.
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The stria terminalis covers the superior thalamostriate vein, marking a line of separation between the thalamus and the caudate nucleus as seen upon gross dissection of the ventricles of the brain, viewed from the superior aspect. The stria terminalis extends from the region of the interventricular foramina to the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle, carrying fibers from the amygdala to the septal nuclei, hypothalamic, and thalamic areas of the brain. It also carries fibers projecting from these areas back to the amygdala.
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The lower much thinner part is the rostrum and is connected below with the lamina terminalis, which stretches from the interventricular foramina to the recess at the base of the optic stalk. The rostrum is named for its resemblance to a bird's beak. The end part of the corpus callosum, towards the cerebellum, is called the splenium. This is the thickest part, and overlaps the tela choroidea of the third ventricle and the midbrain, and ends in a thick, convex, free border.
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In the human body, the lateral sacrococcygeal ligaments is a pair of ligaments stretching from the lower lateral angles of the sacrum to the transverse processes of the first coccygeal vertebra. Together with the anterior, posterior, and intercornual sacrococcygeal ligaments, they stabilize the sacrococcygeal symphysis, i.e. the joint between the sacrum and the coccyx.Morris (2005), p 59 They complete the foramina for the last sacral nerve There are up to three lateral sacrococcygeal ligaments on either side of the sacral hiatus.
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Anatomically, the labeonins are distinguished by the Weberian apparatus contacting the skull with the supraneural bones, and its basioccipital process being concave in cross-section. The first vertebra has a parapophysis that is elongated to forward and partially overlaps the basioccipital process. The fourth vertebra, meanwhile, has a short but stout transverse process that is prominently elongated bellywards; the os suspensorium is often hidden behind if viewed from the side. In the skull, the frontal and sphenotic bones have prominent foramina.
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An attribute of M. casei was symphyseal tusks from their lower jaw protruding into the nostril openings that caused small foramens in the anterior palatal vacuities to ventrally open with the nostrils (dorsally). Found in all trematosauroids, their orbits were elliptical (long axes oriented medially) and had a smooth dorsal surface to the palatines. Upon this surface is also multiple foramina. Described as being more-complete on the left side of the skull and “relatively large, elliptical, and slightly constricted posteriorly”.
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Three dimensional (3D) T2-weighted (T2w), axial, coronal, sagittal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is excellent for differentiation between gray matter and white matter acquisition of high-resolution anatomic information. T2w, axial and coronal imaging for acquisition of high-resolution anatomic information; delineation of cortex, white matter, and gray matter nuclei. Diffusion tensor, axial imaging is used for evaluation of white matter microstructural integrity, identification of white matter tracts. CISS, axial + MPR imaging for evaluation of cerebellar folia, cranial nerves, ventricles, and foramina.
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Whatcheeria possesses a mixture of both primitive and derived traits. It shares with earlier stem tetrapods a series of lateral lines across the skull, rows of teeth on the palate, and small Meckelian foramina across the surface of the lower jaw. It has a cleithrum, a bone in the pectoral girdle that extends from the scapula. The cleithrum once attached to the skull in lobe-finned fish, the ancestors of tetrapods, but detached to allow the neck to move freely.
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It closely resembles that of Arizonasaurus, indicating that the two species are close relatives. The dentary bone is partially preserved for both left and right, and would have held thirteen teeth on each side, although only the nutrient foramina remain. Like that of most archosaurs from the Triassic, the dentary is unspecialised. The cervical vertebrae have large, flattened neural spines which make up most of their height and would have formed a sail-like structure in life, similar to other ctenosauriscids.
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Similar to other foramina, the foramen ovale differs in shape and size throughout the natural life. The earliest perfect ring-shaped formation of the foramen ovale was observed in the 7th fetal month and the latest in 3 years after birth, in a study using over 350 skulls. In a study conducted on 100 skulls, the foramen ovale was divided into 2 or 3 components in 4.5% of the cases. The borders of the foramen in some skulls were also irregular and rough.
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The great cerebral vein is considered as one of the deep cerebral veins. Other deep cerebral veins are the internal cerebral veins, formed by the union of the superior thalamostriate vein and the superior choroid vein at the interventricular foramina. The internal cerebral veins can be seen on the superior surfaces of the caudate nuclei and thalami just under the corpus callosum. The veins at the anterior poles of the thalami merge posterior to the pineal gland to form the great cerebral vein.
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This gene encodes a member of the muscle segment homeobox gene family. The encoded protein is a transcriptional repressor whose normal activity may establish a balance between survival and apoptosis of neural crest-derived cells required for proper craniofacial morphogenesis. The encoded protein may also have a role in promoting cell growth under certain conditions and may be an important target for the RAS signaling pathways. Mutations in this gene are associated with parietal foramina 1 and craniosynostosis type 2.
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Some special foramina, ligaments, cartilages and fibres were named after him. Furthermore in winter 1738 he recalibrated the Delisle thermometers, which usually had 2400 graduations, to a new Delisle scale with 0 degrees as the boiling point and 150 degrees as the freezing point of water. The Delisle thermometer remained in use for almost 100 years in Russia. Altogether 21 articles, where he described his researches, are the basis of new cognitions and he used an excellent style of the Latin language.
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The Páramo colilargo has a greyish head, buffish upper parts and greyish-buff underparts and there is a clear demarcation between the dorsal and ventral colouring. The tail is dark above and pale below and is usually shorter than . The feet have whitish hairs on the upper surface, and the metatarsal pads on the soles are narrow. Compared to the closely related Microryzomys minutus, the skull is wider and more robust, with longer incisive foramina and with longer rows of teeth.
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Although the zygomatic plates (plates of bone at the side of the skull) are variable, their size is generally intermediate for the Akodon boliviensis group and their front margin ranges from straight to a little concave. The zygomatic notches, projections at the front of the plates, are better developed than in A. caenosus and A. sylvanus.Jayat et al., 2010, pp. 24, 29 The incisive foramina (openings in the front part of the palate) are long, sometimes extending between the first upper molars.
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The auditory bullae, which house the inner ear, are large. Usually, the mastoid bone lacks openings (fenestrae), which are present in T. talamancae. The pattern of the arteries in the head is primitive, as indicated by the condition of various foramina (openings) and grooves in the skull. Mandible (lower jaw) of Transandinomys bolivaris from Cerro Azul, PanamaGoldman, 1918, plate V The mandible (lower jaw) looks chunky and has a long condyloid process at its back; that of T. talamancae is more slender.
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The neck is flattened from before backward, contracted in the middle, and broader laterally than medially. The vertical diameter of the lateral half is increased by the obliquity of the lower edge, which slopes downward to join the body at the level of the lesser trochanter, so that it measures one-third more than the antero-posterior diameter. The medial half is smaller and of a more circular shape. The anterior surface of the neck is perforated by numerous vascular foramina.
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The quadrate bone at the back of the skull was long, and had two pneumatic (air-filled) foramina (holes) on the inner side. Partial teeth, EBPM The skull roof (formed by the frontal and parietal bones) was broad and formed a "shelf", which overhung the short supratemporal fenestrae at the top rear of the skull. The jaw articulated far behind the occipital condyle (where the neck is attached to the skull) compared to other theropods. The condyle was broad and low, and had pneumatic cavities.
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In the bony roof of the mesopterygoid fossa, the opening behind the palate, wide sphenopalatine vacuities (openings) are present. A thin alisphenoid strut (a piece of bone on the lower side of the skull separating two foramina) is present in specimens from Marojejy, but not in those from Anjanaharibe-Sud. The tegmen tympani, the roof of the tympanic cavity, is reduced. The root of the lower incisor is visible at the back of the mandible (lower jaw) as a slight protrusion; a true capsular process is absent.
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Occasionally, it causes meningitis, but it can cause sepsis, ventriculitis, and cerebritis with 80% frequent multiple brain abscesses in low-birth-weight, immunocompromised neonates; rare cases have been reported in older children and adults, most of whom have underlying diseases. Arterial and venous infarctions are possible because of the bacterial infiltration along the main vessel; exudates within the ventricles and ventriculitis may obstruct the ventricular foramina and result in a multicystis hydrocephalus with consequent long-lasting shunting difficulties, and necrotizing meningeoencephalitis with pneumocephalus has been reported.
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Kepodactylus was similar to Mesadactylus but larger (wingspan around 2.5 m [8.2 ft]), and with additional pneumatic foramina (holes to allow air from air sacks to enter the bones) in the vertebrae and humerus. The describers concluded that the species was a member of the Pterodactyloidea and within this group, using the phylogeny of David Unwin, a member of a clade that is now known as Lophocratia.Harris, J.D., and Carpenter, K. (1996). A large pterodactyloid from the Morrison Formation (Late Jurassic) of Garden Park, Colorado.
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The supraoccipitals are small and triangular, with a short vertical nuchal keel on the occiput; large flanges extend off this to each side. The paraoccipital processes, which contact both the squamosals and the quadrate condyles, are marked with a series of striations. The occipital condyles are ventrally deflected and are formed almost entirely by the basioccipitals. Each side of the skull has three Eustachian foramina present - two on each basioccipital, one anterior and one posterior, and one between basisphenoid and otoccipital in the basal tuber.
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Moore and colleagues noted two unique features (autapomorphies) in the cervicals. First, the spinoprezygapophyseal (SPRLs), ridges of bone extending forward from the neural spines, bore irregular, plate-like extensions. Second, below the SPRLs and in front of depressions called the spinodiapophyseal (SDFs), the sides of the centra bore a set of deep (openings). Although these foramina were present only on the right side of the centra, Moore and colleagues considered them to be unique due to their consistency and the presence of similar structures in other sauropods.
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This preservation provides insights into the delicate structures of skull bones, including pneumatic features such as foramina/fossae and internal chambers. Caelestiventus is known from a single individual (BYU 20707, in the Museum of Paleontology at Brigham Young University) that preserves much of the skull (skull cap, sides of the face, and a complete lower jaw (mandible) along with a single non-skull bone – the last finger bone at the end of the elongated fourth finger (manual digit IV 4) that supported the tip of the wing.
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Maxillae of Eolambia The crestless skull of Eolambia has a similar overall shape to those of Equijubus and Probactrosaurus. The front of the snout is highly roughened, being punctuated by many foramina (openings). At the tip of each premaxilla, there are two tooth-like structures known as denticles, which is also seen in its closest relative Protohadros. Further back, the rear portion of the lower branch of the premaxilla abruptly projects upwards, closing off the nostril at the rear as in Probactrosaurus, Protohadros, and other hadrosauroids.
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These deposits are 120 million years old, whereas the original specimen was 125 million years old, meaning the age range for this species is 125-120Ma. Archaeorhychus is one of the earliest avialans known to have had a beak, and represents one of the most basal ornithuromorph avialans. The fossils preserved feathers associated with the neck, head and tail regions. The fossils also show grooves and openings/ holes (foramina) on the tips of the upper and lower jaws, suggesting that it supported a horny bill.
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The structure of these vertebrae is the reason why the neck and head have a large range of motion. The atlanto-occipital joint allows the skull to move up and down, while the atlanto-axial joint allows the upper neck to twist left and right. The axis also sits upon the first intervertebral disc of the spinal column. Cervical vertebrae possess transverse foramina to allow for the vertebral arteries to pass through on their way to the foramen magnum to end in the circle of Willis.
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Pudendal anesthesia, also known as a pudendal block, or saddle block, is a form of local anesthesia commonly used in the practice of obstetrics to relieve pain during the delivery of baby by forceps. The pudendal nerve block prevents fainting during forceps delivery which was common before pudendal nerve block use was available. The anesthesia is produced by blocking the pudendal nerves near the ischial spine of the pelvis. The ischial spine separates the greater and lesser sciatic foramina at the exit of the bony pelvis.
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The Asiatic lion's fur ranges in colour from ruddy-tawny, heavily speckled with black, to sandy or buffish grey, sometimes with a silvery sheen in certain lights. Males have only moderate mane growth at the top of the head, so that their ears are always visible. The mane is scanty on the cheeks and throat where it is only long. About half of Asiatic lions' skulls from the Gir forest have divided infraorbital foramina, whereas African lions have only one foramen on either side.
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The anterior ethmoidal foramen is a small opening in the ethmoid bone in the skull. Lateral to either olfactory groove are the internal openings of the anterior and posterior ethmoidal foramina (or canals). The anterior ethmoidal foramen, situated about the middle of the lateral margin of the olfactory groove, transmits the anterior ethmoidal artery, vein and nerve. The anterior ethmoidal nerve, a branch of the nasociliary nerve, runs in a groove along the lateral edge of the cribriform plate to the above-mentioned slit-like opening .
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Hubert von Luschka Hubert von Luschka, born Hubert Luschka (July 27, 1820 in Konstanz – March 1, 1875 in Tübingen), was a German anatomist. He lent his name to several structures, including the foramina of Luschka, Luschka's crypts, Luschka's joints, and Ducts of Luschka. His name is also associated with Luschka's law, an anatomical rule concerning location of the ureters.Retrograde Ureteroscopy: Handbook of Endourology edited by Petrisor Aurelian Geavlete Luschka began studying medicine, initially pharmacology, in 1841 at the University of Freiburg and the University of Heidelberg.
