825 Sentences With "flagella" | Random Sentence Generator

The idea is to synthetically enhance microbes into super-miners with special metal-binding flagella.

FLAGELLA was somewhere in my distant memory; DOPER, FACEPALM and JAPE were the resident oddballs today.

New research shows how bacteria use their flagella to run and tumble their way through a gooey medium.

"We discovered a mutation in a gene critical for growing flagella, which may be the reason for this," Dorman said.

The bacteria aren't used for their flagella, although the tiny tentacles do help the bots stay afloat in the liquid substrate.

These single-celled, free-roaming predators feature two rows of hair-like flagella, which they use for locomotion and grasping onto prey.

Imagine a tiny, tiny robotic system covered over by even tinier biomolecular arms (flagella) working cooperatively as a "bacterial surface" to move the biobot from place to place, and then, just as importantly, imagine an algorithm that can steer the thing.

Living bacteria make a good compromise, said Julien Tailleur, a physicist at the National Center for Scientific Research and Paris Diderot University in France: They take in energy by consuming food, and they move on their own using flagella or other means, attributes that give them the essential hallmarks of active matter.

However, prokaryotic flagella are entirely different in structure from eukaryotic flagella and do not contain microtubule-based structures.

Flagella are organelles defined by function rather than structure. Flagella vary greatly. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella can be used for swimming but they differ greatly in protein composition, structure, and mechanism of propulsion. The word flagellum in Latin means whip.

Trimastix cells are oblong broad anteriorly and taper posteriorly. Trimastix is 20 µm long and 8 µm wide. A kinetid of four flagella is located on the anterior end of the cell with one flagella anteriorly oriented, two flagella posteriorly oriented, and the fourth flagella sitting within an oral groove on the ventral side.O’Kelly, C. J., Farmer, M. A., & Nerad, T. A. (1999).

The flagella are brownish, with no bands of colour. P. longipes bispinosus has paler antennules, and the flagella have four white bands across them.

Flagella are supported by microtubules in a characteristic arrangement, with nine fused pairs surrounding two central singlets. These arise from a basal body. In some flagellates, flagella direct food into a cytostome or mouth, where food is ingested. Flagella often support hairs, called mastigonemes, or contain rods.

The two types of flagella evolved from different ancestors. The bacterial flagellum shares a common ancestor with the type III secretion system, while archaeal flagella appear to have evolved from bacterial type IV pili. In contrast with the bacterial flagellum, which is hollow and assembled by subunits moving up the central pore to the tip of the flagella, archaeal flagella are synthesized by adding subunits at the base.

The similarities between bacterial flagella and bacterial secretory system structures and proteins provide scientific evidence supporting the theory that bacterial flagella evolved from the type-three secretion system.

A bikont ("two flagella") is any of the eukaryotic organisms classified in the group Bikonta. Many single-celled members of the group, and the presumed ancestor, have two flagella.

Flagellates can be distinguished by their flagella, which is their means of movement. Some have several flagella, while other species only have one that resembles a long branch or appendage.

Zoospores contain an eyespot and two flagella. Only the anterior flagellum is covered with mastigonemes and the posterior flagellum propels the cell through the ectoplasmic net. Both flagella are inserted laterally and medially. After about 24 hours, the zoospores lose their flagella and round up to finally differentiate into vegetative spindle cells.

Biologists such as Margulis strongly advocate the use of the name, because of the apparent structural and functional differences between the cilia and flagella of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They argue that the name flagella should be restricted only to prokaryotic organelles, such as bacterial flagella and spirochaete axial filaments. However, the term is not generally endorsed by most biologists because it is argued that the original purpose of the name does not sufficiently differentiate the cilia and flagella of eukaryotic from those of prokaryotic cells. For example, the early concept was the trivial homology of flagella of flagellates and pseudopodia of rhizopods.

These centrioles have a fixed position in the cell and play an important role in asexual reproduction. The entire cell is covered in thousands of flagella which arise from basal bodies. There are several patterns of how the flagella attach to the cell at the posterior end of the rostrum. In some species the flagella attach exclusively to the rostrum while in others the flagella attach to the rostrum, as well as adhering to each other.

The biofilm needs bacterial cells to move in a certain manner, while flagella is the organelle which has locomotive function. Mutant strains lacking flagella can still form pellicle, albeit much less rapidly.

Aiming to emphasize the distinction between the bacterial flagella and the eukaryotic cilia and flagella, some authors attempted to replace the name of these two eukaryotic structures with "undulipodia" (e.g., all papers by Margulis since the 1970s) or "cilia" for both (e.g., Hülsmann, 1992; Adl et al., 2012; most papers of Cavalier-Smith), preserving "flagella" for the bacterial structure.

Both the blastosphere and gastrula often swim freely by flagella.

Each cell has four flagella of equal length, in which the flagella are shorter than the length of the cell. The flagella emerge from the apical depression in pairs and point in opposite directions, running parallel to the long side of the cell. Due to their emergence from a deep depression, the mechanical force the flagella can produce is restricted. Other lineages with non-depressed flagellar insertions can produce higher amounts of flagellar force, because the flagellar base is not geometrically limited.

The evolution of flagella is of great interest to biologists because the three known varieties of flagella (eukaryotic, bacterial, and archaeal) each represent a sophisticated cellular structure that requires the interaction of many different systems.

The flagella of Tetraselmis species are thick, covered in mucilaginous material, and have a blunt end. They are also covered in flagellar hairs which are loosely attached to the cell exterior; they are cross-striated with two scale layers on flagella. See figure 3 for a detailed picture of flagella including their scales and hair. The inner layer is compact and densely covers the flagella, and hair cells are attached to the cell membrane through small sections of membrane that are not covered due to patterning.

The microbe's length is about a fifth of the width of a human hair, in the range of 10 to 20 µm, and it has around 20 flagella. Cthylla is slightly smaller, with only five flagella.

Dembski, Rebuttal to Reports by Opposing Expert Witnesses, p. 52 Against Dembski's argument, different flagella use completely different mechanisms, and publications show a plausible path in which bacterial flagella could have evolved from a secretion system.

The tumbling allows them to reorient and makes their movement a three-dimensional random walk. Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on their surface; some have a single flagellum (monotrichous), a flagellum at each end (amphitrichous), clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell (lophotrichous), while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell (peritrichous). The flagella of a unique group of bacteria, the spirochaetes, are found between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive helical body that twists about as it moves.

Correlation of swimming behaviour and flagellar rotation Some bacteria, such as E. coli, have several flagella per cell (4–10 typically). These can rotate in two ways: # Counter-clockwise rotation aligns the flagella into a single rotating bundle, causing the bacterium to swim in a straight line; and # Clockwise rotation breaks the flagella bundle apart such that each flagellum points in a different direction, causing the bacterium to tumble in place. The directions of rotation are given for an observer outside the cell looking down the flagella toward the cell.

