630 Sentences With "flagellum" | Random Sentence Generator

Since vertebrate animals, including humans, don't have a flagellum, this protein is foreign to our cells.

This predator uses a whip-like flagellum to move and has organelles like harpoons to help it feed on other protists.

This protein, found in an aquatic microbe called Vibrio vulnificus, is the building block of flagellum—the lash-like appendage that allows microorganisms to swim around.

In this case, the researchers were interested in uniting the light-sensitive protein proteorhodopsin—basically a solar panel for cells—with the E. coli's flagellum, a tiny tail motor.

We've known for years now that some bacteria have tails known as flagellum to propel them forwards, but we've never managed to take a detailed look at what powers them.

Matthew Dorman, who co-led the research, said the analysis of also revealed the 1916 strain had certain faults, including lacking a flagellum – a thin tail that enables bacteria to swim.

Trypanosomes come in two forms depending on where they are in their life cycle, but essentially they look like tiny worms, thin single cells with a tail—a flagellum—at one end that keeps them always on the move.

Its torpedo-like head is a nugget of DNA containing the 23 chromosomes the male partner contributes to his future child, connected to a long tail or flagellum that propels the sperm to the egg, all running on the cellular rocket fuel of fructose, which is in the semen.

Masticophis flagellum flagellum-Florida-Adult Masticophis flagellum flagellum- Florida -Sub adult Masticophis flagellum flagellum, commonly known as the Eastern coachwhip, is a subspecies of M. flagellum, a nonvenomous, colubrid snake, endemic to the southern United States.

Masticophis flagellum flagellum, eastern coachwhip, Florida Masticophis f. flagellum, eastern coachwhip, Florida Masticophis f. flagellum, eastern coachwhip, Florida Masticophis flagellum piceus, red racer/red coachwhip, Santa Fe, New Mexico Masticophis flagellum is a species of nonvenomous colubrid snake, commonly referred to as the coachwhip or the whip snake, which is endemic to the United States and Mexico. Six subspecies are recognized, including the nominotypical subspecies.

Three types of excavate cells. Top: Jakobida, 1-nucleus, 2-anterior flagellum, 3-ventral/posterior flagellum, 4-ventral feeding groove. Middle: Euglenozoa, 1-nucleus, 2-flagellar pocket/reservoir, 3-dorsal/anterior flagellum, 4-ventral/posterior flagellum, 5-cytostome/feeding apparatus. Bottom: Metamonada, 1-anterior flagella, 2-parabasal body, 3-undulating membrane, 4-posterior flagellum, 5-nucleus, 6-axostyle.

A diagram of a bacterial flagellum The L-ring of the bacterial flagellum is the ring in the lipid outer cell membrane through which the axial filament (rod, hook, and flagellum) passes.

Because the single flagellum morphology of trypanosomes arose from the loss of one flagellum in the flagellar pocket, this splitting results in one piece of anterior cell having one flagellum and another that does not. A new flagellum will later grow on the part that lacked a flagellum. Further longitudinal division distributes the nuclei between the forming daughter cells. Reproduction and multiplication of Phytomonas generally stops after entering the insect host.

Species of Ceratium contain two flagella of different lengths that are orientated in the transverse and longitudinal positions. The transverse flagellum is structurally complex and wraps around the cingulum. The movement of the flagellum is described as "wave-like" and allows the organism to spin as it swims. The longitudinal flagellum extends from a groove known as the sulcus, and this flagellum is simpler in structure than the transverse flagellum.

The dinoflagellate labeled above is the microscopic alga Karenia brevis. It is the cause of red tide in the Gulf of Mexico. The algae propel themselves using a longitudinal flagellum (A) and a transverse flagellum (B). The longitudinal flagellum lies in a groove-like structure called the cingulum (F).

Longitudinal (l.f.) and transverse flagellum (t.f.); sack pusule (s.p.); nucleus (n).

S. flagellum is generally nocturnal and found under rocks and logs.

Intraflagellar transport, the process by which axonemal subunits, transmembrane receptors, and other proteins are moved up and down the length of the flagellum, is essential for proper functioning of the flagellum, in both motility and signal transduction.

S. flagellum is viviparous. www.reptile-database.org. Brood size is seven or fewer.

His dissertation studied the flagellum of the protozoan with the electron microscope.

The endospores are 0.5-1.5 μm. The species can move using a flagellum.

Other cytoskeletal structures include the specialised attachment between the flagellum and the kinetoplast.

The consensus terminology is the use of cilium and flagellum for all purposes.

One flagellum is relatively long and conspicuous, and when the Peranema is gliding it is held stiffly in front. At the tip of the flagellum, a short segment beats and flails in a rhythmic manner, possibly as a mechanism for detecting and contacting potential prey. Peranama usually glides belly-down, without rotating. The second flagellum is difficult to see with bright field microscopy, and was entirely overlooked by early observers.

Leishmania donovani is a unicellular eukaryote having a well-defined nucleus and other cell organelles including a kinetoplast and a flagellum. Depending on its host it exists in two structural variants, as follows: #Amastigote form found in the mononuclear phagocyte and circulatory systems of humans. It is an intracellular and non- motile form, being devoid of external flagellum. The short flagellum is embedded in the anterior end without projecting out.

CheY induces tumbling by interacting with the flagellar switch protein FliM, inducing a change from counter-clockwise to clockwise rotation of the flagellum. Change in the rotation state of a single flagellum can disrupt the entire flagella bundle and cause a tumble.

These tubules bear a tuft of cilia or flagellum. An organ of excretion in flatworms: a hollow cup-shaped cell containing a bunch of cilia or flagellum, whose movement draws in waste products and wafts them to the outside through a connecting tubule.

One flagellum and most of the body of the penetrating microgamete had entered the macrogamete.

The recently-elucidated archaeal flagellum, or archaellum, is analogous—but not homologous—to the bacterial one. In addition to no sequence similarity being detected between the genes of the two systems, the archaeal flagellum appears to grow at the base rather than the tip, and is about 15 nanometers (nm) in diameter rather than 20. Sequence comparison indicates that the archaeal flagellum is homologous to Type IV pili. (pili are filamentous structures outside the cell).

Choanoflagellates, also called "collar-flagellates" are unicellular protists that exist in both freshwaters and oceans. Choanoflagellates have a spherical (or ovoid) cell body and a flagellum that is surrounded by a collar composed of actin microvilli. The flagellum is used to facilitate movement and food intake. As the flagellum beats, it takes in water through the microvilli attached to the collar, which helps filter out unwanted bacteria and other tiny food particles.

A eukaryotic flagellum is a bundle of nine fused pairs of microtubule doublets surrounding two central single microtubules. The so-called "9 + 2" structure is characteristic of the core of the eukaryotic flagellum called an axoneme. At the base of a eukaryotic flagellum is a basal body, "blepharoplast" or kinetosome, which is the microtubule organizing center for flagellar microtubules and is about 500 nanometers long. Basal bodies are structurally identical to centrioles.

The acronematic posterior flagellum is trailed and sometimes forms an undulating membrane. It is typically directed straight behind the cell and is about 2 to 4 times the length of the cell. The proximal part of the posterior flagellum is accompanied with a paraxial rod and sometimes non- tubular mastigonemes. The cells use their posterior flagellum and rotate around their longitudinal axes to swim and glide along in rapid darts of straight lines.

Cell scheme Each choanoflagellate has a single flagellum, surrounded by a ring of actin-filled protrusions called microvilli, forming a cylindrical or conical collar (choanos in Greek). Movement of the flagellum draws water through the collar, and bacteria and detritus are captured by the microvilli and ingested. Water currents generated by the flagellum also push free- swimming cells along, as in animal sperm. In contrast, most other flagellates are pulled by their flagella.

The P ring forms part of the basal body of the bacterial appendage known as the flagellum. It is known to be embedded in the peptidoglycan cell wall. Together with the L ring, it has the function of anchoring the flagellum to the cell surface.

They are motile by the use of a single flagellum. Most of the species are marine.

Most have a single nucleus and flagellum, but the giant amoeba Pelomyxa has many of each.

The motile life stage, zoospore is about 0,5 µm in diameter and has one posterior flagellum.

In some, such as Peranema, the leading flagellum is rigid and beats only at its tip.

In New South Wales, the preferred natural habitats of S. flagellum are temperate grasslands and grassy woodlands.

Methylopila henanensis is a Gram-negative bacterium species from the genus of Methylopila with a single flagellum.

The ejaculatory complex is small, without a flagellum but with a well developed ultra-penis and penis.

The sixth stage has a segmented inner flagellum of the antennule and fully developed pleopods with setae.

14 The epithet, flagelliforma is in reference to the individual branches of the thallus shaped like a flagellum.

As in many instances in biology, there are bacteria that do not follow this rule. Many bacteria, such as Vibrio, are monoflagellated and have a single flagellum at one pole of the cell. Their method of chemotaxis is different. Others possess a single flagellum that is kept inside the cell wall.

Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility. The bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane(s) and extrudes through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. A different type of flagellum is found in archaea and a different type is found in eukaryotes.

Dinoflagellate anatomy Dinoflagellates are unicellular and possess two dissimilar flagella arising from the ventral cell side (dinokont flagellation). They have a ribbon-like transverse flagellum with multiple waves that beats to the cell's left, and a more conventional one, the longitudinal flagellum, that beats posteriorly. The transverse flagellum is a wavy ribbon in which only the outer edge undulates from base to tip, due to the action of the axoneme which runs along it. The axonemal edge has simple hairs that can be of varying lengths.

Zoospores contain an eyespot and two flagella. Only the anterior flagellum is covered with mastigonemes and the posterior flagellum propels the cell through the ectoplasmic net. Both flagella are inserted laterally and medially. After about 24 hours, the zoospores lose their flagella and round up to finally differentiate into vegetative spindle cells.

Desulfotignum is a Gram-negative and strictly anaerobic bacteria with a single polar flagellum genus from the family of Desulfobacteraceae.

The acronematic posterior flagellum is used in feeding and to attach to substrate, while the anterior flagellum beats less rapidly and in a slow sweeping motion. Further studies by Simpson and Patterson (1999) go into greater detail about the flagella and describe the flagellar apparatus as having a third, barren basal body. Supporting the dorsal side of the cell is a microtubular fan with a microtubular root at the anterior end. On the ventral side, microtubules extending from different flagellar roots support the ventral groove. The anterior flagellum has a ‘9+2’ axoneme. Simpson and Patterson described that in addition to the ‘9+2’ axoneme, the posterior flagellum also has “three radiating lamellae of electron-dense material which form the central components of vanes”.

The landmark protein TipN is essential for the proper placement of the flagellum. Mutants lacking TipN make serious mistakes in development. Instead of making a single flagellum at the correct cell pole , the cell makes multiple flagella at various locations, even on the stalk. Fig#1 Cell development involves many such proteins working together.

NF-κB induces many downstream gene expressions, which initiates the canonical proinflammatory pathway. This TLR5/flagellum interaction results in different responses in difference cell types. In epithelial cells, binding of flagellum to TLR5 induces IL8 production. In human monocytes and dendritic cells, this interaction results in the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF.

The events of reproduction are: #The basal body duplicates and both remain associated with the kinetoplast. Each basal body forms a separate flagellum. #Kinetoplast DNA undergoes synthesis then the kinetoplast divides coupled with separation of the two basal bodies. #Nuclear DNA undergoes synthesis while a new flagellum extends from the younger, more posterior, basal body.

The cells are rod-shaped. Some species of this order are motile by a single polar flagellum; others are not motile.

Pseudomonas antarctica is a psychrophilic, Gram-negative, motile with a polar flagellum, rod-shaped bacterium isolated from cyanobacterial mats in Antarctica.

Pseudomonas meridiana is a psychrophilic, Gram-negative, motile with a polar flagellum, rod-shaped bacterium isolated from cyanobacterial mats in Antarctica.

Pseudomonas proteolytica is a psychrophilic, Gram-negative, motile with a polar flagellum, rod-shaped bacterium isolated from cyanobacterial mats in Antarctica.

CheW is believed to be a transducer of the signal from the MCP to CheA. Activated CheA transfers its phosphoryl group to CheY, a response regulator. Phosphorylated CheY phosphorylates the basal body FliM which is connected to the flagellum. Phosphorylation of the basal body acts as a flagellar switch and changes the direction of rotation of the flagellum.

The sex ratio is 1:1. The structure of the flagellum of the spermatozoon is unique: the flagellum is divided into two parts. T. fluviatilis eggs are usually laid in from mid-April to October, in temperatures above 10 °C. Eggs are laid in egg capsules deposited on stones and sometimes on shells of conspecific individuals.

The "typical", early-discovered Vibrio species, such as V. cholerae, have a single polar flagellum (monotrichous) with sheath. Some species, such as V. parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus, have both a single polar flagellum with sheath and thin flagella projecting in all directions (peritrichous), and the other species, such as V. fischeri, have tufts of polar flagella with sheath (lophotrichous).

New York, New York: Springer. . Many of the family Syntrophobacteraceae are sulfate-reducing. Some species are motile by using one polar flagellum.

He translated the Commonitorium of Vincentius Lirinensis (1563), and wrote, in Latin, a Flagellum sectarionum and a Velitatio in Georgium Buchananum (1582).

Desulfurella acetivorans is a thermophilic acetate-oxidizing sulfur-reducing eubacterium. It is Gram-negative, short rod-shaped, motile, with a single polar flagellum.

Choanoflagellate is a hybrid word from Greek χοάνη khoánē meaning "funnel" (due to the shape of the collar) and the Latin word flagellum.

While the vaned flagellum is present in the cyst stage, the three free anterior flagella are not, thus making the cyst non-motile.

The singular flagellum is composed of a 9 + 2 microtubule structure. The flagellar apparatus consists of a single basal body, from which the flagellum arises. There is a microtubular cone that directly connects the flagellar apparatus to the nucleus. In Type A species, this cone is wide, and arises from the base and the lateral ends of the basal body.

Helicobacter pylori electron micrograph, showing multiple flagella on the cell surface Flagellin is a globular protein that arranges itself in a hollow cylinder to form the filament in a bacterial flagellum. It has a mass of about 30,000 to 60,000 daltons. Flagellin is the principal component of bacterial flagellum, and is present in large amounts on nearly all flagellated bacteria.

In Micromonas, the central pair constantly rotates in an anti-clockwise direction, despite the motion of other components of the flagellum. While the cell size, shape and the location of insertion of the flagellum into the cell are similar among strains and genetic clades, the variation in respective hair point length results in different lengths of the flagella within the genus.

The TLR5 signaling cascade is commonly triggered by the binding of bacterial flagellum to TLR5 on the cell surface. Binding of flagellum induces the dimerization of TLR5, which in turn recruits MyD88. The recruitment of MyD88 leads to subsequent activation of IRAK4, IRAK1, TRAF6, and eventually IκB kinases. Activation of IκB kinases contributes to the nuclear localization of NF-κB (a proinflammatory cytokine).

The term Cytosolic Ciliogenesis was coined in 2004 as part of a study that identified a large set of ciliogenesis genes. It was found that a subset of genes that are thought to be essential for compartmentalized cilia are not essential to form the sperm flagellum. Since the axoneme of this flagellum was exposed to the cytoplasm it was named Cytosolic Ciliogenesis.

The "tinsel" flagellum is unique to the Kingdom Heterokonta. Spores of the few fungal groups which retain flagella (such as the Chytridiomycetes) have only one whiplash flagellum. Oomycota and fungi have different metabolic pathways for synthesizing lysine and have a number of enzymes that differ. The ultrastructure is also different, with oomycota having tubular mitochondrial cristae and fungi having flattened cristae.

Trachelomonads also have an eyespot, a feature of photosynthetic euglenoids, located outside the chloroplast with orange to red pigmentation. These cells also have one long emergent flagellum that has previously been identified to emerge from the apical pore, and a shorter flagellum that is within the furrow and not used for motility. Under light microscopy, it is also possible to see condensed chromosomes.

In this context, c-di-GMP functions as a bacterial secondary messenger, enhancing the production of extracellular cellulose and impeding flagellum production and rotation.

When the bacterium is killed using antibiotics, the protozoan can no longer infect insects, due to the altered glycosylphosphatidylinositol (gp63) in the protozoan flagellum.

' He possessed some polite learning, which caused John Taylor, the water poet, to dedicate to him one of the impressions of his Superbiae Flagellum (1621).

Massilia lutea is a Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, short rod-shaped, motile bacterium with a peritrichous flagellum from the genus Massilia and family Oxalobacteraceae.

They are distinguished by an anterior tinsel flagellum on their zoospores. Also they have a rhizoidal or hypha-like vegetative system (hence the prefix "Hypho-").

Also, the prokaryotic flagellum which protrudes outside the cell, and its motor, as well as the largely extracellular pilus, are often spoken of as organelles.

8-10μm long, 2-4μm wide, possesses a refractile body at the posterior end, is also biflagellar with a longer anterior flagellum 3 to 4 times the cell length and an anterior flagellum that is approximately the length of the cell. Refractile bodies are used as resource storage for the cell. Microspores are much more active compared macrospores but perishes after only 5 to 8 hours.

Whether sexual reproduction occurs is currently unknown. Collodictyon triciliatum has four flagella connected to basal bodies, generally of equal length, as long as or slightly longer than the body of Collodictyon. Number one flagellum is connected to a dorsal root, while number two flagellum is connected to a ventral root. Number three and four flagella are on either side of these two and have dorsal roots.

The male of this species is similar to the female except for the following characteristics: its antenna counts with 15 antennomeres. The flagellum is not widened towards the apex, the outer apical margin of the flagellum being straight; approximately 2.5 times longer than the pedicel. Placodeal sensillae are present on all flagellomeres except F1, arranged in a single row of 4–5 sensillae on each structure.

Evolution from type three secretion systems. Scientists regard this argument as having been disproved in the light of research dating back to 1996 as well as more recent findings.Miller, Kenneth R. The Flagellum Unspun: The Collapse of "Irreducible Complexity" with reply here They point out that the basal body of the flagella has been found to be similar to the Type III secretion system (TTSS), a needle-like structure that pathogenic germs such as Salmonella and Yersinia pestis use to inject toxins into living eucaryote cells. The needle's base has ten elements in common with the flagellum, but it is missing forty of the proteins that make a flagellum work.

Xeris xanthoceros was described by Henri Goulet in 2015. Its specific name means "yellow horn", referring to the female's flagellum. The type locality is Yunnan, China.

Calamus flagellum is an Asian species of rattan plant in the family Arecaceae. Its name in Vietnamese is mây song, while the Lepcha of Sikkim call it .

The family is characterized by having a short flagellum and a stimulatory apparatus composed only of one to three single mucous glands (lacking dart or accessory sacs).

Desulfurella kamchatkensis is a thermophilic sulfur-reducing eubacterium. It is Gram-negative, rod-shaped, motile, with a single polar flagellum and type strain K-119T (=DSM 10409T).

Phylloxerans have a three-segmented antenna in all forms (both adults and immature). The Wings held flat over the body at rest and the Cu1 and Cu2 of the front wings are stalked at the base. The flagellum always ends in a sensorium (or rhinaria) and adult females can have one or two additional sensorial on the flagellum. Egg laying females and males have vestigial mouthparts and are wingless.

The two types of flagella evolved from different ancestors. The bacterial flagellum shares a common ancestor with the type III secretion system, while archaeal flagella appear to have evolved from bacterial type IV pili. In contrast with the bacterial flagellum, which is hollow and assembled by subunits moving up the central pore to the tip of the flagella, archaeal flagella are synthesized by adding subunits at the base.

The flagella have a beating action and are used for rapid movement. The proximal part of the long flagellum may adhere to the pellicle, which causes it to trail posteriorly. The trailing flagellum is always directed backwards and is attached to the body for a considerable distance (6-9μm) by an accessory filament called a funis. There are one to four funises (rib-like strictures) extending backwards beneath the body surface.

Within these plaques, the bacteria typically lives with a variety of other bacteria in a supragingival or subgingival biofilm. Although the numbers for gram negative bacteria begin to dominate with the development of gingivitis, L. mirabilis numbers decrease. L. mirabilis displays a pleomorphic nature that includes morphologies with and without flagellum. The bacteria is shown to include between three and nine flagellum projecting from a single point of the cell wall.

Roseateles terrae is a Gram-negative, aerobic, oxidase- and catalase-positive bacterium with a single polar flagellum from the genus Roseateles, which was isolated from soil in Japan.

Desulfurella multipotens is a thermophilic sulfur-reducing eubacterium. It is 1.5–1.8 by 0.5–0.7 μm in size, Gram-negative, rod-shaped, motile, with a single polar flagellum.

These multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis, in which hyphal branches recombine. Other recent studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing a view of the origins of eukaryotes and prokaryotes For much of the Paleozoic Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant Chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that the flagellum was lost early in the evolutionary history of the fungi, and consequently, the majority of fungal species lack a flagellum.

The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some (Ma); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis, in which hyphal branches recombine. Other recent studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant Chytrids in having flagellum- bearing spores. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that the flagellum was lost early in the evolutionary history of the fungi, and consequently, the majority of fungal species lack a flagellum.

Trophozoites of Chilomastix have been described as pyriform, lemon-shaped or pear-shaped in various species with a rounded anterior and an elongated posterior end that comes to a point. Four flagella are present in all species; three flagella extend anteriorly and move freely, while the fourth flagellum is located within the feeding groove that acts as the cell mouth. This fourth, posteriorly orientated flagellum is vaned, due to the presence of two wing-like structures that extend from it. The feeding groove and fourth flagellum are positioned in the anterior region of the body and work together, involved in the function of endocytosis, enabling the movement of food particles towards the feeding groove.

They do not form endospores. They are Gram negative and only some are motile, via a single flagellum. They are found in lake and ocean sediments that lack oxygen.

Eyes brown with faint yellow ocelli. Forewing semi-translucent. One long process arising from the base of the flagellum. A tan spot near claval fork found on the forewing.

1b) # Anisokont. Biflagellates zoospores with two whip types flagella of unequal length (Fig. 1c). These are found in some Myxomycota and Plasmodiophoromycota. # Zoospores with a single anterior flagellum (Fig.

At the tip of the scape are both the flagellum, and the pedicel with ringed tube-like lower section and enlarged apex. On the pedicel apex are seven spine-like setae, four small ones and three elongated ones. The flagellum is placed below the pedicel and forms a plumose arista. The labium has two small setae on the underside of the fleshy, small labella along with five more setae on the terminal edge.

The uniflagellated sperm cells (with one flagellum) of animals are referred to as spermatozoa, and are known to vary in size. Motile sperm are also produced by many protists and the gametophytes of bryophytes, ferns and some gymnosperms such as cycads and ginkgo. The sperm cells are the only flagellated cells in the life cycle of these plants. In many ferns and lycophytes, cycads and ginkgo they are multi-flagellated (carrying more than one flagellum).

A recurrent flagellum is attached to the cell body by an undulating membrane and is free at the posterior end. The undulating membrane travels along the lateral groove and is supported by a conspicuous costa with type B periodicity. Four flagella are free and emerge anterolaterally from the lateral groove. The sixth flagellum emerges from a basal body the dorsal side of the body, independent of the basal body complex of the other flagella.

All kinetoplastids possess at least one flagellum, species in the order trypanosomatida have one and bodonina have two. In kinetoplastids with two flagella most forms have a leading and trailing flagellum, the latter of which may be attached to the side of the cell. The flagella are used for locomotion and attachment to surfaces. The bases of the flagella are found in a specialised pocket structure which is also the location of the cytostome.

The nebenkern is a mitochondrial formation in the sperm of some insects such as Drosophila. After the completion of meiosis, spermatid mitochondria wrap around each other to form a spherical aggregate, adjacent to the nucleus. The nebenkern proceeds to elongate into a double-stranded helical structure. During flagellum elongation the nebenkern unfolds and the two derivatives (major and minor mitochondrial derivatives) elongate down the bundle of microtubules that constitute the axoneme core of the flagellum.

Under a light microscope, host-dependent Bdellovibrio appears to be a comma-shaped motile rod that is about 0.3–0.5 by 0.5–1.4 µm in size with a barely discernible flagellum. Bdellovibrio show up as a growing clear plaque in an E. coli “lawn”. Notably, Bdellovibrio has a sheath that covers its flagellum – a rare feature for bacteria. Flagellar motion stops once Bdellovibrio has penetrated its prey, and the flagella is then shed.

Vibrio anguillarum is a species of Gram-negative bacteria with a curved-rod shape and one polar flagellum. It is damaging to the economy of aquaculture sector and fishing industries.

The little whip snake (Suta flagellum), also known commonly as the whip hooded snake, is a species of venomous snake in the family Elapidae. The species is endemic to Australia.

Devosia pacifica is a Gram-negative, strictly aerobic, motile bacteria from the genus of Devosia with a single lateral flagellum which was isolated from sediments of the South China Sea.

Bacterioplanoides pacificum is a Gram-negative, strictly aerobic and motile bacterium from the genus of Bacterioplanoides with a single polar flagellum which has been isolated from the South Pacific Gyre.

Paradevosia shaoguanensis is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped and aerobic bacteria from the family of Paradevosia with a single polar flagellum which has been isolated from coking wastewater in China.

Aeromonas simiae is a Gram-negative, oxidase- and catalase-positive motile bacterium of the genus Aeromonas, with a polar flagellum, isolated from the faeces of a healthy monkey (Macaca fascicularis).

The middle of the flagellum, the base of the abdominal segments, and the outer side of the mid and hind tibiae are infuscate or black colored, as are the wings.

Legionella busanensis is a Gram-negative, catalase- and oxidase-positive bacterium from the genus Legionella with a single subpolar flagellum, which was isolated from cooling tower water in Busan in Korea.

Tepidimonas taiwanensis is a Gram-negative, motile bacterium with a single polar flagellum from the genus Tepidimonas, which was isolated from a hot spring in the Pingtung area in southern Taiwan.

Mitrovich MJ, Diffendorfer JE, Fisher RN (2009). "Behavioral Response of the Coachwhip (Masticophis flagellum) to Habitat Fragment Size and Isolation in an Urban Landscape". Journal of Herpetology 43 (4): 646-656.

A little bundle. Flagellate. Animals with a flagellum or lash. Flexuous. Formed in a series of curves or turnings, as the columella in some shells. Flocculent. Clinging together in bunches. Fluviatile.

Aliiglaciecola lipolytica is a Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped and motile from the genus of Aliiglaciecola with a single polar flagellum which has been isolated from seawater in China.

Ideonella sakaiensis is Gram-negative, aerobic, and rod-shaped. It does not form spores. Cells are motile and have a single flagellum. I. sakaiensis also tests positive for oxidase and catalase.

Fulvimonas yonginensis is a Gram-negative, aerobic and rod-shaped bacterium from the genus of Fulvimonas with a polar flagellum which has been isolated from greenhouse soil from Yongin in Korea.

These methods assume that all of the constituent parts of the flagellum must have been generated completely at random, a scenario that biologists do not seriously consider. He justifies this approach by appealing to Michael Behe's concept of "irreducible complexity" (IC), which leads him to assume that the flagellum could not come about by any gradual or step-wise process. The validity of Dembski's particular calculation is thus wholly dependent on Behe's IC concept, and therefore susceptible to its criticisms, of which there are many. To arrive at the ranking upper bound of 1020 patterns, Dembski considers a specification pattern for the flagellum defined by the (natural language) predicate "bidirectional rotary motor-driven propeller", which he regards as being determined by four independently chosen basic concepts.