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There are many holes in the skull called "foramina" by which the nerves can exit the skull. All cranial nerves are paired, which means they occur on both the right and left sides of the body. The muscle, skin, or additional function supplied by a nerve, on the same side of the body as the side it originates from, is an ipsilateral function. If the function is on the opposite side to the origin of the nerve, this is known as a contralateral function.
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Laevisuchus was originally classified by Huene as a coelurid due to the similarity of its vertebrae with those of Aristosuchus. However, an analysis in 2004 has shown it to be an abelisauroid because of its long epipophyses, a pair of foramina on the centrum, and low and triangular neural spines. The vertebrae specifically resemble those of noasaurids like Masiakasaurus and Noasaurus due to having more anteriorly placed neural spines and posteriorly reduced epipophyses Tykoski, R.S. & Rowe, T. (2004). "Ceratosauria". In: Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P., & Osmolska, H. (Eds.) The Dinosauria (2nd edition).
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The centra here were spool-like, flattened sideways and had fossae which appear to have continued as deep foramina in some specimens. The neural spines here were rectangular, broad, and higher than those in the dorsal vertebrae. They were higher or equal in height to the upper margin of the iliac blade and were separate, whereas in other ornithomimids they were fused together. The tail had 36–39 caudal vertebrae with the centra of those at the front being spool-shaped, while those at the back were nearly triangular, and elongated across.
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Goodman et al., 2005, table 1 The back end of the incisive foramina (openings in the front part of the palate), which is located in front of the first molars, is rounded in eastern voalavo, but angular in northern voalavo.Goodman et al., 2005, p. 869 The sutures of the maxillary and palatine bones (the line where the two bones, part of the skull, join) are straight and parallel to each other, the toothrows, and the midline of the skull in eastern voalavo. Northern voalavo, in contrast, are more curved.
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The non-terminal manual phalanges are about as long as wide and lack any constriction between the articular ends, and manual unguals are reduced. It is these reduced limb proportions that demonstrate Eoabelisaurus was indeed a primitive abelisaurid. The exact number of vertebrae is unknown due to several gaps in the holotype's spine, but its cervical vertebrae are short and have two pneumatic foramina on either side of the centra. The length of vertebral centra remains constant over the preserved portion of the tail, but middle and posterior caudals are considerably lower.
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There was no gutter surrounding the incisive foramina (openings in the front part of the palate). The bones are more robustly built than in Pedetes and in another fossil relative of the springhares, Parapedetes.Mein and Senut, 2003, p. 161 Unlike in Pedetes, the first metatarsal (a foot bone) is present.Mein and Senut, 2003, p. 162 It may have fed on less rough vegetation than Pedetes does.Winkler, 1992, p. 239 In Namibia, two species are known from the early middle MioceneMein and Senut, 2003, p. 163 of Arrisdrift—M.
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The choanal septum is also ridged on the ventral surface. An autapomorphic single parachoanal fossa rostrolateral to the parachoanal fenestrae is present at the base of the pterygoid wing. In the lower jaw of Aplestosuchus, the outer sculpture of the mandible is limited to the dentary, and the occipital surface of the mandibular symphysis lack a peg. Additionally, the ridged border of the angular is not covering the rostral edge of the mandibular fenestra, and a row of foramina is present between the mandibular fenestra and the ectopterygoid-jugal suture.
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Vertebrae of the front part of the dorsal column were slightly taller but much longer than those of the back part. This is in contrast to Giraffatitan, where the vertebrae at the front part were much taller but only slightly longer. The centra (vertebral bodies), the lower part of the vertebrae, were more elongated and roughly circular in cross-section, while those of Giraffatitan were broader than tall. The foramina (small openings) on the sides of the centra, which allowed for the intrusion of air sacs, were larger than in Giraffatitan.
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The tip of the distal end has a small cap of dermal bone with small pits and denticles for clinging on to the female. The proximal part of the clasper expands into a plate with four foramina, two larger above two smaller. It is thought that this anatomy corresponds to the core of an erectile element as in extant sharks. Female Incisoscutum specimens differ from these male claspers and instead fossils have been found with a broad based pelvic plate that articulates with a posteriorly directed basipterygium, similar to modern sharks.
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The bristle-spined rat, Chaetomys subspinosus, has sometimes been classified in Echimyidae, although traditionally considered a member of the New World porcupine family Erethizontidae. The classification with Echimyidae is supported by similarities in the cheek teeth structure. Like all living caviomorphs except erethizontids, Chaetomys seems to lack posterior carotid foramina, and together with all echimyids and in contrast to all other caviomorphs, Chaetomys seems to retain the otherwise deciduous premolars (dP4). Some of these characters have been, however, reinterpreted as evidence for affinities between Chaetomys and the Erethizontidae.
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Dentition The skull is in good preservation and is nearly complete, missing only the ventral lacrimal, the posterior jugal, the postorbital, the anterior edge of the quadrate, and the anterior surangular bones. Jianchangosaurus possesses 27 maxillary teeth and approximately 25 to 28 dentary teeth. The researchers observed, however, that at front of the upper jaw the premaxilla is edentulous and they hypothesized that it was covered by a rhamphotheca. This is also supported by the presence of a series of foramina along the buccal margin on the lateral surface of the premaxilla.
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The subnarial gap resulted in a diastema, a gap in the tooth row (which has also been called a "notch"). Within the subnarial gap was a deep excavation behind the toothrow of the premaxilla, called the subnarial pit, which was walled by a downwards keel of the premaxilla. The outer surface of the premaxilla was covered in foramina (openings) of varying sizes. The upper of the two backwards-extending processes of the premaxilla was long and low, and formed most of the upper border of the elongated naris.
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Instant Anatomy is a reference book for students of human anatomy. It includes several schematic diagrams and pictures, many of which are drawn by Whitaker himself. The intention is to simplify the regions of anatomy, thereby making it easier to remember parts, creating an 'instant' summary. The book is divided up into sections for arteries, veins, lymphatics, autonomic nervous system, cranial nerves, peripheral nerves, dermatomes and cutaneous nerve distribution, muscles, joints, ossification times, foramina - skull and spine, spaces other than skull and spine, position of structures according to vertebral levels and pharyngeal derivatives.
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There is a masseteric scar (associated with the jaw muscles) from below the m1 forward to a point in front of p4, below the mental foramen, an opening in the jawbone. In Apeomys and Megapeomys this scar only reaches to the level of the front root of p4. The mental foramen is very small and opens in the diastema, near the ventral shelf of the scar; in Apeomys and Megapeomys it is located near the dorsal shelf. Further foramina are present on the lingual (inner) surface of the bone, below the cheekteeth.
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The internal cerebral veins (deep cerebral veins) drain the deep parts of the hemisphere and are two in number; each internal cerebral vein is formed near the interventricular foramina by the union of the superior thalamostriate vein and the superior choroid vein. They run backward parallel with one another, between the layers of the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle, and beneath the splenium of the corpus callosum, where they unite to form a short trunk, the great cerebral vein of Galen; just before their union each receives the corresponding basal vein.
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NHMUK 49202 possesses plesiomorphic characters, including premaxillae that do not separate the frontals on the midline, narrow cranioquadrate passages and the lack of a constricting groove around the occipital condyle. It also shows several autapomorphies not observed in other plesiosaurians. Its posteromedial processes of the premaxillae (or possible anterior portion of the frontal) forming a dorsoventrally thick, mediolaterally expanded platform and its cultriform process of the parasphenoid is wider mediolaterally than the combined posterior interpterygoid vacuities. It also has two closely spaced foramina in the lateral surface of the exoccipital.
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Tesis (Grado) Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba. Additionally, the authors suggested that a lateral rim on the dentary as well as numerous aligned neurovascular foramina are evidence of soft cheek-like muscular tissue. The function of the trunk was likely used for searching for food by sniffing the ground in a manner similar to extant suids and peccaries, while the cheeks would aid in mastication by preventing food loss. A re-description of the skull material has since lent evidence toward minimal soft-tissue enhancement to the snout of Notosuchus.
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Spondylosis is the degeneration of the vertebral column from any cause. In the more narrow sense it refers to spinal osteoarthritis, the age-related wear and tear of the spinal column, which is the most common cause of spondylosis. The degenerative process in osteoarthritis chiefly affects the vertebral bodies, the neural foramina and the facet joints (facet syndrome). If severe, it may cause pressure on the spinal cord or nerve roots with subsequent sensory or motor disturbances, such as pain, paresthesia, imbalance, and muscle weakness in the limbs.
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The angular extension (processus angularis) of the lower jaw is bent toward the center. Another feature is the hard palate which, in contrast to the placental mammals' foramina, always have more openings. The teeth differ from that of placental mammals, so that all taxa except wombats have a different number of incisors in the upper and lower jaws. The early marsupials had a dental formula from , that is, per pine half; they have five maxilla or four mandibular incisors, one canine, three premolars and four molars, for a total of 50 teeth.
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Dr Solon Langworthy, who continued to mix chiropractic at the ASC&NC;, took a different route for chiropractic. He improved classrooms and provided a curriculum of study instead of the single course. He narrowed the scope of chiropractic to the treatment of the spine and nervous system, leaving blood work to the osteopath, and began to refer to the brain as the "life force". He was the first to use the word subluxation to describe the misalignment that narrowed the "spinal windows" (or intervertebral foramina) and interrupted the nerve energy.
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Hoffmann's two-toed sloth is, however, much easier to confuse with the related Linnaeus's two-toed sloth, which it closely resembles. The primary physical differences between the two species relate to subtle skeletal features; for example, Hoffmann's two-toed sloth has three foramina in the upper forward part of the interpterygoid space, rather than just two, and often – but not always – has fewer cervical vertebrae. Adults range from in head-body length, and weigh from . Although they do have stubby tails, just long, this is too short to be visible through the long fur.
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The holotype and only known specimen of Polyodontosaurus was collected in 1928 by Charles Mortram Sternberg, and includes only a left dentary, lacking any teeth. Sternberg presented the dentary to Charles Gilmore, who identified it as a lizard. Gilmore thus named the binomial Polyodontosaurus grandis for the new taxon. Sternberg revisited the material in 1951 and determined that it represented a carnivorous dinosaur based on the general morphology of the bone, as well as the anatomy of the Meckelian groove, multiple nutrient foramina, and separation of teeth into multiple sockets.
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In the thoracic region, the sides of the bodies of the vertebrae are marked in the back by the facets for articulation with the heads of the ribs. More posteriorly are the intervertebral foramina, formed by the juxtaposition of the vertebral notches, oval in shape, smallest in the cervical and upper part of the thoracic regions and gradually increasing in size to the last lumbar. They transmit the special spinal nerves and are situated between the transverse processes in the cervical region and in front of them, in the thoracic and lumbar regions.
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Parts of six dorsal vertebrae are preserved: one partial anterior dorsal vertebral neural arch, one partial dorsal vertebral centrum, three posterior dorsal vertebrae that are nearly complete but currently heavily reconstructed with plaster, and one that has been plastered into the sacrum. None of the dorsal vertebrae have observable neurocentral sutures. Sacrum A nearly complete sacrum consisting of six vertebrae was recovered from the quarry, originally only lacking some ribs. The original description of Huabeisaurus suggested that only five sacral vertebrae were present based on the number of sacral ribs and intercostal foramina.
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B. omurai has two small foramina "along the suture between the parietal and squamosal in the posterior wall of the temporal fossa", which both B. brydei and B. edeni lack. B. omurai has an oblique ridge on the dorsal side of the maxilla near the base of the rostrum, which is absent in both B. brydei and B. edeni. Unlike B. edeni, the alisphenoid is separate from the squamosal in B. omurai. The head of the first rib is not bifurcated in B. omurai, unlike B. brydei and B. edeni.
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Sturgeon skull – a, Rostrum; b, nasal capsule; c eye-socket; d, foramina for spinal nerves; e, notochord; g, quadrate bone; h, hyomandibular bone; i, mandible; j. basibranchials; k, ribs; l, hyoid bone; I, II, III, IV, V, branchial arches Sturgeons retain several primitive characters among the bony fishes. Along with other members of the subclass Chondrostei, they are unique among bony fishes because their skeletons are almost entirely cartilaginous. Notably, however, the cartilagineous skeleton is not a primitive character, but a derived one; sturgeon ancestors had bony skeletons.
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Odobenocetops can be identified as a cetacean based on several features unique to this order: # The presence of large air sinuses in the auditory region connected to large pterygoid sinuses. # The large supraorbital process of the frontal bone overhanging the orbital region. # Narial fossae opening dorsally (thought not at the apex of the skull like in other cetaceans.) # The absence of a true cribriform plate (a bony blade separating the nares). In Odobenocetops, a group of foramina in this plate allows the passage of olfactory nerves connected to the small olfactory lobes in the brain.