Another pattern of flagella adherence involves flagella emerging from flagellar folds, which are grooves that run parallel to the cell, and then attaching to each other. Another key component of a Trichonympha cell is the basal body and parabasal fibres. Trichonympha has long basal bodies which give rise to the flagella. These basal bodies lie along the rostral tube and are made up of microtubules.

768357 Tetraselmis cells have four flagella of equal length, which emerge from a depression near the apex. In most species, the flagella emerge in pairs and project away from each other. Generally, individual cells travel in a linear fashion for a long period of time, and then rapidly change direction without stopping, in which their flagella generate force for motion through an aqueous environment.

CFAP299 protein has two important isoforms. Cilia- and flagella-associated protein 299 isoform 1 is the longest isoform and cilia- and flagella-associated protein 299 isoform 2 is chosen as canonical sequence, which is also the target for this article.

Spirillum bacteria have helical bodies with flagella at either end, and they spin about the central axis of their bodies as they move through the water. Archaea, a group of prokaryotes separate from bacteria, also feature flagella – known as archaella – driven by rotary motor proteins, which are structurally and evolutionarily distinct from bacterial flagella: whereas bacterial flagella evolved from the bacterial Type III secretion system, archaella appear to have evolved from type IV pili. Some eukaryotic cells, such as the protist Euglena and animal sperm, possess a convergent, evolutionary distinct flagellum-like structure known as a cilium or undulipodium. Unlike bacterial flagella, these structures do not rotate at the base; rather, they bend in such a way that the tip whips in a circle.

If the bacteria are mobile, the line will appear diffuse and extend into the medium. The cell structures that provide the ability for locomotion are the cilia and flagella. Coliform and Streptococci are examples of non-motile bacteria as are Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Yersinia pestis. Motility is one characteristic used in the identification of bacteria and evidence of possessing structures: peritrichous flagella, polar flagella and/or a combination of both.

In addition, the composition of flagella is surprisingly diverse across bacteria, with many proteins only found in some species, but not others. Hence, the flagellar apparatus is clearly very flexible in evolutionary terms and perfectly able to lose or gain protein components. For instance, a number of mutations have been found that increase the motility of E. coli. Additional evidence for the evolution of bacterial flagella includes the existence of vestigial flagella, intermediate forms of flagella and patterns of similarities among flagellar protein sequences, including the observation that almost all of the core flagellar proteins have known homologies with non- flagellar proteins.

Journal of Plankton Research 33(4) 569-78. The cell usually measures between 20 and 30 micrometers, but it is known to reach 60. It has two flagella with a protruding, tentacle-like bulge between them. The flagella are covered in scales.

Lastly, centrioles cause new flagella to be formed, as well as a new parabasal body.

The Chlorophyceae are one of the classes of green algae, distinguished mainly on the basis of ultrastructural morphology. For example, the chlorophycean CW clade, and chlorophycean DO clade, are defined by the arrangement of their flagella. Members of the CW clade have flagella that are displaced in a "clockwise" (CW, 1–7 o'clock) direction e.g. Chlamydomonadales. Members of the DO clade have flagella that are "directly opposed" (DO, 12–6 o'clock) e.g. Sphaeropleales.

Species of the order Trichomonadida typically have four to six flagella at the cell's apical pole, one of which is recurrent - that is, it runs along a surface wave, giving the aspect of an undulating membrane. Mixotricha paradoxa have four weak flagella that serve as rudders. It has four large flagella at the front end, three pointing forwards and one backward. The basal bodies are also bacteria, not spirochaetes but oval, pill-shaped bacteria.

All kinetoplastids possess at least one flagellum, species in the order trypanosomatida have one and bodonina have two. In kinetoplastids with two flagella most forms have a leading and trailing flagellum, the latter of which may be attached to the side of the cell. The flagella are used for locomotion and attachment to surfaces. The bases of the flagella are found in a specialised pocket structure which is also the location of the cytostome.

CXorf59 is most commonly known as Cilia- and flagella- associated protein 47 (CFAP47) in other species.

Haplozoon lack visible flagella, where traditional dinoflagellates have two – one transverse and one longitudinal. H. axiothellae possesses a longitudinal row of ventral pores along the cell surface, a possible vestigial feature from lost flagella. The exterior of Haplozoon cells are covered in amphiesmal projections (syn. thecal barbs).

In some protists, flagella and/or cilia may be present to help with motility and nutrient intake. The flagella/cilia create water currents that assist in feeding and respiration. Energy intake is necessary for protists’ survival. Aerobic chemoorganotrophic protists produce energy through the use of their mitochondria.

In the right edge of each groove a set of 4 equall flagella is attached near the anterior end of the cell and each flagellum has the typical 9+2 microtubule arrangement. The length of the 16 flagella are about 2/3 of the length of the cell and are equal in length. The cell has 4 nuclei, which are located below and to the right of the attachment of each set of flagella. Each nucleus contains a nucleolus.

Both basal bodies, each assigned one of the two flagella, are enclosed in a thick, fibrous capsule.

Myxoflagellates almost always have two flagella; one is generally shorter than the other and sometimes only vestigial. The flagella are used for locomotion and to help to move food particles closer. If the humidity changes, cells can switch between the two manifestations. Neither form has a cell wall.

The cytoplasm develops long thin flagella like projections, then a nucleus enter into each one of these extensions. These cytoplasmic extensions later break off as mature male gametes (microgametes). This process of formation of flagella-like microgametes or male gametes is known as exflagellation. Macrogametocytes show very little change.

When IS492 is excised it becomes a circular extrachromosomal element that results in the restored expression of eps. Another, more complex example of site specific DNA rearrangement is used in the flagella of Salmonella typhimurium. In the usual phase, a promoter sequence promotes the expression of the H2 flagella gene along with a repressor of H1 flagella gene. Once this promoter sequence is inverted by the hin gene the repressor is turned off as is H2 allowing H1 to be expressed.

Eukaryotic flagella. 1–axoneme, 2–cell membrane, 3–IFT (IntraFlagellar Transport), 4–Basal body, 5–Cross section of flagella, 6–Triplets of microtubules of basal body Cross section of an axoneme Longitudinal section through the flagella area in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. In the cell apex is the basal body that is the anchoring site for a flagellum. Basal bodies originate from and have a substructure similar to that of centrioles, with nine peripheral microtubule triplets (see structure at bottom center of image).

Certain organisms such as bacteria and animal sperm have flagellum which have developed a way to move in liquid environments. A rotary motor model shows that bacteria uses the protons of an electrochemical gradient in order to move their flagella. Torque in the flagella of bacteria is created by particles that conduct protons around the base of the flagellum. The direction of rotation of the flagella in bacteria comes from the occupancy of the proton channels along the perimeter of the flagellar motor.

Cilia and flagella associated protein 53 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CFAP53 gene.

Cilia and flagella associated protein 74 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CFAP74 gene.