Includes freshwater or marine organisms, benthic, dorsoventrally compressed and with two unequal flagellae, each emerging from a separate pocket. The apical anterior flagellum can be very thin or end in the cell membrane, while the posterior flagellum is long and is inserted ventrally or laterally. The cell membrane is supported by a thin single layer teak and the mitochondrial crests are discoidal / flat. The group's placement is doubtful, as it seems to fall outside the five supergroups of Eukarya.

M. hakonensis can grow in temperatures between 50 °C and 80 °C and between pH values 1.0 and 4.0. M. hakonensis's optimal growth conditions are 70 °C and pH 3.0. Some Metallosphaera species, such as M. prunae, are mobile by means of flagellum; however, M. hakonensis does not have a flagellum. M. hakonensis is gram-negative and has either spherical or irregular polyhedron-shaped cells (lobe-shaped cells), that are 0.9 to 1.1 \mum in diameter.

Andixius venustus, is a species of planthoppers belonging to the family Cixiidae. It is endemic to China. Body and antennae yellowish brown. A large bifurcate process found on right side of flagellum.

Pedinomonadaceae is a family of green algae.See the NCBI webpage on Pedinomonadaceae. Data extracted from the They are small (less than 3 μm) single-celled algae. Each cell has a single flagellum.

Colwellia maris is a psychrophilic and Gram-negative bacterium from the genus of Colwellia with a single polar flagellum which has been isolated from seawater from the Sea of Okhotsk in Japan.

Marinobacterium zhoushanense is a Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic and motile bacterium from the genus of Marinobacterium with a single polar flagellum which has been isolated from seawater from the East China Sea.

Cells of Sporosarcina aquimarina are 0.9–1.2 μm x 2.0–3.5 μm. It is motile by means of a single polar flagellum. The bacterium forms endospores (like all species of the genus).

Studies in Church History, 52, 203–231. doi:10.1017/stc.2015.12Champion, Matthew. "Crushing the Canon: Nicolas Jacquier's Response to the Canon Episcopi in the Flagellum haereticorum fascinariorum." Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft, vol.

Pseudomonas citronellolis a Gram-negative, bacillus bacterium. It was first isolated from forest soil, under pine trees, in northern Virginia, United States. It has one polar flagellum allowing it to be motile.

Kenneth Miller's The Collapse of Intelligent Design: Section 5 Bacterial Flagellum (Case Western Reserve University, 2006 January 3) The TTSS system negates Behe's claim that taking away any one of the flagellum's parts would prevent the system from functioning. On this basis, Kenneth Miller notes that, "The parts of this supposedly irreducibly complex system actually have functions of their own."Unlocking cell secrets bolsters evolutionists (Chicago Tribune, 2006 February 13)Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum (Talk Design, 2006 September) Studies have also shown that similar parts of the flagellum in different bacterial species can have different functions despite showing evidence of common descent, and that certain parts of the flagellum can be removed without completely eliminating its functionality. Dembski has argued that phylogenetically, the TTSS is found in a narrow range of bacteria which makes it seem to him to be a late innovation, whereas flagella are widespread throughout many bacterial groups, and he argues that it was an early innovation.

Alteromonas is a genus of Proteobacteria found in sea water, either in the open ocean or in the coast. It is Gram-negative. Its cells are curved rods with a single polar flagellum.

Helicobacter pametensis is a bacterium in the Helicobacteraceae family, Campylobacterales order. It was first isolated from bird and swine faeces. Its cells are motile and possess one subterminal sheathed flagellum at each end.

Hoeflea siderophila is a neutrophilic iron-oxidizing, motile bacteria with a single polar flagellum, from the genus of Hoeflea which was isolated from the Staraya Russa Resort in the Novgorod region in Russia.

Parvibaculum indicum is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped and motile bacterium with a polar flagellum species from the genus of Parvibaculum which has been isolated from deep-sea water from the Indian Ocean.

Desulfovibrio putealis is a bacterium. It is sulfate-reducing. Its cells are motile by means of a polar flagellum and contain desulfoviridin. The type strain is B7-43T (=DSM 16056T =ATCC BAA-905T).

Olpidium species exist as spherical zoosporangia inside the cells of their host. Zoospores emerge from a single discharge tube and have a single, posterior whiplash flagellum. Resting spores can be smooth or ornamented.

S-shaped), or fusiform (i.e. spindle-shaped) rod with flagellum at both of its ends (i.e. bipolar flagella) which it uses to dart around.Garrity GM, Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Staley JT (eds.) (2005).

Dyella jiangningensis is a Gram-negative, aerobic and motile bacterium from the genus of Dyella with a polar flagellum which has been isolated from the surface of a rock from Nanjing in China.

Despite its lack of thecal plates, a prominent feature helpful in identifying armored flagellates, A. sanguinea is relatively large and easily recognizable. Like most dinoflagellates, one flagellum is complex, wrapping around the equator of the cell in a groove. The other flagellum extends out from the cell to help aid its movement through the water. A. sanguinea’s most prominent features are the lack of a nuclear envelope chamber and the apical groove's large, clockwise path when viewed from the front of the cell.

A flagellum (; plural: flagella) is a lash-like appendage that protrudes from the cell body of certain bacteria and eukaryotic cells termed as flagellates. A flagellate can have one or several flagella. The primary function of a flagellum is that of locomotion, but it also often functions as a sensory organelle, being sensitive to chemicals and temperatures outside the cell. The similar structure in the archaea functions in the same way but is structurally different and has been termed the archaellum.

Certain organisms such as bacteria and animal sperm have flagellum which have developed a way to move in liquid environments. A rotary motor model shows that bacteria uses the protons of an electrochemical gradient in order to move their flagella. Torque in the flagella of bacteria is created by particles that conduct protons around the base of the flagellum. The direction of rotation of the flagella in bacteria comes from the occupancy of the proton channels along the perimeter of the flagellar motor.

Eubacterial flagellum is a multifunctional organelle. It’s also one of a range of motility systems in bacteria. The structure of the organelle appears like a motor, shaft and a propeller.Young, Matt & Edis, Taner (2004).

Tepidimonas fonticaldi is a Gram-negative, thermophilic, motile bacterium with a single polar flagellum from the genus Tepidimonas, which was isolated from a hot spring water sample from the Antun hot spring in Taiwan.

Naxibacter suwonensis is a Gram-negative aerobic motile with a single flagellum, and rod-shaped bacterium which was isolated with Massilia jejuensis from air samples on the Jeju Island and Suwon region of Korea.

Helicobacter cholecystus is a bacterium first isolated from gallbladders of golden hamster with cholangiofibrosis and centrilobular pancreatitis. It is filamentous, Gram-negative, and motile, with a single polar-sheathed flagellum. It is also microaerophilic.

Eubacterium is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria in the family Eubacteriaceae. These bacteria are characterised by a rigid cell wall. They may either be motile or nonmotile. If motile, they have a flagellum.

Desulfovibrio arcticus is a Gram-negative, psychrotolerant, sulfate-reducing and motile bacterium from the genus of Desulfovibrio with a single polar flagellum which has been isolated from water from permafrost from the Barents Sea.

Desulfovibrio brasiliensis is a moderately halophilic bacteria first isolated from Brazil, hence its name. It is sulfate-reducing, 0.3–0.45micrometres wide and 1.0–3.5 micrometres long, Gram-negative and motile (one subpolar flagellum present).

Sulfurimonas autotrophica is a sulfur- and thiosulfate-oxidizing ε-proteobacterium. It is mesophilic, and its cells are short rods, each being motile by means of a single polar flagellum. Its genome has been sequenced.

Mastigamoeba are divided into two main clades. Clade A includes those species that are large with a broader and larger flagellum (e.g., M. balamuthi). Clade B includes those that are smaller, with narrow flagella (e.g.

Bacterial blight of cotton is a disease affecting the cotton plant resulting from infection by Xanthomonas axonopodis pathovar malvacearum (Xcm) a Gram negative, motile rod-shaped, non spore-forming bacterium with a single polar flagellum.

Pedicel dark brown and flagellum dark brown to black. Body length is 2.0–2.2 mm. Male is similar to female in color, but with slightly darker legs. Generally, the male is smaller than the female.

12068 The traits that distinguish this particular genus are highly variable, especially at higher taxa. However, general characteristics such as a rigid cell shape and single emergent flagellum can describe the species among this genus.

Most are non-motile, but some have a single flagellum. They are strictly anaerobic. They produce methane through the reduction of carbon dioxide with hydrogen and cannot use formate, acetate or methyl compounds as substrates.

Dyella kyungheensis is a Gram-negative, aerobic and motile bacterium from the genus of Dyella with a polar flagellum which has been isolated from soil of a field with cornus fruits from Hoengseong in Korea.

While the treatment for V. vulnificus can be as straightforward as making the rapid choice of appropriate antibiotics, there have been cases in which the genes mutated, thus rendering antibiotics ineffective. While looking for an answer to this problem, researchers found that one way to stop the infection from spreading is to again mutate the bacteria. This mutation happens on the flagellum of the bacteria. When injected with flgC and flgE (two genes in the flagella that cause the mutation), the flagellum no longer function properly.

The choanoflagellates are a group of free-living unicellular and colonial flagellate eukaryotes considered to be the closest living relatives of the animals. Choanoflagellates are collared flagellates having a funnel shaped collar of interconnected microvilli at the base of a flagellum. Choanoflagellates are capable of both asexual and sexual reproduction. They have a distinctive cell morphology characterized by an ovoid or spherical cell body 3–10 µm in diameter with a single apical flagellum surrounded by a collar of 30–40 microvilli (see figure).

Colponema is a compound of the Greek words ‘kolpos’ and ‘nema’. ‘Kolpos’ means fold or hollow and is likely referring to the pronounced groove present in Colponema. ‘Nema’ means thread and alludes to the organism’s recurrent flagellum, which originates at the anterior end of the cell and passes through the groove. Although the initial description of Colponema does not explicitly provide an explanation of its etymology, the publication does highlight the organism’s large abdominal groove and the figures show the flagellum going through it.

Caballeronia glathei is a Gram-negative soil bacterium. It is motile by using one polar flagellum. The bacterium is a pathogen for Asian rice (Oryza sativa).George M. Garrity: Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. 2. Auflage.

A single Golgi body with swelled cisternae lies beneath the flagellum, and each cell has an ejectile organelle that putatively releases a cylindrical structure. A vacuole, or cluster of vacuoles, contains the putative carbohydrate storage product.

Comamonas badia is a Gram-negative, oxidase-positive, catalase-positive, aerobic, rod-shaped, highly motile bacterium with a single polar flagellum from the genus Comamonas and family Comamonadaceae, which was isolated from activate sludge in Japan.

Gemmobacter aquaticus is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming and motile bacterium from the genus of Gemmobacter with a single polar flagellum which has been isolated from water from the Daqing reservoir in China.

Animal cannot withdraw into the shell. The shell is with 0.5-2 whorls. The last whorl is much inflated. Reproductive system: Penis is more or less long, usually cylindrical, with appendix (flagellum) at its terminal end.

Psychroglaciecola arctica is a Gram-negative, facultatively methylotrophic, aerobic and motile bacterium from the genus of Psychroglaciecola with a single polar flagellum which has been isolated from soil from glacial foreland near Ny-Ålesund in Norway.

The cytostome has also been found to associate with the flagellum of Trypanosoma cruzi. So far, this is the only known example of an endocytotic organelle being associated with an organelle that is used for locomotion.

Luteibacter rhizovicinus is a Gram-negative, aerobic, chemoorganotrophic and motile bacterium from the genus of Luteibacter with a polar flagellum which has been isolated from rhizospheric soil of the plant Hordeum vulgare from Taastrop in Denmark.

Devosia neptuniae is a nitrogen-fixing bacteria that nodulates Neptunia natans. It is Gram-negative, strictly aerobic short rod-shaped and motile by a subpolar flagellum. The type strain of D. neptuniae is LMG 21357T (CECT 5650T).

Confluentimicrobium naphthalenivorans is a Gram-negative, aerobic, naphthalene-degrading, moderately halophilic and motile bacterium from the genus of Confluentimicrobium with a single flagellum which has been isolated from tidal flat sediments from the South Sea in Korea.

Celeribacter naphthalenivorans is a Gram-negative, naphthalene-degrading, moderately halophilic, aerobic and motile bacterium from the genus of Celeribacter with a polar flagellum which has been isolated from tidal flat sediments from the South Sea in Korea.

Dyella soli is a Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming and motile bacterium from the genus of Dyella with a polar flagellum which has been isolated from forest soil from the Jeju island on Korea.

Despite the limited number of details presently available regarding the structure and assembly of archaellum, it has become increasingly evident from multiple studies that archaella play important roles in a variety of cellular processes in archaea. In spite of the structural dissimilarities with the bacterial flagellum, the main function thus far attributed for archaellum is swimming in liquid and semi-solid surfaces. Increasing biochemical and biophysical information has further consolidated the early observations of archaella mediated swimming in archaea. Like the bacterial flagellum, the archaellum also mediates surface attachment and cell-cell communication.

Micromonas is a group of small unicellular pear-shaped micro-algae that do not have a cell wall. Just like other members in the class, they have a single mitochondrion and a single chloroplast, which covers almost half of the cell. They are able to swim due to the presence of a scale-less flagellum. The axonemal structure of the flagellum for this genus is different in that the peripheral microtubules do not extend up to the termination of the central pair of microtubules, allowing a visible investigation of the motion of the central pair.

The bacterial flagellum is made of about 20 proteins, with approximately another 30 proteins required for its regulation and assembly. The flagellum is a rotating structure driven by a reversible motor at the base that uses the electrochemical gradient across the membrane for power. The different arrangements of bacterial flagella: A-Monotrichous; B-Lophotrichous; C-Amphitrichous; D-Peritrichous Bacteria can use flagella in different ways to generate different kinds of movement. Many bacteria (such as E. coli) have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling.

The tumbling allows them to reorient and makes their movement a three-dimensional random walk. Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on their surface; some have a single flagellum (monotrichous), a flagellum at each end (amphitrichous), clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell (lophotrichous), while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell (peritrichous). The flagella of a unique group of bacteria, the spirochaetes, are found between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive helical body that twists about as it moves.

The size of the mature sporangium seems to have a 1:1 ratio with the size of the host cell. Therefore, if a host cell is smaller the mature sporangium will also be smaller and vice versa if the host cell is larger the sporangium will be larger as well (Garcés et al. 2012). All of the Parvilucifera species have alveoli, flattened vesicles under the plasma membrane, that can be empty or filled with cellulosic material. The free- living zoospores are biflagellated, with a longer anterior flagellum and a short posterior flagellum.

In addition to the single apical flagellum surrounded by actin-filled microvilli that characterizes choanoflagellates, the internal organization of organelles in the cytoplasm is constant. A flagellar basal body sits at the base of the apical flagellum, and a second, non-flagellar basal body rests at a right angle to the flagellar base. The nucleus occupies an apical-to-central position in the cell, and food vacuoles are positioned in the basal region of the cytoplasm. Additionally, the cell body of many choanoflagellates is surrounded by a distinguishing extracellular matrix or periplast.

Brucella suis is a Gram-negative, facultative, intracellular coccobacillus, capable of growing and reproducing inside of host cells, specifically phagocytic cells. They are also not spore-forming, capsulated, or motile. Flagellar genes, however, are present in the B. suis genome, but are thought to be cryptic remnants because some were truncated and others were missing crucial components of the flagellar apparatus. In mouse models, the flagellum is essential for a normal infectious cycle, where the inability to assemble a complete flagellum leads to severe attenuation of the bacteria.

Prymnesium is a genus of haptophytes, including the species Prymnesium parvum. The genus is a unicellular motile alga. It is ellipsoidal in shape one flagellum is straight and there are two longer ones which enable movement.Fritsch, F.E. 1965.

Shewanella aestuarii is a Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped and motile bacterium with a polar flagellum from the genus of Shewanella which has been isolated from tidal flat from the Suncheon bay on Korea.

Afipia clevelandensis is a species of the Afipia bacterial genus. It is a gram-negative, oxidase-positive, non-fermentative rod in the alpha-2 subgroup of the class Proteobacteria. It is motile by means of a single flagellum.

Afipia broomeae is a species of the Afipia bacterial genus. It is a gram- negative, oxidase-positive, non-fermentative rod in the alpha-2 subgroup of the class Proteobacteria. It is motile by means of a single flagellum.

However, some protists may still have been observed utilizing free rotation. Navicula, a type of diatom, may possess an unconventional rolling mechanism unrelated to the flagellum. Navicula Diatom: Youtube videoJ Microbiol Methods. 2013 Mar;92(3):349-54.

The Thioalkalivibrio sulfidiphilus strain HL-EbGr7T cells is long, slender, slightly curved, rod-shaped bacteria with a polar flagellum for motility. It has a gram-negative cell wall and the colonies are up to 2 mm in diameter.

Paraburkholderia terrae is a Gram-negative, nitrogen-fixing, catalase and oxidase-positive, motile bacterium with a single polar flagellum, from the genus Paraburkholderia and family Burkholderiaceae, which was isolated from a forest soil in Daejeon in South Korea.

Trypanosoma evansi, although monomorphic in most cases, can be pleomorphic in some strains. They are characterized by a long free flagellum with a narrow drawn out posterior. Kinetoplast and dyskinetoplastic forms appear. Kinetoplast is either terminal or subterminal.

A Handbook of Veterinary Parasitology: Domestic Animals of North America. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, pp. 23-25. Histomonads do not possess mitochondria, but instead produce energy inside hydrogenosomes. The flagellum shows the common 9x2+2 type.

Bacteriovorax and Bdellovibrio are approximately 0.2-0.4 x 0.5-1.4 μm, are aerobic, with oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, and are mesophilic. They display a typical Gram-negative morphology and are motile by a single, polar, sheathed flagellum.

Undibacterium macrobrachii is a Gram-negative, strictly aerobic and motile bacterium from the genus of Undibacterium with a single polar flagellum which has been isolated from wather from a pond which was cultivated with shrimps from Pingtung in Taiwan.

When the male finds the female, he will coil around the female over the genital pore. The male's spicules are used to hold the female during copulation. The females are ovoviviparous. The sperm of a nematode lacks a flagellum.

Marinobacter shengliensis is a Gram-negative, moderately halophilic, aerobic and rod-shaped bacterium from the genus of Marinobacter with a single polar flagellum, which has been isolated from saline soil which was contaminated with oil from the Shengli Oilfield in China.

Flagella are organelles defined by function rather than structure. Flagella vary greatly. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella can be used for swimming but they differ greatly in protein composition, structure, and mechanism of propulsion. The word flagellum in Latin means whip.

Duganella is Gram negative, with cellular appendages of a single polar flagellum, making it motile. Duganella needs need oxygen to survive. Duganellais mesophilic, neutrophilic, and chemoorganotrophic. Duganella zoogleoides display growth on nutrient or mineral media supplemented with simple organic compounds.

Aeromonas bivalvium is a Gram-negative, oxidase- and catalase-positive, motile bacterium with a polar flagellum of the genus Aeromonas isolated from bivalve molluscs.Aeromonas bivalvium sp. nov., isolated from bivalve molluscs. Miñana- Galbis D, Farfán M, Fusté MC, Lorén JG.

Dechloromonas denitrificans is a gram negative, N2O-producing motile bacterium with a polar flagellum from the genus of Dechloromonas which was isolated from the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa.IJSEM International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology Colonies of Dechloromonas denitrificans are yellowish colored.

SEM micrograph of Promastigote form Leishmania mexicana as found in the sandfly midgut. The cell body is shown in orange and the flagellum is in red. 119 pixels/μm. Amastigote form Leishmania mexicana as found in mammalian macrophages, 219 pixels/μm.

Kinetoplastids are eukaryotic and possess normal eukaryotic organelles, for example the nucleus, mitochondrion, golgi apparatus and flagellum. Along with these universal structures kinetoplastids have several distinguishing morphological features such as the kinetoplast, sub-pellicular microtubule array and the paraflagellar rod.

In males, the pseudorostral lobes are horizontally or vertically directed. Eye lobes with or without lenses. The second antenna's peduncle has 4 articles, and the flagellum has 7 articles. There are exopods on the third maxilliped and pereopod 1-4.

Heterokont zoospore of Saprolegnia with tinsel and whiplash flagella. A zoospore is a motile asexual spore that uses a flagellum for locomotion. Also called a swarm spore, these spores are created by some protists, bacteria and fungi to propagate themselves.

Halorhodospira halophila is a species of Halorhodospira distinguished by its ability to grow optimally in an environment of 15–20% salinity. It was formerly called Ectothiorhodospira halophila. It is an anaerobic, rod-shaped Gram-negative bacterium. H. halophila has a flagellum.

The locus furthermore encodes other accessory proteins (flaG, flaF, flaC, flaD, flaE, and flaX). FlaX is only found in Crenarchaeota and FlaCDE (which can exist as individual proteins or as fusion proteins) in Euryarchaeotes. FlaX and FlaCDE are thought to have similar functions, and an unknown protein is also thought to fulfil the same function in Thaumarchaeota. The archaellum operon used to be historically known as fla (from "flagellum"), but in order to avoid confusion with the bacterial flagellum and to be consistent with the remaining nomenclature (archaellum, archaellins), it has been recently proposed to be renamed to arl (archaellin-related genes).

Sketch of a longitudinal ultrathin section through a typical motile bacterium bearing a flagellum and surrounding polar organelle at one end of the cell. A polar organelle is a structure at a specialised region of the bacterial polar membrane that is associated with the flagellar apparatus. This flagellum- associated structure can easily be distinguished from the other membrane regions in ultrathin sections of embedded bacteria by electron microscopy when the cell membrane is orientated perpendicular to the viewing direction. There, the membrane appears slightly thickened with a finely frilled layer facing the inside of the cell.

In comparison to macroscopic life forms, it is very fast indeed when expressed in terms of number of body lengths per second. A cheetah, for example, only achieves about 25 body lengths per second. Although according to Through use of their flagella, E. coli is able to move rapidly towards attractants and away from repellents, by means of a biased random walk, with 'runs' and 'tumbles' brought about by rotating its flagellum counterclockwise and clockwise, respectively. The two directions of rotation are not identical (with respect to flagellum movement) and are selected by a molecular switch.

At least 10 protein components of the bacterial flagellum share homologous proteins with the type three secretion system (T3SS), hence one likely evolved from the other. Because the T3SS has a similar number of components as a flagellar apparatus (about 25 proteins), which one evolved first is difficult to determine. However, the flagellar system appears to involve more proteins overall, including various regulators and chaperones, hence it has been argued that flagella evolved from a T3SS. However, it has also been suggested that the flagellum may have evolved first or the two structures evolved in parallel.

The flagellum is encased within the cell's plasma membrane, so that the interior of the flagellum is accessible to the cell's cytoplasm. Besides the axoneme and basal body, relatively constant in morphology, other internal structures of the flagellar apparatus are the transition zone (where the axoneme and basal body meet) and the root system (microtubular or fibrilar structures which extends from the basal bodies into the cytoplasm), more variable and useful as indicators of phylogenetic relationships of eukaryotes. Other structures, more uncommon, are the paraflagellar (or paraxial, paraxonemal) rod, the R fiber, and the S fiber. For surface structures, see below.

Pedinella is a genus of small, unicellular planktonic or attached, flagellated heterokonts first described in 1888 by A. V. Vysotskij. The genus is monospecific, and the single species is Pedinella hexacostata Vysotskij. Pedinella has an inverted bell or apple shape with a stalk arising from the posterior end, and has a single, long, ribbon-like, apical flagellum and, a second apical flagellum that is reduced to its basal body. The cells are radially symmetrical, with a large central nucleus, surrounded equatorially by a number of chloroplasts that cause the body to bulge out where the plastids are pushed up against the plasma membrane.

Phacus, like all photosynthetic Euglenoids, obtained their plastids through secondary endosymbiosis, where the ancestral phagocytic Euglenoid engulfed a green alga, and the resulting organism became the plastid. Most of these organisms also possess a semi-rectangular eyespot, often reddish in color, and a single flagellum, although some species have two, which emerges anteriorly. The flagellum is responsible for cell movement by gyrating in the direction of travel allowing the cell to glide and swim in the water. Furthermore, some flagella vary in length from short all the way to the length of the cell in other species.

In dinoflagellates, the cingulum is a groove that encircles the cell, splitting it into two regions, the anterior episome and the posterior hyposome; the longitudinal flagellum typically lies within this furrow. Similarly, the sulcus is a groove that runs longitudinally and typically contains the transverse flagellum. In Torodinium, both these grooves are extended into the episome, a feature believed to be unique to this genus. Although other genera, including Gymnodinium, Cochlodinium, and Warnowia are already known to possess the anterior extension of the cingulum, the addition of a sulcal extension as well appears to be unique to Torodinium.

The flagellum is generally anchored by a cone of microtubules, suggesting a close relationship to the opisthokonts. The mitochondria in amoebozoan cells characteristically have branching tubular cristae. However, among the Archamoebae, which are adapted to anoxic or microaerophilic habitats, mitochondria have been lost.

A particular strain of M. scandinavica called SR5 was isolated and characterized. M. scandinavica is a Gram-negative bacterium that exhibits pink, rod-shaped colonies. They possess a single, polar flagellum used for motility. This species of Methylomonas is an obligate methanotroph.

All of this occurs within a common cuticle, whose rupture results in the release of sporocytes through the copepod anus and into the environment. Although initially non-motile, sporocytes later develop a flagellum and take on the general morphology of a typical dinoflagellate.

Movement of sperm is called sperm motility. The middle of the mammalian spermatozoon contains mitochondria that power the movement of the flagellum of the sperm. The motor around the base produces torque, just like in bacteria for movement through the aqueous environment.

Sphingomonas gei is a Gram-negative, strictly aerobic and motile bacteria from the genus of Sphingomonas with a single polar flagellum which has been isolated from roots of the plant Geum aleppicum from the Mount Taibai in the Shaanxi Province in China.

Desulfonatronum thiodismutans is an alkaliphilic, sulfate-reducing bacterium capable of lithoautotrophic growth. It is Gram-negative, vibrio-shaped, with cells 0.6–0.7×1.2–2.7 μm in size, motile by a single polar flagellum. Its type strain is MLF1T (=ATCC BAA-395T =DSM 14708T).

Deefgea is a genus of bacteria in the phylum Proteobacteria. Deefgea are described as Gram-negative, rod-shaped, facultative anaerobes which generally occur singly. Deefgea are motile, either by a single flagellum or two polar flagella. They are both catalase and oxidase positive.

SEM micrograph of procyclic form Trypanosoma brucei as found in the tsetse fly midgut. The cell body is shown in orange and the flagellum is in red. 84 pixels/μm. Trypanosoma brucei is a species of parasitic kinetoplastid belonging to the genus Trypanosoma.

Ligia cursor is a woodlouse in the family Ligiidae. The antennae are as long as the cephalothorax, which is the head and body of the animal. Its flagellum contains 21 segments, 14 larger and 7 smaller, and each joint shows setae (small bristles).

Deferribacter autotrophicus is an iron-reducing bacteria. It is thermophilic, anaerobic, chemolithoautotrophic, motile, straight to bent rod-shaped with one polar flagellum, 0.5–0.6 µm in width and 3.0–3.5 µm in length. The type strain is SL50T (=DSM 21529T =VKPM B-10097T).

Desulfovibrio butyratiphilus is a bacterium. It is Gram-negative, butyrate- oxidizing and sulfate-reducing. It is also strictly anaerobic, mesophilic, motile by means of a single polar flagellum, non-spore-forming and rod-shaped. Its type strain is BSYT (=5JCM 15519T =5DSM 21556T).