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The body length has been estimated to . The holotype of the younger species O. leptodon was found with both tusks in situ, the right one long, the erupted portion , the left tusk was only but a wear facet indicates that it was erupted. The skull of O. leptodon differs from that of O. peruvianus in the absence of a premaxillary foramina and the presence of a dorsal fossa (shallow depression) on the premaxilla. This fossa suggests the presence of a melon in O. leptodon, an organ either absent or strongly reduced in O. peruvianus.
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209; Voss and Weksler, 2009, pp. 75, 77 Oryzomys gorgasi is distinguished from other Oryzomys species by its short rostrum, the form of its incisive foramina, the absence of sphenopalatine vacuities, and the near absence of a subsquamosal fenestra. Within the species, the Colombian specimen differs from the Venezuelan animals in being larger in some measurements, but having smaller teeth, and in having oddly shaped wear facets of the incisors. The Colombian animal was probably kept in captivity for some time after it was caught, which would explain its large size and odd wear facets.
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The palate is moderately long, extending beyond the molars but not beyond the posterior margins of the maxillary bone. In most specimens, the roof of the mesopterygoid fossa, the gap behind the back of the palate, is not perforated by sphenopalatine vacuities and thus it is fully ossified; if present, these vacuities are small. Mindomys lacks an alisphenoid strut; in some other oryzomyines, this extension of the alisphenoid bone separates two openings (foramina) in the skull, the masticatory–buccinator foramen and the foramen ovale accessorium. There are no openings in the mastoid bone.
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23–24 The tail is variably covered with hair and is dark brown above and white to buffy below. In the skull, the rostrum (front part) is short, the interorbital region (between the eyes) is broad and hourglass-shaped, and the braincase is small. The zygomatic plate, the flattened front part of the zygomatic arch, is narrow, with poorly developed zygomatic notches at their front, but there is considerable variation in the features of the plate. The incisive foramina (openings in the front part of the palate) extend back to between the first molars.
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Since the vertebral body in a retrolisthesis moves in a posterior direction, the grading used for spondylolistheses is of little use. It is however useful to divide the anterior to posterior dimension of the intervertebral foramina (IVF) (4) into four equal units. A posterior displacement of up to ¼ of the IVF is graded as Grade 1, ¼ to ½ as Grade 2, ½ to ¾ as Grade 3, ¾ to total occlusion of the IVF as Grade 4. Alternatively, a measurement of the amount of displacement can also made by measuring the bone displacement in millimetres.
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It is different from Guanlong in lacking a medial crest on the premaxilla, nasals and frontal bones. It also lacks high external nostrils, and a short anterior maxillary process. It has a shorter premaxillary body, but with a larger maxillary fenestra, a rodlike jugal, closely spaced fine serrations on the distal tooth carinae of the maxilla and dentary. The cervical vertebral centra are elongated with two pneumatic foramina, the neural spines are short and elongated towards the posterior in the dorsal vertebrae, and the pubic shaft is curved at the end.
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To date, the only material of Pelagiarctos that has been found includes a handful of partial mandibles. The mandibles themselves are approximately the same size as those of the contemporaneous pinniped Allodesmus kernensis, but differ in that the cheek teeth have two roots (instead of one, as in Allodesmus) and that the dentary itself is much thicker. They are also highly vascularized and covered in unusually large mental foramina, indicating that Pelagiarctos may have had somewhat fleshy lips. The cheek teeth resemble those of several terrestrial carnivores, specifically borophagine dogs and hyaenids.
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Along the upper part of the line of junction of the anterior surface with the head is a shallow groove, best marked in elderly subjects; this groove lodges the orbicular fibers of the capsule of the hip- joint. The posterior surface is smooth, and is broader and more concave than the anterior: the posterior part of the capsule of the hip-joint is attached to it about 1 cm. above the intertrochanteric crest. The superior border is short and thick, and ends laterally at the greater trochanter; its surface is perforated by large foramina.
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The incidence of bilateral and unilateral sphenoidal emissary foramen was 22.85% (8 out of 35 skulls) and 20% (7 out of 35 skulls) respectively. Regarding the differences between the male and the female sex, no remarkable differences were observed, although the occurrence of the foramen was more in females compared to males (found in 13 sides in females and in 10 sides in males). The skulls with one foramen were most frequent; those with two followed it and those with 3 (sphenoidal emissary) foramina were least frequent. Lang (1983) reported that the sphenoidal emissary foramen was present in about 40% of his material.
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It contained all the upper teeth, except the incisors. The infraorbital foramina (openings at the lower front of the maxilla) were slit-like in some specimens and rounded in others, and varied in number from one to three. One of the most characteristic features of the face of Catopsbaatar was the very large anterior zygomatic ridge on the sides of the upper jaw (a site for jaw-muscle attachment). It was much higher than in other djadochtatheriids except for Djadochtatherium, from which it differed in that the ridge was semicircular rather than roughly trapezoidal (other genera have elliptical ridges).
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The clinical examination focuses on bony projections and undercuts, large palatal and mandibular tori, and other gross ridge abnormalities. A dentist should always evaluate the interarch relationship in 3 dimensions while doing treatment planning for denture patients. Radiographs examinations are indicated for any retained root tips, impacted teeth, bony pathology and impacted teeth to minimise post denture insertion discomfort. The degree of maxillary sinus pneumatization, and the position of the inferior alveolar canal and mental foramina are important as well to avoid impingement of denture on these vital structures which may trigger more problems to the patient.
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Vahiny was first described and named by Kristina Curry Rogers and Jeffrey A. Wilson in 2014 and the type species is Vahiny depereti. It is known solely from the Late Cretaceous Maevarano Formation located in northwestern Madagascar, together with the more common titanosaur, Rapetosaurus krausei. Rapetosaurus is the most common dinosaur in its fauna and is known from hundreds of bones, including multiple partial skeletons and skulls, while other taxa are extremely rare, including Vahiny identified from a partial braincase. Vahiny is distinguished from other titanosaurs by characteristics of its braincase, including the basal tubera, basipterygoid processes, parasphenoid, and cranial nerve foramina.
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The diagnostic features of the genus Apateon are tabular horns separated from the skull table by a groove; tooth-bearing region of maxilla is broad and the dorsal osteoderms are smooth or with radiating striations. The diagnostic features of the Melanerpeton group are the palatine, the ectopterygoid and palatine ramus of pterygoid are extremely delicate, poorly ossified and have few or no denticles. The Melanerpeton genus has no autapomorphies and is paraphyletic with respect to the Leptorophus- Schoenfelderpeton group. The Leptorophus-Schoenfelderpeton group is characterized by a postorbital separated from supratemporal, a carotid foramina and grooves situated on sides of the cultriform process.
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The longest is metatarsal III with a length of ; it is placed more anteriorly than the other metatarsals. Metatarsal I is more posterior and its upper part is transversely reduced to a splint. Some distinguishing traits of Jeholosaurus include: enlarged laterodorsal nasal foramina; a quadratojugal fenestra more than 25% maximum quadratojugal length; a quadratojugal less than 30% of skull height; a predentary with almost 150% of premaxillary body length; a dentary extending posteriorly almost to the posterior border of the angular; and the claw of the third toe being longer than the other third toe phalanges.
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Elasmosaurus had four sacral vertebrae (the fused vertebrae that form the sacrum connected to the pelvis), a number typical of elasmosaurids. The transverse processes here were very short, and the rib facets increased in size from the first to the fourth sacral vertebra. A ridge ran along the top of these vertebrae, and the lower sides of the centra were rounded, and bore pairs of nutritive foramina, separated by low ridges. The first tail (or caudal) vertebra could be distinguished by the preceding sacral vertebra by having smaller rib facets, and by being positioned in the lower half of the centrum.
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The retroarticular process of the mandible (a backwards projection) was long, and the surangular shelf was strongly horizontal. The dentary bone (the front part of the mandible where most of the teeth there were attached) had an up-curved rather than pointed chin. The chin had a large foramen at the tip, and a row of small foramina ran in rough parallel with the upper edge of the dentary. On the inner side, the mandibular symphysis (where the two halves of the lower jaw connected) was flat and smooth, and showed no sign of being fused with its opposite half.
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As in other baleen whales, the skull is wide and flat. The skull, along the sides, has several narrow, straight grooves–eight in total–and there are several foramina in the skull used as passage for blood vesselsthough not as many as modern baleen whales–which indicate it had baleen in its mouth. The skull contains several tooth sockets, but no teeth were discovered; it is possible these sockets were vestigal and held no teeth, or the teeth naturally fell out over the course of the animal's life. The blowhole was located midway along the snout, near the position of eyes.
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Konglungenoceras is a discorid from the lower Silurian of Europe (Norway) included in the Cyrtogomphoceratidae that lacks the septal foramina grasping bullettes at the adapical end of the connecting rings. shells are endogastric and strongly compressed, such that the ventral or siphuncle side is curved inward and the dorso-ventral height is greater than the width. Endosiphuncular deposits in the apical portion of the siphuncle consist of thick overlapping parietal laminae that form endocones, similar to those is Discosorus and Alpenoceras. Although included in the Gomphoceratidae, derivation undetermined, siphuncle characters as well as stratigraphic position are suggestive of the Discosoridae.
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There are two important foramina, or windows, two important fissures, or grooves, and one canal surrounding the globe in the orbit. There is a supraorbital foramen, an infraorbital foramen, a superior orbital fissure, an inferior orbital fissure and the optic canal, each of which contains structures that are crucial to normal eye functioning. The supraorbital foramen contains the supraorbital nerve, the first division of the trigeminal nerve or V1 and lies just lateral to the frontal sinus. The infraorbital foramen contains the second division of the trigeminal nerve, the infraorbital nerve or V2, and sits on the anterior wall of the maxillary sinus.
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Both foramina are crucial as potential pathways for cancer and infections of the orbit to spread into the brain or other deep facial structures. The optic canal contains the (cranial nerve II) and the ophthalmic artery, and sits at the junction of the sphenoid sinus with the ethmoid air cells, superomedial and posterior to structures at the orbital apex. It provides a pathway between the orbital contents and the middle cranial fossa. The superior orbital fissure lies just lateral and inferior to the optic canal, and is formed at the junction of the lesser and greater wing of the sphenoid bone.
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The anterior fenestra appears to have been entirely enclosed by the maxilla, and there were two rows of small pits below it. The back of the maxillary fenestra had a bony wall called the interfenestral bar, which separated it from the antorbital fenestra, as in Byronosaurus. The antorbital fenestra (the largest of the three openings, located in front of the orbit) was rectangular in side view, and the part of the maxilla below it was low and did not have small foramina, unlike the front part. The maxillary teeth were placed along most of the lower margin of the antorbital fenestra.
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Many studies have been initiated using the sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) technique to treat patients that suffer with urinary problems. When applying this procedure, proper patient screening is essential, because some disorders that affect the urinary tract (like bladder calculus or carcinoma in-situ) have to be treated differently. Once the patient is selected, he receives a temporary external pulse generator connected to wire leads at S3 foramina for 1–2 weeks. If the person's symptoms improve by more than 50%, he receives the permanent wire leads and stimulator that is implanted in the hip in the subcutaneous tissue.
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Sarmiento concluded that such length measures can change back and forth during evolution and are not very good indicators of relatedness (homoplasy). However, some later studies still argue for its classification in the human lineage. In 2014 it was reported that the hand bones of Ardipithecus, Australopithecus sediba and A. afarensis have the third metacarpal styloid process, which is absent in other apes. Unique brain organisations (such as lateral shift of the carotid foramina, mediolateral abbreviation of the lateral tympanic, and a shortened, trapezoidal basioccipital element) in Ardipithecus are also found only in the Australopithecus and Homo.
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The telencephalon gradually expands laterally to a much greater extent than it does dorsally or ventrally, and its connection to the remainder of the neural tube reduces to the interventricula foramina. The diencephalon expands more evenly, but caudally of the diencephalon the canal remains narrow. The third ventricle is the space formed by the expanding canal of the diencephalon. The hypothalamic region of the ventricle develops from the ventral portion of the neural tube, while the thalamic region develops from the dorsal portion; the wall of the tube thickens and becomes the hypothalamus and thalamus respectively.
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The signs and symptoms of Potocki–Shaffer syndrome vary widely. In addition to multiple osteochondromas and enlarged parietal foramina, affected individuals often have intellectual disability and delayed development of speech, motor skills (such as sitting and walking), and social skills. Many people with this condition have distinctive facial features, which can include a wide, short skull (brachycephaly); a prominent forehead; a narrow bridge of the nose; a shortened distance between the nose and upper lip (a short philtrum); and a downturned mouth. Less commonly, Potocki–Shaffer syndrome causes vision problems, additional skeletal abnormalities, and defects in the heart, kidneys, and urinary tract.
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The basivertebral veins are veins within the vertebral column. They are contained in large, tortuous channels in the substance of the bones, similar in every respect to those found in the diploë of the cranial bones. They emerge from the foramina on the posterior surfaces of the vertebral bodies. They communicate through small openings on the front and sides of the vertebral bodies with the anterior external vertebral plexuses, and converge behind to the principal canal, which is sometimes double toward its posterior part, and open by valved orifices into the transverse branches which unite the anterior internal vertebral plexuses.