Organisms are asymmetric with a transparent membrane on the outside. The membrane is not ciliated. Cryptomonas cells are fairly large; they average about 40 micrometers in size and often take the shape of an oval or ovoid. There are two flagella present, yet the two flagella are not equally sized.

Three surface colonising bacteria are anchored on the surface. The flagella and cilia are actually two different single celled organisms. The ciliate belongs to an archaic group that used to be called archezoa but this term is no longer in fashion. It has four weak flagella, which serve as a rudder.

The absence of either flagella or cytoplasmic filaments in deficient mutant increase the mouse peritoneal macrophages in vitro uptake.

Zhang, W.J. and Wu, L.F., 2020. Flagella and Swimming Behavior of Marine Magnetotactic Bacteria. Biomolecules, 10(3), p.460. .

Some species also have a twisted cell posterior that is mirrored in the thecal wall produced. The only perforation of the theca is where the flagella emerge, which is termed the apical depression. The pore is a long slit with thecal extensions that border it, extending upwards to protect the flagella base. In cells that have lost their flagella the thecal extensions grow to cover the slit, but they do not fuse; non-motile cells of Tetraselmis have flagellar stubs that remain within the thecal compartment.

The absence of another cell ultrastructure, the periplasmic flagella filament bundle, do not alter the structure of the cytoplasmic ribbon.

Oxyrrhis marina is a species of dinoflagellates with flagella. A marine heterotroph, it is found in much of the world.

Pseudomonas psychrophila is a psychrophilic, Gram-negative, aerobic, straight rod bacterium with polar flagella. The type strain is JCM 10889.

Additionally, the Haplozoon trophont stage is particularly unique due to an apparent lack of flagella. The presence of flagella or remnant structures is the subject of ongoing research. At first glance, Haplozoon also do not appear unicellular – in fact they were originally classified as a possible transitional stage between protists and multicellular organisms.Shumway, W. (1924).

Cryptomonad flagella are inserted parallel to one another, and are covered by bipartite hairs called mastigonemes, formed within the endoplasmic reticulum and transported to the cell surface. Small scales may also be present on the flagella and cell body. The mitochondria have flat cristae, and mitosis is open; sexual reproduction has also been reported.

Eudorina is a paraphyletic genus in the volovocine green algae clade.See the NCBI webpage on Eudorina. Data extracted from the Eudorina colonies consist of 16, 32 or 64 individual cells grouped together. Each individual cell contains flagella which allow the colony to move as a whole when the individual cells beat their flagella together.

One is shorter and curled and the other one is longer and straight. The two flagella are fixed to the cell by four unique microtubular roots. In addition, the flagella are lined with small hairs that allow for better movement. There are also contractile vacuoles that control the flow of water in and out.

There is a fairly tight positive correlation between the presence of Cdc14 in a species and whether that species makes flagella or cilia. This may be related to the ancestral role of Cdc14. Whether flagella-anchoring basal bodies or centrioles involved in mitosis appeared first during evolution has been debated, but one theory is that flagella evolved first as a motility and sensory organelle, and the basal body was later co-opted into a mitotic role. The function of Cdc14 may have adapted to different functions during the evolution of those organelles.

Helicobacter pylori electron micrograph, showing multiple flagella on the cell surface Flagella are rigid protein structures, about 20 nanometres in diameter and up to 20 micrometres in length, that are used for motility. Flagella are driven by the energy released by the transfer of ions down an electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane. Fimbriae (sometimes called "attachment pili") are fine filaments of protein, usually 2–10 nanometres in diameter and up to several micrometres in length. They are distributed over the surface of the cell, and resemble fine hairs when seen under the electron microscope.

395-397 and ovate. The base of both its long flagella is below the tip (subapical). There is only one nucleus.

The flagella are anchored by 'rootlets' ribbons and subcellular ropes. They act as a skeleton and also support the mouth region.

The Heliomonadida (formerly Dimorphida) are a small group of heliozoan amoeboids that are unusual in possessing flagella throughout their life cycle.

The "typical", early-discovered Vibrio species, such as V. cholerae, have a single polar flagellum (monotrichous) with sheath. Some species, such as V. parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus, have both a single polar flagellum with sheath and thin flagella projecting in all directions (peritrichous), and the other species, such as V. fischeri, have tufts of polar flagella with sheath (lophotrichous).

The species have cells that are 0.2–1.5 mcm in diameter. Their motile cells have a fascicle of flagella on one or both ends, with the exception of one species.Medilexicon Dictionary Retrieved March 18, 2016 They are rigid and generally helical, and are 0.2–1.4 um in diameter. They also have a special polar membrane near the flagella.

Oscillibacter valericigenes is a species of mesophilic bacterium identified in the alimentary canal of Japanese Corbicula clams. It is Gram-negative and anaerobic, with a straight to slightly curved rod-like morphology, and is motile with petritrichous flagella (i.e., flagella with diverse orientations from the cell body). It was not observed in culture to form spores.

Panulirus is a genus of spiny lobsters in the family Palinuridae, including those species which have long flagella on their first antennae.

In many euglenids, the strips can slide past one another, causing an inching motion called metaboly. Otherwise, they move using their flagella.

Pseudomonas alcaliphila is a psychrophilic, alkaliphilic, Gram-negative, aerobic straight rod bacterium with polar flagella isolated from sea water near Hokkaidō, Japan.

Kluyvera ascorbata is a bacterium, the type species of its genus. It is Gram- negative, rod-shaped and motile with peritrichous flagella.

Kluyvera cryocrescens is a bacterium, the type species of its genus. It is Gram-negative, rod-shaped and motile with peritrichous flagella.

Version 05. The Tree of Life Web Project. This organism is a single cell up to 12 micrometers wide. It has two flagella.

Two unique characteristics of prokaryotes are fimbriae (finger-like projections on the surface of a cell) and flagella (threadlike structures that aid movement).

Though distinctions of function and length may be made between cilia and flagella, the internal structure of the axoneme is common to both.

While the vaned flagellum is present in the cyst stage, the three free anterior flagella are not, thus making the cyst non-motile.

In some cases, the protoplast skips the thread phase and remains isodiametric. The nuclei then migrate to four points of a tetrahedron and the protoplast cleaves into a tetrad of lobes. Soon after, the tetrad undergoes mitosis and splits again into an octette of haploid cells. Each cell releases a swarmcell with either one long flagellum, 2 unequal flagella, or 2 long flagella.

Carpediemonas was first discovered by Larsen and Patterson (1990) with the original name of Percolomonas. The species found was named Percolomonas membranifera. Larsen and Patterson classified this organism as Percolomonas, a heterolobosean, because it would occasionally have four flagella and contain a longitudinal groove. However, they did not have any evidence that the non-dividing organisms had more than two flagella.

Ekebom et al. (1996) describes Carpediemonas as organisms with a size of approximately 5 µm long (with a range of 4-7.5 µm). Carpediemonas has a longitudinal depression that spans almost the entire ventral side of the cell. It often has two unequal flagella inserting to the anterior side of the ventral groove, but may sometimes have three or four flagella.