They are less than 2 cm long. The antenna arises well below the eye, has the base clubbed and flagellum unsegmented. The lateral ocelli (simple eyes) are outside the margins of the face. The face has carinae (or keels) on the edge.

Marinobacterium is a genus of Proteobacteria found in sea water.George M. Garrity: Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. 2. Auflage. Springer, New York, 2005, Volume 2: The Proteobacteria, Part B: The Gammaproteobacteria The cells are rod-shaped and are motile by using one polar flagellum.

Mouth narrow, superior, lower and upper-lips both visible. Tail long, tapering, with a whip-like flagellum. Tadpoles of Microhyla rubra lack keratinized mouth parts and have a dorsoterminal mouth. They have six papillae (scallops) on the lower lip but number varies with developmental stage.

Afipia birgiae is a species in the Afipia bacterial genus. It is a gram- negative, oxidase-positive rod in the alpha-2 subgroup of the class Proteobacteria. It is motile by means of a single flagellum. Its type strain is 34632T (=CIP 106344T =CCUG 43108T).

Afipia massiliensis is a species of the Afipia bacterial genus. It is a gram- negative, oxidase-positive rod in the alpha-2 subgroup of the class Proteobacteria. It is motile by means of a single flagellum. Its type strain is 34633T (=CIP 107022T =CCUG 45153T).

Masticophis f. flagellum, eastern coachwhip, at Weeks Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Alabama Coachwhips are thin- bodied snakes with small heads and large eyes with round pupils. They vary greatly in color, but most reflect a proper camouflage for their natural habitat. M. f.

Pseudobutyrivibrio xylanivorans is a species of butyrate-producing bacteria from the rumen. It is Gram-negative, anaerobic, non-spore-forming, curved rod- shaped and motile by means of a single polar or subpolar flagellum. Its type strain is Mz 5T (=DSM 14809T =ATCC BAA-455T).

Males have no pleopods. The flagellum of the second antenna does not reach further than the hindmost edge of the carapace. Females have a very small second antenna (much smaller than the first). They also have no exopods (outer branches) on their third maxillipeds.

Blood smears show Trypanosoma irwini parasites with physical characteristics resembling the trypomastigote stage of other well-known trypanosomatids. These organisms are long and thin, consisting of a pointy posterior and a long free flagellum. They have an undulating membrane, a kinetoplast, and a nucleus.

Massilia putida is a Gram-negative and motile bacterium from the genus Massilia with a single polar flagellum, which has been isolated from a wolfram mine in Dayu County in the Jiangxi Province in China. Massilia putida has the ability to produce dimethyl disulfide.

The male antenna possesses 15 segments, with a flagellum that does not broaden towards the apex. Its pronotum's dorsal part is distinctly set off; admedian pronotal depressions are widely separated. The lateral surface of the pronotum is coriaceous. The mesoscutum is almost wholly smooth.

In addition to the normal supporting microtubules or axoneme, each contains a rod (called paraxonemal), which has a tubular structure in one flagellum and a latticed structure in the other. Based on this, two smaller groups have been included here: the diplonemids and Postgaardi.

The cells are gram-negative, and rod shaped with an average length of 1.7 µm and width of 0.5 µm. The cells are motile via single polar flagellum. The cells have carboxysomes and sulfur globules which turn carbon dioxide into sugar and store sulfur, respectively.

Reproduction in Hyphomicrobium begins when its hyphal filament (prostheca) grows from one end of the cell (this happens when the cell no longer has a flagellum) and the bud grows from the tip of the prostheca that eventually differentiates into a new swarmer cell.

As mentioned above, the flagellar pocket is another site of endocytosis in flagellated protozoa. The flagellar pocket is an invagination that is formed around the extracellular flagellum. The flagellar pocket is a site of both endocytosis and exocytosis in cells.Eger, Iriane, and Maurilio José Soares.

Aliiglaciecola aliphaticivorans is a Gram-negative, aerobic, heterotrophic and motile from the genus of Aliiglaciecola with a single polar flagellum which has been isolated from tidal flat from the Yellow Sea in Korea. Aliiglaciecola aliphaticivorans uses aliphatic hydrocarbons as a sole source of carbon.

Pseudoxanthomonas mexicana is a species of mesophilic, motile, strictly aerobic, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria with one polar flagellum, first isolated from human urine, riverside urban soil and anaerobic digester. AMX 26BT (=ATCC 700993T =CIP 106674T =JCM 11524T) is the type strain.

Pseudoxanthomonas japonensis is a species of mesophilic, motile, strictly aerobic, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria with one polar flagellum, first isolated from human urine, riverside urban soil and anaerobic digester. 12-3T (=CCUG 48231T =CIP 107388T =JCM 11525T) is the type strain.

Morphology and Anatomy As members of the Family Trypanosomatidae, Phytomonas have structures that are characteristic of the family, including the flagellum-associated kinetoplast, subpellicular microtubules, the paraxial rod, and glycosomes. Within a host plant, Phytomonas exhibits a fusiform structure twisted 2-5 times along the longitudinal axis. Within the plant, the organisms can be in several flagellated stages: mostly promastigote with some paramastigotes in the phloem and lacticiferous tubes, and amastigote form in the latex. However, most of the species are mainly observed in the promastigote form, with an elongated body and a single 10-15 μm long flagellum emerging from the anterior flagellar pocket.

N. scintillans is large for a dinoflagellate with a diameter of , though most are around . It has a ventral groove that holds a flagellum, an extension of the cell wall called a tooth, and a striated tentacle involved in ingestion that projects posteriorly. The flagellum does not move the organism, so the nonmotile N. scintillans depends on regulation of its buoyancy within the water column – perhaps by controlling its cellular concentration of ions and ammonia. N. scintillans produces a string of mucus extending from the tip of the tentacle which then adheres to plankton and ascends rapidly through concentrations of its prey in the water column.

Euproctis apoblepta is a moth of the family Erebidae. It is found in Madagascar. The male of this species has a wingspan of 35 mm. Head and front are bright orange-yellow, antennae with yellow flagellum and brownish black pectinations, thorax, abdomen and legs are orange-yellow.

Longiflagrum amphibium can be distinguished from the other four species of the genus Longiflagrum by having the shortest flagellum in the antennule and by its oval pleopod basis. The specific name ' is from the Latin for "amphibious". The name reflects the species' presence in the intertidal zone.

Zooxanthellae in the zoospore stage exhibit motility as forward movement or gyratory movement. In moving forward, the organism rotates on the posterior flagellum’s axis whilst simultaneously propelling through the water column. The zoospore gyrates through the water column via attachment of the posterior flagellum to a substrate.

Legionella waltersii is a Gram-negative catalase- and oxidase-positive bacterium from the genus Legionella with a single polar flagellum which was isolated from a drinking water distribution system in Adelaide in Australia. L. waltersii is named after Reginald P. Walters.UniProtATCC Legionella waltersii may can cause pneumonia.

The pedicel is slightly longer than the terminal segment. There are two longish setae projecting up from the pedicel. The antennae can be seen dorsally from the head capsule, but not dorsally from the entire body. The flagellum is dome-shaped with apical seta and several sensilla.

The subspecific name, ruddocki, is in honor of Dr. John C. Ruddock who was Medical Director for the Richfield Oil Corporation.Brattstrom, Bayard H.; Warren, James W. (1953). "A New Subspecies of Racer, Masticophis flagellum, from the San Joaquin Valley of California". Herpetologica 9 (4): 177-179.

The spermatheca is spherical or ovoid. Oviduct is usually short and sometimes thinner than penis and vagina. Atrium is short. Carpathica differs from Daudebardia in the presence of an appendix or flagellum at the apical end of the penis; vas deferens inserts subterminally (in Daudebardia terminally).

Butyrivibrio hungatei is a species of Gram-negative, anaerobic, non-spore- forming, butyrate-producing bacteria. It is curved rod-shaped and motile by means of single polar or subpolar flagellum and is common in the rumen. Its type strain is JK 615T (=DSM 14810T =ATCC BAA-456T).

Flagellum is entirely black. Abdomen is mainly yellow, with a dark median stripe, sometimes absent on tergites 6 and 7. In males sternite 8 shows a straight rather long appendage directed at caudal margin. Tergite 9 is short and rather broad, swollen and rounded towards sides.

In the males the flagellum of the second antenna reaches beyond the carapace; moreover, they possess pleopods. In the females the second antenna is somewhat shorter than the first. There are exopods (outer branches) on the third maxilliped and strongly reduced or absent on the third pereopods.

A. dhakensis is a rod-shaped bacterium. Cells contain a single polar flagellum, so are motile. The organism tests positive for the ability to produce catalases and oxidases, and is capable of reducing nitrate to nitrite . The species is able to undergo both respiration and fermentation.

L. pneumophila is a Gram-negative, non-encapsulated, aerobic bacillus with a single, polar flagellum often characterized as being a coccobacillus. It is aerobic and unable to hydrolyse gelatin or produce urease. It is also non-fermentative. L. pneumophila is neither pigmented nor does it autofluoresce.

They characteristically have a single emergent flagellum, which lacks the root structure found in related groups, and is extended into a wing-like form supported by an internal rod. They also have tentacles or axopods supported by triads of microtubules, arising from the surface of the nucleus.

Malonomonas is a Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, chemoorganotrophic, anaerobic and motile genus of bacteria with single polar flagellum from the family of Pelobacteraceae with one known species (Malonomonas rubra). Strains of Malonomonas have been isolated from anoxic sediments. the bacteria Malonomonas rubra bacteria metabolizes malonate.

Cupriavidus gilardii is a Gram-negative, aerobic, motile, oxidase-positive bacterium from the genus Cupriavidus and the family Burkholderiaceae. It is motil by a single polar flagellum. It is named after G. L. Gilardi, an American microbiologist.George M. Garrity: Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. 2. Auflage.

This morphology is consistent with bacteria with lophotrichous flagella which uses it for motile transport. No research has been done to elucidate the utility of the flagellum or lack thereof. L. mirabilis is a facultative anaerobe. It is capable of fermenting glucose, fructose, sucrose and mannitol.

Thermodesulfobacterium hveragerdense inhabits bacterial mats and, hence, it lacks a flagellum for mobility. The cell is cylindrical, its dimensions being 2.5μm × 0.5μm. This roughly equates to a cell body volume of 1.96 μm3. The cells form chains of up to three cells long, rarely exceeding this number.

Head dark. Antennae short the antennal flagellum thickened basally, as wide as pedicel and narrowed sharply toward apex, almost trapezoidal. Thorax and scutellum bright shining green, not in the least blackish, Abdomen black, legs extensively dark dull orange or dusky. Scutellum with usually six (sometimes eight) spines.

On core jakobids and excavate taxa: The ultrastructure of Jakoba incarcerata. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 48(4), 480-492. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2001.tb00183.x.. The anterior flagella are usually shorter than the body length while the posterior flagella are usually more than twice longer than the cell; the posterior flagella of S. incarcerata are generally shorter, usually about 1.5 times the cell length The anterior flagellum of S. incarcerata has single root made of two slightly separated microtubules, which originates close to the anterior basal body in the ventral, posterior end.. The posterior flagellum has two main microtubular roots: the left one is associated with three different non- microtubular fibres as well as a composite fibre, and the right one of one type. In addition, a singlet “root” circles the posterior basal body and supports the shape of the groove A dorsal vane attaches on the posterior flagellum, which is supported by a paraxonemal lamella that originates near the axoneme.. The axoneme is composed of the typical eukaryotic 9 x 2 motif.

In most such organisms, one or more flagella are located at or near the anterior of the cell, e.g., Euglena. Often there is one directed forwards and one trailing behind. Among animals, fungi, which are part of a group called the opisthokonts, there is a single posterior flagellum.

There are two competing groups of models for the evolutionary origin of the eukaryotic flagellum (referred to as cilium below to distinguish it from its bacterial counterpart). Recent studies on the microtubule organizing center suggest that the most recent ancestor of all eukaryotes already had a complex flagellar apparatus.

Comamonas denitrificans is a Gram-negative, oxidase- and catalase-positive, motile bacterium with a polar flagellum from the genus Comamonas and family Comamonadaceae, which was isolated from an activated sludge. Its colonies are yellow-white colored. Unlike other species of Comamonas, C. denitrificans can reduce nitrate to nitrogen gas.

Aeromonas hydrophila bacteria are Gram-negative, straight rods with rounded ends (bacilli to coccibacilli shape) usually from 0.3 to 1.0 μm in width, and 1.0 to 3.0 μm in length. They can grow at temperatures as low as 4 °C. These bacteria are motile by a polar flagellum.

Acidithiobacillus spp. occur as single cells or occasionally in pairs or chains, depending on growth conditions. Highly motile species have been described, as well as nonmotile ones. Motile strains have a single flagellum with the exception of A. albertensis, which has a tuft of polar flagellae and a glycocalyx.

Although molecular data is sparse, it is known that the size of Malpighamoeba mellificae can reach from 3 - 15 μm. The function of locomotion is executed by a lash-like appendage called flagellum or pseudopodia. In order for the amoeba to get nutrients, either endocytosis or phagocytosis are utilized.

There was difficulty separating this genus from Paranema; however, in 1967 Leedale described Parenema to be different based on a more flattened morphology and a trailing flagellum pressed to the side of the cell compared to Heteronema. Now more than 25 species are described under the genus Heteronema.

Flagellin-like structural proteins are found in other portions of the flagellum, such as the hook (flgE; ), the rod at the base, and the cap at the top. The middle part of E. coli (and related) flagellin, D3, displays a beta- folium fold and appears to maintain flagellar stability.

Opitutus terrae is an obligately anaerobic (cannot grow in the presence of oxygen) bacterium first isolated from rice paddy soil, hence its epithet. It is coccus-shaped and is motile by means of a flagellum. Its type strain is PB90-1T (= DSM 11246T). Its genome has been sequenced.

5, 109–117. leading to the observed epicycloid-like movements directed towards the chemoattractant source.Böhmer, M., Van, Q., Weyand, I., Hagen, V., Beyermann, M., Matsumoto, M., Hoshi, M., Hildebrand, E. and Kaupp, U.B. (2005) Ca2+ spikes in the flagellum control chemotactic behavior of sperm. EMBO J. 24, 2741–2752.

The opisthokonts (Greek: (opísthios) = "rear, posterior" + (kontós) = "pole" i.e. "flagellum") are a broad group of eukaryotes, including both the animal and fungus kingdoms. The opisthokonts, previously called the "Fungi/Metazoa group", are generally recognized as a clade. Opisthokonts together with Apusomonadida and Breviata comprise the larger clade Obazoa.

M. barkeri has a thick cell wall compounded by a short lipid cell membrane that is similar in structure to most other methanogens. However, its cell walls do not contain peptidoglycan. M. barkeri str. fusaro has no flagellum but has potential for movement through the creation of gas vesicles.

Stylospania is a genus of snipe flies of the family Rhagionidae. The genus is based on one single male specimen collected from Samar in the Philippines. It bears most of the features found in Chrysopilus, but with its stylate flagellum. The female of the genus is completely unknown.

The shell is ribbed, with rounded or keeled whorls. The apertural margin is reflected and thickened. Reproductive system: There is no flagellum, no penial papilla. There is one small dart sac, one longer accessory sac separated from vaginal walls and vagina with 3 simple and long accessory (mucus) glands.

The head is black with yellowish white sections with the flagellum being light brown. The mesosoma is rather rigid in terms of flexibility. There can be wrinkles seen increasing closer to the different ends of wasp's mesosoma. The pubescence are shorter on the mesosoma compared to the head.

Nearby objects distort this field, and it can sense the distortion on its skin. G. niloticus females lay their eggs in floating nests up to across. The adults continue to guard the young after hatching. The sperm cells don't have a flagellum, and therefore moves like an amoeba instead.

1 at right: # Opisthokont. Posterior whiplash flagella, a characteristic of Chytridiomycota, and a proposed uniting trait of the Opisthokonts, a large clade of eukaryotes containing animals and fungi. In most of these, there is a single posterior flagellum (Fig. 1a), but in Neocallimastigales, there are up to 16 (Fig.

Oleispira antarctica is a hydrocarbonoclastic marine bacterium, the type species in its genus. It is psychrophilic, aerobic and Gram-negative, with polar flagellum. Its genome has been sequenced and from this information, it has been recognized as a potentially important organism capable of oil degradation in the deep sea.

Over the course of the game, it is required of the player to evolve their Seaman to different stages in its life cycle, eventually transforming into a frog-like creature outlined on the Disc's cover. ;Mushroomer In the Seaman's first days of life, it begins as a Mushroomer, a form consisting of a well-developed optic organ and a flagellum, lacking a face or any verbal means of communication. In this form, it is essentially a parasite, which overruns a host Nautilus via being eaten and consumes it from the inside out for nourishment. Mushroomers tend to stick to one side of the tank by the ends of their flagellum if left alone.

Mastigamoeba was described as a genus of species characterized by an ameboid body with a hyaline based cytoplasm and a flagellum. Due to its similarities to genera such as Mastigella and Mastigina, the genus Mastigamoeba was specified in 1891 to only include organisms with the following features: amoeboid flagellates with hyaline based cytoplasm, a direct connection between the flagellum and the nucleus, lateral pseudopods, and nucleus with an elongated shape. Throughout the 20th century, hundreds of species were described under the genus Mastigamoeba based on external morphological characteristics alone. However, recent discoveries regarding life cycles have shown that a single organism takes on many morphologies throughout its life cycle, putting the number of described species into question.

Their thalli (=bodies) consist of two parts: an absorptive branching rhizoidal system that contains no nuclei and a multinucleate sporangium that ranges in shape from spherical, to oval, to pear-shaped, and to multi-lobed. The rhizoids attach the thallus to a substrate (food source) and absorbs nutrients. When the thallus is fully grown, the sporangium releases numerous, unwalled, uninucleate-zoospores, each bearing a single posteriorly directed flagellum. The zoospore has to use its own stored food reserves (lipids and glycogen) as it swims until it attaches to a suitable host or substrate, absorbs its flagellum, produces a wall around itself, grows a germ tube that penetrates the substrate, and develops into a new thallus.

These pellicle strips are a distinguishing feature of the euglenoids, that allows the cells to undergo metaboly, giving the cell flexibility and movement. Heteronema, under the light microscope, is morphologically similar to Paranema, where both groups are metabolic, have the ability to glide, have visible feedings rods and two different flagellum on opposite ends of the cell. Heteronema is separated into two specific morphogroups, one consisting of elongate and very flexible cells that move by gliding, holding the anterior flagellum out in front of the cell. This morphogroup includes the species H. scaphrum. In contrast, the second group consists of ovoid, more rigid cells that have a characteristic rapid “skidding” swimming behaviour.

In Anostoma depressum the external reproductive pore, located on the right side of the head, leads into a small atrium with which the penis, hermaphroditic duct, and seminal receptacle attach. The first named is a heavy, muscular organ, accompanied by the usual slender vas deferens, their union being effected at some distance from the distal end of the penis, which thus forms a flagellum. The penis and flagellum are both sharply defined and appear to be without muscular attachments, though bound to the body wall by delicate connective tissue strands. In the neighborhood of the outer opening, however, the penis sheath affords attachment for three or four slender muscle bands that Heath inclined to regard as penis retractors.

Morphologically, Neocercomonas is similar to the genus Cercomonas, though genetic analysis has indicated that they are separate taxa. Cells are 13-60 micrometers long, feed on bacteria, and are usually flattened in shape. They have a ragged 'tail' formed from the protoplasm at their posterior end, as well as two flagella near the front end of the cell, each being around one and a half times the cell's length. The anterior flagellum beats rapidly in front of the cell to propel its movement; the posterior flagellum remains attached to both the body and the substrate to provide stability while the organism glides. Two cytoskeletal 'roots' are attached to different points along the posterior flagellum’s length, adding further support.

Some critics, such as Jerry Coyne (professor of evolutionary biology at the University of Chicago) and Eugenie Scott (a physical anthropologist and former executive director of the National Center for Science Education) have argued that the concept of irreducible complexity and, more generally, intelligent design is not falsifiable and, therefore, not scientific. Behe argues that the theory that irreducibly complex systems could not have evolved can be falsified by an experiment where such systems are evolved. For example, he posits taking bacteria with no flagellum and imposing a selective pressure for mobility. If, after a few thousand generations, the bacteria evolved the bacterial flagellum, then Behe believes that this would refute his theory.

The reproductive system of Xerocrassa geyeri was described by Gittenberger (1993): there is no appendage in the genital atrium, that is the distinguishing characteristic of the genus Xerocrassa Monterosato, 1892. There are two rudimentary dart-sacs near the mucus glands. The flagellum and the epiphallus have approximately the same length.

For terms see Morphology of Diptera Wing venation Dixidae are small (body length not more than 5.0 mm) slender gnats with thin legs. The head is relatively broad. The antennae are thin and the flagellum has 14 segments. The proboscis is short and thick and the palpi are five-segmented.

During flagellar assembly, components of the flagellum pass through the hollow cores of the basal body and the nascent filament. During assembly, protein components are added at the flagellar tip rather than at the base. In vitro, flagellar filaments assemble spontaneously in a solution containing purified flagellin as the sole protein.

Pandoraea norimbergensis is a Gram-negative, non-spore-forming bacterium of the genus Pandoraea, with a single polar flagellum, which was isolated from an oxic water layer which had a sulfide containing sediment below in Nuremberg, Germany. Pandoraea norimbergensis has the ability to oxidate heterotrophic sulfur under slightly alkaline conditions.

Leuconidae retain the original number of free thoracic somites, but do not possess a free telson. Their mandibles are truncated dorsally to the molar. In males, the flagellum of the second antenna reaches beyond the hindmost edge of the carapace. Their gills do not have gill plates or other supports.

S. flagellum can have a total length (including tail) of up to . Its most notable feature is the black patch, shaped like an hourglass, which extends from the back of its nape to between the eyes. The body of the snake is orange to tan dorsally, and cream-colored ventrally.

Their antennae lack a scaphocerite, the flattened exopod of the antenna. This is fused to the epistome (a plate between the labrum and the basis of the antenna). The flagellum, at the top of the antenna, is stout, tapering, and very long. The ambulatory legs (pereopods) end in claws (chelae).

Chaetosphaeridium globosum is a one-celled alga which is thought to represent an ancient lineage of the green plants. This organism exists in a filamentous form with one flagella per cell. It is a freshwater species. The flagellum is covered in scales in a 3-prong irregular shape called ‘maple leafs’.

Sperm centrioles are important for 2 functions:Avidor-Reiss, T., Khire, A., Fishman, E. L., & Jo, K. H. (2015). Atypical centrioles during sexual reproduction. Frontiers in cell and developmental biology, 3, 21. Chicago (1) to form the sperm flagellum and sperm movement and (2) for the development of the embryo after fertilization.

It possesses a subocular impression, and 5 to 7 vertical carinae ventrolaterally on its gena. Anterior tentorial pits are visible; occiput without dorsal occipital carina. The female antenna is composed of 12 segments, its flagellum broadening towards its apex. The last flagellomere is broader than the penultimate, with a rounded end.

The sperm plasma then fuses with the egg's plasma membrane, triggering the sperm head to disconnect from its flagellum as the egg travels down the Fallopian tube to reach the uterus. In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a process by which egg cells are fertilized by sperm outside the womb, in vitro.

Autographa flagellum (silver whip) is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found from Newfoundland west across southern Canada to south-eastern British Columbia, south in the east to Maine, Michigan and Wisconsin. There are isolated reports from further south (Pennsylvania and Colorado). The wingspan is 35–40 mm.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a curved, rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacterium found in brackish, saltwater, which, when ingested, causes gastrointestinal illness in humans. V. parahaemolyticus is oxidase positive, facultatively aerobic, and does not form spores. Like other members of the genus Vibrio, this species is motile, with a single, polar flagellum.

Acidiphilium cryptum is a species of heterotrophic bacteria, the type species of its genus. It is gram-negative, aerobic, mesophilic and rod-shaped. It does not form endospores and some cells are motile by means of one polar flagellum or two lateral flagella Lhet2 (=ATCC 33463) is the type strain.

Calcium ions play a primary role in the regulation of sperm motility. This gene belongs to a family of putative cation channels that are specific to spermatozoa and localize to the flagellum. The protein family features a single repeat with six membrane-spanning segments and a predicted calcium- selective pore region.

Eubacterium acidaminophilum is a Gram-positive bacterium species in the genus Eubacterium, notable for being an amino acid-degrading obligate anaerobe producing or utilizing H2 or formate. It is rod-shaped and motile by a polar to subpolar flagellum. Its type strain is al-2. It produces several relevant enzymes.

Arhodomonas aquaeolei is a species of the bacterial genus Arhodomonas noted for its ability to grow in an environment of high salinity. It is an aerobic, oval rod-shaped, gram-negative bacterium. It is motile by means a single polar flagellum. A. aquaeolei is among the most halophilic organisms known.

"Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum ." \- the three examples Behe proposed. John H. McDonald even showed his example of a mousetrap to be reducible. If irreducible complexity is an insurmountable obstacle to evolution, it should not be possible to conceive of such pathways.

It is covered with forward pointing spines, with the supraorbital spines prominent. The antennae are very heavy and spiny. Their flagellum is tapering and is even longer than the body. The first walking leg (pereopod) is provided with subchela (the distal end of a limb developed as a prehensile structure).

In neuronal axons the actin/spectric cytoskeleton forms an array of periodic rings and in the sperm flagellum it forms a helical structure. In plant cells, the cell cortex is reinforced by cortical microtubules underlying the plasma membrane. The direction of these cortical microtubules determines which way the cell elongates when it grows.

Under the light microscope, eyespots appear as dark, orange-reddish spots or stigmata. They get their color from carotenoid pigments contained in bodies called pigment granules. The photoreceptors are found in the plasma membrane overlaying the pigmented bodies. The eyespot apparatus of Euglena comprises the paraflagellar body connecting the eyespot to the flagellum.

Anatomically speaking, there is no flagellum in the reproductive system of snails in the family Cerastidae, and this is what distinguishes this family from its sister group the family Enidae.Mordan, P. B. (1992). The morphology and phylogeny of the Cerastuinae (Pulmonata: Pupilloidea). Bulletin of the British Museum, Natural History, Zoology, 58, 1–20.

The hairy flagellum points forward in an arc in sessile cells. Cafeteria is a eukaryotic organism, so it contains the typical organelles such as mitochondria and nuclei. Cafeteria roenbergensis reproduces asexually via binary fission, first replicating the flagella and internal organelles before the cell divides. No sexual activity is known for this species.

Cafeteria roenbergensis is a suspension feeder, meaning that it feeds by filtering suspended bacteria, its primary food source, and other particulate matter from the water. Its two flagella facilitate feeding, locomotion and attachment to substrates. The anterior flagellum is responsible for locomotion and feeding. It propels the cell in a swift spiral movement.

New York: Springer . and are motile by a single polar flagellum. When Methylophaga was defined originally as a genus in 1985, all species known at that time were auxotrophic for vitamin B12, however, many species were found to be non-auxotrophic and so this is no longer a defining characteristic. Methylophaga spp.

Head The most conspicuous appendages arising from the head are the antennae. The first pair are biramous (having two flagella), except in Luciferidae, and are relatively small.Tavares & Martin, 2010, p. 106 The second pair can be 2–3 times the length of the body and are always uniramous (having a single flagellum).