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From here, CSF passes through the interventricular foramina to the third ventricle, then the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth ventricle. From the fourth ventricle, the fluid passes into the subarachnoid space through four openings the central canal of the spinal cord, the median aperture, and the two lateral apertures. CSF is present within the subarachnoid space, which covers the brain, spinal cord, and stretches below the end of the spinal cord to the sacrum. There is a connection from the subarachnoid space to the bony labyrinth of the inner ear making the cerebrospinal fluid continuous with the perilymph in 93% of people.
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These air sacs may have allowed for a basic form of avian-style 'flow-through ventilation,' where air flow through the lungs is one-way, so that oxygen-rich air inhaled from outside the body is never mixed with exhaled air laden with carbon dioxide. This method of respiration, while complicated, is highly efficient. The recognition of pneumatic foramina in Majungasaurus, besides providing an understanding of its respiratory biology, also has larger-scale implications for evolutionary biology. The split between the ceratosaur line, which led to Majungasaurus, and the tetanuran line, to which birds belong, occurred very early in the history of theropods.
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As in other oviraptorids, it had a pair of tooth-like projections on the palate that were directed downwards (a feature that has been called "pseudo- teeth"). Nemegtomaia had small foramina (openings) on the sides of the suture (joint) between the premaxillae at the front of the snout, which may have been nutrient openings (and which indicate the presence of a keratinous bill). The lower jaw was short and deep, with a convex lower surface, and reached 153 mm (6 in) in length. The dentary bone of the lower jaw reached 50 mm (2 in) at its highest point.
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The tail is long. They have a relatively small and slender skull, with a large external auditory meatus, narrow squamosal and mandibular processes, a minuscule stylomastoid foramen, and usually lack foramina for the external carotid artery and anterodorsal (meaning in front and toward the back) nasopharynx. The dental formula of three-toed sloths is: Two of the teeth in each jaw are incisor-like, although those in the upper jaw are small or may be absent. Many of the features found in pygmy sloths are thought to be indicative of a relatively rapid evolution of a new species in an isolated, island habitat.
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As in other dromaeosaurids, the lacrimal has an inverted L-shape, but the thin body of this bone is curved, which is also seen in Austroraptor. The scapula and coracoid of the holotype are completely fused giving form to the scapulocoracoid, and the suture between them is not present. Pneumatic foramina are present in the holotypic anterior sacral vertebrae. The femur and tibia of the holotype measure and long, respectively, and the fourth trochanter is a prominent and rugose ridge that is located on the posterior inner surface of the upper region of the femoral shaft.
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In 1877 Edward Drinker Cope named the type species Tichosteus lucasanus.E.D. Cope, 1877, "On reptilian remains from the Dakota Beds of Colorado", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 17(100): 193-196 The generic name is derived from Greek teichos, "wall", and osteon, "bone", referring to the fact that the vertebrae, though hollow inside, had no lateral pneumatic foramina, openings in the side wall for air sacks to invade the bone. The specific name honours superintendent of public schools Oramel W. Lucas, who collected two vertebrae for Cope, near Arkansas River. The dorsal vertebrae, together forming the holotype AMNH 5770, are about long.
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Soft tissue, such as scales and external gills, were found in many well- preserved branchiosaur fossils from Germany. In the early 20th century, branchiosaurs would be recognized as larval forms of temnospondyls lacking many of the typical features that define the group, and is no longer recognized as a distinct group. Other animals that would later be classified as temnospondyls were placed in a group called Ganocephala, which was characterized by plate-like skull bones, small limbs, fish-like scales, and branchial arches. Unlike labyrinthodonts, they did not have parietal foramina, small holes in their skulls behind their eye sockets.
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The incisive foramina, perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars, are narrow and long and taper towards the end. The palate itself is also long, extending beyond the molars, and includes prominent posterolateral palatal pits near the third molars, which are excavated into deep fossae. The roof of the mesopterygoid fossa, the opening behind the palate, is not perforated by sphenopalatine vacuities. O. gorgasi lacks an alisphenoid strut; in some other oryzomyines, this extension of the alisphenoid bone separates two openings in the skull, the masticatory–buccinator foramen and the foramen ovale accessorium.
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Nasal bones (A-B), supratemporal (C), and supraoccipital (D-F) of the holotype The snout was elongated and extremely slender – in front of the bony nostrils, it was only 45 mm wide in the holotype specimen. The snout also was only 0.044 times as deep as long, which is one of the lowest ratios found in ophthalmosaurids. Much of the snout was formed by the premaxillae, which formed the front portion of the upper jaw. The fossa praemaxillaris, a groove that ran parallel with the tooth row of the upper jaw, was deep and continuous, ending in a series of aligned foramina (depressions).
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The lateral ventricles are the two largest ventricles of the brain and contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Each cerebral hemisphere contains a lateral ventricle, known as the left or right ventricle, respectively. Each lateral ventricle resembles a C-shaped cavity that begins at an inferior horn in the temporal lobe, travels through a body in the parietal lobe and frontal lobe, and ultimately terminates at the interventricular foramina where each lateral ventricle connects to the single, central third ventricle. Along the path, a posterior horn extends backward into the occipital lobe, and an anterior horn extends farther into the frontal lobe.
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The median sacral artery (or middle sacral artery) is a small vessel that arises posterior to the abdominal aorta and superior to its bifurcation. It descends in the middle line in front of the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae, the sacrum and coccyx, ending in the glomus coccygeum (coccygeal gland). Minute branches pass from it, to the posterior surface of the rectum. On the last lumbar vertebra it anastomoses with the lumbar branch of the iliolumbar artery; in front of the sacrum it anastomoses with the lateral sacral arteries, sending offshoots into the anterior sacral foramina.
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In contrast, the venous stasis theory proposes that a combination of low oxygen levels and metabolite buildup are responsible due to venous backup at the cauda equina. Pain with walking may be partially explained by the corresponding increase in nerve root oxygen requirements. These changes in blood flow may occur during back extension when shifts in vertebral structures and ligaments narrow the spinal canal and compress the neurovasculature. Compared to a neutral position, extended spines exhibit 15% less cross- sectional area of the intervertebral foramina, and nerve root compression is present one-third of the time.
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The endocast was long, wide, and had a volume of . The dentary of the lower jaw expanded in height towards the front (by the mandibular symphysis, where the two halves of the lower jaw connected), where it was also flattened, and it had a downwards projection at the tip (which has been referred to as a "chin"). The lower side of the dentary was concave, the outer side was convex in upper view, and a groove ran along it, which supported foramina that nourished the teeth. The inner side of the dentary had a row of interdental plates, where each tooth had a foramen.
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The false potto generally resembles a small potto, but according to Schwartz it differs in having a longer tail, shorter spines on its neck and chest vertebrae, a smaller, less complex spine on the second neck vertebra, an entepicondylar foramen (an opening in the humerus, or upper arm bone), a lacrimal fossa (a depression in the skull) that is located inside the eye socket, a smaller upper third premolar and molar, and higher-crowned cheekteeth, among other traits. However, many of these traits are variable among pottos; for example, one researcher found entepicondylar foramina in almost half of the specimens in his sample of pottos.
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The total number of cervical (neck) vertebrae in Tatenectes is unknown. The neural spines of these vertebrae are short and angled posteriorly. Many features of the cervical vertebrae can be used to identify this genus: the cervical centra (vertebral bodies) are considerably shorter (in length) than wide, and are not constricted in the middle; the articulations for the cervical ribs are short but pronounced; the articular faces of the cervical vertebrae are round and weakly defined; the subcentral foramina (two small openings on the underside of the centrum) of the cervical vertebrae are positioned further apart than typical in related plesiosaurs. The form of the torso in Tatenectes is very distinctive.
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Life restoration of an adult Foraminacephale, as a pachycephalosaurid, was a small, bipedal herbivore with a thickened dome on its skull. In 2016, Gregory S. Paul estimated its length at , its weight at . In Foraminacephale, the top surface of the dome is punctuated by many small pits, the eponymous foramina; the dome itself consists of a large, central lobe with a sloped frontal half, and two smaller lateral lobes at the front. The squamosal bone forms a tall bar of completely smooth bone underneath the dome, save for six bony nodes that line the bottom edge of the dome and an additional "corner" node just below.
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The morpholology of the myxospores of this parasite differ slightly from others of the family Myxiidae: the polar capsules are located terminally and are elongated rather than subspherical (as in Myxidium), but they open to one side and their foramina are not located in the sutural plane (as in Zschokkella); the sutural line does not bisect the spore but is quite wavy, and does not reach the spore extremities (as in many Zschokkella). Subsequently, a new combination was formed when the genus Enteromyxum was erected based on molecular biology data as well as morphologyPalenzuela, O., Redondo M.J., Alvarez-Pellitero, P. (2002). Description of Enteromyxum scophthalmi gen. nov., sp. nov.
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Its anterior surface is flat and smooth, whilst its posterior is perforated by numerous foramina and its surface rough, to give attachment to the ligament of the neck. Its upper border presents a rough crest (crista colli costae) for the attachment of the anterior costotransverse ligament; its lower border is rounded. A tubercle of rib on the posterior surface of the neck of the rib, has two facets (surfaces) one articulating and one non-articulating. The articular facet, is small and oval and is the lower and more medial of the two, and connects to the transverse costal facet on the thoracic vertebra of the same rib number.
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Dorsal roots and ventral roots come together and exit the intervertebral foramina as they become spinal nerves. The gray matter, in the center of the cord, is shaped like a butterfly and consists of cell bodies of interneurons and motor neurons. It also consists of neuroglia cells and unmyelinated axons. Projections of the gray matter (the “wings”) are called horns. Together, the gray horns and the gray commissure form the “gray H.” The white matter is located outside of the gray matter and consists almost totally of myelinated motor and sensory axons. “Columns” of white matter carry information either up or down the spinal cord.
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Mesocetus is similar to other tranatocetids in having rostral bones that override the frontals and contact the parietals, nasals dividing the maxillae on the vertex, a dorsoventrally bent occipital shield with a more horizontal anterior portion and more vertical posterior portion, and a tympanic bulla with short, narrow anterior portion with rounded or squared anterior end and wider and higher posterior portion that is particularly swollen in the posteroventral area. Shared characters with Tranatocetus include posterior ends of premaxillae fused with the maxillae and divided on the vertex by long, narrow and high (vertical plate-like) nasals and cervical vertebrae with wide transverse foramina, almost as wide as the centra.
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Cerebrospinal fluid is circulated through the ventricles, cisterns, and subarachnoid space within the brain and spinal cord. About 150 mL of CSF is always in circulation, constantly being recycled through the daily production of nearly 500 mL of fluid. The CSF is primarily secreted by the choroid plexus; however, about one-third of the CSF is secreted by pia mater and the other ventricular ependymal surfaces (the thin epithelial membrane lining the brain and central canal) and arachnoidal membranes. The CSF travels from the ventricles and cerebellum through three foramina in the brain, emptying into the cerebrum, and ending its cycle in the venous blood via structures like the arachnoid granulations.
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Sylvilagus insonus differs from S. brasiliensis (forest rabbit) and S. dicei (Dice's cottontail) in that it has a larger skull, wider zygomatic bone, deeper rostrum, wider carotid foramina and dorsal extensions of the premaxillaries that extend posterior to the nasal instead. S. insonus also has a narrower basioccipital and narrower post-dental. In external appearance, the Omilteme cottontail has a longer bicoloured tail (rufous and black) instead of a uni-coloured tail (solely brown); hind feet with white and brown versus hind feet of only brown; and longer ears. In contrast, S. insonus differs from S. cunicularius (Mexican cottontail) with whom it shares its habitat by being smaller in size.
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The nasals extend slightly further back than the premaxillaries. The lacrimals articulate with both the frontals and the maxillaries, a trait that distinguishes Pennatomys from its closest relatives (which have lacrimals articulating mainly with the frontals). The interorbital region of the skull bears weak crests at its sides. The zygomatic plate, a bony plate at the side of the skull, is broad and its back margin is located in front of the first upper molar (M1). The incisive foramina, openings in the bony palate, extend back to a point next to the front root of M1. The palate itself is long and flat, extending beyond the third upper molars (M3).
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The neural spines of the neck vertebrae appear to have been low, and almost semi-circular by the 20th vertebra. The facets where the neck ribs articulated with the neck vertebrae were placed on the lower sides of the centra, but were only placed higher in the last three vertebrae, reaching around the middle of the sides. The neck ribs were semicircular to quadratic in side view, and were directed rather straight down. The bottom of each neck vertebrae had pairs of nutritive foramina (openings) at the middle, separated by a ridge, which became progressively more prominent and thickened towards the back of the neck.
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The median aperture (also known as the medial aperture, and foramen of Magendie) drains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the fourth ventricle into the cisterna magna. The two other openings of the fourth ventricle are the lateral apertures (also called the foramina of Luschka), one on the left and one on the right, which drain cerebrospinal fluid into the cerebellopontine angle cistern. The median foramen on axial images is posterior to the pons and anterior to the caudal cerebellum. It is surrounded by the obex and gracile tubercles of the medulla, tela choroidea of the fourth ventricle and its choroid plexus, which is attached to the cerebellar vermis.