The flagella gains mastigonemes and takes up an external position. At the same time the volume of extracellular material increases. The Golgi body at this stage occupies a position next to the developing flagella and the vesicles with the Golgi body contain a noticeable core of electron- dense material. An eyespot develops in the chloroplast which had retained its star-shape throughout gametogenesis.

The observation of flagella under electron microscope revealed the presence of four rings, a typical sign of gram negative species. Observation of the flagellar basal structure confirms that S. ruminantium has an outer membrane, a characteristic of Gram-negative bacteria . Gram-positive outer membranes or mycomembranes were recently reported for the Gram-positive general Corynebacterium and Mycobacterium, but none of them have flagella.

Chilomonas is a genus of cryptophytes, including the species Chilomonas paramecium. Chilomonas is a protozoa (heterotroph). Chilomonas is golden brown and has two flagella.

Aurantimonas coralicida is a gram-negative bacterium, and a causative agent of white plague in Caribbean corals. It is rod-shaped, with polar flagella.

The flagella have a peritrichous arrangement. It also attaches and effaces to the microvilli of the intestines via an adhesion molecule known as intimin.

Like all Proteobacteria, they are Gram-negative bacteria. Comamonas species are aerobic organisms and motile using bipolar or polar tufts of one to five flagella.

Maritalea is a genus of Gram-negative, strictly aerobic, oxidase- and catalase-positive, rod-shaped, motile bacteria with peritrichous flagella from the family of Hyphomicrobiaceae.

Tritrichomonas foetus is the genus Tritrichomonas within the order Trichomonadida in the Kingdom Protoctista. The parasite is 5-25 µm in size and is spindle shaped with four flagella, which are whiplike projections, and an undulating or wavy membrane. Three of the flagella are found on the anterior end and approximately the same length as the body of the parasite. The fourth is on the posterior end.

Spiral bacteria, bacteria of spiral (helical) shape, form the third major morphological category of prokaryotes along with the rod-shaped bacilli and round cocci. Spiral bacteria can be subclassified by the number of twists per cell, cell thickness, cell flexibility, and motility. The two types of spiral cells are spirillum and spirochete, with spirillum being rigid with external flagella, and spirochetes being flexible with internal flagella.

Astrephomene gubernaculifera is a colonial, flagellated volvocine green algae. It consists of 16, 32, 64 or 128 cells, 2 to 7 of which are small and oriented such that their flagella form a rudder (Stein 1958). Each cell is surrounded by a gelatinous matrix and contains an eyespot, two flagella and 1-3 contractile vacuoles at the anterior end. Astrephomene gubernaculifera can reproduce sexually or asexually.

Protozoa are unicellular organisms, which have nuclei, and ultramicroscopic cellular bodies within their cytoplasm. One particular aspect of protozoa that are of interest to human geneticists are their flagella, which are very similar to human sperm flagella. Studies of Paramecium have contributed to our understanding of the function of meiosis. Like all ciliates, Paramecium has a polyploid macronucleus, and one or more diploid micronuclei.

TLR5 is expressed on both immune and non-immune cells. TLR5 recognizes bacterial flagellin, a principal component of bacterial flagella and a virulence factor. The activation of this receptor mobilizes the nuclear factor NF-κB and stimulates tumor necrosis factor-alpha production. TLR5 recognizes flagellin, which is the protein monomer that makes up the filament of bacterial flagella, found on nearly all motile bacteria.

M. morganii grown on blood agar Morganella morganii is facultatively anaerobic and oxidase-negative. Its colonies appear off-white and opaque in color, when grown on agar plates. M. morganii cells are straight rods, about 0.6–0.7 μm in diameter and 1.0–1.7 μm in length. This organism moves by way of peritrichous flagella, but some strains do not form flagella at 30 °C.

Longitudinal section through the flagellum of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Many eukaryotes have long slender motile cytoplasmic projections, called flagella, or similar structures called cilia. Flagella and cilia are sometimes referred to as undulipodia,Lynn Margulis, Heather I. McKhann & Lorraine Olendzenski (ed.), Illustrated Glossary of Protoctista, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1993, p. xviii. and are variously involved in movement, feeding, and sensation. They are composed mainly of tubulin.

Whether sexual reproduction occurs is currently unknown. Collodictyon triciliatum has four flagella connected to basal bodies, generally of equal length, as long as or slightly longer than the body of Collodictyon. Number one flagellum is connected to a dorsal root, while number two flagellum is connected to a ventral root. Number three and four flagella are on either side of these two and have dorsal roots.

Difference of beating pattern of flagellum and cilium The regular beat patterns of eukaryotic cilia and flagella generate motion on a cellular level. Examples range from the propulsion of single cells such as the swimming of spermatozoa to the transport of fluid along a stationary layer of cells such as in the respiratory tract. Though eukaryotic flagella and motile cilia are ultrastructurally identical, the beating pattern of the two organelles can be different. In the case of flagella, the motion is often planar and wave-like, whereas the motile cilia often perform a more complicated three-dimensional motion with a power and recovery stroke.

In other words, sperm cell flagella and Fallopian tube cilia are homologous structures. The testis- specific proteins that show the highest level of expression are protamines.

The protein encoded by this gene belongs to the dynein intermediate chain family, and is part of the dynein complex of respiratory cilia and sperm flagella.

Euzophera flagella is a species of snout moth in the genus Euzophera. It was described by Julius Lederer in 1869 and is known from Iran and Turkey.

Tetrabaena socialis is a microscopic species of green algae and the simplest known multicellular organism, consisting of four cells. It is motile, containing 2 flagella per cell.

The flagella possess the 9+2 structure, common in flagellated eukaryotes. A single distinct nucleus is in the very anterior region of the body near the cytoplasm.

At the anterior end, they are truncated while the posterior end tends to be rounded. At the anterior end there is a medium length furrow and a short sac-like gullet that continues posteriorly to the furrow. There are two flagella erupting from the furrow- gullet system, a feature typical of cryptophytes. These flagella are about – the length of the cell itself which is the same for the furrow-gullet.

When food is scarce, most species can form cysts, which may be carried aerially and introduce them to new environments. In slime moulds, these structures are called spores, and form on stalked structures called fruiting bodies or sporangia. The majority of Amoebozoa lack flagella and more generally do not form microtubule- supported structures except during mitosis. However, flagella do occur among the Archamoebae, and many slime moulds produce biflagellate gametes .

Males are usually smaller than females, with relatively longer legs. Unlike females, the males bear a pair of flagella, one on each chelicera. In the accompanying photograph of a male solifugid, one flagellum is just visible near the tip of each chelicera. The flagella, which bend back over the chelicerae, are sometimes called horns and are believed to have some sexual connection, but their function has not yet been clearly explained.