A portion of the vas deferens which becomes modified into a tube-like organ and is continued beyond the apex of the penis; it frequently bears a blind duct, or flagellum. Epithelium. All tissues bounding a free surface. Equidistant. Equally spaced, as the spiral lines on some snail shells. Equilibrating. Balancing equally. Eroded.

After consuming some of the protoplasm, the Peranema may then insert its large flagellum into the hole, using it to churn up the contents of the cell so that they may be more easily sucked out. This continues until nothing is left of the prey but the tattered remnants of its pellicle.

The first structure is an artificial bacterial flagellum and the second is a swarm of living magnetotactic bacteria to create a stream to ease nanoparticle transport. These innovative means of drug delivery, harnessing already established biological architecture and living biology, will dramatically enhance our progression towards effective targeted drug delivery platforms in patients.

The antenna is 0.6 times the length of the body, with 12 antennomeres, its flagellum widened towards its apex. Placodeal sensilla are visible only on flagellar segments F7 through F10; pedicel 1.4 times longer than wide. The apical flagellomere is spindle-shaped, 3 times longer than wide. The pronotum is strongly pubescent laterally.

AKAP 4 protein belongs to the family of scaffold proteins and is involved in controlled mechanism of flagellar function. In mice, AKAP4 is required for sperm development and male mice that lack AKAP4 are infertiel The fibrous sheath was not formed, flagellum become short and often some proteins associated with the fibrous sheath in this case they were very few or absent. Surprisingly, another component of flagellum was developed as normal. In the conclusion, they state that AKAP4 plays a pivotal role in the fibrous sheath and effect on the motility of sperm, in the absence of AKAP4 these activities affected due to a failure of signal transduction and glycolytic enzymes because they were not able to attach with the fibrous sheath.

Zoospores of B. dendrobatidis, which are typically 3–5 µm in size, have an elongate–ovoidal body with a single, posterior flagellum (19–20 µm long), and possess a core area of ribosomes often with membrane-bound spheres of ribosomes within the main ribosomal mass. A small spur has been observed, located at the posterior of the cell body, adjacent to the flagellum, but this may be an artifact in the formalin-fixed specimens. The core area of ribosomes is surrounded by a single cisterna of endoplasmic reticulum, two to three mitochondria, and an extensive microbody–lipid globule complex. The microbodies closely appose and almost surround four to six lipid globules (three anterior and one to three laterally), some of which appear bound by a cisterna.

Schematic drawing of Cafeteria roenbergensis (a bicosoecid) with two heterokont flagella: an anterior straminipilous (with tripartite mastigonemes) and a posterior smooth Many heterokonts are unicellular flagellates, and most others produce flagellated cells at some point in their lifecycles, for instance as gametes or zoospores. The name heterokont refers to the characteristic form of these cells, which typically have two unequal flagella. The anterior straminipilous flagellum is covered with one or two rows of lateral bristles or mastigonemes, which are tripartite (with three regions each), while the posterior flagellum is whiplike, smooth, and usually shorter, or sometimes reduced to a basal body. The flagella are inserted subapically or laterally, and are usually supported by four microtubule roots in a distinctive pattern.

As restoring motility of pomA mutants by heterologous expression of MotA does not change the ion used to power the flagellum of the transgenic Vibrio alginolyticus, MotA is not in itself an essential specificity factor in ion selectivity, though that does not exclude it being partially involved in determining ion specificity of the flagellar complex.

Recent findings indicate that the parasite is unable to survive in the bloodstream without its flagellum. This insight gives researchers a new angle with which to attack the parasite. Trypanosomiasis vaccines are undergoing research. Additionally, the Drugs for Neglected Disease Initiative has contributed to the African sleeping sickness research by developing a compound called fexinidazole.

The cells are short, irregularly curved, and gram-negative and may appear as spiral forms 0.25 to 0.3 μm in diameter and 1 to 3 μm long. They move using a single polar flagellum. Coccoid bodies and filaments may be seen in older cultures. Colonies are 1.5 mm in diameter, circular, and raised with surfaces.

Culcua is a genus of flies in the subfamily Pachygastrinae that are found only in the Indomalayan realm. About eleven species have been described. They have a disc-shaped flagellum to the antenna and have a arista or hair arising from it. The scutellum typically has four strong spines and the abdomen is nearly spherical.

M. burtonii are motile with a single flagellum, and lack storage structures and internal membranes in the cytoplasm. M. burtonii are colony- forming archaea, usually occurring in <1 millimeter colonies that are circular and convex. Cells of M. burtonii fluoresce blue when exposed to UV illumination. The optimal initial pH for growth is 7.7.

The cells of Pseudomonas oryzihabitans are rods with rounded ends. These Gram-negative bacteria are able to move due to a flagellum, and the cells occur singularly and very rarely in pairs. Strains of these bacteria produce a yellow water-insoluble pigment in their cells. Their metabolism is restricted to an aerobic respiratory system.

The species name refers to the antenna with a stout basal part in the flagellum and is derived from Greek hadro (meaning thick, stout), with the Greek superlative ending -odes.Park, K. T. (2012). "Lecithoceridae (Gelechioidea, Lepidoptera) of New Guinea Part X: Review of the genus Sarisophora, with descriptions of seven new species". Tropical Lepidoptera Research.

Motility protein B also known as MotB is a bacterial protein that is encoded by the motB gene. It's a component of the flagellar motor. More specifically, MotA and MotB makes the stator of a flagellum and surround the rotor as a ring of about 8-10 particles. MotA and MotB are integral membrane proteins.

Immunofluorescence staining pattern of anti-dsDNA antibodies on C. luciliaesubstrate. The kinetoplast located near the flagellum is stained, indicating the presence of anti-dsDNA antibodies in a person with systemic lupus erythamatosus. Crithidia luciliae are haemoflaggelate single celled protists. They are used as a substrate in immunofluorescence for the detection of anti-dsDNA antibodies.

From a dorsal view of the cell, the lipped cingulum (located equatorially) can be viewed. The cingulum is narrow and the inside surface has round pores with smooth edges. There are also marginal pores surrounding the lipped cingulum. Coolia also has a narrow sulcus that contains relatively short longitudinal flagellum at the posterior end.

A female that has been with multiple partners will most likely give birth to an offspring fathered by the male that produced the most or faster sperm. It was found that primates and rodents with longer flagellum fathered more offspring. The length of the baculum is also influenced by sperm competition in some mammal species.

The museum measures approximately , and cost C$280,000 to build. Exhibits include an interactive display about the bacterium flagellum, tracing how the ancestry of the royal family is supposedly connected to Adam and Eve, and how fossils are supposed evidence for the Genesis flood. The museum attracted 40 to 80 visitors weekly in 2007.

Its total body length reaches for females and for males. The colour of its body, as well as coxae and the first two antennomeres in both sexes are black; the antennal flagellum, tarsi, pro and mesotibia as well as the apex of its femora are dark brown. Its forewing is hyaline, its veins brown.

These cells are very large, from 0.2 to 2 millimetres in diameter, and are filled with large buoyant vacuoles. Some may contain symbiotic green algae, but there are no chloroplasts. Instead, they feed on other plankton, and there is usually a special flagellum involved in ingestion. Noctilucales reproduce mainly by fission, but sexual reproduction also occurs.

The Prorocentrales are a small order of dinoflagellates. They are distinguished by having their two flagella inserted apically, rather than ventrally as in other groups. One flagellum extends forward and the other circles its base, and there are no flagellar grooves. This arrangement is called desmokont, in contrast to the dinokont arrangement found in other groups.

Rostrum of male and female from the base is uniformly curved, and is longer than prothorax (especially in females). The second segment of the flagellum of the male is, which is two times shorter than the first, third to sixth segments of the square. Pronotum is wider in the middle. Elytron with have a steep slope.

The antennae and the proboscis are about the same length, but in some cases, the antennae are slightly shorter than the proboscis. The flagellum has 13 segments that may have few or no scales. The scales of the thorax are narrow and curved. The abdomen has pale, narrow, rounded bands on the basal side of each tergite.

Their high numbers in plants are thought to be at least partly attributable to their lack of a flagellum, as flagella are known to induce plant defenses. Additionally, K. variicola is known to associate with a number of different plants including banana trees, sugarcane and has been isolated from the fungal gardens of leaf- cutter ants.

In most species, there are two eyes at the front side of the head shield, often merged into a single dorsal eye lobe. The five posterior somites of the thorax form the pereon. The pleon (abdomen) consists of six cylindrical somites. The first antenna (antennule) has two flagella, the outer flagellum usually being longer than the inner one.

Martin Dworkin, Stanley Falkow, Eugene Rosenberg, Karl-Heinz Schleifer, Erko Stackebrandt: The Prokaryotes, A Handbook of the Biology of Bacteria. Volume 5: Proteobacteria: Alpha and Beta Subclasses It lives in cells of infected hosts and cannot be cultured on artificial media. Piscirickettsia salmonis is nonmotile, whereas the other five genera are motile by using a single flagellum.

Cafeteria roenbergensis is a slightly flattened, kidney-shaped bicosoecid. Its cell typically measures between 3 and 10 μm and it has a volume of around 20 μm³. It is colorless and has two unequally sized flagella. The smooth flagellum, angled posteriorly, is shorter, and attaches to substrates in non-motile cells, but trails behind in motile cells.

This approach proposes the use of biological microorganisms, like the bacterium Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Thus the model uses a flagellum for propulsion purposes. Electromagnetic fields normally control the motion of this kind of biological integrated device. Chemists at the University of Nebraska have created a humidity gauge by fusing a bacterium to a silicone computer chip.

It is considerably larger and highly elongated, measuring 15-30 µm in length and 5 µm in width. It is spindle-shaped, tapering at both ends. A long flagellum (about the body length) is projected externally at the anterior end. The nucleus lies at the centre, and in front of it are the kinetoplast and the basal body.

The biochemistry and cell biology of Leishmania is similar to that of other kinetoplastids. They share the same main morphological features, including a single flagellum which has an invagination, the flagellar pocket, at its base, a kinetoplast, which is found in the single mitochondrion, and a subpelicular array of microtubules, which make up the main part of the cytoskeleton.

The pallial region is sigmurethrous, with a very long, narrow kidney. The genitalia are that of typical camaenids, with a long seminal receptacle, a short penis with low insertion of the retractor muscle, and a short or long epiphallic caecum (flagellum and appendix). The spermatophores have a pentagonal outline in cross-section. Amphidromus are typically arboreal animals.

V. cholerae is a highly motile, comma shaped, halophilic, gram-negative rod. Initial isolates are slightly curved, whereas they can appear as straight rods upon laboratory culturing. The bacterium has a flagellum at one cell pole as well as pili. The Vibrios tolerate alkaline media that kill most intestinal commensals, but they are sensitive to acid.

Members of A. facilis are generally 1.0-5.0 μm long and 0.2-0.7 μm wide. Under a microscope, they appear as straight to slightly curved rods that occurs singly or in short chains. A. facilis are motile via a single flagellum at one end of the bacterium. They are negative by Gram stain and positive by the oxidase test.

This chromist is easy to recognize and identify among all the phytoplankton, because of its three horns in a pitchfork arrangement. The horn in the middle is called the apical horn, and it is used as a flagellum. The other two horns are called lateral horns, and they are solely used as an aid for flotation.

This results in a fluid outer membrane loosely associated with the cell wall. In addition, Leptospira have a flagellum located in the periplasm, associated with corkscrew style movement. Chemoreceptors at the poles of the bacteria sense various substrates and change the direction of its movement. The bacteria are traditionally visualised using dark-field microscopy without staining.

The antenna white ringed fuscous from base to beyond half length of flagellum. Only reliably identified by dissection and microscopic examination of the genitalia. The moth flies from July to August depending on the location. The larvae feed on sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), sessile oak (Quercus petraea), pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) and northern red oak (Quercus rubra).

Congregibacter litoralis KT71 is an aerobic anoxygenic photoheterotroph (AAnPs). In general terms, this means that KT71 is a strict aerobic organism with preference for low-oxygen environments. To find these environments, KT71 uses a flagellum combined with chemotaxis to move towards low-oxygen areas. Though it does contain a complete photosynthesis superoperon, KT71 cannot grow autotrophically.

Johnston's organ is a collection of sensory cells found in the pedicel (the second segment) of the antennae in the class Insecta. Johnston's organ detects motion in the flagellum (third and typically final antennal segment). It consists of scolopidia arrayed in a bowl shape, each of which contains a mechanosensory chordotonal neuron. The number of scolopidia varies between species.

Some of these cells stop proliferation and differentiate into primary spermatocytes. After they proceed through the first meiotic division, two secondary spermatocytes are produced. The two secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to form four haploid spermatids. These spermatids differentiate morphologically into sperm by nuclear condensation, ejection of the cytoplasm and formation of the acrosome and flagellum.

After having settled on a substrate for some time, Neocercomonas may also deploy pseudopodia from the posterior end of the cell. The anterior flagellum will continue to move after pseudopodia have been extended, though usually in a more erratic manner. Within the cell there is an anterior nucleus, accompanied by numerous contractile vacuoles spread throughout the cell.

Nicholas Jacquier's lengthy and complex argument against the Canon Episcopi was written in Latin. It began as a tract in 1452 and was expanded into a fuller monograph in 1458. Many copies seem to have been made by hand (nine manuscript copies still exist), but it was not printed until 1561.Flagellum Haereticorum Fascinariorum p. 36.

For instance, the cell walls of oomycetes are composed of cellulose rather than chitin and generally do not have septations. Also, in the vegetative state they have diploid nuclei, whereas fungi have haploid nuclei. Most oomycetes produce self-motile zoospores with two flagella. One flagellum has a "whiplash" morphology, and the other a branched "tinsel" morphology.

Helicobacter typhlonius is motile due to its single sheathed flagellum. It has a spiral morphology, and its size is 0.3-μm by 2- to 3-μm. It is capable of ammonia assimilation, urea production, and phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate biosynthesis. H. typhlonius is also urease- negative which is known to assist in survival and proliferation of microbes in acidic gastric environments.

Silk producing spigots are present, but are borne along the rear edges of ventral plates, not on appendage-like spinnerets, as in spiders. The specimens also have a long, jointed "tail" or flagellum at the end of the abdomen, after the anus, a feature lacking in spiders but present in some other arachnids, such as uropygids.

It is considerably larger and more highly elongated, measuring 15–30 μm in length and 5 μm in width. It is spindle-shaped, tapering at both ends. A long flagellum (about the body length) is projected externally at the anterior end. The nucleus lies at the centre, and in front of which are kinetoplast and basal body.

A subocular impression is not visible. 10 vertical carinae are found ventrolaterally in a depression on the gena. The antenna is 0.6 times the length of the body, with 15 antennomeres; its flagellum does not widen towards the apex. Its F1 is cylindrical; F2 and F3 are excavated, slightly curved in their basal third and inflated at their apex.

Binding of a chemoattractant (ligand) to the receptor — a membrane-bound guanylyl cyclase (GC) — activates the synthesis of cGMP from GTP. Cyclic GMP possibly opens cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) K+-selective channels, thereby causing hyperpolarization of the membrane. The cGMP signal is terminated by the hydrolysis of cGMP through phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity and inactivation of GC. On hyperpolarization, hyperpolarization-activated and cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels allow the influx of Na+ that leads to depolarization and thereby causes a rapid Ca2+ entry through voltage-activated Ca2+ channels (Cav), Ca2+ ions interact by unknown mechanisms with the axoneme of the flagellum and cause an increase of the asymmetry of flagellar beat and eventually a turn or bend in the swimming trajectory. Ca2+ is removed from the flagellum by a Na+/Ca2+ exchange mechanism.

Apache californicum is a small, red planthopper that is endemic to California. The species is quite similar to Apache degeerii, which is present elsewhere in the United States and Canada, but males can be distinguished based on their genitalia. A. californicum has two pairs of hooks at the base of the flagellum, while A. degeerii only has a single pair.

The radial spoke is known to play a role in the mechanical movement of the flagellum/cilium. For example, mutant organisms lacking properly functioning radial spokes have flagella and cilia that are immotile. Radial spokes also influence the cilium "waveform"; that is, the exact bending pattern the cilium repeats. How the radial spoke carries out this function is poorly understood.

In some cases, the protoplast skips the thread phase and remains isodiametric. The nuclei then migrate to four points of a tetrahedron and the protoplast cleaves into a tetrad of lobes. Soon after, the tetrad undergoes mitosis and splits again into an octette of haploid cells. Each cell releases a swarmcell with either one long flagellum, 2 unequal flagella, or 2 long flagella.

The flagellar movement produces forward propulsion and also a turning force. The longitudinal flagellum is relatively conventional in appearance, with few or no hairs. It beats with only one or two periods to its wave. The flagella lie in surface grooves: the transverse one in the cingulum and the longitudinal one in the sulcus, although its distal portion projects freely behind the cell.

Motility protein A, also known as MotA Pait, is a bacterial protein that is encoded by the motA gene. It is a component of the flagellar motor. More specifically, MotA and MotB make the stator of a H+ driven bacterial flagellum and surround the rotor as a ring of about 8–10 particles. MotA and MotB are integral membrane proteins.

8-12μm long, 5-8μm wide, resembles an asymmetric gymnodinium and is biflagellar with the anterior flagellum being longer than that of the posterior. Cells are motile but not only show moderate amounts of locomotion and are able to survive one to two days after exiting the host. Mitotic nuclear division of Syndinium. Movement of chromosomes are controlled by extranuclear spindles.

Two areas from a blood smear from a person with African trypanosomiasis, thin blood smear stained with Giemsa: Typical trypomastigote stages (the only stages found in people), with a posterior kinetoplast, a centrally located nucleus, an undulating membrane, and an anterior flagellum. The two Trypanosoma brucei subspecies that cause human trypanosomiasis, T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense, are indistinguishable morphologically.

Cilia and flagella associated protein 157 (CFAP157) also known as chromosome 9 open reading frame 117 (c9orf117) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CFAP157 gene. CFAP157 gene is "specifically required during spermatogenesis for flagellum morphogenesis and sperm motility and may be required to suppress the formation of supernumerary axonemes and ensure a correct ultrastructure," according to UniProt.

The antenna have a reddish-brown scape dorsally, yellow ventrally. The flagellum is yellowish brown ringed with brown. The thorax and tegula in males are rosy, in females greyish brown tinged with rosy. The forewings are rosy, with scattered greyish-white and black scales in the distal half and a longitudinal greyish-black stripe at the base just below the costa.

The movement of this flagellum pulls the organism forward, but ultimately its movement is controlled by the viscosity of the water. Species of Ceratium have other structures called chromatophores, which contain red, brown, and yellow pigments used for photosynthesis. The average size of a Ceratium dinoflagellate is between 20–200 µm in length, which classifies it as belonging to the microplankton size category.

Some authors have argued that flagella cannot have evolved, assuming that they can only function properly when all proteins are in place. In other words, the flagellar apparatus is "irreducibly complex".Behe, M. (2007) The Edge of Evolution. Free Press, New York However, many proteins can be deleted or mutated and the flagellum still works, though sometimes at reduced efficiency.

Some species contain a single polar flagellum used for motility. Genus and species of Desulfobacteraceae may only be definitively distinguished by analysis of 16S rDNA sequences, but certain genera may be determined through physiological characteristics alone. Desulfofrigus displays an optimal growth rate at very low temperatures compared to other sulfate reducing bacteria. It is also unable to grow in the presence of propionate.

Examples of species within this group are H. ovale and H. exaratum. The skidding behaviour is very similar to the primary osmotrophs, where the motion is powered by the beating of the anterior flagellum, positioned in a curve to the right of the cell, in a sinusoidal pattern.Larsen, Jacob; Patterson, David J. (1990). “Some flagellates (Protista) from tropical marine sediments”.

General body plan of diastylids, based on D. laevis Diastylidae have a medium to large, free telson, that has not fused with the last pleon segment. The telson usually bears two terminal setae. Males have generally two pairs of pleopods, though in rare cases they may be rather small or even entirely absent. The flagellum of the second antenna reaches past the pereon.

The organism is typically 20–25 µm in length and 25–32 µm in width. The cells are compressed both in the anterior and posterior ends of this specimen. Alexandrium has two flagella that enable it to swim. While one flagellum encircles the cell causing the cell the rotate and move forward, the other extends behind the cell and controls the direction.

The maxillipeds all have well developed exopods with a multi-articulated flagellum. The fingers are long and slender, being about twice as long as the palm, their cutting edges being unarmed. The carpus is practically twice as long as the chela and slightly longer than the merus. The second legs are equal, they reach with the carpus beyond the antennular peduncle.

Transmission electron micrograph of Desulfovibrio vulgaris showing a single flagellum at one end of the cell. Scale bar is 0.5 micrometers long. Many bacteria are motile (able to move themselves) and do so using a variety of mechanisms. The best studied of these are flagella, long filaments that are turned by a motor at the base to generate propeller-like movement.

Several more genera have lost their chloroplasts and feed entirely by phagocytosis. These are Parapedinella, Actinomonas, and Pteridomonas. It also appears that certain heliozoa are actually derived pedinellids. Ciliophrys alternates between a mobile flagellate stage and a heliozoan feeding stage, where the body is contracted with extended axopods all over its surface, and the flagellum is curled up into a tight figure eight.

The largest family includes known and putative adhesins. The other four families are porins, iron transporters, flagellum-associated proteins, and proteins of unknown function. Like other typical Gram-negative bacteria, the outer membrane of H. pylori consists of phospholipids and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The O antigen of LPS may be fucosylated and mimic Lewis blood group antigens found on the gastric epithelium.

Karotomorpha is a genus of parasites with a flagellum structure.Uniprot Taxonomy: Genus Karotomorpha This organism can infect a variety of higher life forms including a number of amphibians. For example, this genus is known to be a parasite of the rough-skinned newt, a widespread newt in the western USA.C. Michael Hogan (2008) Rough-skinned Newt ("Taricha granulosa"), GlobalTwitcher, ed.

The algae in the Dictyochophyceae have been previously classified in the Chrysophyceae. There is one living genus, Dictyocha, with two commonly recognised species. There are also several extinct genera, but their classification is difficult, since skeletons may show diverse forms within each living species. Dictyocha has one golden-brown chloroplast and a long flagellum extended into a wing-like shape.

Trypanosomatida is a group of kinetoplastid excavates distinguished by having only a single flagellum. The name is derived from the Greek trypano (borer) and soma (body) because of the corkscrew-like motion of some trypanosomatid species. All members are exclusively parasitic, found primarily in insects. A few genera have life-cycles involving a secondary host, which may be a vertebrate, invertebrate or plant.

At the time of the original species description its characteristic features of a smooth shell apex and an ejaculatory complex without a flagellum fitted better in the description for the genus Laevapex; however, the species is in need of taxonomic revision for the establishment of its true identity, since its shell and musculature do not fit in the characteristics of the genus.

As is typical of the trypanosomatids, but unlike many other protists, C. fasciculata possess one mitochondrion. The mitochondrial DNA is found in a single structure, the kinetoplast, at the base of the single flagellum. As is common with parasitic species C. fasciculata requires a high nutrient content broth (including heme and folic acid) in which to grow under laboratory conditions.

The wings are brown and clear in the sections that are mainly membranous. The metasoma like the mesosoma is a darkened and reddish brown. Male Z. percontatoria wasps are similar to females except that they are smaller and darker in color. The flagellum for the males contain 18 segments and they have an average fore wing length of 2.9 mm.

Neocercomonas is a protist genus of the order Cercomonadida. It consists of single-celled bacteriophagous organisms that usually live on or nearby terrestrial plants, both above and belowground. Species are biflagellate and may grow up to 60 micrometers long, with a trailing tail-like mass of protoplasm at their posterior end and a pair of roots connecting their posterior flagellum to the cytoskeleton.

The apusomonads s have two flagella inserted at right angles, near the anterior of the cell. They move by gliding, with one flagellum trailing along the side and one directed to the anterior. The form of the mitochondria varies between the different orders. Among the apusomonads they have tubular cristae, the ancyromonads flat cristae, and the hemimastigids ambiguous or sacculate cristae.

The flagella are heterodynamic and originate just below the anterior of the cell. One flagellum points towards the anterior end of the cell and has mastigonemes near the base. The other has a fold near the base and runs through the cell’s feeding groove to point posteriorly. Prey are engulfed whole through the feeding groove and digested in large food vacuoles.

Chromobacterium violaceum is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, non- sporing coccobacillus. It is motile with the help of a single flagellum which is located at the pole of the coccobacillus. Usually, there are one or two more lateral flagella as well. It is part of the normal flora of water and soil of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world.

It swims using a single sheathed polar flagellum with a characteristic dampened filament waveform. Bdellovibrio attacks other Gram-negative bacteria by attaching itself to the prey cell's outer membrane and peptidoglycan layer, after which it creates a small hole in the outer membrane. The Bdellovibrio cell then enters the host periplasmic space. It remains reversibly attached to it for a short "recognition" period.

Sphingomonas paucimobilis is a strictly aerobic Gram-negative bacterium that has a single polar flagellum with slow motility. The cell size is around 0.7 x 1.4 μm. It is usually found in soil. As with the other members of the genus, its biochemistry is remarkable in possession of ubiquinone 10 as its major respiratory quinone, and of glycosphingolipids instead of lipopolysaccharides in its cell envelope.

The adults are small insects, usually with the body no longer than 5 mm, glabrous or slightly hairy and with blackish livery. The head is holoptic in the males of most species, and dichoptic in females. It is provided with three ocelli. The pendulous antennae are composed of three segments the two basal segments short and the third elongated; ‘modified’; with a nonannulated flagellum.

However, unlike the bacterial flagellum archaellum has not shown to play a role in archaeal biofilm formation. In archaeal biofilms, the only proposed function is thus far during the dispersal phase of biofilm when archaeal cells escape the community using their archaellum to further initiate the next round of biofilm formation. Also, archaellum have been found to be able to have a metal-binding site.

The genus is found in soil, freshwater, and on building surfaces, especially in areas that contains high levels of nitrogen compounds. Nitrosomonas thrive in a pH range of 6.0–9.0, and a temperature range of . Most species are motile with a flagellum located in the polar region of the bacillus. The organism has power-generating membranes, which form long, thin tubes inside the cell.

T. celer is a Gram-negative, spherical organism around 1 μm diameter. Observation using electron microscopy revealed that T. celer uses a monopolar polytrichous flagellum for movement. During replication, T. celer is condensed to a diploform shape as seen by phase contrast microscopy. The T. celer plasma membrane possesses large amounts of glycerol diether lipids compared to relatively small amounts of diglycerol tetraether lipids.

Ministeria vibrans is a bacterivorous amoeba with filopodia that was originally described to be suspended by a flagellum-like stalk attached to the substrate. Molecular and experimental work later on demonstrated the stalk is indeed a flagellar apparatus. The amoeboid protist Ministeria vibrans occupies a key position to understand animal origins. It is a member of the Filasterea, that is the sister-group to Choanoflagellatea and Metazoa.

The dorsal lobes are well developed, the left divided into an anterior and a posterior part by a deep sinus. Kalc-sac small, receiving the vas deferens; retractor muscle attached to long straight caecum given off at the junction of the flagellum of the male organ. The spermatheca is oval, very short, on a short stem. The amatorial organ (the dart-sac) is stout and long.