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Actinoceratoidea, Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, part K.(Nautiloidea) The Armenoceratidae, established by Troedsson (1926) are characterized by large, straight, or slightly curved shells and large siphuncles with strongly expanded segments between the septa. Septal necks are short and abruptly recurved along brims. Radial canals in the endosiphuncular canal system are typically arched, curving forward and backward from near the septal foramina (openings) to connect with the parispatium on either side of the middle of each segments. The parispatium is the narrow opening between the inner side of the connecting rings in actinocerids and the internal siphuncular deposits that grow forward and back from the region of the septal openings.
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Because meningeal blood vessels comprise part of the outermost layer of the brain, they often leave vascular grooves in the cranial cavity that are captured in endocasts. Endocranial vasculature originates around the foramina in the skull and in a living body would supply blood to the calvaria and dura mater. The vasculature is so well preserved in some fossils that terminal branches of the circulatory system can be observed. Analysis of cranial vasculature concentrates on the anterior meningeal system of the frontal region, the middle meningeal system of the parieto-temporal and part of the anterior occipital region, and the cerebellar fossa system of the cerebellar region.
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Paddle of related species Dolichorhynchops osborni In addition to the aforementioned forward projections, the trapezoidal coracoid of Mauriciosaurus differs from those of Dolichorhynchops and Trinacromerum in that it lacks perforations along its midline and at its back margin. While this may possibly be influenced by the specimen's young age, it is unusual that they are entirely absent at this stage of development. Additionally, unlike Eopolycotylus, the surface of the coracoid in Mauriciosaurus is largely smooth and devoid of pits (foramina). The front and back of the scapula are convex while the other edges are concave; the dorsal scapular process projects upwards from the outer edge.
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Eosimops had indistinguishably fused premaxillae, with the single element forming the anterior portion of the snout and alveolar margin along with the anterior edge of the external nares. The premaxilla forms part of the secondary pallet, and bears two sets of paired anterior ridges as well as a single median posterior palatal ridge. A dorsally directed portion of the premaxilla with a rounded edge projects between the nasals, diagnostic of dicynodonts thanks to the narrow groove along its midline. The left and right dentaries of Eosimops’ mandible were fused, and the anterior surface sported a vascular foramina which was likely associated with a keratinaceous beak.
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Potocki–Shaffer syndrome (PSS), also known as DEFECT11 syndrome or chromosome 11p11.2 deletion syndrome, is a rare contiguous gene syndrome that results from the microdeletion of section 11.2 on the short arm of chromosome 11 (11p11.2). The syndrome has its name from Dr. Lorraine (Lori) Potocki and Dr. Lisa Shaffer who discovered the deletion on the 11th chromosome and studied the impacts. The deletion of this combination of genes results in several distinctive congenital features, occasional defects in the heart, kidneys, and urinary tract. The disorder is associated with an enlarged parietal foramina which can cause openings in the two bones that form the top and sides of the skull.
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Comparison between the air sacs of Majungasaurus and a modern bird Scientists have reconstructed the respiratory system of Majungasaurus based on a superbly preserved series of vertebrae (UA 8678) recovered from the Maevarano Formation. Most of these vertebrae and some of the ribs contained cavities (pneumatic foramina) that may have resulted from the infiltration of avian- style lungs and air sacs. In birds, the neck vertebrae and ribs are hollowed out by the cervical air sac, the upper back vertebrae by the lung, and the lower back and sacral (hip) vertebrae by the abdominal air sac. Similar features in Majungasaurus vertebrae imply the presence of these air sacs.
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Several gastralia are preserved; they suggest that the underside of the animal was gently convex. The most unique aspect of Ozimek's anatomy is perhaps its coracoids, which probably fused with the sternum. They are large and plate- like, and each coracoid bears two holes (or fenestrae); the anterior hole may be homologous with the coracoid foramina found in other animals, but the origin of the posterior hole is unclear. Additionally, the scapula is low and crescent-shaped, and the fifth metatarsal on the foot is curved and unusually robust, a feature that is associated with efficiently standing up and accelerated locomotion among diapsids (analogous to the mammalian heel).
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Skull of adult specimen IVPP−V11797−10 Skull of juvenile specimen IVPP−V11797−11 Sinornithomimus was by the describers assigned to the Ornithomimidae. It was a basal ornithomimid that was considered by its describers a more derived form than Archaeornithomimus, though more recent analyses reverse the situation. The structure of the hand is similar to that of Archaeornithomimus representing thus an intermediate between the "primitive" condition of the ornithomimosaur Harpymimus and the one of the more derived ornithomimids. Sinornithomimus renders some synapomorphies of ornithomimids plesiomorphic, while also differentiating Asian ornithomimid rhamphothecae from North American ones, based on maxillary vascular foramina found in the latter.
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Aetiocetus is a genus of extinct basal mysticete, or baleen whale that lived , in the late Oligocene in the North Pacific ocean, around Japan, Mexico, and Oregon, U.S. It was first described by Douglas Emlong in 1966 and currently contains known four species, A. cotylalveus, A. polydentatus, A. tomitai, and A. weltoni. These whales are remarkable for their retention of teeth and presence of nutrient foramina, indicating that they possessed baleen. Thus, Aetiocetus represents the transition from teeth to baleen in Oligocene mysticetes. Baleen is a highly derived character, or synapomorphy, of mysticetes, and is a keratinous structure that grows from the palate, or roof of the mouth, of the whale.
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Unique characteristics that differentiate Mierasaurus from other turiasaurs can be found in its braincase: a ridge known as the otosphenoidal ridge extends from the front of the paroccipital process—a bony spur to which neck muscles attach—and runs along its inner edge; and the occipital condyle, which articulates with the atlas, has a pair of rounded ridges on the sides of its articular surfaces (which Moabosaurus lacks). Like Turiasaurus, Mierasaurus has a pair of foramina at the top end of the transverse nuchal crest on the supraoccipital bone. Like in Moabosaurus, the downward projections known as the basal tubera on the basioccipital bone are L-shaped when viewed from the bottom.
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The winter dorsal pelage is grayish brown which is slightly lighter in tone than the ventral pelage. The feet are dull white in color, the foreclaws are long, and the hindfeet are long. The incisive foramen (funnel-shaped opening in the bony plate of the skull, located in the roof of the mouth, immediately behind the incisor teeth where blood vessels and nerves pass) is combined with the palatal foramina, and has a wavy edge. The Moupin's pika is similar to the Forrest's pika, but it has paler ventral pelage, shorter foreclaws, a narrower skull especially across the cheek bone, and buffy patches behind the ears, which do not meet around the back of the neck.
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The lower jaw did not have a coronoid process or a supradentary bone, the lack of which is a common feature of beaked theropods (ornithomimosaurs, oviraptorosaurs, therizinosaurs and birds), but unusual among theropods in general. The jaws of Gallimimus were edentulous (toothless), and the front part would have been covered in a keratinous rhamphotheca (horny beak) in life. The beak may have covered a smaller area than in North American relatives, based on the lack of nourishing foramina on the maxilla. The inner side of the beak had small, tightly packed and evenly spaced columnar structures (their exact nature is debated), which were longest at the front and shortening towards the back.
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Pneumatic structures in the caudal vertebrae of Shenzhousaurus (A), and the cervical (B, C, D), dorsal (E), sacral (F, G) and caudal (H) vertebrae of Gallimimus The back of Gallimimus had 13 dorsal vertebrae, with spool-like centra that were short, but tended to become deeper and longer towards the back. Their transverse processes (processes articulating with the ribs) slightly increased in length towards the back. The two first dorsal centra had deep pneumatic foramina, while the rest only had shallow fossae (depressions), and the neural spines were prominent being somewhat triangular or rectangular in shape. The sacrum (fused vertebrae between the pelvic bones) consisted of five sacral vertebrae which were about equal in length.
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Mastoid process shown in red Its outer surface is rough and gives attachment to the occipitalis and posterior auricular muscles. It is perforated by numerous foramina (holes); for example, the mastoid foramen is situated near the posterior border and transmits a vein to the transverse sinus and a small branch of the occipital artery to the dura mater. The position and size of this foramen are very variable; it is not always present; sometimes it is situated in the occipital bone, or in the suture between the temporal and the occipital. The mastoid process is located posterior and inferior to the ear canal, lateral to the styloid process, and appears as a conical or pyramidal projection.
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Reconstructed skull of the holotype in lateral (A) and dorsal (C) views The snout is moderately elongated, with a premaxilla featuring elongated nasal processes. A fine, vertical lamina of bone is connected rostrally to the medial margin of the premaxilla, indicating that when the animal was alive, a cartilaginous internasal septum was present. Additional to this, the premaxilla features lateral and medial foramina that are connected by a complex system of vascular canals, which pervades the structure of the premaxilla and is probably associated with the sensory branches of the neurovasculature and ophthalmic nerve supporting the rhamphotheca (beak). The maxilla is triangular in shape and preserves 24 alveoli, the teeth are homodont with coarse serrations.
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The antorbital notches, which are usually slit-like notches on the sides of the skull right before the snout, were inside the basin. A slanting crest on the temporal fossa directed towards the back of the skull separated the snout from the rest of the skull, and was defined by a groove starting at the antorbital processes on the cheekbones. The basin had two foramina in the front, as opposed to the modern sperm whale which has one foramen on the maxilla, and to the modern dwarf and pygmy sperm whales which have several in the basin. The suture in the basin between the maxilla and the forehead had an interlocking pattern.
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This is seen as an adaptation for a wider gape to facilitate in bulk browsing, and is observed in nearly all sauropods. The lateral neurovascular foramina of the maxilla of Aardonyx are smaller than those of other basal sauropodomorphs, and indicate that there was a reduction in blood supply to the buccal tissues and thus a loss of fleshy cheeks. The development of lateral plates along the alveolar margins of some bones of the skull would have helped brace the lingual sides of the teeth against bucco-lingual forces during foliage stripping. The presence of plesiomorphic V-shaped jaws along with the absence of fleshy cheeks is an unusual characteristic of Aardonyx.
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Protoceratopsids may have had cheeks to hold food in their mouths. They have very well-defined maxillary and dentary ridges where the muscles in the cheek would have connected, and a number of foramina dotted the maxilla which allowed branches from the trigimenal nerve to reach the tissues attached to the maxilla, indicating that such tissues were likely muscular. The end of the upper jaw was likely not fleshy but instead covered by a horn-like material, and the upper and lower jaws curved in towards each other. Compared to more derived ceratopsians, protoceratopsids had a deep and wide oral cavity, though more narrow than in predecessors like Psittacosaurus, which may have aided in breathing or thermoregulation.
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Vertebrae from the pectoral region of the holotype specimen The vertebrae that transitioned between the neck and back (or dorsal) vertebrae in the pectoral region of plesiosaurs, close to the front margin of the forelimb girdle, are often termed pectoral vertebrae. Elasmosaurus had three pectoral vertebrae, which is a common number for elasmosaurids. The rib facets of the pectoral vertebrae were triangular in shape and situated on transverse processes, and the centra bore pairs of nutritive foramina in the middle of the lower sides. The back vertebrae had rib facets level with the neural canal, and the front and back part of the transverse processes here had distinct ridges on their margins.
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Although the bones bordering the lower temporal fenestra (an opening behind the orbit) were incomplete, it appears to have been elongated and slit-like (as in Tupuxuara and Tapejara). Life restoration of a T. sethi pair in flight The palatal area at the tip of T. sethi's snout was a sharp ridge, similar to the keel seen on the upper surface of the mandibular symphysis where the two halves of the lower jaw connected. Small slit-like foramina (openings) on the lower side edges of the ridge indicate that it had a horny covering in life, similar to Tupandactylus. The lower edge of the area was somewhat curved, which probably created a small gap when the jaws were closed.
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The flanges on the bottom of the pterygoids come into contact with each other at the midline of the skull. On the bottom of the cervicals, there are large foramina, or pits. The number of cervical vertebrae in Luskhan (14) can be seen as intermediate between Pliosaurus (18) and Brachauchenius (12). Unusually, Luskhan also lacks many of the adaptations for hunting large prey seen in other brachauchenines: the snout is very thin; there is no keel on the bottom of the fused symphysis of the lower jaw; there is no diastema (or gap in the tooth row); the bones of the upper jaw (the premaxilla and maxilla) are expanded outwards; and there are no caniniform ("canine-like") teeth.
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Dadar has plenty of religious places including BAPS Swaminarayan Mandir (opp. Dadar east railway station), Rustom Foramina Agiary (Parsi colony), N C Narielwala Dadar Agiary (Naigam cross road), Kali Temple (Shivaji Park), Ganesh temple (Shivaji Park), Siddhivinayak Temple (Dadar), Jakhadevi Mandhir (Saitan Chowki) Sri Guru Singh Sabha Bombay (Ambedkar road), Shri Krishna Mandir Sabhagruh, Shri Mahaveer Digambar Jain Mandir, Hanuman Mandir (outside Dadar east railway station), Peer Bagdadi Dargah and mosque, Portuguese church (Dadar west), St. Marys Orthodox Cathedral (first Malankara Orthodox Syrian church in Mumbai) and Indian Pentecostal church. Chaitya Bhoomi, Mumbai – Samadhi place of Babasaheb Ambedkar. Dadar is also home to Chaitya Bhoomi, memorial and place where B. R. Ambedkar, Chief architect of Indian Constitution was cremated.