Primary flagellates form directly from trophozoites and tend to initially present as spheres and slowly assume a more ovoid shape while often slightly flattening posteriorly as they become motile. During the maturation of the flagellated stage, the flagella emerge in 2 pairs. By the time the cell is approximately half of its mature size, the four flagella are equal in length. Like the amoeboid stage, they are capable of asexual division.

Leishmania species are unicellular eukaryotes having a well-defined nucleus and other cell organelles including kinetoplasts and flagella. Depending on the stage of their life cycle, they exist in two structural variants, as: #The amastigote form is found in the mononuclear phagocytes and circulatory systems of humans. It is an intracellular and nonmotile form, being devoid of external flagella. The short flagellum is embedded at the anterior end without projecting out.

Microtubules have a major structural role in eukaryotic cilia and flagella. Cilia and flagella always extend directly from a MTOC, in this case termed the basal body. The action of the dynein motor proteins on the various microtubule strands that run along a cilium or flagellum allows the organelle to bend and generate force for swimming, moving extracellular material, and other roles. Prokaryotes possess tubulin-like proteins including FtsZ.

The inner face of the microtubule sheet adheres to a paracrystalline fibre (about 50nm thick) which is a common characteristic of all oxymonads. Monocercomonoides sp. has four flagella that originate in two pairs and arise from each basal body found in the anterior end. Three of the four flagella and roughly equal in length (9.5-18μm) and the fourth trailing flagellum is slightly longer, measuring between 9.0-24.5μm.

Rhodelphis is an ovoid unicellular organism with a diameter of 10-13 µm. The cells do not contain any pigments, so they appear mostly clear under a microscope and are covered in umbrella-shaped glycostyles. The cells are motile and can swim around using their two flagella. Originating just below the anterior end of the cell, the flagella are perpendicular to one another and are of approximately equal length.

However, the discriminative usage of the terms "cilia" and "flagella" for eukaryotes adopted in this article is still common (e.g., Andersen et al., 1991; Leadbeater et al., 2000).

Oceanobacillus chironomi is a bacterium. It is Gram-positive, motile by peritrichous flagella, endospore-forming, halotolerant and facultatively alkaliphilic. The type strain is T3944DT (=LMG 23627T =DSM 18262T).

Because of the high degree of evolutionary conservation between cilia and flagella from most species, our understanding of sperm flagella has been aided by studies of both organelles and from species ranging from protists to mammals. Cilia are typically short (5–10 μm) and beat in an oar-like fashion with an effective stroke followed by a recovery stroke. Flagella beat with a snake- like motion and are typically longer (generally 50–150 μm, but ranging from 12 μm to several mm in some species), with flagellar length in the protist Chlamydomonas being regulated by several genes encoding kinases. It was recognized first by Manton and Clarke that the 9 + 2 axoneme was possibly ubiquitous among species, and indeed, the nine doublet microtubules are evolutionary conserved structures that evolved in early eukaryotes nearly a billion years ago; however, there is wide variation among species with regard to the detailed structure of sperm flagella and their accessory structures.

1b) # Anisokont. Biflagellates zoospores with two whip types flagella of unequal length (Fig. 1c). These are found in some Myxomycota and Plasmodiophoromycota. # Zoospores with a single anterior flagellum (Fig.

The plastid does not have a genome, but genes are targeted to it from the nucleus. Rhodelphis is ovoid with a tapered anterior end bearing two perpendicularly-oriented flagella.

Hemiselmis species may easily be overlooked in samples due to their small size and rapid movement, but can be recognized by the special corkscrew swimming motion. It is concluded that the spiral swimming is not because of the irregularity in length or structure of flagella, but because of the dorsoventral flattening of its body. Also, the fact that the flagella are attached at a low point near posterior contributed to the unique swimming pattern observed.

L. monocytogenes is a Gram-positive, non-spore-forming, motile, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. It is catalase-positive and oxidase-negative, and expresses a beta hemolysin, which causes destruction of red blood cells. This bacterium exhibits characteristic tumbling motility when viewed with light microscopy. Although L. monocytogenes is actively motile by means of peritrichous flagella at room temperature (20−25 °C), the organism does not synthesize flagella at body temperatures (37 °C).

A recurrent flagellum is attached to the cell body by an undulating membrane and is free at the posterior end. The undulating membrane travels along the lateral groove and is supported by a conspicuous costa with type B periodicity. Four flagella are free and emerge anterolaterally from the lateral groove. The sixth flagellum emerges from a basal body the dorsal side of the body, independent of the basal body complex of the other flagella.

Drawings of Chlamydomonas caudata Wille.Hazen, Tracy E. 1922. The phylogeny of the genus Brachiomonas. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 49(4):75-92, with two plates. Cross section of a Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cell Light micrograph of Chlamydomonas with two flagella just visible at bottom left Chlamydomonas globosa, again with two flagella just visible at bottom left Chlamydomonas is a genus of green algae consisting of about 325 speciesSmith, G.M. 1955 Cryptogamic Botany Volume 1.

The Oedogoniales are an order of filamentous freshwater green algae of the class Chlorophyceae. The order is well-defined and has several unique features, including asexual reproduction with zoospores that possess stephanokont flagella: numerous short flagella arranged in a subapical whorl. The oedogoniales have a highly specialized type of oogamy, and an elaborate method of cell division which results in the accumulation of apical caps. The order comprises one family, Oedogoniaceae, with three genera.

Furthermore, the syncytial theory cannot explain the flagellated sperm of metazoans. Since the ciliate ancestor does not have any flagella and it is unlikely that the flagella arose as a de novo trait in metazoans, the syncytial theory makes it almost impossible to explain the origin of flagellated sperm. Due to both the lack of molecular and morphological evidence for this theory, the alternative colonial theory of Haeckel, is currently gaining widespread acceptance.

The group includes eukaryotic cells that, for the most part, have a single emergent flagellum, or are amoebae with no flagella. The unikonts include opisthokonts (animals, fungi, and related forms) and Amoebozoa. By contrast, other well-known eukaryotic groups, which more often have two emergent flagella (although there are many exceptions), are often referred to as bikonts. Bikonts include Archaeplastida (plants and relatives) and SAR supergroup, the Cryptista, Haptista, Telonemia and picozoa.

They lack flagella and do not form either oocysts or spores. The known vectors are ticks or leeches in which they undergo sporogony; sexual reproduction probably occurs in the vector.

1d) of the tinsel type, characteristic of Hyphochytriomycetes. # Heterokont. Biflagellate zoospores (Fig. 1e, f) with both whiplash(smooth) and tinsel type(fine outgrowths called mastigonemes) flagella attached anteriorly or laterally.

Erythrobacter longus is a species of bacteria, the genus' type species. It contains bacteriochlorophyll a. It is motile by means of subpolar flagella. Its type strain is OCh101 (= IFO 14126).

Cilia- and flagella-associated protein 299 (CFAP299), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CFAP299 gene. CFAP299 is predicted to play a role in spermatogenesis and cell apoptosis.