It has been described in various sections as ambivalent, ambiguous, conventionally eulogistic, cryptic, and even sarcastic. > In obitum honoratissimi viri Rogeri Manwood militis quaestorii Reginalis > Capitalis Baronis Noctivagi terror, ganeonis triste flagellum, Et Jovis > Alcides, rigido vulturque latroni, Urna subtegitur. Scelerum gaudete > Nepotes. Insons, luctifica sparsis cervice capillis Plange, fori lumen, > venerandae gloria legis, Occidit: heu, secum effoetas Acherontis ad oras > Multa abiit virtus.

The functionality of the fifth flagellum is not known. In addition, a conspicuous barb-like axostyle projects opposite the four-flagella bundle. The axostyle may be used for attachment to surfaces and may also cause the tissue damage seen in trichomoniasis infections. While T. vaginalis does not have a cyst form, organisms can survive for up to 24 hours in urine, semen, or even water samples.

This process involves the production of several successive sperm cell precursors, starting with spermatogonia, which differentiate into spermatocytes. The spermatocytes then undergo meiosis, reducing their chromosome number by half, which produces spermatids. The spermatids then mature and, in animals, construct a tail, or flagellum, which gives rise to the mature, motile sperm cell. This whole process occurs constantly and takes around 3 months from start to finish.

Members of Proterospongia have the typical choanoflagellate cell structure characterized by a cell body 5-10μm in diameter with a 20-30μm apical flagellum surrounded by a collar of 15-25 actin-filled microvilli.Leadbeater, B.S.C.; Thomsen H.A. Order Choanoflagellida. The Illustrated Guide to the Protozoa, second edition, (2000) pp. 14-37.Leadbeater, B.S.C. Life-History and Ultrastructure of a New Marine Species of Proterospongia (choanoflagellida).

Crithidia is a genus of trypanosomatid Euglenozoa. They are parasites that exclusively parasitise arthropods, mainly insects. They pass from host to host as cysts in infective faeces and typically, the parasites develop in the digestive tracts of insects and interact with the intestinal epithelium using their flagellum. They display very low host-specificity and a single parasite can infect a large range of invertebrate hosts.

In eukaryotic unicellular cells, amoeboid movement and cilium or the eukaryotic flagellum are the main effectors (e.g., Amoeba or Tetrahymena). Some eukaryotic cells of higher vertebrate origin, such as immune cells also move to where they need to be. Besides immune competent cells (granulocyte, monocyte, lymphocyte) a large group of cells—considered previously to be fixed into tissues—are also motile in special physiological (e.g.

Longitudinal section through the flagellum of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Many eukaryotes have long slender motile cytoplasmic projections, called flagella, or similar structures called cilia. Flagella and cilia are sometimes referred to as undulipodia,Lynn Margulis, Heather I. McKhann & Lorraine Olendzenski (ed.), Illustrated Glossary of Protoctista, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1993, p. xviii. and are variously involved in movement, feeding, and sensation. They are composed mainly of tubulin.

Pedinellales is a group of single-celled algae found in both marine environments and freshwater. These are found in both freshwater and marine environments, and most genera are sessile, attached by posterior stalks. The flagellum is at the anterior of the cell, and the tentacles surround it, often capturing small prey drawn in by its current. The colored genera are Pedinella, Apedinella, Pseudopedinella, and Mesopedinella.

In flagellates and ciliates, the position of the flagellum or cilium is determined by the mother centriole, which becomes the basal body. An inability of cells to use centrioles to make functional flagella and cilia has been linked to a number of genetic and developmental diseases. In particular, the inability of centrioles to properly migrate prior to ciliary assembly has recently been linked to Meckel–Gruber syndrome.

She then went to work with Lucy Shapiro at Stanford Medical School on a fellowship from the European Molecular Biology Organization. where she studied Caulobacter, a bacterium with a flagellum on one end and a stalk on the other end, beginning her fascination with how bacterial cells can become asymmetrical. From 2004 to 2019, she has taught and conducted research as a professor at Yale University.

Species in this order typically have four to six flagella at the cell's apical pole, one of which is recurrent - that is, it runs along a surface wave, giving the aspect of an undulating membrane. Like other parabasalids, they typically have an axostyle, a pelta, a costa, and parabasal bodies. In Histomonas only one flagellum and a reduced axostyle are found, and in Dientamoeba, both are absent.

General example of wasp morphology Z. percontatoria is symmetrical with the females being generally larger. The flagellum, which are the antenna on the wasp's head excluding some of the base section, has around 18-20 segments in the female. The head, as well as most parts of the body, is covered with small hairs known as pubescence. This is especially long around the mouth of the wasp.

Many of these characteristics are shared by the closely related genus Thaumatomonas. However, Thaumatomastix differs in that it has flagellar scales and a longer anterior flagellum. Genetic analysis suggests that Thaumatomastix is paraphyletic and may need to be divided into multiple genera. Those with oval-shaped plate scales (Ovoplaca) are closely related to another newly discovered genus, Scutellomonas, which also has oval-shaped scales but does not have spines.

The term derives from the Greek word δῖνος (dinos), meaning whirling, and Latin flagellum, a diminutive term for a whip or scourge. In the 1830s, the German microscopist Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg examined many water and plankton samples and proposed several dinoflagellate genera that are still used today including Peridinium, Prorocentrum, and Dinophysis.Ehrenberg C.G. (1832) Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Organisation der Infusorien und ihrer geographischer Verbreitung, besonders in Sibirien.

Jakoba are small bacterivorous zooflagellates (jakobids) found in marine and hypersaline environments. They are free swimming trophic cells with two flagella and range between five and ten micrometers in length. Cells rotate along their longitudinal axis to allow for swimming in straight lines unless deformation and “squirming” occurs due to compression in debris. During feeding, bacteria are removed from the water column by a current created by the posterior flagellum.

Geoglobus is a hyperthermophilic member of the Archaeoglobaceae within the Euryarchaeota. It consists of two species, the first, G. ahangari, isolated from the Guaymas Basin hydrothermal system located deep within the Gulf of California. As a hyperthermophile, it grows best at a temperature of 88 °C and cannot grow at temperatures below 65 °C or above 90 °C. It possess an S-layer cell wall and a single flagellum.

The process of spermatogenesis occurs in male mammals within the testis. This is the process of rounded spermatocytes developing into elongating spermatozoa with a flagellum. Spermatogenesis has two successive phases, one being spermiogenesis within the Sertoli cells of the testis and the other being maturation within the epididymis. The adherens junctions in the Sertoli cells is one of the only epithelial cell-cell junction that lacks the expression of vezatin.

Males are usually smaller than females, with relatively longer legs. Unlike females, the males bear a pair of flagella, one on each chelicera. In the accompanying photograph of a male solifugid, one flagellum is just visible near the tip of each chelicera. The flagella, which bend back over the chelicerae, are sometimes called horns and are believed to have some sexual connection, but their function has not yet been clearly explained.

Some of the bacteria possessing a T3SS have flagella as well and are motile (Salmonella, for instance), and some do not (Shigella, for instance). Technically speaking, type III secretion is used both for secreting infection-related proteins and flagellar components. However, the term "type III secretion" is used mainly in relation to the infection apparatus. The bacterial flagellum shares a common ancestor with the type III secretion system.

Sperm mitochondria differ in morphology and subcellular localization from those of somatic cells. They are elongated, flattened, and arranged circumferentially to form a helical coiled sheath in the midpiece of the sperm flagellum. The protein encoded by this gene localizes to the capsule associated with the mitochondrial outer membranes and is thought to function in the organization and stabilization of the helical structure of the sperm's mitochondrial sheath.

The antennae arises between the eye and the mandibles and in the Tenebrionidae, the antennae rise in front of a notch that breaks the usually circular outline of the compound eye. They are segmented and usually consist of 11 parts, the first part is called the scape and the second part is the pedicel. The other segments are jointly called the flagellum. Beetles have mouthparts like those of grasshoppers.

The bacterial flagellum is made up of the protein flagellin. Its shape is a 20-nanometer- thick hollow tube. It is helical and has a sharp bend just outside the outer membrane; this "hook" allows the axis of the helix to point directly away from the cell. A shaft runs between the hook and the basal body, passing through protein rings in the cell's membrane that act as bearings.

Early single-cell organisms' need for motility (mobility) support that the more mobile flagella would be selected by evolution first, but the T3SS evolving from the flagellum can be seen as 'reductive evolution', and receives no topological support from the phylogenetic trees. The hypothesis that the two structures evolved separately from a common ancestor accounts for the protein similarities between the two structures, as well as their functional diversity.

This genus consists of diverse, colourless euglenoids that range in size from 8-75um. Individuals are assigned to this genus if they have characteristic such as an ingestion apparatus, a capacity for flagellar movement and a recurrent flagellum that is not adpressed to the ventral side of the cell.Breglia, Susana A.; Yubuki, Naoji; Leander, Brian S. (2013). “Ultrastructure and Molecular Phylogenetic Position of Heteronema scaphrum: A Eukaryovorous Euglenid with a Cytoproct”.

Asthenozoospermia (or asthenospermia) is the medical term for reduced sperm motility. Complete asthenozoospermia, that is, 100% immotile spermatozoa in the ejaculate, is reported at a frequency of 1 of 5000 men. Causes of complete asthenozoospermia include metabolic deficiencies, ultrastructural abnormalities of the sperm flagellum (see Primary ciliary dyskinesia) and necrozoospermia. It decreases the sperm quality and is therefore one of the major causes of infertility or reduced fertility in men.

A common characteristic of opisthokonts is that flagellate cells, such as the sperm of most animals and the spores of the chytrid fungi, propel themselves with a single posterior flagellum. It is this feature that gives the group its name. In contrast, flagellate cells in other eukaryote groups propel themselves with one or more anterior flagella. However, in some opisthokont groups, including most of the fungi, flagellate cells have been lost.

Leishmania species are unicellular eukaryotes having a well-defined nucleus and other cell organelles including kinetoplasts and flagella. Depending on the stage of their life cycle, they exist in two structural variants, as: #The amastigote form is found in the mononuclear phagocytes and circulatory systems of humans. It is an intracellular and nonmotile form, being devoid of external flagella. The short flagellum is embedded at the anterior end without projecting out.

Areyonga is a genus of the parasitic wasp family Ichneumonidae. It currently consists of only one species, Areyonga eremica, from Australia. The genus has a few distinguishing features: it lacks occipital carina, the lower mandibular tooth is reduced to a vestigial state, and the segments at the base of the flagellum of each antenna are short 'annellar-like'. The describing author Gauld inferred that it was related to the genus Probles.

Some cell types, such as plant cells, do not contain well defined MTOCs. In these cells, microtubules are nucleated from discrete sites in the cytoplasm. Other cell types, such as trypanosomatid parasites, have a MTOC but it is permanently found at the base of a flagellum. Here, nucleation of microtubules for structural roles and for generation of the mitotic spindle is not from a canonical centriole-like MTOC.

Microtubules have a major structural role in eukaryotic cilia and flagella. Cilia and flagella always extend directly from a MTOC, in this case termed the basal body. The action of the dynein motor proteins on the various microtubule strands that run along a cilium or flagellum allows the organelle to bend and generate force for swimming, moving extracellular material, and other roles. Prokaryotes possess tubulin-like proteins including FtsZ.

Micrograph of thin cross-section of Chlamydomonas axoneme A simplified model of intraflagellar transport. An axoneme is the microtubule-based cytoskeletal structure that forms the core of a cilium or flagellum. Cilia and flagella are found on many cells, organisms, and microorganisms, to provide motility. The axoneme serves as the "skeleton" of these organelles, both giving support to the structure and, in some cases, the ability to bend.

Rhizochromulina is an unusual genus of marine heterokont algae, with one species, Rhizocromulina marina. They are colored amoeboids with a single flagellum, and produce distinctive spindle-shaped zoospores. These have a cell structure typical of the axodines. Before it was studied in detail, Rhizochromulina was included among the superficially similar golden algae in the order Chrysamoebales, but these produce zoospores which are similar to flagellate golden algae in form.

The MSP has two main functions in the reproduction of the helminthes: i) as cytosolic component it is responsible for the crawling movement of the mature sperm (without flagellum), and ii) once released, it acts as hormone on the female germ cells, where it triggers oocyte maturation and stimulates the oviduct wall to contract to bring the oocytes into position for fertilization. MSP has first been identified in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Haliclona (Soestella) caerulea takes the form of an encrusting mass of cylindrical to volcano-shaped projections between 2 and 15 cm, with oscula at the high end. The oscula are circular or oval, and between 1.3 and 5.0 mm in diameter. The body has radial symmetry and consists, on the outside, of flattened cells known as pinacocytes. The inner part is formed by cells called choanocytes, equipped with a flagellum.

The kinetoplast, after which the class is named, contains the mitochondrial genome and is a dense DNA-containing granule within the cell's single mitochondrion. The structure is made up of a network of concatenated circular DNA molecules and their related structural proteins along with DNA and RNA polymerases. The kinetoplast is found at the base of a cell's flagella and is associated to the flagellum basal body by a cytoskeletal structure.

They have a nucleus near the middle of the cell and two unequal, heterodynamic flagella emerging from a shallow, subapical pocket. The anterior flagellum appears inactive and just wraps around the anterior part of the cell. It is about the same length or slightly shorter than the cell. It is held forward with a single anterior curve that is held perpendicular to the substrate and curves back over the rostrum.

The inner face of the microtubule sheet adheres to a paracrystalline fibre (about 50nm thick) which is a common characteristic of all oxymonads. Monocercomonoides sp. has four flagella that originate in two pairs and arise from each basal body found in the anterior end. Three of the four flagella and roughly equal in length (9.5-18μm) and the fourth trailing flagellum is slightly longer, measuring between 9.0-24.5μm.

Drawing of reproductive system of Anostoma depressum viewed from apex of spire. ag. - accessory glands f - flagellum g - gonad r - seminal receptacle. Drawing of digestive tract of Anostoma depressum viewed from apex of spire. The description of the reproductive system of Ringicella ringens as described by Fischer (1869) applies in all essential details to Anostoma depressum with the exception of a penis retractor muscle attached to the vas deferens.

Within the intestine of the host, Chilomastix trophozoites feed via endocytosis. This brings the particles into the cell and stimulates the formation of a food vacuole. Chilomastix often feeds on bacteria living inside the gut of the host. The cytosomal flagellum aids in bringing intestinal bacteria closer towards the cell, allowing the membrane to wrap around the food particle and pinch off to form a food vacuole within the cell body.

These colors are due to the accumulation of ferric hydroxide and manganic oxide deposited with the mucilage and minerals that comprise the lorica. In Trachelomonas, the presence of a lorica obscures cytoplasmic details of the underlying cell. In each Trachelomonas cell, there is a gap at the apex of the lorica from which the flagellum protrudes. Thickening around this gap results in a rim-like or collar-like appearance.

The species has a Gram-negative cell wall. It exists as a curved rod to spiraled cell shape with dimensions 2-5 μm by 0.4-0.8 μm. It is mobile with a long, helical-structured polar flagellum > 5 μm in length. One morphologically distinct characteristic is a unique drumstick-like enlargement and congealing of one or both ends of the cell where the cell wall is more electron-dense.

Born in Berlin, Bode was educated in chemistry and biochemistry at the University of Göttingen, the University of Tübingen and the University of Munich as a fellow of the Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes. He obtained his Ph.D. in 1971 at the University of Munich for studies of the bacterial flagellum. Since 1972 he is working at the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry in Martinsried. Bode is associate professor at the University of Munich.

The dinoflagellates (Greek δῖνος dinos "whirling" and Latin flagellum "whip, scourge") are single-celled eukaryotes constituting the phylum Dinoflagellata. Usually considered algae, dinoflagellates are mostly marine plankton, but they also are common in freshwater habitats. Their populations are distributed depending on sea surface temperature, salinity, or depth. Many dinoflagellates are known to be photosynthetic, but a large fraction of these are in fact mixotrophic, combining photosynthesis with ingestion of prey (phagotrophy and myzocytosis).

An archaellum (plural: archaella, formerly archaeal flagellum) is a unique whip-like structure on the cell surface of many archaea. The name was proposed in 2012 following studies that showed it to be evolutionarily and structurally different from the bacterial and eukaryotic flagella. The archaellum is functionally the same – it can be rotated and is used to swim in liquid environments. The archaellum was found to be structurally similar to the type IV pilus.

Like other spiny lobsters, Panulirus echinatus has no pincer-like chelae on its front walking legs. It differs from related species by having just two large spines on the antennular plate, just in front of the carapace, and the exopod of the third feeding appendage is reduced and bears no flagellum. The basic colour is brown with large white rounded spots. The antennules and limbs are brown and have longitudinal white or yellow markings.

The males are slightly smaller than workers, having smaller heads, wider eyes, shorter malar space, and a narrower facial quadrangle. The flagellum of the male is made of 12 joints, and is actually londer than that of the cospecific worker. While the queen and workers have six visible tergites, males have seven. Males range from 5.5 to six millimeters in length, about two millimeters in width, and 4.5 to five millimeters in forewing length.

A paraxial rod also runs parallel to the axoneme of the single flagellum on one side, giving the flagella increased thickness, robustness, and strength. As mentioned earlier, these organisms also have glycosomes, which are specialized peroxisomes. Depending on the species examined, these glycosomes may take the form of two rows separated by filamentous fibres. Some isolates of the genus also have a contractile vacuole located at the anterior end, near the flagellar pocket.

In close association with the flagellum is the kinetoplast. The kinetoplast DNA networks of Phyotomonas species have been found to vary in isolates extracted from various insect and plant hosts, ranging from a loose appearance to compact networks reminiscent of those of other trypanosomatids. Life Cycle According to Dollet, reproduction occurs during the promastigote stage. Elongation of the kinetoplast occurs first, and is followed by splitting of the anterior end of the cell.

The rotor alone can operate at 6,000 to 17,000 rpm, but with the flagellar filament attached usually only reaches 200 to 1000 rpm. The direction of rotation can be changed by the flagellar motor switch almost instantaneously, caused by a slight change in the position of a protein, FliG, in the rotor. The flagellum is highly energy efficient and uses very little energy. The exact mechanism for torque generation is still poorly understood.

Xeroplexa strucki is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Geomitridae. Although named by Maltzan (1886), no differences from X. olisippensis were indicated and Gittenberger (1993: 285) therefore treated them as synonyms. However, the present study has revealed that the W. Algarve populations named as strucki and similar snails from the coast of W. Baixo Alentejo differ consistently in having a much shorter penial flagellum.

Based on its overall morphology, Idmonarachne was considered to belong to the Serikodiastida, a clade of tetrapulmonate arachnids capable of making and using silk, although the presence of silk-producing spigots was not demonstrated. Like uraraneids, it lacked spinnerets, but it did not have a flagellum, thus resembling spiders. A cladogram placed Idmonarachne between uraraenids and spiders: The Late Carboniferous appears to be a time when there was a greater diversity of tetrapulmonate arachnids.

During feeding, it beats at about 40 times per second to create a current of water that moves about 100 micrometers/second. This current brings bacteria to its mouthparts. The food is ingested below the base of the flagella, which is referred to as the ventral side. In nonmotile C. roenbergensis cells, (cells that prefer to anchor themselves to a substrate) the posterior flagellum helps attach the organism to a substrate while it is feeding.

From P. indicus, this species differs: by the greater size; by the much higher rostrum and the greater number of ventral rostral teeth; by the shorter eye; by the less slender antennular peduncle; by the more deeply cleft upper antennular flagellum; by the more robust scaphocerite; by the fingers of the first pereiopods (much longer than the palm); by the more slender pereiopods, especially the fifth, which is much longer than the ischium.

Scelioninae is a subfamily of wasps in the family Platygastridae. It is a very large cosmopolitan group (over 3000 described species in some 160 genera) of exclusively parasitoid wasps, mostly small (0.5–10 mm), often black, often highly sculptured, with (typically) elbowed antennae that have a 9- or 10-segmented flagellum. It was formerly considered to be a family Scelionidae but has been reclassified as a subfamily of the Platygastridae.Aguiar et al.

This bacterium prefers a neutral pH, a pH of 7, but it can grow at a pH as high as 9. P. stutzeri possesses both type IV pili and a polar flagellum, both of which help it to be motile. In relation to metabolism, all Pseudomonas bacteria were originally thought to be incapable of fixing nitrogen. Several Pseudomonas species, including P. stutzeri, however, have since been discovered that have demonstrated the ability to fix nitrogen.

Transverse flagellum has the lateral projections, mastigonemes, and striated strand common to other dinoflagellates. Often Polykrikos have half the number of nuclei than zooids, and each pair of zooids shares a nucleus. Within the group there is some variation in which organelles are presented, but trichocysts, nematocysts, taeniocysts, mucocysts and plastids have been observed from different members within the taxon. Cytoplasm of Polykrikos is characterized by numerous rough endoplasmic reticulum nets, Golgi complexes and vacuoles.

Centrioles produce the spindle during nuclear division. The significance of cytoskeletal structures is underlined in the determination of shape of the cells, as well as their being essential components of migratory responses like chemotaxis and chemokinesis. Some protists have various other microtubule-supported organelles. These include the radiolaria and heliozoa, which produce axopodia used in flotation or to capture prey, and the haptophytes, which have a peculiar flagellum-like organelle called the haptonema.

Pediacus adults are relatively small (2.7-7.0mm), flattened brownish beetles with no or very small temples, and short antennae with a distinct club. Male genitalia are inverted and possess a short flagellum. The genus is Holarctic in distribution, but extends south as far as Guatemala in the Western Hemisphere, generally at high altitudes, and into Australia in the Eastern Hemisphere. Adults and larvae are found under dead bark; frequently that of conifers in North America.

Bordetella pertussis is a Gram-negative, aerobic, pathogenic, encapsulated coccobacillus of the genus Bordetella, and the causative agent of pertussis or whooping cough. Like B. bronchiseptica, B. pertussis is motile and expresses a flagellum-like structure. Its virulence factors include pertussis toxin, adenylate cyclase toxin, filamentous hæmagglutinin, pertactin, fimbria, and tracheal cytotoxin. The bacterium is spread by airborne droplets; its incubation period is 7–10 days on average (range 6–20 days).

A typical flagellum consists of a basal body, filament, and hook. The long filament is the organ which helps eubacteria move. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick proteoglycan layer and take up violet Gram stain (whereas Gram-negative bacteria have a thinner proteoglycan layer which is surrounded by a layer of immune response- inducing lipopolysaccharide, and do not take up Gram stain). Species from this genus have been isolated from women with bacterial vaginosis.

It has been demonstrated that endogenous HOOK3 binds to Golgi membranes, whereas both HOOK1 and HOOK2 are localised to discrete but unidentified cellular structures. In mice the Hook1 gene is predominantly expressed in the testis. Hook1 function is necessary for the correct positioning of microtubular structures within the haploid germ cell. Disruption of Hook1 function in mice causes abnormal sperm head shape and fragile attachment of the flagellum to the sperm head.

Termite antennae have a number of functions such as the sensing of touch, taste, odours (including pheromones), heat and vibration. The three basic segments of a termite antenna include a scape, a pedicel (typically shorter than the scape), and the flagellum (all segments beyond the scape and pedicel). The mouth parts contain a maxillae, a labium, and a set of mandibles. The maxillae and labium have palps that help termites sense food and handling.

Analysis of the FliG, FliM and FliN sequences shows that none are especially hydrophobic or appear to be integral membrane proteins. This result is consistent with other evidence suggesting that the proteins may be peripheral to the membrane, possibly mounted on the basal body M ring. FliG is present in about 25 copies per flagellum. The structure of the C-terminal domain of FliG is known, this domain functions specifically in motor rotation.

Amoebae are larger than flagellates and move in a different way. Amoebae can be distinguished from other protozoa by their slug-like properties and pseudopodia. A pseudopodium or “false foot” is a temporary obtrusion from the body of the amoeba that helps pull it along surfaces for movement or helps to pull in food. The amoeba does not have permanent appendages and the pseudopodium is more of a slime-like consistency than a flagellum.

The group includes eukaryotic cells that, for the most part, have a single emergent flagellum, or are amoebae with no flagella. The unikonts include opisthokonts (animals, fungi, and related forms) and Amoebozoa. By contrast, other well-known eukaryotic groups, which more often have two emergent flagella (although there are many exceptions), are often referred to as bikonts. Bikonts include Archaeplastida (plants and relatives) and SAR supergroup, the Cryptista, Haptista, Telonemia and picozoa.

Tenthredo scrophulariae can reach a body length of approximately .James K. Lindsey The Ecology of Commanster It is easily recognisable by its wasplike appearance although lacking the thin 'waist' of a true wasp. The head is black and quite short, with prominent, rectangular back corners. The flagellum of the antennae is not narrowed on the tip, it is quite short (less than twice as long as the head width) compared to many related species.

D. shibae cells are Gram-negative cocci, or occasionally ovoid rods that measure 0.3 – 0.7 μm in width and 0.3 – 1.0 μm in length. They are motile and have a single polar flagellum. When grown in the dark, colonies have a distinct pink or light red pigmentation, while under strong illumination they are beige. They contain bacteriochlorophyll a and the carotenoid pigment spheroidenone and have absorption spectrum peaks at 804 and 868 nm.

B. gentilis wing Males and females in the genus Brachyanax are morphologically the same except with respect to genitalia. Their body length is and their wingspan is . The head is either as wide as or narrower than the thorax; the abdomen is slightly narrower than the thorax. Brachyanax species have distinctive antennae: the pedicel, or second segment, is "spherically cone-shaped" and the base of the third segment, or flagellum, is rather enlarged and bulbous.

Calcium ions play a primary role in the regulation of sperm motility. This gene belongs to a family of putative cation channels that are specific to spermatozoa and localize to the flagellum. The protein family features a single repeat with six membrane-spanning segments and a predicted calcium- selective pore region. This gene is part of a tandem repeat on chromosome 15q15; the second copy of this gene is thought to be a pseudogene.

Species of Cucujus are of moderate size (6-25mm), greatly dorso-ventrally compressed, and brightly colored, often red or red and black. Additionally, they can distinguished from other members of the family by the head being generally wider than the pronotum with prominent temples, and the elongate, inverted male genitalia with a flagellum. The genus occurs throughout the Holarctic region, with indigenous species in North America, Europe, and Asia. It is most diverse in Asia.

Evidence from DNA analysis suggests that all fungi are descended from one common ancestor, at least 600 million years ago. It is probable that these earliest fungi lived in water, and had flagella. Fungi moved to land at about the same time as plants, about 460 million years ago, at least. Although fungi are opisthokonts—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum—all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella.

Their signal peptide is homologous to class III signal peptides of type IV prepilins that are processed in Gram-negative bacteria by the peptidase PilD. In Crenarchaeota PibD and in euryarchaeota FlaK are PilD homologs, which are essential for the maturation of the archaellins. Furthermore, archaellins are N-glycosylated which has not been described for bacterial flagellins, where O-linked glycosylation is evident. Another stark difference between the archaellum and the flagellum is the diameter of their filaments.

In the right edge of each groove a set of 4 equall flagella is attached near the anterior end of the cell and each flagellum has the typical 9+2 microtubule arrangement. The length of the 16 flagella are about 2/3 of the length of the cell and are equal in length. The cell has 4 nuclei, which are located below and to the right of the attachment of each set of flagella. Each nucleus contains a nucleolus.

The Hyghalmen Roll (c. 1447–1455) shows Christ holding an azure shield charged with Veronica's Veil proper. The heraldry continues with the 15th century jousting helmet, which is covered by the seamless robe as a form of mantling, and the Cross, scepter (of mockery) and flagellum (whip) as crest. The banner's long red schwenkel is a mark of eminence in German heraldry, but it was omitted when this image was copied into Randle Holme's Book (c. 1464–1480).