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The holotype of C. dui preserves the outline of an upwards curving beak which sharply tapers towards its tip, while a C. sanctus specimen (IVPP V12352) has an upper margin that is almost straight, and a tip that appears to be slightly hooked downwards. Two further specimens (STM13-133 and STM13-162) belonging to an indeterminate species were described in 2020; the former suggests that, unlike modern birds, the beak on both jaws was made up of two separate elements that met at the midline, with feathers growing between them on the upper jaw. Also unlike modern birds, these specimens suggest that the upper beak extended backwards onto the maxilla due to the presence of foramina.
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The hadrosaurs and ceratopsians of the Cretaceous Period, as well as many herbivorous mammals, would convergently evolve somewhat analogous dental batteries. As opposed to hadrosaurs, which had hundreds of teeth constantly being replaced, tooth replacement in heterodontosaurids occurred far more slowly and several specimens have been found without a single replacement tooth in waiting. Characteristically, heterodontosaurids lacked the small openings (foramina) on the inside of the jaw bones which are thought to have aided in tooth development in most other ornithischians. Heterodontosaurids also boasted a unique spheroidal joint between the dentaries and the predentary, allowing the lower jaws to rotate outwards as the mouth was closed, grinding the cheek teeth against each other.
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He considered it to be paler grey on the upperparts than the known forms. This is however no longer considered a valid subspecies and represents variation within the widely distributed species. The genus is the sole member of the tribe Hemiprocnini which is, based on one morphological cladistics, considered to be more derived than the Cypseloidini (while some others have suggested that Hemiprocne is basal) and basal to the Collocaliini and more derived tribes Chaeturini and Apodini. The posterior portion of the sternum has two openings or foramina and the fifth secondary is absent (also known as diastataxic, a character sharedwith Cypseloides) whereas other swifts have the fifth secondary (and are said to be eutaxic).
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Pelvic surface Dorsal surface The pelvic surface of the sacrum is concave from the top, and curved slightly from side to side. Its middle part is crossed by four transverse ridges, which correspond to the original planes of separation between the five sacral vertebrae. The body of the first segment is large and has the form of a lumbar vertebra; the bodies of the next bones get progressively smaller, are flattened from the back, and curved to shape themselves to the sacrum, being concave in front and convex behind. At each end of the transverse ridges, are the four anterior sacral foramina, diminishing in size in line with the smaller vertebral bodies.
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Apical abscess associated with roots of a lower molar. Apical periodontitis is acute or chronic inflammation around the apex of a tooth caused by an immune response to bacteria within an infected pulp. It does not occur because of pulp necrosis, meaning that a tooth that tests as if it's alive (vital) may cause apical periodontitis, and a pulp which has become non-vital due to a sterile, non-infectious processes (such as trauma) may not cause any apical periodontitis. Bacterial cytotoxins reach the region around the roots of the tooth via the apical foramina and lateral canals, causing vasodilation, sensitization of nerves, osteolysis (bone resorption) and potentially abscess or cyst formation.
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A tooth is composed of an outer shell of calcified hard tissues (from hardest to softest: enamel, dentin, and cementum), and an inner soft tissue core (the pulp system), which contains nerves and blood vessels. The visible parts of the teeth in the mouth – the crowns (covered by enamel) – are anchored into the bone by the roots (covered by cementum). Underneath the cementum and enamel layers, dentin forms the bulk of the tooth and surrounds the pulp system. The part of the pulp inside the crown is the pulp chamber, and the central soft tissue nutrient canals within each root are root canals, exiting through one or more holes at the root end (apical foramen/foramina).
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CT image of specimen in burrow Thrinaxodon has been identified as a burrowing cynodont by numerous discoveries in preserved burrow hollows. There is evidence that the burrows are in fact built by the Thrinaxodon to live in them, and they do not simply inhabit leftover burrows by other creatures. Pitted foramina on the snout of Thrinaxodon indicate the likely presence of the sensory organ, whiskers, an adaptation likely used to assist navigation and sensation within burrows. Due to the evolution of a segmented vertebral column into thoracic, lumbar and sacral vertebrae, Thrinaxodon was able to achieve flexibilities that permitted it to comfortably rest within smaller burrows, which may have led to habits such as aestivation or torpor.
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In landmark- based geometric morphometrics, the spatial information missing from traditional morphometrics is contained in the data, because the data are coordinates of landmarks: discrete anatomical loci that are arguably homologous in all individuals in the analysis (i.e. they can be regarded as the "same" point in each specimens in the study). For example, where two specific sutures intersect is a landmark, as are intersections between veins on an insect wing or leaf, or foramina, small holes through which veins and blood vessels pass. Landmark-based studies have traditionally analyzed 2D data, but with the increasing availability of 3D imaging techniques, 3D analyses are becoming more feasible even for small structures such as teeth.
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Aspects of gorgonopsian paleobiology and evolution: insights from the basicranium, occiput, osseous labyrinth, vasculature, and neuroanatomy. PeerJ. (Vol. 5): 1-45. While Owen had originally assumed the holotype to be the skull of an adult, it has been argued that it was actually the skull of a juvenile. Owen only attributed its old age to the state of its sutures and teeth, while others noticed features indicating a young age, including its “...short snout, large orbits, slender postcanine teeth, tooth replacement, numerous small postcanine teeth, well developed foramina, large supraorbital portion of the frontal, anteriorly situated preparietal, slender skull arches, narrow vomer, well developed palatal tuberosities, teeth on transverse apophyses, large ectopterygoids, slender mandible, [and] open symphysis”.
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The skull of Ufudocyclops superficially resembles Angonisaurus, being relatively tall and notably broad behind the snout, with large, sideways facing eyes and prominent tuskless caniniform processes on the maxilla that project away down and forwards from the snout, flaring out slightly to sides, with blunted tips. The lower surfaces of the maxilla are heavily pitted and rugose, as is the premaxilla and the palate on the roof of the mouth. These textures correspond to the eponymous tortoise-like keratinous beak typical of dicynodonts like Ufudocyclops. The isolated tip of the premaxilla demonstrates that these pits are superficial and do not continue deeper into the bone, as the inner texture of the bone is smooth and tabulate, and so are not foramina.
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The lateral side of the ventricle is marked by a sulcus - the hypothalamic sulcus - from the inferior side of the interventricular foramina to the anterior side of the cerebral aqueduct. The lateral border posterior/superior of the sulcus constitutes the thalamus, while anterior/inferior of the sulcus it constitutes the hypothalamus. The interthalamic adhesion usually tunnels through the thalamic portion of the ventricle, joining together the left and right halves of the thalamus, although it is sometimes absent, or split into more than one tunnel through the ventricle; it is currently unknown whether any nerve fibres pass between the left and right thalamus via the adhesion (it has more resemblance to a herniation than a commissure). The posterior border of the ventricle primarily constitutes the epithalamus.
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Warrenisuchus is known from several fossil specimens. The holotype skeleton preserves most of the skull and lower jaws, the pectoral girdle, the forward-most vertebrae and ribs, and the right hind limb and the paratype specimen includes a partial skull and pectoral girdle. All known specimens of Warrenisuchus are very small; the largest skull is only long and the smallest is long (adult capitosaurs can have skulls over a meter in length). They show many characteristics of juvenile individuals such as large eye sockets, rounded heads (adult capitosaurs typically have triangular heads), loose joints between skull bones, small tabular horns, and pineal foramina close to the back of the eye sockets (as opposed to farther back on the skull table).
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They also suggested that R. gracilis, not included in the analysis, might be the sister taxon of C. bonapartei, based on morphology, further supporting the exclusion of P. ischigualastensis from Chanaresuchus. Trotteyn and Ezcurra (2014) distinguished P. ischigualastensis from other proterochampsids, including C. bonapartei, based on a unique combination traits. These include a transversely broad basicranium with transversely oriented basal tubera, paroccipital processes with vertically expanded far end, the absence of a retroarticular projection on the lower jaws, tail vertebrae with a mid longitudinal groove on the bottom surface of the centrum and with pre- and post-zygapophyses strongly divergent from the midline, the lack of foramina on the back groove of the astragalus, and finally, osteoderm ornamentation consisting solely of longitudinal grooving.
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The braincase is where Protoavis comes close to being as avian as Chatterjee has maintained. The otic capsule is allegedly organized in avian fashion, with three distinct foramina arranged as such: fenestra ovalis, fenestra pseudorotunda, and the caudal tympanic recess, with a bony metotic strut positioned between the fenestra pseudorotunda and caudal tympanic recess. The claim that the full complement of tympanic recesses seen in ornithurines, are similarly observed in Protoavis is questionable, as the preservation of the braincase is not adequate to permit concrete observations on the matter. Chatterjee omits in his 1987 account of the braincase, the presence of a substantial post-temporal fenestra, which in all Aves (including Archaeopteryx), is reduced or absent altogether, and the lack of a pneumatic sinus on the paroccipital.
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The inner surface of the skull-cap is concave and presents depressions for the convolutions of the cerebrum, together with numerous furrows for the lodgement of branches of the meningeal vessels. Along the middle line is a longitudinal groove, narrow in front, where it commences at the frontal crest, but broader behind; it lodges the superior sagittal sinus, and its margins afford attachment to the falx cerebri. On either side of it are several depressions for the arachnoid granulations, and at its back part, the openings of the parietal foramina when these are present. It is crossed in front by the coronal suture and behind by the lambdoid suture, while the sagittal suture lies in the medial plane between the parietal bones.
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The frontal does not emarginate above the orbits and a median dorsal ridge is either present or absent. The foramina on the parietal are small to moderately large, located antermedially on a small prominence and are closely embraced on either side by short tongues from the frontal or located on the frontoparietal suture. The margins of the dorsal parietal surface are parallel to one another and the cranial midline to the posterior base of the diverging suspensorial rami, which forms a rectangular field medially on the parietal. The ventral process of the postorbitofrontal to jugal is indistinctly separated from the moderately well exposed dorsal surface of the postorbitofrontal and the ventroposterior process on the jugal is slightly developed to absent.
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The ventral surface of the basisphenoid process is quite smooth and foramina are visible above the sixth tooth on the lateral surface of the pterygoid as well as above the position between the sixth and seventh teeth on the medial surface. The squamosal bone is only represented by a few fragments, but could be noted for being laterally compressed and tall, as in other species of Prognathodon. Its posteroventral surface is concave for contact with the quadrate. The dentaries are fused with the posterior end of the splenial and the anterior blade of the prearticular and have a tooth count of 13, with at least eight teeth possessing subdental crypts with some replacement teeth having been found in the type specimen.
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Mandibular symphysis Aymberedactylus can be identified as a tapejarine tapejarid from the holotypic jawbone due to its toothlessness, slightly downturned dentary symphysis which accounts for half of the total length of the jaw, and a small crest on the bottom of the dentary (which was incompletely preserved). Small neurovascular foramina on the symphysis indicates the likely presence of a horned sheath over the tip of the jaw, which is also seen in Tupandactylus. The preserved portion is long. It can be distinguished from other pterosaurs by a long retroarticular process (a process to which the depressor mandibulae muscle attaches, implying that Aymberedactylus had good control over the movement of its jaw bones) and a small fossa, or depression, with a roughened bone texture on the splenial bone.
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The esophageal branches of the inferior thyroid artery supply the esophagus, and anastomose with the esophageal branches of the aorta. The ascending cervical artery is a small branch which arises from the inferior thyroid artery as it passes behind the carotid sheath; it runs up on the anterior tubercles of the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae in the interval between the anterior scalene muscle and the longus capitis. The ascending cervical artery gives twigs to the neck muscles and these anastomose with branches of the vertebral arteries. One or two spinal branches are sent into the spinal canal, through the intervertebral foramina to be distributed to the spinal cord and its membranes, and to the bodies of the vertebrae.
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The pharyngeal trunk usually consists of several branches which supply the middle and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscles and the stylopharyngeus, ramifying in their substance and in the mucous membranes lining them. These branches are in hemodynamic equilibrium with contributors from the internal maxillary artery. The neuromeningeal trunk classically consists of jugular and hypoglossal divisions, which enter the jugular and hypoglossal foramina to supply regional meningeal and neural structures, being in equilibrium with branches of the vertebral, occipital, posterior meningeal, middle meningeal, and internal carotid arteries (via its caroticotympanic branch, meningohypophyseal, and inferolateral trunks). Also present is the inferior tympanic branch, which ascends towards the middle ear cavity; it is involved in internal carotid artery reconstitution via the "aberrant carotid artery" variant.