Weil, E. & Felix, A. (1917) Wien. Klin. Wschr. 30, 1509, cited in Smith, R.W. & Koffler, H., Bacterial Flagella, In Advances in Microbial Physiology, Vol. 6 (A.H. Rose & J.F. Wilkinson, Eds.), p.

Schematic drawing of Cafeteria roenbergensis (a bicosoecid) with two heterokont flagella: an anterior straminipilous (with tripartite mastigonemes) and a posterior smooth Many heterokonts are unicellular flagellates, and most others produce flagellated cells at some point in their lifecycles, for instance as gametes or zoospores. The name heterokont refers to the characteristic form of these cells, which typically have two unequal flagella. The anterior straminipilous flagellum is covered with one or two rows of lateral bristles or mastigonemes, which are tripartite (with three regions each), while the posterior flagellum is whiplike, smooth, and usually shorter, or sometimes reduced to a basal body. The flagella are inserted subapically or laterally, and are usually supported by four microtubule roots in a distinctive pattern.

Evidence from DNA analysis suggests that all fungi are descended from one common ancestor, at least 600 million years ago. It is probable that these earliest fungi lived in water, and had flagella. Fungi moved to land at about the same time as plants, about 460 million years ago, at least. Although fungi are opisthokonts—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum—all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella.

Treponema pallidum is a helically shaped bacteria consisting of an outer membrane, peptidoglycan layer, inner membrane, protoplasmic cylinder, and periplasmic space. It is often described as Gram negative, but its outer membrane lacks lipopolysaccharide, which is found in the outer membrane of other Gram-negative bacteria. It has an endoflagella (periplasmic flagella) consisting of four main polypeptides, a core structure, and a sheath. The flagella is located within the periplasmic space and wraps around the protoplasmic cylinder.

Many insects and some mites are specialized to feed on pollen, and are called palynivores. In non-flowering seed plants, pollen germinates in the pollen chamber, located beneath the micropyle, underneath the integuments of the ovule. A pollen tube is produced, which grows into the nucellus to provide nutrients for the developing sperm cells. Sperm cells of Pinophyta and Gnetophyta are without flagella, and are carried by the pollen tube, while those of Cycadophyta and Ginkgophyta have many flagella.

Photo by Kayla Kurtz. Photo of Ulva linza harvested from Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Photo by Kayla Kurtz. Ulva linza alternates between sexual (gametophyte producing gametes) and asexual (sporophyte producing zoospores) stages. Spores with two or four flagella are released from the thalli. Zoospores with four flagella (quadriflagellated zoospores) rapidly settle on surfaces. Biflagellate spores are typed as female (+) gametes, male (-) gametes, or asexual biflagellate zoosporesCallow, M. E., Callow, J. A., Pickett-Heaps, J. D., & Wetherbee, R. (1997).

Most Oxymonads are around 50 μm in size and have a single nucleus, associated with four flagella. Their basal bodies give rise to several long sheets of microtubules, which form an organelle called an axostyle, but different in structure from the axostyles of parabasalids. The cell may use the axostyle to swim, as the sheets slide past one another and cause it to undulate. An associated fiber called the preaxostyle separates the flagella into two pairs.

This permits a type of squirming motility, sometimes referred to as "Euglenoid movement" or "metaboly". When it is not gliding or swimming (poorly), Peranema can move by metaboly, progressing with wavelike contractions of the body, reminiscent of peristalsis. At the anterior of the cell, there is a narrow aperture, opening into a flask-shaped "reservoir", from which the organism's two flagella emerge. At the bottom of this reservoir lie the basal bodies (centrioles) from which the flagella extend.

CFAP47, or cilia and flagella associated protein 47, is a human gene encoded on the X chromosome. in humans. CXorf59 is located on chromosome X at locus Xp21.1 of the human genome.

Opossum spermatozoa exhibit sperm-pairing, forming conjugate pairs in the epididymis. This may ensure that flagella movement can be accurately coordinated for maximal motility. Conjugate pairs dissociate into separate spermatozoa before fertilization.

The word “Diplonemidae” come from the Greek words ‘diplo’, meaning two, and ‘nemat’, meaning thread. Together, Diplonemidae roughly translates to ‘two threads’, likely referring to the characteristic two flagella of the organism.

This particular strain of Methanocaldococcus is cocci in shape. FS406-22 is gram negative and is not pathogenic to humans. Strain FS406-22 is a free-living marine archaean and motile via flagella.

Increased spring insolation causes them to germinate, producing amoeboid cells that generate two flagella and encase themselves in a vase-like cellulosic lorica. These motile cells rise into photic waters where they proliferate.

Methylorosula polaris is a Gram-negative, aerobic, facultatively methylotrophic, psychrotolerant and motile bacteria from the genus of Methylorosula with bipolar flagella which has been isolated from tundra wetland soil in Vorkuta in Russia.

S-shaped), or fusiform (i.e. spindle-shaped) rod with flagellum at both of its ends (i.e. bipolar flagella) which it uses to dart around.Garrity GM, Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Staley JT (eds.) (2005).

The cells move using single or multiple flagella but lack gas vacuoles. Species within the genus Haloarcula are Gram negative and extremely halophilic, and they can use any of several sources of carbon.

Actibacterium ureilyticum is a Gram-negative, aerobic and rod-shaped bacterium from the genus of Actibacterium with a polar flagella which has been isolated from seawater from the South China Sea in Taiwan.

Once a scale is fully formed, its vesicle will move to the cell membrane to deposit it there. Thaumatomastix are biflagellate, with one flagellum being longer than the cell itself, and move around by swimming or gliding. The two flagella emerge from a short furrow at the anterior end of the cell; the shorter one is armored by scales while the longer one is not. Though present in most species, flagella have not been observed in T. tauryanini as of 2012.

In the last two decades, it was discovered that the archaeal flagella, although functionally similar to bacterial and eukaryotic flagella, structurally resemble bacterial type IV pili. Bacterial type IV pili are surface structures that can be extended and retracted to give a twitching motility and are used to adhere to or move on solid surfaces; their "tail" proteins are called pilins. To underline these differences, Ken Jarrell and Sonja-Verena Albers proposed to change the name of the archaeal flagellum to archaellum.

A flagellum (; plural: flagella) is a lash-like appendage that protrudes from the cell body of certain bacteria and eukaryotic cells termed as flagellates. A flagellate can have one or several flagella. The primary function of a flagellum is that of locomotion, but it also often functions as a sensory organelle, being sensitive to chemicals and temperatures outside the cell. The similar structure in the archaea functions in the same way but is structurally different and has been termed the archaellum.

Although they lack flagella, C. perfringens bacteria are able to glide across surfaces because their bodies are lined with filaments from end-to-end. The hypermotile variants such as SM101, are often found arising on the edges of colonies on agar plates. Video microscopy of their gliding movement suggests that they form long, thin filaments that allow them to move rapidly like bacteria with flagella. Genome sequencing was used to identify the cause(s) of the hypermotile phenotype and their direct derivatives.