Deacon, p. 57. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells. Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla, and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients. Although fungi are opisthokonts—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum—all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella.

The actinophryids, Actinophrys and Actinosphaerium, exist only in a heliozoan form with no flagellum and with more elaborate bundles of microtubules supporting their axopods. Their inclusion was argued by Mikrjukov and Patterson, who coined the term actinodine to refer specifically to this extended group. Pedinellids were classified as heliozoans by some authors. The colored pedinellids were originally treated as a family of golden algae in the order Ochromonadales, promoted to an order Pedinellales by Zimmerman in 1984.

In both cases there are four basal bodies anterior to a prominent feeding groove, and one flagellum is directed back through the cell, emerging from the groove. The retortamonads lack mitochondria, golgi apparatus, dictyosomes, and peroxisomes. They are close relatives of the diplomonads, and are placed among the metamonads along with them. Due to the abundant phylogenetic similarities between the two flagellates, since diplomonads do not ancestrally lack mitochondrion, this suggests that retortamonads are also secondarily amitochondriate.

C. fasciculata is found in two morphologically different life cycle stages - the free swimming choanomastigote form, which has a long external flagellum for motility, and the attached, immotile, amastigote form in the mosquito gut. Amastigotes excreted in the faeces contaminate the mosquito habitat; contamination of flowers during nectar feeding is common. Transmission of C fasciculata primarily occurs when amastigotes, washed into standing water, are ingested by mosquito larvae. The amastigotes are typically found in the rectum of a larva.

At a later stage these bodies accumulated in the vesicles. There is a single Golgi body in the cell which appears to be closely linked with the vesicles. The transition to the next stage is marked by the shrinking of the cytoplasm away from the cell wall. Following this, flagella appear within cytoplasmic vesicles and the paired centrioles of the vegetative cells take on the function of basal bodies (organelles that form the base of a flagellum or cilium).

Jacquier argued in his book A Scourge for Heretical Witches (Flagellum haereticorum fascinariorum) that witchcraft is a heresy, and, as such, the persecution of witches is justified. "Jacquier conceives of witchcraft principally in terms of a heretical cult: to him it is the 'abominable sect and heresy of wizards,' in which demons, not witches play the leading role."Hans Peter Broedel, The 'Malleus Maleficarum' and the Construction of Witchcraft: Theology and Popular Belief. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), p.

The most significant difference was that members of Bdellovibrio are extracellular parasites, both residing and dividing in the periplasmic space in its host, whereas Vampirovibrio is epibiotic, attaching to the cell wall of green algae in the genus Chlorella. It was also thought that the bacterium utilized a thin, uncovered flagellum for motility.Gromov, B.V., and Mamkaeva K.M. (1972) Electron Microscope Study of Parasitism by Bdellovibrio Chlorellavorus Bacteria on Cells of the Green Algae Chlorella Vulgaris. Tsitologiya. 14.2: 256-260.

The unikonts have a triple-gene fusion that is lacking in the bikonts. The three genes that are fused together in the unikonts, but not bacteria or bikonts, encode enzymes for synthesis of the pyrimidine nucleotides: carbamoyl phosphate synthase, dihydroorotase, aspartate carbamoyltransferase. This must have involved a double fusion, a rare pair of events, supporting the shared ancestry of Opisthokonta and Amoebozoa. Cavalier-Smith originally proposed that unikonts ancestrally had a single flagellum and single basal body.

These cell coverings vary greatly in structure and composition and are used by taxonomists for classification purposes. Many choanoflagellates build complex basket-shaped "houses", called lorica, from several silica strips cemented together. The functional significance of the periplast is unknown, but in sessile organisms, it is thought to aid attachment to the substrate. In planktonic organisms, there is speculation that the periplast increases drag, thereby counteracting the force generated by the flagellum and increasing feeding efficiency.

The posteriorly oriented flagellum is covered in hair-like mastigonemes. No ostensible feeding apparatus is present, but phagocytosis of prey takes place at the posterior end. Although it has not been identified using microscopy, evidence of plastid import proteins has revealed Rhodelphis’ non-photosynthetic remnant plastid. The plastid has retained some function in iron-sulfur cluster assembly and heme biosynthesis, but it does not synthesize fatty acids or isoprenoids—Rhodelphis uses different pathways in the cytosol for this.

Male N. vitripennis wasps have a spindle-shaped scape (the lower half of the antenna), meaning it is wider in the middle than at either of the joint ends. (This is in comparison to the “angulate” shape seen in N. giraulti and N. oneida, or the cylindrical shape of N. longicornis). The antennal flagellum is also shorter and wider than in the other three species of Nasonia. Male N. vitripennis have small forewings, in comparison to other Nasonia relatives.

The protruding toruli obscures the base of the antenna; the antennal bases project underneath the toruli. Shallow antennal scrobes are seen and project outwards from the antennal bases and towards the ventral margin of the eyes. The antenna is long, and has a total of 12 antennomeres, with the flagellum (an antennal segment) composed of ten flagellomeres. The scapes are short, measuring , and the pedicel (the second segment of the antenna) is The flagellomeres vary in length, ranging between .

The parasite requires two different hosts for a complete life cycle, humans as the definitive host and sandflies as the intermediate host. In some parts of the world other mammals, especially canines, act as reservoir hosts. In human cell they exist as small, spherical and unflagellated amastigote form; while they are elongated with flagellum as promastigote form in sandflies. Unlike other parasitic protists they are unable to directly penetrate the host cell, and are dependent upon phagocytosis.

Once a scale is fully formed, its vesicle will move to the cell membrane to deposit it there. Thaumatomastix are biflagellate, with one flagellum being longer than the cell itself, and move around by swimming or gliding. The two flagella emerge from a short furrow at the anterior end of the cell; the shorter one is armored by scales while the longer one is not. Though present in most species, flagella have not been observed in T. tauryanini as of 2012.

In the last two decades, it was discovered that the archaeal flagella, although functionally similar to bacterial and eukaryotic flagella, structurally resemble bacterial type IV pili. Bacterial type IV pili are surface structures that can be extended and retracted to give a twitching motility and are used to adhere to or move on solid surfaces; their "tail" proteins are called pilins. To underline these differences, Ken Jarrell and Sonja-Verena Albers proposed to change the name of the archaeal flagellum to archaellum.

In 2016, a fossil arachnid from the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) age was described in the genus Idmonarachne. Based on its overall morphology, it was considered to belong to the Serikodiastida, although the presence of silk-producing spigots was not demonstrated. Like uraraneids, it lacked spinnerets, but it also lacked a flagellum, thus resembling spiders. A cladogram based on morphology placed Idmonarachne between uraraneids and spiders: The Late Carboniferous appears to be a time when there was a greater diversity of tetrapulmonate arachnids.

Eukaryotic flagella. 1–axoneme, 2–cell membrane, 3–IFT (IntraFlagellar Transport), 4–Basal body, 5–Cross section of flagella, 6–Triplets of microtubules of basal body Cross section of an axoneme Longitudinal section through the flagella area in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. In the cell apex is the basal body that is the anchoring site for a flagellum. Basal bodies originate from and have a substructure similar to that of centrioles, with nine peripheral microtubule triplets (see structure at bottom center of image).

Unlike other parasitic protozoa (Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica etc.), Trichomonas vaginalis exists in only one morphological stage, a trophozoite, and cannot encyst. The T. vaginalis trophozoite is oval as well as flagellated, or "pear" shaped as seen on a wet- mount. It is slightly larger than a white blood cell, measuring 9 × 7 μm. Five flagella arise near the cytostome; four of these immediately extend outside the cell together, while the fifth flagellum wraps backwards along the surface of the organism.

The Raphidophyceae (raphidophytes, formerly referred to as Chloromonadophyceae and Chloromonadineae) are a small group of eukaryotic algae that includes both marine and freshwater species. All raphidophytes are unicellular, with large cells (50 to 100 μm), but no cell walls. Raphidophytes possess a pair of flagella, organised such that both originate from the same invagination (or gullet). One flagellum points forwards,and is covered in hair-like mastigonemes, while the other points backwards across the cell surface, lying within a ventral groove.

The A-kinase anchor proteins (AKAPs) are a group of structurally diverse proteins, which have the common function of binding to the regulatory subunit of protein kinase A (PKA) and confining the holoenzyme to discrete locations within the cell. This gene encodes a member of the AKAP family. The encoded protein is localized to the sperm flagellum and may be involved in the regulation of sperm motility. Alternative splicing of this gene results in two transcript variants encoding different isoforms.

During the fly's struggle to escape from the resin, the alimentary tract was ruptured and some P. neotropicum flagellates leaked from there into the hemocoel. P. neotropicum and L. adiketis lived in an environment similar to modern moist tropical rain forests. The morphology of the compact kinetoplast, nucleus, and rear-facing flagellum indicate the species belongs in the family Trypanosomatidae. The preserved amastigotes are between 4 and 7 µm and their presence in the fly indicates the digenetic nature of the species.

Calcium-binding tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CABYR gene. To reach fertilization competence, spermatozoa undergo a series of morphological and molecular maturational processes, termed capacitation, involving protein tyrosine phosphorylation and increased intracellular calcium. The protein encoded by this gene localizes to the principal piece of the sperm flagellum in association with the fibrous sheath and exhibits calcium-binding when phosphorylated during capacitation. A pseudogene on chromosome 3 has been identified for this gene.

The mandible consists of a single molar process, which is pointed and has a cutting edge which is dark coloured and shows a few small teeth; there is a distinct three-segmented palp. The maxilla has two endites, the lower is oval to quadrangular, the upper is truncate and has the distal margin with strong spines; there is a single undivided palp. The three maxillipeds all have a well-developed exopod with a multi-articulated flagellum. The epipod is oval.

Hammer p.55 Each motile mature cell has an intertwined bundle of flagella appearing as a single flagellum consisting of a long filament with a short hook and a basal body complex, but it is distinguishable by electron microscope as 10 to 30 strands with diameters of 12.5 to 16 nm each. S. natans stores reserves of poly- beta -hydroxybutyrate as internal globules making up 30 to 40% of the dry weight of a colony. Gram and Neisser staining reactions are negative.

One daughter is a mobile "swarmer" cell that has a single flagellum at one cell pole that provides swimming motility for chemotaxis. The other daughter, called the "stalked" cell, has a tubular stalk structure protruding from one pole that has an adhesive holdfast material on its end, with which the stalked cell can adhere to surfaces. Swarmer cells differentiate into stalked cells after a short period of motility. Chromosome replication and cell division only occurs in the stalked cell stage.

Eyespots are found in nearly all major animal groups, and are common among unicellular organisms, including euglena. The euglena's eyespot, called a stigma, is located at its anterior end. It is a small splotch of red pigment which shades a collection of light sensitive crystals. Together with the leading flagellum, the eyespot allows the organism to move in response to light, often toward the light to assist in photosynthesis, and to predict day and night, the primary function of circadian rhythms.

442:444-447 Morphologically, the archaeon has been described as a pleiomorphic cocci with a diameter of 0.6-1.0μm, that is motile via a singular, proximally sheathed flagellum. A. boonei cells are enveloped by a plasma membrane and a single S-layer, which is structurally comparable to that of Picrophilus oshimae. Despite the common belief that S-layers are quasi-crystalline, the S-layer of ‘’A. boonei’’ demonstrates visible plasticity and is capable of bending into small, highly curved structures resembling vesicles.

The median area is slightly rectangular, with the front edge flaring a little past the front edges of the lateral sections. along the back edge it is bordered by the two frontal ridges and the antennae sockets. The antennae have widened flat scapes that reach between towards the back of the head, but not past it. The upper end of the scape has an uneven top with a divot possibly for the base of flagellum when it was at rest.

Pallen is the author of a popular science book, The Rough Guide to Evolution. In the wake of the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial, he wrote a review with Nick Matzke, outlining the evidence that the bacterial flagellum is an evolved rather than designed entity. He commissioned and peer-reviewed Baba Brinkman's Rap Guide to Evolution and was responsible for recruiting Alice Roberts to the role of Professor of Public Engagement in Science at the University of Birmingham.

Ammotrechidae is a family of solifuges distributed in the Americas and the Caribbean Islands. It includes 22 described genera and at least 83 species. Members of this family can be distinguished from members of other families by the absence of claws on tarsi of leg I, tarsal segmentation 1-2-2-(2-4), pedipalps with pairs of lateroventral spines, and by males having an immovable flagellum on the mesal face of each chelicerum. The propeltidium of the Ammotrechidae is recurved.

Adults of species in the genus Masticophis may attain a total length (including tail) from 152 cm (5 ft) for M. lateralis to 259 cm (8.5 ft) for M. flagellum. A distinctive character of this genus is the shape of the frontal scale (the large scale in the center of the upper surface of the head) which is bell-shaped and elongated. At the rear of the body, the dorsal scales are arranged in only 13 rows.Smith HM, Brodie ED Jr (1982).

Melkonian has research interests that range from cell biology, Melkonian, M., Robenek, H. (1980): Eyespot membranes of Chlamydomonas reinhardii: a freeze-fracture study. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 72, 90-102Salisbury, J.L., Baron, A., Surek, B., Melkonian, M. (1984): Striated flagellar roots: isolation and partial characterization of a calcium-modulated contractile organelle. J. Cell Biol. 99, 962-970 Melkonian, M., Reize, I.B., Preisig, H.R. (1987): Maturation of a flagellum/basal body requires more than one cell cycle in algal flagellates: Studies on Nephroselmis olivacea (Prasinophyceae).

Inside the stomach of the sandfly, the amastigotes quickly transform into elongated and motile forms called the promastigotes. Promastigote is spindle-shaped, triple the size of the amastigote, and has a single flagellum that allows mobility. The promastigotes live extracellularly in the alimentary canal, reproducing asexually, then migrate to the proximal end of the gut where they become poised for a regurgitational transmission. As the fly bites, the promastigotes are released from the proboscis and introduced locally at the bite site.

Chlorobium species exhibit a dark green color; in a Winogradsky column, the green layer often observed is composed of Chlorobium. This genus lives in strictly anaerobic conditions below the surface of a body of water, commonly the anaerobic zone of a eutrophic lake. Chlorobium aggregatum is a species which exists in a symbiotic relationship with a colorless, nonphotosynthetic bacteria. This species looks like a bundle of green bacteria, attached to a central rod-like cell which can move around with a flagellum.

The fertilized cell contains all the nuclear and organellar materials from both gametes until the onset of meiosis, which occurs 24 hours after the insect-host molts and triggers the digestion of one flagellum and one centriole from one gamete and the axostyles of both gametes. After meiosis is complete, the remaining centriole duplicates producing new flagella and axostyles. In mitotic cell division, only the axostyle is digested and renewed. There are some subtle differences in sexual reproduction between Saccinobaculus species.

All animals are posited by biologists to have evolved from a flagellated eukaryote. Their closest known living relatives are the choanoflagellates – collared flagellates whose cell morphology is similar to the choanocyte cells of certain sponges. Molecular studies place animals in a supergroup called the opisthokonts, which also include the choanoflagellates, fungi, and a few small parasitic protists. The name comes from the posterior location of the flagellum in motile cells, such as most animal spermatozoa, whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella.

The Irene Manton Prize of the Linnean Society of London is awarded annually for the "best thesis in botany examined for a doctorate of philosophy during a single academic year" in the United Kingdom. The prize is named in honour of Irene Manton FRS, the first female president of the Linnean Society of London. She pioneered the biological use of electron microscopy. Her work revealed the structure of the flagellum and cilia, which are central to many systems of cellular motility.

To combat this, phytoplankton have developed density-changing mechanisms, by forming vacuoles and gas vesicles, or by changing their shapes to induce drag, thus slowing their descent. A very sophisticated adaptation utilized by a small number of species is a tail-like flagellum that can adjust vertical position, and allow movement in any direction. Phytoplankton can also maintain their presence in the water column by being circulated in Langmuir rotations. Periphytic algae, on the other hand, are attached to a substrate.

A single mitochondrion is often found in unicellular organisms. Conversely, the chondriome size of human liver cells is large, with about 1000–2000 mitochondria per cell, making up 1/5 of the cell volume. The mitochondrial content of otherwise similar cells can vary substantially in size and membrane potential, with differences arising from sources including uneven partitioning at cell divisions, leading to extrinsic differences in ATP levels and downstream cellular processes. The mitochondria can be found nestled between myofibrils of muscle or wrapped around the sperm flagellum.

Dechloromonas agitata strain CKB is a dissimilatory perchlorate reducing bacterium (DRPB) that was isolated from paper mill waste. Strain CKB is a Gram negative, facultative anaerobe belonging to the Betaproteobacteria. The cells of strain CKB are highly motile and possess a single polar flagellum. D. agitata can couple the oxidation of several electron donors such as acetate, propionate, butyrate, lactate, succinate, fumarate, malate or yeast extract to electron acceptors such as oxygen, chlorate, perchlorate, ferrous iron, sulphide, and reduced humic substances like 2,6-anthrahydroquinone disulphonate.

Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus are Gram-negative and rod shaped. Their cells are, on average, are 0.3-0.6 µm in diameter and 2-3 µm long. Their ability to produce flagella is largely dependent on the NaCl concentration of their environment. In solutions with NaCl concentrations of 0.6-1.5M, Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus produce and move by the movement of “a single unsheathed polar flagellum.” In solutions with NaCl concentrations <0.2 or >1.5, M. hydrocarbonoclasticus are unable to produce flagella, and are thereby unable to influence their movement through medium.

As rewards for his loyalty to the Crown, he was granted the salt duty for 20 years, and given the post of Sub-Commissioner of Prizes. Also he shared with Sir John Reresby a 14-year monopoly on the production of steel. The anonymous author (probably Andrew Marvell) of Flagellum Parliamentarium, a contemporary publication which listed many of the pensioners of the Cavalier Parliament, described these rewards as bribes, given not for previous loyalty, but for supporting the court party in the post-restoration parliament.

In 1977, archaea were first classified as a separate group of prokaryotes in the three-domain system of Carl Woese and George E. Fox, based on the differences in the sequence of ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) genes. This domain possesses numerous fundamental traits distinct from both the bacterial and the eukaryotic domains. Many archaea possess a rotating motility structure that at first seemed to resemble the bacterial and eukaryotic flagella. The flagellum (Latin for whip) is a lash-like appendage that protrudes from the cell.

Members of Trichiida (and indeed all the orders of the Myxomycetes) follow the typical slime mold lifecycle without much deviation. The Myxomycete life cycle consists of two trophic phases: the smaller, amoebic phase where the organism has a single nucleus and may or may not also have flagellum for motility. The other phase is the macroscopic plasmodium, which arises from the fusion of multiple cells in the amoebic phase. This plasmodium is essentially a single cell with thousands of nuclei, that divide at the same time.

P. fusiformis's name is derived from its tapered or spindle shape. P. fusiformis is non-motile, which is a characteristic of all members of family Pyrocystaceae, which lose their flagellum by the time these organisms are adults. P. fusiformis is considered a large dinoflagellate, with each cell being approximately 970 x 163 µm long and having a spherical diameter of 374 µm. The cell's chloroplasts actually change the cell's shape as they move closer to the cell's wall in daytime and retract towards the nucleus at night.

An example of a flagellated bacterium is the ulcer-causing Helicobacter pylori, which uses multiple flagella to propel itself through the mucus lining to reach the stomach epithelium. An example of a eukaryotic flagellate cell is the mammalian sperm cell, which uses its flagellum to propel itself through the female reproductive tract. Eukaryotic flagella are structurally identical to eukaryotic cilia, although distinctions are sometimes made according to function or length. Fimbriae and pili are also thin appendages, but have different functions and are usually smaller.

The flagella are hollow with heteromorphic paraxonemal rods, covered with sheaths of hairs. In accordance to its name, the anterior emergent flagella is longer and thicker, directed anteriorly and used for locomotion, and the shorter, thinner flagellum is directed posteriorly. The feeding apparatus is usually quite small, composed of separate microtubule rods and surrounded by spiral striations at the anterior end of the cell.Schroeckh, Sabrina; Lee Won J.; Patterson, David J. (2006). “Free-living heterotrophic euglenids from freshwater sites in mainland Australia”. Hydrobiologia. 493:1-3.

Additionally, heparin-like glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are released near the oocyte that promote the acrosome reaction. Fusion between the oocyte plasma membranes and sperm follows and allows the sperm nucleus, the typical centriole, and atypical centriole that is attached to the flagellum, but not the mitochondria, to enter the oocyte. The protein CD9 likely mediates this fusion in mice (the binding homolog). The egg "activates" itself upon fusing with a single sperm cell and thereby changes its cell membrane to prevent fusion with other sperm.

Diatoms are mostly non-motile; however, sperm found in some species can be flagellated, though motility is usually limited to a gliding motion. In centric diatoms, the small male gametes have one flagellum while the female gametes are large and non-motile (oogamous). Conversely, in pennate diatoms both gametes lack flagella (isoogamous). Certain araphid species, that is pennate diatoms without a raphe (seam), have been documented as anisogamous and are, therefore, considered to represent a transitional stage between centric and raphid pennate diatoms, diatoms with a raphe.

Trimastix were first described by William Kent in 1881 when he observed a Trimastix cell in a sample sourced from decaying fuci seaweed. He described the genera at the time as free-swimming naked animalcules that are oval, or pear shaped, with a membranous border and three flagella inserted on the anterior end. Kent observed one flagellum facing forwards and two facing backwards. It was also noted in this account that Trimastix had a visually apparent nucleus and contractile vacuole but no visual oral aperture.

Phacus is a genus of unicellular excavates, of the phylum Euglenozoa (also known as Euglenophyta), characterized by its flat, leaf-shaped structure, and rigid cytoskeleton known as a pellicle. These eukaryotes are mostly green in colour, and have a single flagellum that extends the length of their body. They are morphologically very flat, rigid, leaf-shaped, and contain many small discoid chloroplasts. Phacus are commonly found in freshwater habitats around the globe and include several hundred species that continue to be discovered to this day.

Pseudomonas stutzeri is a Gram-negative soil bacterium that is motile, has a single polar flagellum, and is classified as bacillus, or rod-shaped. While this bacterium was first isolated from human spinal fluid, it has since been found in many different environments due to its various characteristics and metabolic capabilities. P. stutzeri is an opportunistic pathogen in clinical settings, although infections are rare. Based on 16S rRNA analysis, this bacterium has been placed in the P. stutzeri group, to which it lends its name.

The genome of M. mitochondrii has been sequenced by an international scientific consortium formed by researchers at the University of Milan, the University of Sydney, the University of Valencia, the University of Pavia, and the University of Milan Bicocca. The genome is 1.2 Mb, and it is, for most characteristics, very similar to the genomes of the other Rickettsiales, with two notable exceptions; the genome of M. mitochondrii contains the gene sets for the synthesis of the flagellum and of a cytochrome cbb3 oxidase.

Aetobatus narutobiei, the Naru eagle ray, is a species of cartilaginous fish of the eagle ray family, Myliobatidae. It is found in the northwest Pacific off south Japan, South Korea, China, Hong Kong and Vietnam. It occurs from shallow, coastal flats to a depth of , but always in water warmer than . Until 2013, this species was included in the longheaded eagle ray (Aetobatus flagellum), but the two differ in genetics, morphology, size and range (the smaller longhead eagle ray is from the Indian Ocean).

Mastigonemes are manufactured from glycoproteins in the cell's endoplasmic reticulum before being transported to the anterior flagella's surface. When the straminipilous flagellum moves, the mastigonemes create a retrograde current, pulling the cell through the water or bringing in food. The mastigonemes have a peculiar tripartite structure, which may be taken as the defining characteristic of the heterokonts, thereby including a few protists that do not produce cells with the typical heterokont form. Mastigonemes have been lost in a few heterkont lines, most notably the diatoms.

As many as 1000 gRNAs can be encoded by 250 or more minicircles. Some gRNA genes show identical insertion and deletion sites even if they have different sequences, whereas other gRNA sequences are not complementary to pre-edited mRNA. Maxicircles and minicircles molecules are catenated into a giant network of DNA that is situated at the base of the flagellum in the inner compartment of the single mitochondrion. A majority of the maxicircle transcripts can not be translated into proteins due to multiple frameshifts in the sequences.

It emerges from the same reservoir as the larger propulsive flagellum, but turns toward the posterior. It does not sit freely, like the trailing flagella of Dinema and Entosiphon, but adheres to the outside of the cell membrane, in a groove along its ventral surface. Next to the reservoir, lies Peranema's highly developed feeding apparatus, a cytostomal sac supported on one side by a pair of rigid rods, fused together at the anterior end. The use of this "rod-organ" in feeding has attracted considerable scholarly interest.

The best strategy for increasing the likelihood of extra pair fertilization is to time the copulation close to the onset of female oviposition. Many male adaptations, both offensive and defensive, have been selected for due to this phenomenon in a variety of avian species. Some offensive adaptations include variable sperm morphology, testes size as well as strategies to evade mate guarding. Morphological sperm traits such as flagellum, head and mid-piece length have been studied in several species of passerine birds to determine phenotypic correlations across species.

The flagellum (male sex organ) of C. rubiginosa is actually longer than its body — the organ is also very thin and curved at the end. The beetle needs such an organ because of the shape of the female reproductive organ, which includes a coiled duct that the male must penetrate. These physical properties were studied in a 2017 research project because the mechanically challenging ability of a thin structure to penetrate without buckling or rupturing may have important implications for the development of catheters in modern medicine.

After the recognition period, it becomes irreversibly attached via the pole opposite the flagellum. Once inside the periplasm, the Bdellovibrio cell seals the membrane hole and converts the host cell to a spherical morphology, this is due to secretion of L,D transpeptidases which breaks the peptidoglycan apart, and therefore causes the cell to become amorphous. The two-cell complex formed is called a bdelloplast. The Bdellovibrio cell uses hydrolytic enzymes to break down the host cell molecules, which it uses to grow filamentously.

Communication Behavior and Sensory Mechanisms in Weakly Electric Fishes Mormyridae and their close relative Gymnarchus are also unique in being the only vertebrates where the male sperm cell does not have a flagellum. Among those members of the family lacking extended mouthparts, the body shape and general morphology of the fishes has led to some being known among aquarists by the name of "baby whale", despite the fact that true whales are mammals. Other "mormyrid mammalian misnomers" include the term "dolphin fishes", in reference to certain members of the Genus Mormyrops.

The chlorarachniophytes are a small group of exclusively marine algae widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters.Unravelling the algae: the past, present, and future of algal systematics They are typically mixotrophic, ingesting bacteria and smaller protists as well as conducting photosynthesis. Normally they have the form of small amoebae, with branching cytoplasmic extensions that capture prey and connect the cells together, forming a net. They may also form flagellate zoospores, which characteristically have a single subapical flagellum that spirals backwards around the cell body, and walled coccoid cells.

Serine/threonine-protein phosphatase 2B catalytic subunit gamma isoform (PP2BC) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PPP3CC gene. Calmodulin- dependent protein phosphatase, calcineurin, is involved in a wide range of biologic activities, acting as a Ca(2+)-dependent modifier of phosphorylation status. In testis, the motility of the sperm is thought to be controlled by cAMP-dependent phosphorylation and a unique form of calcineurin appears to be associated with the flagellum. The calcineurin holoenzyme is composed of catalytic and regulatory subunits of 60 and 18 kD, respectively.