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They also have adaptations to their circulatory systems, permitting rotation without cutting off blood to the brain: the foramina in their vertebrae through which the vertebral arteries pass are about 10 times the diameter of the artery, instead of about the same size as the artery as in humans; the vertebral arteries enter the cervical vertebrae higher than in other birds, giving the vessels some slack, and the carotid arteries unite in a very large anastomosis or junction, the largest of any bird's, preventing blood supply from being cut off while they rotate their necks. Other anastomoses between the carotid and vertebral arteries support this effect. The smallest owl—weighing as little as and measuring some —is the elf owl (Micrathene whitneyi).
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The ancestral lemur that colonized Madagascar is thought to have been small and nocturnal. More specifically, it is thought to have had adapiform-like cranial anatomy—particularly the cranial foramina and the middle ear—comparable to that of lemurids, while being similar to cheirogaleids in dentition and postcranial anatomy. Nothing definitive is known about the island's biogeography at the time of the colonization, however, the paleoclimate (ancient weather patterns) may have been affected by Madagascar's location below the subtropical ridge at 30° S latitude and disruption of the weather patterns by India as it drifted northward. Both would have created a drying effect on Madagascar, and as a result, the arid spiny bush that is currently found in the south and southwest of Madagascar would have dominated the island.
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Life restoration showing an adult with feathers, based on those known from the related Ornithomimus Gallimimus had 64–66 vertebrae in its spine, fewer than other ornithomimids. The centra (or bodies) of the vertebrae were platycoelous, with a flat front surface and a concave hind surface, except for the first six caudal (tail) vertebra–where the hind surface was also flat–and those at the end of the tail–which were amphiplatyan with both surfaces flat. Many of the centra had foramina (openings which have also been called "pleurocoels"), and were therefore probably pneumatic (with their hollow chambers invaded by air sacs). The neck consisted of 10 cervical vertebrae, which were all long and wide, except for the atlas bone (the first vertebra that connects with the back of the skull).
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Loeblich and Tappan, 1964, in the Treatise, included the Verbeekininae (=Verbeekinidae, sensu 1988) and Neoschwagerininae (= Neoschwagerinidae sensu 1988) in the Verbeekinidae as then perceived. Defined the Verbeekinidae as having a shell of medium size, spherical, ellipsoidal to elongate ellipsoidal, or distinctly fusiform, with close spaced foramina along the base of all septa; spirotheca (outer wall) composed of tectum and keriotheca in early members but in later genera may consist of a single homogenous layer. The Verbeekinidae (1964) can be equated with the Neoschagerinidae of Cushman, 1950 The Verbeekinidae and Neoschwagerinidae, as now perceived, are set apart from earlier fusulinaceans, e.g. Fusuninidae and Schwagerinidae, by straight, unfluted or uncorregated, septa and by the presence of "I-beam" like transverse and axial septula that hang from the spirotheca, partially subdividing the chambers.
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Foraminotomy is a medical operation used to relieve pressure on nerves that are being compressed by the intervertebral foramina, the passages through the bones of the vertebrae of the spine that pass nerve bundles to the body from the spinal cord. A foraminotomy is performed to relieve the symptoms of nerve root compression in cases where the foramen is being compressed by bone, disc, scar tissue, or excessive ligament development and results in a pinched nerve. The procedure is often performed as a minimally invasive procedure in which an incision is made in the back, the muscle peeled away to reveal the bone underneath, and a small hole cut into the vertebra itself. Through this hole, using an arthroscope, the foramen can be visualized, and the impinging bone or disk material removed.
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The foramina were named after the Scottish physician and University of Edinburgh graduate Alexander Monro, who first described an enlarged foramen in the context of hydrocephalus in a presentation to the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh in 1764, and subsequently in his 1783 publication, Observations on the Structure and Functions of the Nervous System. In this publication, Monro notes that the ventricular system has been noted to be connected, implying the presence of the foramen, since the time of the physician anatomist Galen. Monro described it as: Monro's original description, of two lateral ventricles joined by a foramen that then joined the third ventricle, is in fact incorrect. As noted by Monro himself, previous authors have also described the ventricles as having connections; consequently, the eponym of "Monro" has been disputed.
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Bonvicino et al., 2010, p. 28 In two specimens from Capitão Andrade, the head and body length is , the tail length is , the hindfoot length is , the ear length is , and the body mass is .Bonvicino et al., 2010, table 3 In the skull, the front region (rostrum) is short and the braincase is broadened. The incisive foramina are long, extending between the first molars. The palate itself is also long, extending beyond the third molars, and near the third molars is perforated by a pair of posterolateral palatal pits.Bonvicino et al., 2010, p. 29 The cutting faces of the upper incisors are inclined backwards (opisthodont). The upper third molars are reduced in size.Bonvicino et al., 2010, p. 30 It differs from other Calomys by its karyotype and by characters of the fur.Bonvicino et al.
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135 The interparietal bone, part of the roof of the braincase, is large. The incisive foramina (openings in the front part of the palate) are short and do not reach between the first molars; they are longer in H. alfaroi. The bony palate is long and extends beyond the end of the molar row and the back margin of the maxillary bones.Musser and Williams, 1985, p. 14; Weksler, 2006, pp. 34–35 The posterolateral palatal pits, which perforate the palate near the third molars, are small, and may or may not be recessed into a fossa.Goldman, 1918, p. 73; Weksler, 2006, p. 35; Musser and Williams, 1985, p. 14 The sphenopalatine vacuities (openings in the roof of the mesopterygoid fossa, behind the palate) are also small, as are the auditory bullae.
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The anterior surfaces of the condyles are continuous with one another, forming a large somewhat flattened area; this area is triangular, broad above, and perforated by large vascular foramina; narrow below where it ends in a large oblong elevation, the tuberosity of the tibia, which gives attachment to the patellar ligament; a bursa intervenes between the deep surface of the ligament and the part of the bone immediately above the tuberosity. Posteriorly, the condyles are separated from each other by a shallow depression, the posterior intercondyloid fossa, which gives attachment to part of the posterior cruciate ligament of the knee-joint. The medial condyle presents posteriorly a deep transverse groove, for the insertion of the tendon of the semimembranosus. Its medial surface is convex, rough, and prominent; it gives attachment to the medial collateral ligament.
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Lateral ventricles and horns The lateral ventricles connected to the third ventricle by the interventricular foramina Each lateral ventricle takes the form of an elongated curve, with an additional anterior-facing continuation emerging inferiorly from a point near the posterior end of the curve; the junction is known as the trigone of the lateral ventricle. The centre of the superior curve is referred to as the body, while the three remaining portions are known as horns (cornua in Latin); they are usually referred to by their position relative to the body (anterior, posterior, or inferior), or sometimes by the lobe of the cerebral cortex into which they extend. Though somewhat flat, the lateral ventricles have a vaguely triangular cross-section. Ependyma, which are neuroepithelial cells, line the ventricular system including the lateral ventricles.
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Lateral to either olfactory groove are the internal openings of the anterior and posterior ethmoidal foramina; the anterior, situated about the middle of the lateral margin of the olfactory groove, transmits the anterior ethmoidal vessels and the nasociliary nerve; the nerve runs in a groove along the lateral edge of the cribriform plate to the slit-like opening above mentioned; the posterior ethmoidal foramen opens at the back part of this margin under cover of the projecting lamina of the sphenoid, and transmits the posterior ethmoidal vessels and nerve. Farther back in the middle line is the ethmoidal spine, bounded behind by a slight elevation separating two shallow longitudinal grooves which support the olfactory lobes. Behind this is the anterior margin of the chiasmatic groove, running laterally on either side to the upper margin of the optic foramen.
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Normal human brain CT scanA brain endocast is the imprintation of the inner features of a cranium that captures the details created from pressure exerted on the skull by the brain itself. Endocasts can be formed naturally by sedimentation through the cranial foramina which becomes rock-hard due to calcium deposition over time, or artificially by creating a mold from silicon or latex that is then filled with plaster-of-Paris while sitting in a water bath to equalize forces and retain the original shape. Natural endocasts are very rare; most of those that are studied are the result of artificial methods. Although the name implies that it is a copy of the once living brain, endocasts rarely exhibit convolutions due to buffering by the pia mater, arachnoid mater, and dura mater that once surrounded and protected the brain tissue.
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LD 350-1 is an adult left jawbone including the canine, both premolars, and all three molars. In terms of overall size, the specimen is within the range of what is seen in small Australopithecus afarensis specimens, and LD 350-1 seems to be a transitional form between Australopithecus and Homo. However, the specimen's anatomy strongly diverges from australopithecines and more closely aligns with Homo: the mental foramina are not located on a depression, it has a symphyseal keel (a line of bone jutting out at the midline of the jaws), the jawbone maintains a more or less constant depth whereas it is deepest under the premolars in some Australopithecus, and there are several differences regarding the tooth crowns. This specimen confirms that Homo dental and jaw anatomy diverged from those of Australopithecus very early on.
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Waharoa ruwhenua had sulci and palatal foramina localized to the posterior half of the palate and lacked these features anteriorly, suggesting that baleen was only present in the posterior palatal regions. The posterior localization of baleen along with a delicate temporomandibular joint with a probable synovial capsule, an anteroposteriorly expanding palate, a non-laterally deflected coronoid process, and a shortage of characteristics indicative of lunge feeding indicate that W. ruwhenua could have utilized skim filter-feeding like modern Balaenidae to feed for zooplankton. The hypothesis that W. rewhenua was a skim feeder suggests that skim filter-feeding may have been the earliest form of feeding in the edentulous Chaeomysticeti clade. Based on the enlarged temporal fossae and enlarged mandibular canal, Waharoa was probably incapable of lunge- feeding, although it remains unclear whether it could skim-feed or filter prey in the benthic zone.
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Cerroni and colleagues conducted a phylogenetic analysis to determine the affinities of Tralkasaurus. They found that it possesses synapomorphies of the Abelisauridae: a maxilla with a deep body, low ascending process, and reduced maxillary fossa, covered by foramina and rugosities; fused lining the inside of the maxillary tooth row bearing strong vertical ridges; the subdivision of the infradiapophyseal fossae by the posterior paradiapophyseal laminae; a connection between the transverse processes and parapophyses by the dorsal paradiapophyseal laminae; large transverse processes strongly inclined upwards on the caudal vertebrae; and a thin pubic shaft. They also identified the forward-inclined front margin of the antorbital fenestra and its excavation of the body of the maxilla, the rod-like parapophyses, and the low paradiapophyseal laminae as autapomorphies of Tralkasaurus. Within the Abelisauridae, the position of Tralkasaurus was more poorly resolved.
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The mandibular incisive canal is a bony canal within the anterior mandible that runs bilaterally from the mental foramina usually to the region of the ipsilateral lateral incisor teeth. After branching into the mental nerve that exits the foramen of the same name, the inferior alveolar nerve continues anteriorly within the mandibular incisive canal as the incisive nerve, providing innervation to the mandibular first premolar, canine and lateral and central incisors.Greenstein, G; Cavallaro, J; Tarnow, D. "Practical Application of Anatomy for the Dental Implant Surgeon," J Perio 2008;79:1833-1846 The mandibular incisive nerve either terminates as nerve endings within the anterior teeth or adjacent bone, or may join nerve endings that enter through the tiny lingual foramen. The incisive canal is typically found within the middle third of the mandible in an apico-coronal dimension, reaching the midline 18% of the time.
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The atlas differed from that of other ornithomimids in that the front surface of its intercentrum was slanted downwards towards the back, instead of being concave and facing upwards to support the occipital condyle. The neck appears to have been proportionally longer in relation to the trunk than in other ornithomimids. The neck was divided into two distinct sections: the cervical vertebrae at the front had centra which were nearly triangular in side view and tapered towards the back, as well as low neural arches and short, broad zygapophyses (the processes that articulated between the vertebrae); the cervical vertebrae at the back had spool-like centra which became gradually higher, and long, thin zygapophyses. The pneumatic foramina here were small and oval, and the neural spines projecting outwards from the centra formed long, low and sharp ridges, except for in the hindmost cervical vertebrae.
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As the foramina on the outside all communicated with a space on the inside of the snout, the authors speculated that Spinosaurus had pressure receptors inside the space that allowed it to hold its snout at the surface of the water to detect swimming prey species without seeing them. A 2013 study by Andrew R. Cuff and Emily J. Rayfield concluded that bio-mechanical data suggests that Spinosaurus was not an obligate piscivore and that its diet was more closely associated with each individual's size. The characteristic rostral morphology of Spinosaurus allowed its jaws to resist bending in the vertical direction, however its jaws were poorly adapted with respect to resisting lateral bending compared to other members of this group (Baryonyx) and modern alligators, thus showing Spinosaurus preyed more regularly on fish than it did on land animals, although considered predators of the former too.
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There are specific anatomical features that diagnose members of this family, such as the presence of hypapophyses only in anterior trunk, that the middle and posterior trunk vertebrae possess a moderately or well-developed haemal keel, except for a few near the cloacal region, often with short laterally paired projections on the posterior part of the keel. Also, all trunk and caudal vertebrae have at least a parazygantral foramen, sometimes several of them, located in a more or less distinct fossa that is lateral to each zygantral facet. Additional features are the prezygapophyseal processes' absence while the paracotylar foramina are present and that the diapophyses are relatively wide, exceeding width across prezygapophyses at least in the posterior trunk vertebrae. (Scanlon 2005) Like most fossil snakes the majority of madtsoiids are known only from isolated vertebrae, but several (Madtsoia bai, M. camposi, Wonambi naracoortensis, Nanowana spp.