Although many members of the genus have two flagella, only one is ever used for movement. The other one is usually too short and does not exit the invagination of the posterior area known as the flagellar pocket. They are located within a posterior structure called the flagellar apparatus, also known as the basal body complex. Aside from the flagella, the flagellar apparatus also contains two basal bodies connected by a striated fiber, three asymmetric microtubular roots, and other connective fibers.

The native cellular architecture of the bacterial cell was revealed using cryo-electron tomography, a technique observing intact plunge-frozen cells. Tightly organized bundles of periplasmic flagella were observed in the periplasm, a characteristic of spirochetes. The presence of the periplasmic flagella is widely regarded as being responsible for the microorganism’s ability to rotate and flex, in addition to its translational movement. Spirochetes, including Treponema denticola , are therefore able to navigate through particularly viscous environments, unlike that of other prokaryotes.

Citrobacter koseri is a Gram-negative, non-spore-forming bacillus. It is a facultative anaerobe capable of aerobic respiration. It is motile via peritrichous flagella. It is a member of the family of Enterobacteriaceae.

Massilia yuzhufengensis is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped, aerobic and motile bacterium from the genus Massilia with a polar flagella which has been isolated from the Yuzhufeng Glacier from the Tibetan Plateau in China.

Clostridium paradoxum is a moderately thermophilic anaerobic alkaliphile bacteria. It is motile with 2-6 peritrichous flagella and forms round to slightly oval terminal spores. Its type strain is JW-YL-7 (DSM 7308).

The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. At intervals along the stem they produce long leafless shoots called flagella. Many of the species in Cersestis show signs of fenestration.Bown, Demi (2000).

Red algae do not have flagella and centrioles during their entire life cycle. Presence of normal spindle fibres, microtubules, un-stacked photosynthetic membranes, presence of phycobilin pigment granules.,W. J. Woelkerling (1990). "An introduction".

Mastigamoeba are divided into two main clades. Clade A includes those species that are large with a broader and larger flagellum (e.g., M. balamuthi). Clade B includes those that are smaller, with narrow flagella (e.g.

Acidobacterium capsulatum is a bacterium. It is an acidophilic chemoorganotrophic bacterium containing menaquinone. It is gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, mesophilic, non-spore-forming, capsulated, saccharolytic and rod-shaped. It is also motile by peritrichous flagella.

The capture and sequestering of photosynthetic cells and chloroplasts occurs in many types of modern eukaryotic organisms and is known as kleptoplasty. Endosymbiotic origins have also been proposed for the nucleus, and for eukaryotic flagella.

Dethiosulfovibrio peptidovorans is an anaerobic, slightly halophilic, thiosulfate-reducing bacterium. Its genome has been sequenced. It is vibrio- shaped (3-5 by 1 µm), gram-negative and possesses lateral flagella. It is non- spore-forming.

Leptospira noguchii also lacks glycolipids in their peptidoglycan and contain diaminopimelic acid. L. noguchii is a motile organism due to having amphitrichous flagella on opposing ends of each other.Adler, Ben, ed. Leptospira and Leptospirosis. N.p.

The choanocyte then transforms into an amoeba-shaped cell called a carrier cell, which gives up the spermatozoan to an egg, lying near a chamber formed by choanocytes and containing long lashlike appendages called flagella.

Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus are Gram-negative and rod shaped. Their cells are, on average, are 0.3-0.6 µm in diameter and 2-3 µm long. Their ability to produce flagella is largely dependent on the NaCl concentration of their environment. In solutions with NaCl concentrations of 0.6-1.5M, Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus produce and move by the movement of “a single unsheathed polar flagellum.” In solutions with NaCl concentrations <0.2 or >1.5, M. hydrocarbonoclasticus are unable to produce flagella, and are thereby unable to influence their movement through medium.

A. borkumensis is a rod-shaped bacterium without flagella that obtains its energy primarily from consuming alkanes (a type of hydrocarbon). It is aerobic, meaning it uses oxygen to gain energy, and it is halophilic, meaning it tends to live in environments that contain salt, such as salty ocean water. It is also Gram-negative, which essentially means it has a relatively thin cell wall. It is also nonmotile; however, other organisms that appear to be in the same genus are motile through flagella.

Triparma cells have two forms: the motile, naked form and the non-motile siliceous form. The motile cells propelled by two flagella of unequal length, typical of heterokonts. The non- motile forms do not possess flagella but instead have a silicified cell wall with a distinctive plate morphology: three shield plates, three oblong girdle plates, a triradiate dorsal plate with rounded ends, and a large ventral plate. Both forms contain a single, dorsal chloroplast that contains chlorophylls a and c1-3 as well as fucoxanthin.

Tetraparma cells have two forms: the motile, naked form and the non-motile siliceous form. The motile cells propelled by two flagella of unequal length, typical of heterokonts. The non-motile forms do not possess flagella but instead have a silicified cell wall with a distinctive plate morphology: three shield plates, three triradiate girdle plates, a triradiate dorsal plate with notched ends, and a small ventral plate. Both forms contain a single, dorsal chloroplast that contains chlorophylls a and c1-3 as well as fucoxanthin.

An example of a flagellated bacterium is the ulcer-causing Helicobacter pylori, which uses multiple flagella to propel itself through the mucus lining to reach the stomach epithelium. An example of a eukaryotic flagellate cell is the mammalian sperm cell, which uses its flagellum to propel itself through the female reproductive tract. Eukaryotic flagella are structurally identical to eukaryotic cilia, although distinctions are sometimes made according to function or length. Fimbriae and pili are also thin appendages, but have different functions and are usually smaller.

The flagella are hollow with heteromorphic paraxonemal rods, covered with sheaths of hairs. In accordance to its name, the anterior emergent flagella is longer and thicker, directed anteriorly and used for locomotion, and the shorter, thinner flagellum is directed posteriorly. The feeding apparatus is usually quite small, composed of separate microtubule rods and surrounded by spiral striations at the anterior end of the cell.Schroeckh, Sabrina; Lee Won J.; Patterson, David J. (2006). “Free-living heterotrophic euglenids from freshwater sites in mainland Australia”. Hydrobiologia. 493:1-3.

Jakobids have two flagella, inserted in the anterior end of the cell, and, like other members of order Excavata, have a ventral feeding groove and associated cytoskeleton support. The posterior flagella has a dorsal vane and is aligned within the ventral groove, where it generates a current that the cell uses for food intake. The nucleus is generally in the anterior part of the cell and bears a nucleolus. Most known jakobids have one mitochondrion, again located anteriorly, and different genera have flattened, tubular, or absent cristae.

The two flagella, which are normally hidden in the sub-apical pocket, are short and of unequal length and have conventional axonemes, but seems to lack the paraxonemales rods. Swimmer cells, which are only occasionally seen, are smaller and have two conspicuous flagella, more than twice the length of the body.Roy, J. Faktotova, D. Benada, O. Lukes, J. Burger, G., Description of Rhynchopus euleeides n. sp. (Diplonemea), a Free-Living Marine Euglenozoan, Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, Volume 54, Number 2, March–April 2007 , pp. 137-145(9).