Members of the Bacteriovorax exhibit the same general morphological and life cycle features as described for the genus Bdellovibrio. In addition, members of this genus exhibit a biphasic life cycle, with the potential of displaying an actively predacious form as well as a PI (predatory independent), saprophytic form capable of growing on nutrient medium. Prey-dependent (wild-type) strains are comma-shaped rods, 0±5–1±4 µm in length, which demonstrate a predatory lifestyle in the presence of susceptible prey bacteria. The wild-type strains are motile by a single, polar flagellum.

ElsewhereIn an appendix to John Bastwick's Flagellum Pontificis, and, in A Breviate of the Bishops' intolerable Usurpations he attacked prelates in general (1635). An anonymous attack on Matthew Wren, bishop of NorwichNews from Ipswich (1636) brought him again before the Star-chamber. On 14 June 1637 Prynne was sentenced once more to a fine of £5,000, to imprisonment for life, and to lose the rest of his ears. At the proposal of Chief-justice John Finch he was also to be branded on the cheeks with the letters S. L., signifying 'seditious libeller'.

Nitrogenous waste is probably excreted through the body wall, as part of respiration, and the protonephridia are believed to function mainly in osmoregulation. Unusually, the protonephridia do not take the form of flame cells, but, instead, the excretory cells consist of a skirt surrounding a series of cytoplasmic rods that in turn enclose a central flagellum. These cells, termed cyrtocytes, connect to a single outlet cell which passes the excreted material into the protonephridial duct. As is typical for such small animals, there are no respiratory or circulatory organs.

The bacterial flagellum is driven by a rotary engine (Mot complex) made up of protein, located at the flagellum's anchor point on the inner cell membrane. The engine is powered by proton motive force, i.e., by the flow of protons (hydrogen ions) across the bacterial cell membrane due to a concentration gradient set up by the cell's metabolism (Vibrio species have two kinds of flagella, lateral and polar, and some are driven by a sodium ion pump rather than a proton pump). The rotor transports protons across the membrane, and is turned in the process.

Legionella nagasakiensis is a Gram-negative bacterium from the genus Legionella which was isolated from a sample of hot spring water in Aomori in Japan and from human lung tissue.UniProtInternational Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology Legionella nagasakiensis sp. nov., isolated from water samples and from a patient with pneumonia Genyan Yang, Robert F. Benson, Rodney M. Ratcliff, Ellen W. Brown, Arnold G. Steigerwalt, W. Lanier Thacker, Maryam I. Daneshvar, Roger E. Morey, Atsushi Saito and Barry S. FieldsATCC It is catalase-positive and rod-shaped, with a single polar flagellum.

Richard Dawkins criticized the book for The New York Times as being logically flawed by setting up a false dichotomy in which Darwinian evolution is rejected despite an enormous amount of positive evidence due to a single apparent failure to explain irreducible complexity. Dawkins further commented that it was an argument Darwin himself had anticipated, and he stated that the example of a bacterial flagellum used by Behe had in fact been refuted by Kenneth R. Miller in Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District. Behe has responded to some of these criticisms.

Bradyrhizobium species are Gram-negative bacilli (rod-shaped) with a single subpolar or polar flagellum. They are common soil- dwelling micro-organisms that can form symbiotic relationships with leguminous plant species where they fix nitrogen in exchange for carbohydrates from the plant. Like other rhizobia, many members of this genus have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen into forms readily available for other organisms to use. Bradyrhizobia are also major components of forest soil microbial communities, where strains isolated from these soils are not typically capable of nitrogen fixation or nodulation.

The engine is powered by proton motive force, i.e. by the flow of protons (hydrogen ions) across the bacterial cell membrane due to a concentration gradient set up by the cell's metabolism. (In species of the genus Vibrio, there are two kinds of flagella, lateral and polar, and some are driven by a sodium ion pump rather than a proton pump.) Flagella are quite efficient, allowing bacteria to move at speeds of up to 60 cell lengths per second. The rotary motor at the base of the flagellum is similar in structure to ATP synthase.

The syncytium's cytoplasm, the soupy fluid that fills the interiors of cells, is organized into "rivers" that transport nuclei, organelles ("organs" within cells) and other substances. Instead of choanocytes, they have further syncytia, known as choanosyncytia, which form bell-shaped chambers where water enters via perforations. The insides of these chambers are lined with "collar bodies", each consisting of a collar and flagellum but without a nucleus of its own. The motion of the flagella sucks water through passages in the "cobweb" and expels it via the open ends of the bell-shaped chambers.

However, recent scientific papers have begun to describe Vampirococcus specifically with a single polar flagellum that allows it to interact with potential prey in its environment. Other recent articles have referred to Vampirococcus as part of a group of similar organisms known as BALOs (Bdellovibrio And Like Organisms) which are known to be very motile predatory microbes. It is difficult to find recent research specifically about Vampirococcus that elaborates on this topic, so the motility of this organism should be addressed with caution until further research clarifies the matter.

Many planktonic bacteria are motile, using a flagellum to propagate, and chemotax to locate, move toward, and attach to a point source of dissolved organic matter (DOM) where fast growing cells digest all or part of the particle. Accumulation within just a few minutes at such patches is directly observable. Therefore, the water column can be considered to some extent as a spatially organized place on a small scale rather than a completely mixed system. This patch formation affects the biologically-mediated transfer of matter and energy in the microbial loop.

As this genus containing species is part of the subphylum Alveolata and phylum Dinoflagellata, it has the defining characteristics of these groups. As in all alveolates, species in Durinskia have flattened vesicles known as alveoli under the plasma membrane. One of Durinskia’s shared characteristics with some dinoflagellates is the cellulose plates contained in alveoli forming the outer armor, theca. The other shared characteristics between Durinskia and dinoflagellates include the presence of condensed chromosomes in the large nucleus called the dinokaryon, and the two surface grooves that each bears one flagellum.

J. mar. biol. Ass. U.K. (1983) 135-160 The flagellum propels swimming cells through the water column and creates water currents through the microvilli, which trap foodstuff such as bacteria and detritus. The arrangement of organelles in Proterospongia appears consistent with other choanoflagellates and is characterized by an anterior dictyosome under the flagellar base, a central nucleus, peripheral mitochondria and a posterior food vacuole. As a member of the Codonosigidae family, Proterospongia have only a fine investment that is indistinct by light microscopy or completely lack an outer-covering.

Campylobacter is a helical-shaped, non-spore-forming, Gram-negative, microaerophilic, nonfermenting motile bacterium with a single flagellum at one or both poles, which are also oxidase-positive and grow optimally at 37 to 42 °C.Online Bacteriological Analytical Manual, Chapter 7: Campylobacter When exposed to atmospheric oxygen, C. jejuni is able to change into a coccal form. This species of pathogenic bacteria is one of the most common causes of human gastroenteritis in the world. Food poisoning caused by Campylobacter species can be severely debilitating, but is rarely life-threatening.

Gage A.T. and Stearn W.T. (1988) A Bicentenary History of the Linnean Society of London, Linnean Society of London, p. 110 The first female President of the society was Irene Manton (1973 to 1976), who pioneered the biological use of electron microscopy. Her work revealed the structure of the flagellum and cilia, which are central to many systems of cellular motility.Biography of Irene Manton sponsored by the Linnean Society, in The Linnean, Special Issue No. 5 (2004) Recent years have seen an increased interest within the society in issues of biodiversity conservation.

The acrosomal reaction usually takes place in the ampulla of the fallopian tube (site of fertilization) when the sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte. A few events precede the actual acrosome reaction. The sperm cell acquires a "hyperactive motility pattern" by which its flagellum produces vigorous whip- like movements that propel the sperm through the cervical canal and uterine cavity until it reaches the isthmus of the fallopian tube. The sperm approaches the ovum in the ampulla of the fallopian tube with the help of various mechanisms, including chemotaxis.

Correlation of swimming behaviour and flagellar rotation Some bacteria, such as E. coli, have several flagella per cell (4–10 typically). These can rotate in two ways: # Counter-clockwise rotation aligns the flagella into a single rotating bundle, causing the bacterium to swim in a straight line; and # Clockwise rotation breaks the flagella bundle apart such that each flagellum points in a different direction, causing the bacterium to tumble in place. The directions of rotation are given for an observer outside the cell looking down the flagella toward the cell.

He travelled and served for a time as a soldier, probably in the Dutch army. He then studied medicine abroad, and took the degree of M.D. at Padua. Back in England in 1623, he settled at Colchester, where he practised as a physician.:s:Bastwick, John (DNB00) He was a Latin stylist, and began a career as controversial with Latin works. In 1634 he published in the Netherlands two anti-Catholic Latin treatises: Elenchus Religionis Papisticae, an answer to a Catholic called Richard Short; and Flagellum Pontificis, an argument in favour of Presbyterianism.

Inside a cilium and a flagellum is a microtubule-based cytoskeleton called the axoneme. The axoneme of a primary cilium typically has a ring of nine outer microtubule doublets (called a 9+0 axoneme), and the axoneme of a motile cilium has two central microtubules in addition to the nine outer doublets (called a 9+2 axoneme). The axonemal cytoskeleton acts as a scaffolding for various protein complexes and provides binding sites for molecular motor proteins such as kinesin-2, that help carry proteins up and down the microtubules.

Karen Visick, Ph.D. is an American microbiologist and expert in bacterial genetics known for her work on the role of bacteria to form biofilm communities during animal colonization. She conducted doctoral research with geneticist Kelly Hughes at the University of Washington, where she identified a key regulatory checkpoint during construction of the bacterial flagellum. She conducted postdoctoral research on development of the Vibrio fischeri- Euprymna scolopes symbiosis with Ned Ruby at University of Southern California and University of Hawaii. The bacteria are bioluminescent and provide light to the host.

Two cleaner shrimp (Stenopus hispidus) using a giant barrel sponge as a cleaning station The giant barrel sponge is a filter feeder. Water is continually pumped into the sides of the sponge, through the sponge body, and out of the osculum at the top of the sponge. Small pores in the sponge body are connected to channels lined by collar cells, each with a flagellum, and the beating of these flagellae draws water through the channels. Incoming particles, particularly microscopic bacteria and prochlorophytes, are phagocytosed by the collar cells.

The Jews of Majorca, Minorca, and Ibiza always formed one congregation. The Christian propaganda, here as well as elsewhere, grew ever stronger. Endeavors were made to convert Jews, and a similar theological controversy to that which occurred in Aragon took place in 1286.Fr. Carben, "Flagellum Hebraicum," Venice, 1672 Somewhat later, priests forced themselves into the Jewish quarter; a tumult arose, representative Jews made complaint (1305), and the clergy were absolutely forbidden to enter the Jewish quarter or the homes of Jews unless accompanied by a bailiff or an official of the governor.

The longheaded eagle ray (Aetobatus flagellum) is a species of eagle ray in the family Myliobatidae. The longheaded eagle ray, like other members of the genus Aetobatus, is characteristically different from other genera of eagle rays, distinguished by their notched nasal curtain; complete, singular set of upper and lower teeth; and v-shaped teeth in the lower jaw. It is found in the tropical and warm temperate Indo-West Pacific. It formerly included populations in the northwest Pacific, but these were recognized as a separate species, Aetobatus narutobiei, in 2013.

Individual cilia, when part of a metachronal wave being used for protist locomotion, individually beat in a pattern similar to the planar stroke of a flagellum. The difference is that the recovery stroke is at 90 degrees to the power stroke, so that the cilia avoid hitting each other. Metachronal rhythms may be seen in the coordinated movements of the legs of millipedes and other multi-legged land invertebrates,Edward Aiello and Michael A Sleigh (1972) The metachronal wave of lateral cilia of Mytilus edulis. J. Cell Biol. 54:493-506.

The second and third segments are enlarged, and in males, on the underside of the second segment has a cleft, forming the secondary genitalia consist of lamina, hamule, genital lobe and penis. There are remarkable variations in the presence and the form of the penis and the related structures, the flagellum, cornua and genital lobes. Sperm is produced at the 9th segment and is transferred to the secondary genitalia prior to mating. The male holds the female behind the head using a pair of claspers on the terminal segment.

This became one of the foundations of persecution of heretics in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was translated into the French language in 1712. Castro second opus, De iusta hereticorum punitione libri III (Salamanca 1547), dedicated to emperor Charles V, made him renowned as "flagellum of heretics" (azote de herejes). With theological and juristic principles therein he tried to define the golden mean between Pharisaic damnation and craven sufferance of heresy, the form of reversal to "true faith", the punishment of obstinacy and the socio-religious causes of heresy.

Movement of the flagellum creates water currents that can propel free-swimming choanoflagellates through the water column and trap bacteria and detritus against the collar of microvilli, where these foodstuffs are engulfed. This feeding provides a critical link within the global carbon cycle, linking trophic levels. In addition to their critical ecological roles, choanoflagellates are of particular interest to evolutionary biologists studying the origins of multicellularity in animals. As the closest living relatives of animals, choanoflagellates serve as a useful model for reconstructions of the last unicellular ancestor of animals.

They are motile, using a single polar or subpolar monotrichous flagellum. They are commonly found singly or in short chains but it is not unusual for them to form long chains. Despite historically being described as Gram-negative, their cell walls contain derivatives of teichoic acid, and electron microscopy indicates that bacteria of this genus have a Gram-positive cell wall type.Beveridge, 1990 It is thought that they appear Gram-negative when Gram stained because their cell walls thin to 12 to 18 nm as they reach stationary phase.

L. clemsonensis was determined as a special lineage within the genus Legionella based on its phylogenetic analysis and physical appearance. It is a Gram-negative bacterium that is rod-shaped with one polar flagellum to help it move around. The strain can grow between 26 and 45 °C, forming biofilms that are similar to L. pneumophila Philadelphia 1. The strain D5610 of L. clemsonensis shows a distinctive temperature constraint compared to many of the Legionella species that do not grow under 26 °C and a restriction of temperatures above 45 °C .

Inside the bdelloplast, the singular large flagellum of the predatory Bdellovibrio is lost. The host cell is then rapidly killed allowing the passage of molecules from the interior of the host cytoplasm through to the periplasm freely, and the periplasm dwelling Bdellovibrio to feed. Using some of these molecules the Bdellovibrio creates a protective environment by reinforcing the peptidoglycan cell wall of the host in which it now dwells using amidases and transpeptidases. After around 4hrs, depending on ambient temperature, the Bdellovibrio has increased in size dramatically through this nourishment.

In fact, the composition of flagella is surprisingly diverse across bacteria with many proteins only found in some species but not others. Hence the flagellar apparatus is clearly very flexible in evolutionary terms and perfectly able to lose or gain protein components. Further studies have shown that, contrary to claims of "irreducible complexity", flagella and related protein transport mechanisms show evidence of evolution through Darwinian processes, providing case studies in how complex systems can evolve from simpler components. Multiple processes were involved in the evolution of the flagellum, including horizontal gene transfer.

Christ as Man of Sorrows between Four Angels, engraving by Master E. S., The instruments of the Passion. Left to right: the cross of the penitent thief Dismas, ladder, sponge on reed, hammer, angels, Cross of Christ, cock, star, pincers, ladder, spear, cross of the wicked thief Gestas, and two hyssop plants growing from the ground (église Saint-Pierre de Collonges-la-rouge). The instruments of the Passion (cont). Left to right: chalice, torch, lantern, sword, flagellum, pillar of flagellation, Veronica's veil, 30 pieces of silver, dice(?), reed sceptre, hand which struck Christ, torch, pitcher of gall and vinegar.

The eyes are small and oval shaped, located in the upper part of the head, which is four times as long as the eyes. The mandibles are nearly three-quarters the length of the head; P. wappleri differs from P. longiceps and P. janzeni due to the apex of the clypeal lobe being pointed instead of round, and the first segment of the flagellum is only half the length of the second segment. Before the discovery of P. wappleri, extinct Myrmeciinae ants were only found from Eocene deposits. This suggests that the subfamily was still present in Europe during the Late Oligocene.

Following a promoter-lacZ fusion assay of CsgD binding to specific target sites on E. coli's genome, two classes of binding targets were identified: group I genes and group II genes. The group I genes, akin to fliE and yhbT, exhibit repressed transcription following their interaction with CsgD, whilst group II genes, including yccT and adrA, illustrated active functionality. Other group I operons that illustrate repressed transcription include fliE and fliEFGH, for motile flagellum formation. Other group II genes, imperative to the transition towards stationary biofilm development, include csgBA, encoding for curli fimbriae, and adrA, encoding for the synthesis of cyclic diguanylate.

A. caldus is a short, rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacterium that possesses motility via a single polar flagellum located on its outer cell wall, which displays characteristics of a typical Gram-negative cell wall. It is about 1 by 1-2 μm in length and frequently is found in pairs. Different strains have been shown to vary in size when compared to one another. One of the smaller strains, BC13, has a diameter around 0.7 μm and is about 1.2 μm in length, whereas strain KU is a little longer, with a diameter of roughly 0.8 μm and a length around 1.8 μm.

A. thiooxidans is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium with rounded ends that occurs in nature either as singlecells, as is the most common case, or sometimes in pairs, but rarely in triplets. Its motility is due to a polar flagellum. It is an obligate acidophile with an optimal pH less than 4.0, but it also qualifies as an obligate aerobe and chemolithotroph. Described as a colorless, sulfur-oxidizing bacterium, A. thiooxidans does not accumulate sulfur either within or outside of its very small cells, which have an average size around 0.5 µm in diameter and 1 µm or less in length.

Published on Internet. This name comes from Latin scutica, flagellum, in reference to the long cylindrical leaves that the species of this genus show, similar to the leather whips used to punish. Strangely, because he published the genus Scuticaria many years earlier, in 1851, Lindley described another species now considered part of this genus, classifying it under Bifrenaria. It is speculated that possibly because it was found in Brazil on the same area in the southeast where most of Bifrenaria were common, or because he believed that two species separated by so long distance belonged to the same genus.

A key difference between the two structures is that in a eukaryotic organism such as humans, flagella are used to propel the cell, while cilia are used to move substances across a surface. An example of each would be the flagellum present on a sperm cell and the cilium on the epithelial tissue of the lungs that clears out foreign particles. Motile cilia and flagella possess the same 9+2 axoneme structure. The 9 indicates the number of doublets present around the outer edge of the appendage while the 2 refers to a central pair of independent microtubules.

Mutations that decrease the activity of ENaC result in multisystem pseudohypoaldosteronism, that is associated with fertility problems. In cystic fibrosis that results from mutations in the chloride channel CFTR, ENaC activity is enhanced leading to a severe reduction of the fluid level that causes complications and infections in the respiratory airways. Since the flagellum of human sperm is actually a modified cilium, ciliary dysfunction can also be responsible for male infertility. Of interest, there is an association of primary ciliary dyskinesia with left-right anatomic abnormalities such as situs inversus (a combination of findings known as Kartagener's syndrome) and other heterotaxic defects.

Sperm motility is dependent on several metabolic pathways and regulatory mechanisms. The axoneal bend movement is based on the active sliding of axonemal doublet microtubules by the molecular motor dynein, which is divided into an outer and an inner arm. Outer and inner arm plays different roles in the production and regulation of flagellar motility: the outer arm increase the beat frequency, the inner arm is involved in the propulsion and propagation of flagellar bending. The bending of the flagellum is due to subsequent cycles of dynein arm attachment, generation of force and detachment on the B subunit.

Vibrio coralliilyticus is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium. It has a polar flagellum that is used for motility and has been shown to be critical for its virulence to corals. It is a versatile pathogen, impacting several marine invertebrates including Pocillopora damicornis corals (hence its name), both the Pacific and Eastern Oyster’s larvae (Crassostrea gigas and Crassostrea virginica) and some vertebrates such as the Rainbow Trout. It is a bacterium of considerable interest given its direct contribution to temperature dependent coral bleaching as well as its impacts on aquaculture where it can contribute to significant mortalities in larval oyster hatcheries.

The phenotype of V. lentus is similar to that of Vibrio splendidus. It was first described as a new species by Macian, Ludwig, Aznar, Grimont, Schleifer, Garay and Pujalte, in 2001. Isolates of oysters and sea water were taken from the Mediterranean coast of Spain, and the analysis was done "by performing ribotyping and DNA–DNA hybridization, by analysing DNA+GC content and cultural and physiological features, and by phylogenetic studies of 16S and 23S rRNA". The cells are 1.5–3 μm long by 0.8–1.0 μm wide; they are motile with a single flagellum at one pole.

The ancestral opisthokont cell is assumed to have possessed slender filose (thread-like) projections or 'tentacles'. In some opisthokonts (Mesomycetozoa and Corallochytrium) these were lost. They are retained in Filozoa, where they are simple and non- tapering, with a rigid core of actin bundles (contrasting with the flexible, tapering and branched filopodia of nucleariids and the branched rhizoids and hyphae of fungi). In choanoflagellates and in the most primitive animals, namely sponges, they aggregate into a filter-feeding collar around the cilium or flagellum; this is thought to be an inheritance from their most recent common filozoan ancestor.

Initially, it was assumed that the observed zooids would grow into dinoflagellate cells, and there was much debate that sporangia did not arise from parasites. However, when very similar observations of the round bodies were made with plankton material also from the Swedish West Coast, led to further investigation (Norén et al. 1999). Through combined examination of light and electron microscopy alongside DNA sequencing of the emerging sporangia from the zooids displayed a relationship with Perkinsus. Differences of the ultrastructure of zooids arose in terms of the flagellum and were noted in contrast to dinoflagellates and apicomplexans.

Some research suggests that a unikont (a eukaryotic cell with a single flagellum) was the ancestor of opisthokonts (Animals, Fungi, and related forms) and Amoebozoa, and a bikont was the ancestor of Archaeplastida (Plants and relatives), Excavata, Rhizaria, and Chromalveolata. Cavalier-Smith has suggested that Apusozoa, which are typically considered incertae sedis, are in fact bikonts. Relationships within the bikonts are not yet clear. Cavalier- Smith has grouped the Excavata and Rhizaria into the Cabozoa and the Archaeplastida and Chromalveolata into the Corticata, but at least one other study has suggested that the Rhizaria and Chromalveolata form a clade.

Usually such organisms are planktonic (free-swimming) protists, and are nearly always viewed on microscope slides, where they appear essentially two-dimensional. In some cases a third axis can be defined, particularly where a non-terminal cytostome or other unique structure is present. Some elongated protists have distinctive ends of the body. In such organisms, the end with a mouth (or equivalent structure, such as the cytostome in Paramecium or Stentor), or the end that usually points in the direction of the organism's locomotion (such as the end with the flagellum in Euglena), is normally designated as the anterior end.

Choanocytes (also known as "collar cells") are cells that line the interior of asconoid, syconoid and leuconoid body types of sponges that contain a central flagellum, or cilium, surrounded by a collar of microvilli which are connected by a thin membrane. They make up the choanoderm, a type of cell layer found in sponges. The cell has the closest resemblance to the choanoflagellates which are the closest related single celled protists to the animal kingdom (metazoans). The flagellae beat regularly, creating a water flow across the microvilli which can then filter nutrients from the water taken from the collar of the sponge.

These include structural proteins of the NC, effectors and chaperones. The first structure of a needle-complex monomer was NMR structure of BsaL from "Burkholderia pseudomallei" and later the crystal structure of MixH from Shigella flexneri, which were both resolved in 2006. In 2012, a combination of recombinant wild-type needle production, solid-state NMR, electron microscopy and Rosetta modeling revealed the supramolecular interfaces and ultimately the complete atomic structure of the Salmonella typhimurium T3SS needle. It was shown that the 80-residue PrgI subunits form a right-handed helical assembly with roughly 11 subunits per two turns, similar to that of the flagellum of Salmonella typhimurium.

Rozella (Cryptomycota) is the earliest fungal genus in which chitin has been observed at least in some stages of their life cycle, although the chitinus cell wall (another fungal hallmark) and osmotrophy originated in a common ancestor of Blastocladiomycota and Chytridiomycota, which still contain some ancestral characteristics such as the flagellum in zoosporic stage. The groups of fungi with the characteristic hyphal growth, Zoopagomycota, Mucuromycotina and Dikarya, originated from a common ancestor ~700 Mya. Zoopagomycota are mostly pathogens of animals or other fungi, Mucuromycotina is a more diverse group including parasites, saprotrophs or ectomycorrhizal. Dikarya is the group embracing Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, which comprise ~98% of the described fungal species.

On microscopic examination, trypomastigotes have a slender body, often in the shape of an S or U, with a flagellum connected to the body by an undulating membrane. Alternatively, T. cruzi DNA can be detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In acute and congenital Chagas disease, PCR is more sensitive than microscopy, and it is more reliable than antibody-based tests for the diagnosis of congenital disease because it is not affected by transfer of antibodies against from a mother to her baby (passive immunity). PCR is also used to monitor levels in organ transplant recipients and immunosuppressed people, which allows infection or reactivation to be detected at an early stage.

The morphology of the elongated snout's jaws and dentition presents a number of unique characteristics suited to the specialisation as a palynivore and nectivore. Tarsipes tongue is extensible and the end covered in brush-like papillae, with the redundant action of the modified or reduced teeth being replaced by the interaction of the tongue, keel-like lower incisors and a fine combing surface at the palate. The testes are very large in size, noted as proportionally the greatest for a mammal at 4.6 percent of the body weight. The sperm also has an exceptional length; its tail (flagellum) measurement of 360 micrometres also cited as the longest known.

S. enterica, through some of its serotypes such as Typhimurium and Enteriditis, shows signs of the ability to infect several different mammalian host species, while other serotypes such as Typhi seem to be restricted to only a few hosts. Some of the ways that Salmonella serotypes have adapted to their hosts include loss of genetic material and mutation. In more complex mammalian species, immune systems, which include pathogen specific immune responses, target serovars of Salmonella through binding of antibodies to structures such as flagella. Through the loss of the genetic material that codes for a flagellum to form, Salmonella can evade a host's immune system.

Except in a few (typically subterranean) species, one simply constructed eye (ocellus) lies behind each antenna, laterally, just underneath the head. This consists of a chitinous ball lens, a cornea and a retina and is connected to the centre of the brain via an optic nerve. The retina comprises numerous pigment cells and photoreceptors; the latter are easily modified flagellated cells, whose flagellum membranes carry a photosensitive pigment on their surface. The rhabdomeric eyes of the Onychophora are thought to be homologous with the median ocelli of arthropods; this would suggest that the last common ancestor of arthropods may have only had median ocelli.

Difference of beating pattern of flagellum and cilium The regular beat patterns of eukaryotic cilia and flagella generate motion on a cellular level. Examples range from the propulsion of single cells such as the swimming of spermatozoa to the transport of fluid along a stationary layer of cells such as in the respiratory tract. Though eukaryotic flagella and motile cilia are ultrastructurally identical, the beating pattern of the two organelles can be different. In the case of flagella, the motion is often planar and wave-like, whereas the motile cilia often perform a more complicated three-dimensional motion with a power and recovery stroke.

The clade Flagellicaudata was erected by Harris and Dodson (2004) for the diplodocoid clade formed by Dicraeosauridae and Diplodocidae in their paper describing a new genus of sauropod dinosaur, Suuwassea. The authors carried out a phylogenetic analysis and noted that Suuwassea, although more derived than Rebbachisauridae, is in a trichotomy with other families belonging to Diplodocoidea (Diplodocidae and Dicraeosauridae). Flagellicaudata was defined as a node-based clade consisting of the most recent common ancestor of Dicraeosaurus and Diplodocus and all of its descendants. The word "Flagellicaudata" refers to long, whip-like tails of that animals (flagellum is a Latin word meaning "whip" and cauda means in Latin "tail").