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Originally named as Globidens aegyptiacus by Zdansky (1935),Zdansky, O. 1935. The occurrence of mosasaurs in Egypt and in Africa in general. Bulletin de l’Institut d’Egypte 17:83-94 the species was first recognised as sufficiently distinct to be separated into its own genus by Lingham-Soliar (1991), who named it Igdamanosaurus after the village of Igdaman (sometimes called In Dama), which was near to where the type specimen was found. Though undoubtedly similar to Globidens in its dental adaptations and similar to G. alabamaensis in possessing unusually small foramina for exits of the mandibular nerve on the lower lateral surface of the dentary, Lingham-Soliar (1991) noted that the vertical striae present in Igdamanosaurus would suggest that it represented a completely new type of durophagous mosasaur that was derived from a Platecarpus-like ancestor rather than a Clidastes-like one and thus classified it as part of the Plioplatecarpinae.
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Viverrids are the most primitive of all the families of feliform Carnivora and clearly less specialized than the Felidae. In external characteristics, they are distinguished from the Felidae by the longer muzzle and tuft of facial vibrissae between the lower jaw bones, and by the shorter limbs and the five- toed hind foot with the first digit present. The skull differs by the position of the postpalatine foramina on the maxilla, almost always well in advance of the maxillopalatine suture, and usually about the level of the second premolar; and by the distinct external division of the auditory bulla into its two elements either by a definite groove or, when rarely this is obliterated, by the depression of the tympanic bone in front of the swollen entotympanic. The typical dental formula is: , but the number may be reduced, although never to the same extent as in the Felidae.
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Several characteristics are indicative of a rhamphothecae, such as an edentulous premaxilla with a thin, tapering lower edge, the successive loss of maxillary and dentary teeth, a mandibular concavity in the lower side, the displacement of the lower surface in the dentary, and a rostral projection of the mandibular symphysis. In Erlikosaurus, the presence of a keratinous beak on the maxilla and premaxilla can be inferred by the presence of numerous neurovascular foramina on the rostral and lateral surfaces in the skull, furthermore, it bears all the mentioned features above, however, it is unclear the extension of the beak. The preserved rhamphotheca in specimens of Gallimimus and Ornithomimus evidences that the keratin sheath covered the premaxilla and overlapped it on the lower side by a few millimeters. In some extant birds, the rhamphotheca is typically restricted to the premaxilla and maxilla, although in some cases it partially covers the nasal process in some birds.
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The posterior superior alveolar branches (posterior superior dental branches) arise from the trunk of the maxillary nerve just before it enters the infraorbital groove; they are generally two in number, but sometimes arise by a single trunk. They descend on the tuberosity of the maxilla and give off several twigs to the gums and neighboring parts of the mucous membrane of the cheek. They then enter the alveolar canals on the infratemporal surface of the maxilla, and, passing from behind forward in the substance of the bone, communicate with the middle superior alveolar nerve, and give off branches to the lining membrane of the maxillary sinus and gingival and dental branches to each molar tooth from a superior dental plexus; these branches enter the apical foramina at the roots of the teeth. The posterior superior alveolar nerve innervates the second and third maxillary molars, and two of the three roots of the maxillary first molar (all but the mesiobuccal root).
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It was pointed out in 1976 that, because of their height, many dinosaurs had minimum blood pressures within the endothermic range, and that they must have had four-chambered hearts to separate the high pressure circuit to the body from the low pressure circuit to the lungs. It was not clear whether these dinosaurs had high blood pressure simply to support the blood column or to support the high blood flow rates required by endothermy or both. Foramen blood flow index, derived from the size of the nutrient foramen of the femurs of mammals, reptiles and dinosaurs However, recent analysis of the tiny holes in fossil leg bones of dinosaurs provides a gauge for blood flow rate and hence metabolic rate. The holes are called nutrient foramina, and the nutrient artery is the major blood vessel passing through to the interior of the bone, where it branches into tiny vessels of the Haversian canal system.
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Somewhat more complete specimens, this time referred to the new species G. eduardsii (now considered a synonym of G. parisiensis) were found a decade later. The specimens found in the 1870s formed the basis for a widely circulated and reproduced skeletal restoration by Lemoine. The skulls of these original Gastornis fossils were unknown except for nondescript fragments, and several bones used in Lemoine's illustration turned out to be those of other animals. Thus, the European bird was long reconstructed as a sort of gigantic crane-like bird. In 1874, the American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope discovered another fragmentary set of fossils in the Wasatch Formation of New Mexico. He considered them to belong to a distinct genus and species of giant ground bird, which, in 1876, he named Diatryma gigantea ( ),The biologist's handbook of pronunciations (1960) from Ancient Greek διάτρημα, diatrema, meaning “through a hole”, referring to the large foramina (perforations) that penetrate some of the foot bones.
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The upper surface of the labyrinth presents a number of half-broken cells, the walls of which are completed, in the articulated skull, by the edges of the ethmoidal notch of the frontal bone. Crossing this surface are two grooves, converted into two openings by articulation with the frontal; they are the anterior and posterior ethmoidal foramina, and open on the inner wall of the orbit. The posterior surface presents large irregular cellular cavities, which are closed in by articulation with the sphenoidal concha and orbital process of palatine bone. The lateral surface is formed of a thin, smooth, oblong plate, the lamina papyracea (os planum), which covers in the middle and posterior ethmoidal cells and forms a large part of the medial wall of the orbit; it articulates above with the orbital plate of the frontal bone, below with the maxilla and orbital process of the palatine, in front with the lacrimal, and behind with the sphenoid.
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He used both morphological data and molecular characters from the IRBP gene. In all of his analyses, O. polius was found to be part of clade D, one of four large groups within Oryzomyini, as the sister group to a clade containing all the other species of clade D.Weksler, 2006, figs. 34–40 Clade D was supported by two shared derived (synapomorphic) molecular characters and by seven morphological synapomorphies—the tail has a different color above and below; the parietal bone extends to the side of the skull; the incisive foramina (openings in the palate) extend back between the first molars; the posterolateral palatal pits (perforations of the palate near the third molars) are complex; the sphenopalatine vacuities (openings in the mesopterygoid fossa, the gap behind the end of the palate) are large; the pattern of the arterial circulation in the head is derived; and the posteroloph (a crest at the back) is present on the third upper molar.
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Dermatome distribution of the trigeminal nerve The ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular branches leave the skull through three separate foramina: the superior orbital fissure, the foramen rotundum and the foramen ovale, respectively. The ophthalmic nerve (V1) carries sensory information from the scalp and forehead, the upper eyelid, the conjunctiva and cornea of the eye, the nose (including the tip of the nose, except alae nasi), the nasal mucosa, the frontal sinuses and parts of the meninges (the dura and blood vessels). The maxillary nerve (V2) carries sensory information from the lower eyelid and cheek, the nares and upper lip, the upper teeth and gums, the nasal mucosa, the palate and roof of the pharynx, the maxillary, ethmoid and sphenoid sinuses and parts of the meninges. The mandibular nerve (V3) carries sensory information from the lower lip, the lower teeth and gums, the chin and jaw (except the angle of the jaw, which is supplied by C2-C3), parts of the external ear and parts of the meninges.
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Upon leaving the medulla oblongata between the olive and the inferior cerebellar peduncle, the vagus nerve extends through the jugular foramen, then passes into the carotid sheath between the internal carotid artery and the internal jugular vein down to the neck, chest, and abdomen, where it contributes to the innervation of the viscera, reaching all the way to the colon. Besides giving some output to various organs, the vagus nerve comprises between 80% and 90% of afferent nerves mostly conveying sensory information about the state of the body's organs to the central nervous system. The right and left vagus nerves descend from the cranial vault through the jugular foramina, penetrating the carotid sheath between the internal and external carotid arteries, then passing posterolateral to the common carotid artery. The cell bodies of visceral afferent fibers of the vagus nerve are located bilaterally in the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve (nodose ganglia).
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The sensory and motor innervation to the lower limb is supplied by the lumbosacral plexus, which is formed by the ventral rami of the lumbar and sacral spinal nerves with additional contributions from the subcostal nerve (T12) and coccygeal nerve (Co1). Based on distribution and topography, the lumbosacral plexus is subdivided into the lumbar plexus (T12-L4) and the Sacral plexus (L5-S4); the latter is often further subdivided into the sciatic and pudendal plexuses:Thieme Atlas of anatomy (2006), pp. 470–71 The lumbar plexus is formed lateral to the intervertebral foramina by the ventral rami of the first four lumbar spinal nerves (L1-L4), which all pass through psoas major. The larger branches of the plexus exit the muscle to pass sharply downward to reach the abdominal wall and the thigh (under the inguinal ligament); with the exception of the obturator nerve which pass through the lesser pelvis to reach the medial part of the thigh through the obturator foramen.
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It is traversed by the frontoethmoidal, sphenoethmoidal, and sphenofrontal sutures. Its lateral portions roof in the orbital cavities and support the frontal lobes of the cerebrum; they are convex and marked by depressions for the brain convolutions, and grooves for branches of the meningeal vessels. The central portion corresponds with the roof of the nasal cavity, and is markedly depressed on either side of the crista galli. It presents, in and near the median line, from before backward, the commencement of the frontal crest for the attachment of the falx cerebri; the foramen cecum, between the frontal bone and the crista galli of the ethmoid, which usually transmits a small vein from the nasal cavity to the superior sagittal sinus; behind the foramen cecum, the crista galli, the free margin of which affords attachment to the falx cerebri; on either side of the crista galli, the olfactory groove formed by the cribriform plate, which supports the olfactory bulb and presents foramina for the transmission of the olfactory nerves, and in front a slit- like opening for the nasociliary nerve.
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Lü and colleagues assigned Xixiasaurus to the family Troodontidae based on its high tooth-count, constriction between the crowns and roots of the teeth, close packing of teeth near the tip of the dentary, and distinct groove for the neurovascular foramina on the dentary. They found Xixiasaurus to be most closely related to Byronosaurus of Mongolia, and suggested the two may have formed a clade with Urbacodon from Uzbekistan consisting of troodontids with unserrated teeth, which radiated across Asia (while noting that serrations had been lost independently in different groups of theropods). A 2012 phylogenetic analysis by the paleontologist Alan H. Turner and colleagues instead found Xixiasaurus to belong in a clade with Sinovenator and Mei (both also from China), due to sharing a maxillary process of the premaxilla that separated the maxilla from the nasal behind the narial opening. In 2016, the palaeontologists Alexander Averianov and Hans-Dieter Sues did not identify a clade formed of troodontids with unserrated teeth, but found them to be successive sister taxa to a more derived (or "advanced") clade of troodontids with serrated teeth.
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A number of characteristics allow Jianianhualong to be identified as a member of the Troodontidae. These include the long forward-projecting branch and flange of the lacrimal bonw; the foramina on the nasal bone; the smooth transition between the eye socket and the backward-projecting branch of the frontal bone; the ridge on the forward- projecting branch of the jugal bone; the triangular dentary bearing a widening groove; the robust forward-projecting branch of the surangular bone; the relatively large number of unevenly-distributed teeth; the flattened chevrons with blunt forward projections and bifurcated backward projections; and the broad and flat "pubic apron" formed by the pubic bones. Within the troodontids, Jianianhualong displays a unique combination of characteristics from both basal and derived troodontids, organized in distinct regions of its body. The forelimbs and pelvis largely resemble basal troodontids such as Sinovenator: the short deltopectoral crest on the humerus; the long hand, metacarpal II, and phalanx III-2 on the hand; the small ilium; the ridge on the pubic apron; and the short ischium with two projections and an obturator process near the bottom of the bone.
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Tokarahia differs from other eomysticetids in possessing elongate, dorsoventrally tapering zygomatic processes that are medially bowed, with a concave lateral margin, an elongate diamond-shaped posterior bullar facet lacking longitudinal striations, and a transverse crest on the dorsal surface of the periotic, between the posterodorsal angle and the posterior internal acoustic meatus. It is similar to Tohoraata raekohao in having numerous foramina in the supraorbital process of the frontal, an ovalshaped incisural flange closely appressed to the anteroventral part of the pars cochlearis, a prominent dorsal tubercle between the stylomastoid fossa and apertures for the cochlear and vestibular aqueducts, a triangular anterior process in medial view with a posteriorly placed anterodorsal angle, a concave anterodorsal margin between the anteroventral and anterodorsal angles, an internal acoustic meatus that is anteriorly transversely pinched, a posterodorsal angle that is more acute and approximately 90° or smaller, and lacking a posterior bullar facet that is ‘folded’ into two facets by a hingeline, and additionally lacking longitudinal striations on the posterior bullar facet. However, it differs from Tohoraata in the structure of the earbone. The two species of Tokarahia are distinguished by the structure of the earbone as well as the degree of cranial telescoping.
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