The outer scale layer is made of small-round scales which are mainly used to overlap bare membrane not covered by the inner scales. The inner scales are larger than the outer scales, and usually resemble a pentagon or square in shape. See figure 1 for a generalized drawing of flagellar scales. The flagellar hairs have a distinct sequence of structural components, the proximal filament connects the flagellum and cell surface, this is followed by the tubular shaft, then the transition zone in which the shaft is modified, followed by a stretch of linear globular subunits, and the hair ends with a distal filament.

Diagram of a human sperm cell Sperm is the male reproductive cell, or gamete, in anisogamous forms of sexual reproduction (forms in which there is a larger, "female" reproductive cell and a smaller, "male" one). Animals produce motile sperm with a tail known as a flagellum, which are known as spermatozoa, while some red algae and fungi produce non-motile sperm cells, known as spermatia. Flowering plants contain non-motile sperm inside pollen, while some more basal plants like ferns and some gymnosperms have motile sperm. Sperm cells form during the process known as spermatogenesis, which in amniotes (reptiles and mammals) takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.

Palaemonella burnsi is a species of shrimp in the family Palaemonidae, from Maui, Hawaii. This species is closest to Palaemonella lata, which it resembles in the broad scaphocerite in which the lamella overreaches the final tooth, and in the unarmed merus of the second pereiopods. It differs from P. lata in the much longer fused part of the two branches of the upper antennular flagellum, in the relatively much longer fingers and shorter palm of the second legs, in the unarmed carpus of the second legs. It is named after John A. Burns, Governor of Hawaii, for declaring the Ahiki Kinau area a nature reserve.

Probably his second most popular character from the pulps was "The Black Star", a criminal mastermind who is pursued by Roger Verbeck-Flagellum and Muggs, a millionaire bachelor and his ex-thug partner. Black Star first appeared in the Street & Smith pulp Detective Story Magazine on 5 March 1916. Black Star was what was once termed a "gentleman criminal", in that he does not commit murder, nor does he permit any of his gang to kill anyone, not even the police or his arch enemy Roger Verbeck. He does not threaten women, always keeps his word, and is invariably courteous, nor does he deal with narcotics in any of his stories.

Chytrids and their close relatives Neocallimastigomycota and Blastocladiomycota (below) are the only fungi with active motility, producing zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum, leading early taxonomists to classify them as protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred from rRNA sequences in ribosomes, suggest that the Chytrids are a basal group divergent from the other fungal phyla, consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly. The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Recent molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota).

Species in the genus Tetraspora contain two pseduoflagella as a part of the pseudociliary apparatus, two cup-shaped chloroplasts with chlorophyll A and B pigments, a single pyrenoid and contractile vacuoles located inside the cytoplasm. Additionally, starch grains can be seen covering the pyrenoid and the walls of the cells are noted to be thin. Tetraspora species do not possess a flagellum of the 9+2 microtubular fibre configuration, instead they have pseudoflagellum with a 9+0 fibre confirmation; where the central two tubular fibres are absent. There are two pseduoflagelulla that exist in a pair and both protrude from the anterior region of the cell and into the gelatinous matrix.

The Rickettsiales are widely believed to be the closest relatives to mitochondria. Based on the fact that the Midichlorian genes for the flagellum and for the cbb3 cytochrome oxidase were proven to be ancestral, the genes were inferred to have been present in the bacterium that established the symbiosis with the ancestor of the eukaryotic cell, which became the mitochondrion. Hence, sequencing the genome of M. mitochondrii allowed an improved reconstruction of the mitochondrion's hypothetical free-living ancestor: It was a motile bacterium able to survive in microaerophilic conditions. Both these characteristics may have played an important role in the beginning of the symbiosis between the eukaryotic cell and the mitochondrion.

No single effector protein has been found to significantly alter pathogenicity of R. solanacearum, but simultaneous disruption of certain subsets of effectors (such as the set of seven GALA effectors in strain GMI1000) strongly affects virulence of the pathogen. GALA 7 is necessary for virulence on Medicago truncatula, hinting that T3E diversity may play a role in determining the broad host range of the R. solanacearum species complex. The type III secretion system is not unique to R. solanacearum, and is, in fact, very ancient. The evolutionary history of the T3SS is contested; a high degree of similarity to the flagellum has sparked debate over the relationship between these two structures.

The Wessex Institute of Technology previously organised a conference on design and nature, whilst WIT Press publishes the International Journal of Design & Nature and Ecodynamics, which has attracted attention for the subject matter of some of the papers presented and published. Contributions to its 2004 International conference programme included a joint paper by Scott A. Minnich and Stephen C. Meyer reiterating claims disputing evolution of the bacterial flagellum. The paper was cited in the landmark Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District legal case, being the first direct challenge brought in the United States federal courts testing a public school district policy that required the teaching of intelligent design.

Kinetoplastida (or Kinetoplastea, as a class) is a group of flagellated protists belonging to the phylum Euglenozoa, and characterised by the presence of an organelle with a large massed DNA called kinetoplast (hence the name). The organisms are commonly referred to as "kinetoplastids" or "kinetoplasts" The group includes a number of parasites responsible for serious diseases in humans and other animals, as well as various forms found in soil and aquatic environments. Their distinguishing feature, the presence of a kinetoplast, is an unusual DNA-containing granule located within the single mitochondrion associated with the base of the cell's flagellum (the basal body). The kinetoplast contains many copies of the mitochondrial genome.

In cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit, usually within a cell, that has a specific function. The name organelle comes from the idea that these structures are parts of cells, as organs are to the body, hence organelle, the suffix -elle being a diminutive. Organelles are either separately enclosed within their own lipid bilayers (also called membrane- bound organelles) or are spatially distinct functional units without a surrounding lipid bilayer (non-membrane bound organelles). Although most organelles are functional units within cells, some functional units that extend outside of cells are often termed organelles, such as cilia, the flagellum and archaellum, and the trichocyst.

Peranema, as drawn by William Saville-Kent in 1880 When Dujardin created the genus Peranema in 1841, he was unable to detect the second flagellum and classified it with other ostensibly uniflagellate "Eugléniens," Astasia and Euglena. In 1881 Georg Klebs drew a taxonomical distinction between colorless uniflagellates that live by phagotrophy (Peranema and Astasia) and the green uniflagellates that photosynthesize (Euglena). This distinction was generally abandoned after the publication, in 1952, of a major revision of the Euglenoids. In 1997, a combined morphological and molecular analysis of certain Euglenoids identified Peranama trichophorum, Euglena gracilis and Khawkinea quartana as a distinct monophyletic lineage, with P. trichophorum basal to the other two species.

One of the first characteristics discovered to separate Torodinium from the genus Gymnodinium was the marked torsion of the sulcus. Rather than forming a relatively symmetrical band down the anterior-posterior axis of the cell, the sulcus appears to twist approximately half a turn at the cell’s apical end in Torodinium, while remaining straight at the antapical end; no such turn exists in Gymnodinium. Equally important in the establishment of Torodinium as a genus is the posterior cingulum, from which extends the longitudinal flagellum. Contrary to that of Gymnodinium, the flagellar pore, typically anterior, is located very posteriorly in Torodinium, the cingulum extending almost to the antapex.

SipA is a gene that has been found to aid in the coding for the production of murin (peptidoglycan) within the bacteria. The purpose of transcription is to copy DNA into a mRNA, which is used to create proteins. The promoter is used during transcription to identify the appropriate location to begin transcribing. Within probiotics it is actually the S-layer that attaches to the cellular wall of the gastrointestinal tract Hyönen, U., Westerlund-Wikström, B., Palva, A. and Korhonen, T.K. (2002) Identification by flagellum display of an epithelial cell- and fibronectin- binding function in the SipA surface protein of Lactobacillus brevis. Infect. Immun.

In these species, sperm with longer flagella, despite their ability to swim faster do not increase fertilization success because they require more energy and cause a shorter sperm lifespan. In the superb fairywren, a socially monogamous species with a high frequency of extra pair copulations, the relative amount of extra-pair paternity was greater in individuals that had sperm with a shorter flagellum and a larger head. The males with longer flagella and smaller heads had higher within-pair paternity. Shorter sperm with large heads are more able to withstand long durations of storage whereas the opposite phenotype was better at outcompeting previously stored sperm.

The ATP binding site is the environment in which ATP catalytically actives the enzyme and, as a result, is hydrolyzed to ADP. The binding of ATP causes a conformational change to the enzyme it is interacting with. The genetic and functional similarity of such a motif demonstrates micro-evolution: proteins have co-opted the same binding sequence from other enzymes rather than developing them independently. ATP binding sites, which may be representative of an ATP binding motif, are present in many proteins which require an input of energy (from ATP), such sites as active membrane transporters, microtubule subunits, flagellum proteins, and various hydrolytic and proteolytic enzymes.

The abdomen is segmented, like that of a mesothele spider. However, unlike spiders, there are several short cylindrical segments at the back from which a long segmented tail (or flagellum) emerges. The abdomen also bears spinnerets on the underside, and these are especially interesting given that it was widely assumed that spiders should initially have had four pairs in the middle of the underside as in modern mesothele spiders. By contrast, Chimerarachne has two pairs of quite well developed spinnerets towards the back of the abdomen which are similar in shape to those of mesotheles and which are probably equivalent to the anterior lateral spinnerets (ALS) and posterior lateral spinnerets (PLS) of modern spiders.

Swarming cells are only formed when the bacteria are grown on solid surfaces so the ability to detect these solid surfaces is a required feature. It has been proposed that Proteus mirabilis senses a solid surface by the inhibition of its’ flagellum rotation, and it is this lack of freely rotating flagella that let the bacteria know it is on a solid surface. When Proteus mirabilis encounters a solid surface, and other necessary conditions have been met, the cell will undergo the differentiation process into a swarmer cell. This differentiation process includes the elongation of the cell 20 to 50 times longer than the vegetative cell, multinucleation, and more than a 50-fold greater surface density of flagella.

Flagellation (Latin flagellum, "whip"), flogging, whipping or lashing is the act of beating the human body with special implements such as whips, lashes, rods, switches, the cat o' nine tails, the sjambok, the knout, etc. Typically, flogging is imposed on an unwilling subject as a punishment; however, it can also be submitted to willingly, or performed on oneself, in religious or sadomasochistic contexts. The strokes are usually aimed at the unclothed back of a person, in certain settings it can be extended to other corporeal areas. For a moderated subform of flagellation, described as bastinado, the soles of a person's bare feet are used as a target for beating (see foot whipping).

Such a device could easily cause disfigurement and serious trauma, such as ripping pieces of flesh from the body or loss of an eye. In addition to causing severe pain, the victim would approach a state of hypovolemic shock due to loss of blood. The Romans reserved this treatment for non-citizens, as stated in the lex Porcia and lex Sempronia, dating from 195 and 123 BC. The poet Horace refers to the horribile flagellum (horrible whip) in his Satires. Typically, the one to be punished was stripped naked and bound to a low pillar so that he could bend over it, or chained to an upright pillar so as to be stretched out.

Natural selection therefore explains why wheels are an unlikely solution to the problem of locomotion: a partially evolved wheel, missing one or more key components, would probably not impart an advantage to an organism. The exception to this is the flagellum, the only known example of a freely rotating propulsive system in biology; in the evolution of flagella, individual components were recruited from older structures, where they performed tasks unrelated to propulsion. The basal body that is now the rotary motor, for instance, might have evolved from a structure used by the bacterium to inject toxins into other cells. This recruitment of previously evolved structures to serve new functions is called exaptation.

The body of Angomonas deanei is elliptical in shape, with a prominent tail-like flagellum at its posterior end for locomotion. The bacterial endosymbiont is inside its body and is surrounded by two membranes typical of Gram-negative bacteria, but its cell membrane presents unusual features, such as the presence of phosphatidylcholine, a major membrane lipid (atypical of bacterial membranes), and the highly reduced peptidoglycan layer, which shows reduced or absence of rigid cell wall. The cell membrane of the protozoan host contains an 18-domain β-barrel porin, which is a characteristic protein of Gram- negative bacteria. In addition it contains cardiolipin and phosphatidylcholine as the major phospholipids, while sterols are absent.

The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some (Ma); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis. Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542–251Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum- bearing spores. The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism, saprobism, and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization.

Cell scheme. 1-haptonema, 2-flagella, 3-mitochondrion, 4-Golgi apparatus, 5-nucleus, 6-scales, 7-chrysolaminarin vacuole, 8-plastid, 9-ribosomes, 10-stigma, 11-endoplasmic reticulum, 12-chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum, 13-pyrenoid, 14-thylakoids. The chloroplasts are pigmented similarly to those of the heterokonts, but the structure of the rest of the cell is different, so it may be that they are a separate line whose chloroplasts are derived from similar red algal endosymbionts. The cells typically have two slightly unequal flagella, both of which are smooth, and a unique organelle called a haptonema, which is superficially similar to a flagellum but differs in the arrangement of microtubules and in its use.

The first electron crystallographic protein structure to achieve atomic resolution was bacteriorhodopsin, determined by Richard Henderson and coworkers at the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology in 1990. However, already in 1975 Unwin and Henderson had determined the first membrane protein structure at intermediate resolution (7 Ångström), showing for the first time the internal structure of a membrane protein, with its alpha-helices standing perpendicular to the plane of the membrane. Since then, several other high-resolution structures have been determined by electron crystallography, including the light-harvesting complex, the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, and the bacterial flagellum. The highest resolution protein structure solved by electron crystallography of 2D crystals is that of the water channel aquaporin-0.

These special cells, called teratocytes, grow to become giant cells visible to the naked eye. The teratocytes secrete hormones which work in tandem with the virus and the wasp venom to arrest the development of the host. Following hatching in the caterpillar, the wasp larvae will undergo 2 molts inside the host caterpillar’s hemocoel and, after 12 to 16 days post oviposition, the 3rd instar wasp larvae will emerge from the caterpillar and spin cocoons from which the adult wasps fly about 4 to 8 days later. This insect has the shortest flagellated spermatozoa in animals, being 6.6 µm long (nucleus and flagellum), 8800 times shorter than the longest ones (Drosophila bifurca).

Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), is a rare, ciliopathic, autosomal recessive genetic disorder that causes defects in the action of cilia lining the respiratory tract (lower and upper, sinuses, Eustachian tube, middle ear), fallopian tube, and flagellum of sperm cells. The phrase "immotile ciliary syndrome" is no longer favored as the cilia do have movement, but are merely inefficient or unsynchronized. Respiratory epithelial motile cilia, which resemble microscopic "hairs" (although structurally and biologically unrelated to hair), are complex organelles that beat synchronously in the respiratory tract, moving mucus toward the throat. Normally, cilia beat 7 to 22 times per second, and any impairment can result in poor mucociliary clearance, with subsequent upper and lower respiratory infection.

A popular religious depiction of Saint Rita during her partial Stigmata. The artist depicts her dressed in a black Augustinian habit, which is historically inaccurate as she would have worn the brown robe and white veil of the Monastery of Saint Mary Magdalene from the 13th century. Various religious symbols are related to Rita. She is depicted holding a thorn (a symbol of her penance and stigmata), holding a large Crucifix, holding a Palm leaf with three crowns (representing her two sons and husband), flanked by two small children (her sons), holding a Gospel book, holding a skull (a symbol of mortality) and holding a flagellum whip (a symbol of her mortification of the flesh).

The flagella of certain bacteria constitute a molecular motor requiring the interaction of about 40 different protein parts. Behe presents this as a prime example of an irreducibly complex structure defined as "a single system composed of several well-matched, interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning", and argues that since "an irreducibly complex system that is missing a part is by definition nonfunctional", it could not have evolved gradually through natural selection. Reducible complexity. In contrast to Behe's claims, many proteins can be deleted or mutated and the flagellum still works, even though sometimes at reduced efficiency.

It appears (based on molecular genetics) that the members of Amoebozoa form a sister group to animals and fungi, diverging from this lineage after it had split from the other groups, as illustrated below in a simplified diagram: Strong similarities between Amoebozoa and Opisthokonts lead to the hypothesis that they form a distinct clade. Thomas Cavalier-Smith proposed the name "unikonts" (formally, Unikonta) for this branch, whose members were believed to have been descended from a common ancestor possessing a single emergent flagellum rooted in one basal body.[1][2] However, while the close relationship between Amoebozoa and Opisthokonta is robustly supported, recent work has shown that the hypothesis of a uniciliate ancestor is probably false. In their Revised Classification of Eukaryotes (2012), Adl et al.

While the bacterial flagellum is hollow, which allows flagellin monomers to travel through its interior to the tip of the growing filament, the archaellum filament is thinner, precluding the passage of archaellin monomers. This evidence suggested that the mechanism of assembly of the archaellum is more similar to the assembly mechanism observed in type IV pili (in which the monomers assemble at the bottom of the growing filament) than the assembly mechanism of flagella via a type III secretion system. The similarities between archaella and T4P became more obvious with the identification of two archaella motor complex proteins that have homologues in T4P and type IV and II secretion systems. Specifically, ArlJ and ArlI are homologous to PilC and PilB/PilT, respectively.

It is also possible to isolate these polar organelles from the bacterial cells and study them in face view in negatively stained preparations. The polar organelle bears a fine array of attached particles in hexagonal close packing and these have been shown to possess ATPase activity. The polar organelle is found in close juxtaposition to the points of insertion of the bacterial flagella into the plasma membrane, especially where multiple flagella bases are grouped in a region of the cell membrane. It may thus be inferred that the polar organelle could be of importance in the supply and transfer of energy to the bidirectional molecular rotational motor situated at the base of each individual bacterial flagellum (see also electrochemical gradient).

The Central Valley was once home to large populations of pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana), elk including the endemic tule elk subspecies (Cervus elaphus nannodes), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), California ground squirrels, gophers, mice, hare, rabbits and kangaroo rats, along with their predators including the San Joaquin kit fox, which is now an endangered subspecies surviving on the hillsides of the San Joaquin Valley. The wetlands of the Valley were an important habitat for wintering waterbirds and migrating birds of other kinds. Reptiles and amphibians of the valley include the endemic San Joaquin coachwhip snake (Masticophis flagellum ruddocki), blunt-nosed leopard lizard (Gambelia sila), Gilbert's skink (Eumeces gilberti) and the western aquatic garter snake (Thamnophis couchii). There are also a number of endemic invertebrates.

Behe next introduces and defines the concept of irreducible complexity as a system with a series of parts in which the removal of any part causes the entire system to cease functioning, offering a spring-loaded bar mousetrap as a familiar example. In the following chapters, Behe discusses the apparent irreducible complexity of several biological systems, including the cilium, the bacterial flagellum, blood clotting, the immune system, and vesicular transport. Behe claims the underlying complexity and biochemical mechanisms of the systems are vastly under-appreciated, and identifies other, similar systems. Behe identifies one of the primary counter-arguments of irreducible complexity, gradual adaptation—that certain systems may have been co-opted from an original, unrelated role to assume a new function as an irreducibly complex system.

Spirillum bacteria have helical bodies with flagella at either end, and they spin about the central axis of their bodies as they move through the water. Archaea, a group of prokaryotes separate from bacteria, also feature flagella – known as archaella – driven by rotary motor proteins, which are structurally and evolutionarily distinct from bacterial flagella: whereas bacterial flagella evolved from the bacterial Type III secretion system, archaella appear to have evolved from type IV pili. Some eukaryotic cells, such as the protist Euglena and animal sperm, possess a convergent, evolutionary distinct flagellum-like structure known as a cilium or undulipodium. Unlike bacterial flagella, these structures do not rotate at the base; rather, they bend in such a way that the tip whips in a circle.

Species of hydroid are sometimes found growing on the mollusc shells occupied by hermit crabs. In one such case, a colony of Schuchertinia milleri was found on the shell occupied by the whiteknee hermit crab Pagurus dalli (which is more usually overgrown by a species of sponge). The association seems to be symbiotic, with the crab benefitting from the protection provided by the hydroid with its stinging cells, and with the hydroid benefitting avoiding being buried in the sediment, and by being transported to new feeding locations. The crab has been observed, when "wearing" other species of hydroid, to wipe the flagellum of its second antenna across the surface of the hydroid colony, in order to gather larger planktonic prey items from its epibiont.

Ion channels in sperm physiology. Physiol. Rev 79, 481-510 The change in cell volume which alters intracellular ion concentration can also contribute to the activation of sperm motility. In some mammals, sperm motility is activated by increase in pH, calcium ion and cAMP, yet it is suppressed by low pH in the epididymis. The tail of the sperm - the flagellum - confers motility upon the sperm, and has three principal components: # a central skeleton constructed of 11 microtubules collectively termed the axoneme and similar to the equivalent structure found in cilia # a thin cell membrane covering the axoneme # mitochondria arranged spirally around it the axoneme, Back and forth movement of the tail results from a rhythmical longitudinal sliding motion between the anterior and posterior tubules that make up the axoneme.

Dreck- Apotheke He made extensive reference and resorted to both ancient and contemporary medical authorities and to folk medicine (sailors, farmers, common people). His works reflected a deep learning based on the four temperaments theory and the outcome of a lengthy process of compiling the data obtained from his observation. Amongst his essential works, there was a textbook on how to use human and animal excrement to cure internal or external diseases (Heilsame Dreck-Apotheke: wie nemlich mit Koth und Urin die meisten Krankheiten und Schäden glucklich geheilet worden), such as fecal bacteriotherapy. He wrote a treatise (Flagellum salutis) on the advantage of the whip for curative purpose in various disorders and a handbook on the toad's therapeutic properties (Bufo juxta methodum et leges illustris Academiae Naturae curiosorum breviter descriptus).

The first investigation of sperm flagellar morphology was begun in 1888, by German cytologist Ballowitz, who observed using light microscopy and mordant stains that a rooster sperm flagellum could be splayed into as many as 11, longitudinal fibrils. About 60 years later, Grigg and Hodge in 1949 and a year later Manton and Clarke observed these 11 fibers in splayed flagella by electron microscopy (EM) ; these investigators proposed that two thinner fibers were surrounded by nine thicker outer fibers. In 1952, using advancements in fixation, embedding, and ultramicrotomy, Fawcett and Porter proved by EM thin sections that the core of epithelial cilia within the ciliary membrane consisted of nine doublet microtubules surrounding two central, singlet microtubules (i.e., the “central pair microtubule apparatus”), and hence the term, the “9 + 2” axonema.

Methylations are epigenetic modification that, in eukaryotes, regulates processes as cell differentiation, and embryogenesis, while in prokaryotes can have a role in self recognition, protecting the DNA from being cleaved by the restriction endonuclease system, or for gene regulation. The first function is controlled by the restriction methylation system while the second by Orphan MTases as Dam and CcrM. CcrM role have been characterized in the marine model organism Caulobacter crescentus, which is suitable for the study of cell cycle and epigenetics as it asymmetrically divides generating different progeny, a stalked and a swarmer cell, with different phenotypes and gene regulation. The swarmer cell has a single flagellum and polar pili and is characterized by its mobility, while the stacked cell has a stalk and is fixed to the substrate.

In November 1675, King entered a claim for parliamentary wages of £238 6s. because he claimed his "own private affairs were neglected" while he had to live in London and Westminster for constant attendance in Parliament. He was satirized for his penury and subservience in "The Chequer Inn", a poem written in connection with the impeachment of Danby who was making financial gains from his position as MP.A New collection of poems relating to state affairs, from Oliver Cromwel to this present time: 1705 He was described in "Flagellum Parliamentarium", a satire attributed to Andrew Marvell, as "a poor beggarly fellow who sold his vote to the treasurer for £50 bribe" while in "A Seasonable Argument" he was called "a pensioner for £50 a session, etc., meat and drink, and now and then a suit of clothes".

Supporters of intelligent design argue that anything less than the complete form of such a system or organ would not work at all, or would in fact be a detriment to the organism, and would therefore never survive the process of natural selection. Although they accept that some complex systems and organs can be explained by evolution, they claim that organs and biological features which are irreducibly complex cannot be explained by current models, and that an intelligent designer must have created life or guided its evolution. Accordingly, the debate on irreducible complexity concerns two questions: whether irreducible complexity can be found in nature, and what significance it would have if it did exist in nature. Behe's original examples of irreducibly complex mechanisms included the bacterial flagellum of E. coli, the blood clotting cascade, cilia, and the adaptive immune system.

Because the flagellar motor has no on-off switch, the protein epsE is used as a mechanical clutch to disengage the motor from the rotor, thus stopping the flagellum and allowing the bacterium to remain in one place. The cylindrical shape of flagella is suited to locomotion of microscopic organisms; these organisms operate at a low Reynolds number, where the viscosity of the surrounding water is much more important than its mass or inertia. The rotational speed of flagella varies in response to the intensity of the proton motive force, thereby permitting certain forms of speed control, and also permitting some types of bacteria to attain remarkable speeds in proportion to their size; some achieve roughly 60 cell lengths per second. At such a speed, a bacterium would take about 245 days to cover 1 km; although that may seem slow, the perspective changes when the concept of scale is introduced.

He examines the genetic changes undergone by the malaria plasmodium genome and the human genome in response to each other's biological defenses, and identifies that "the situation resembles trench warfare, not an arms race". He contrasts this hemoglobin-destroying, protein pump-compromising "war by attrition" with the "creative process" required to develop complex structures such as the bacterial flagellum as well as stupendously complex systems such as the immune system. Behe calculates the "edge of evolution" - the point at which Darwinian evolution is no longer an efficacious agent of creative biological change - by taking into account the number of mutations required to "travel" from one genetic state to another, as well as population size for the organism in question. He concludes that purposeful design plays a major role in the development of biological complexity, through the mechanism of producing "non-random mutations", which are then subjected to the sculpting hand of natural selection.

LIII.a. Genus Achaearanea Strand, 1929 # Achaearanea budana Tikader, 1970 Comments: Endemic to India # Achaearanea diglipuriensis Tikader, 1977 Comments: Endemic to Andaman & Nicobar Islands # Achaearanea durgae Tikader, 1970 Comments: Endemic to India # Achaearanea mundula (L. Koch, 1872) Distribution: India to New Caledonia # Achaearanea triangularis Patel nom. nov. 2003 Comments: Endemic to India LIII.b. Genus Argyrodes Simon, 1864 # Argyrodes ambalikae Tikader, 1970 Comments: Endemic to India # Argyrodes andamanensis Tikader, 1977 Comments: Endemic to Andaman & Nicobar Islands # Argyrodes chiriatapuensis Tikader, 1977 Comments: Endemic to Andaman & Nicobar Islands # Argyrodes cyrtophorae Tikader, 1963 Synonym: Argyrodes cyrtophore Tikader, 1963 Comments: Endemic to India # Argyrodes dipali Tikader, 1963 Comments: Endemic to India # Argyrodes fissifrons O.P.-Cambridge, 1869 Distribution: India, Sri Lanka to China, Australia # a. A. fissifrons terressae Thorell, 1891 Comments: Endemic to Andaman & Nicobar Islands # Argyrodes flagellum (Doleschall, 1857) Distribution: India, Pakistan, Singapore, Australia # Argyrodes gazedes Tikader, 1970 Comments: Endemic to India # Argyrodes gazingensis Tikader, 1970 Comments: Endemic to India # Argyrodes gouri Tikader, 1963 Comments: Endemic to India # Argyrodes jamkhedes Tikader, 1963 Comments: Endemic to India # Argyrodes projeles Tikader, 1970 Comments: Endemic to India # Argyrodes scintillulanus O. P.-Cambridge, 1880 Distribution: India, Sri Lanka Comments: Endemic to South Asia LIII.c.