Kluyvera is a Gram negative, facultatively anaerobic bacterial and motile genus from the family of Enterobacteriaceae which have peritrichous flagella. Kluyvera occur in water, soil and sewage. Kluyvera bacteria can cause opportunistic infections in immunocompromised patients.

Each cell is around 10–50 μm in size and flattened in shape, with an anterior groove or pocket. At the edge of the pocket there are typically two slightly unequal flagella. Some may exhibit mixotrophy.

Ochrobactrum anthropi is a bacterium. The type strain is strain CIP 82.115 (= CIP 14970 = NCTC 12168 = LMG 3331). O. anthropi strains are rod-shaped, aerobic, gram-negative, non-pigmented and motile by means of peritrichous flagella.

Thiorhodospira sibirica is a species of alkaliphilic purple sulfur bacterium. It is strictly anaerobic, vibrioid- or spiral-shaped (3-4μm wide and 7-20 μm long) and motile by means of a polar tuft of flagella.

Some other important information about P. stuartii is that it is motile via flagella, non-sporulating, non-lactose fermenting, catalase positive and oxidase negative. It can also grow in anaerobic conditions and on Simmon’s Citrate Agar.

Carteria is a genus of green algae in the family Chlamydomonadaceae.See the NCBI webpage on Carteria. Data extracted from the Carteria are distinguished from Chlamydomonas by having four, rather than two, flagella at the vegetative stage.

A key feature of the genus is its two anterior flagella, each as long as the other.Harris, Elizabeth H. ( 2009) "The Genus Chlamydomonas" In The Chlamydomonas Sourcebook (Second Edition), chapter 1, volume 1, pages 1-24.

Ammoniphilus is a Gram-variable, strictly aerobic, rod-shaped, haloalkalitolerant spore-forming, obligately oxalotrophic and motile bacterial genus from the family of Paenibacillaceae with peritrichous flagella. In the cell wall of Ammoniphilus is meso-diaminopimelic acid.

Cells of H. canis are spiral, sometimes with truncated ends. Flagella are single and bipolar, as well as sheathed, a characteristic of genus Helicobacter, and connected to a basal plate at their insertion into the cell.

Prokaryotes have similar proteins called paraseptins. They form compartmentalizing ring-like structures strongly associated with the cell membranes. Septins are involved in the formation of structures such as, cilia and flagella, dendritic spines, and yeast buds.

Pseudomonas brenneri is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped, fluorescent, motile bacterium with a single polar flagella isolated from natural mineral waters in France. Based on 16S rRNA analysis, P. brenneri falls within the P. fluorescens group.Ibid.

Internal parasites and free-living marine animals live in environments with high concentrations of dissolved material, and generally let their tissues have the same level of concentration as the environment, while freshwater animals need to prevent their body fluids from becoming too dilute. Despite this difference in environments, most platyhelminths use the same system to control the concentration of their body fluids. Flame cells, so called because the beating of their flagella looks like a flickering candle flame, extract from the mesenchyme water that contains wastes and some reusable material, and drive it into networks of tube cells which are lined with flagella and microvilli. The tube cells' flagella drive the water towards exits called nephridiopores, while their microvilli reabsorb reusable materials and as much water as is needed to keep the body fluids at the right concentration.

The current taxonomy of Helicobacter bacteria is a bit complex and incomplete with new species currently being considered as possibly belonging to the Helicobactor genus. Within the Helicobacter genus, Helicobacter heilmannii are a group of Helicobacter species that are distinguished from H. pylori by being 2- to 3-fold larger in size (they are 4-10 micrometers in length and 0.5-0.8 micrometers in width while H. pylor are 2.5-4 micrometers in length and 0.5-1.0 micrometers in width) as well as in the position and noumber of their flagella (they have 4-23 flagella which are located at only one of their ends while H. pylori have 4-8 flagella which are divided between both of their ends). The Helcobacter heilmannii grouping of bacteria is further divided into two groups: Helicobacter heilmanii sensu stricto (H. heilmanni s.

Zooflagellates have one or more flagella but do not have plastids or cell walls. A few are mutualistic, such as those that live in the guts of termites and aid the bacteria present in breaking down wood.

Litoribacillus peritrichatus is a Gram-negative, strictly aerobic, short rod- shaped and motile bacterium from the genus of Litoribacillus with peritrichous flagella which has been isolated from coastal sediments from the Yellow Sea near Qingdao in China.

In taxonomy, Methanothermococcus is a genus of the Methanococcaceae.See the NCBI webpage on Methanothermococcus. Data extracted from the The cells are shaped like irregular bars and tend to be Gram-negative. They are mobile via polar flagella.

Cilia are also responsible for clearing mucus from the lung, and the dysfunction causes increased susceptibility to lung infections. Kartagener syndrome can also manifest with male infertility as functional cilia are required for proper sperm flagella function.

In fact, the relationship between Trichonympha and its host is not only highly beneficial for the host, but for Trichonympha as well. In exchange for helping the host digest its food, Trichonympha receives an anaerobic environment to live in, a constant source of food and continuous shelter and protection. The gut of a termite or wood roach is an active place with many moving parts. This is why Trichonympha has a large complement of flagella; the beating of the flagella helps Trichonympha hold its place in the gut.

Cryptophyte flagella are inserted parallel to one another, and are covered by bipartite hairs called mastigonemes, formed within the endoplasmic reticulum and transported to the cell surface. Small scales may also be present on the flagella and cell body. The mitochondria have flat cristae, and mitosis is open; sexual reproduction has also been reported. The group have evolved a whole range of light-absorbing pigments, called phycobilins, which are able to absorb wavelengths that's not accessible to other plants or algae, allowing them to live in a variety of different ecological niches.

The engine is powered by proton motive force, i.e. by the flow of protons (hydrogen ions) across the bacterial cell membrane due to a concentration gradient set up by the cell's metabolism. (In species of the genus Vibrio, there are two kinds of flagella, lateral and polar, and some are driven by a sodium ion pump rather than a proton pump.) Flagella are quite efficient, allowing bacteria to move at speeds of up to 60 cell lengths per second. The rotary motor at the base of the flagellum is similar in structure to ATP synthase.

Sizes of the cells vary with environmental conditions such as light, salinity, and nutrient availability . Their two equal-length apical flagella are about 1.5X – 2X the length of the cell and beat rapidly, pulling the cell forward to cause abrupt turning motions and rotations along the longitudinal axis. The basal bodies of the flagella are interconnected by a distal fibre that is bilaterally cross-striated. The morphology of Dunaliella is very similar to that of Chlamydomonas, however it can be distinguished through its lack of cell wall and contractile vacuoles.

It was suggested that the swimming energy of the cells could overcome the repulsive energy or they can adhere to regions of heterogeneity on the surface. The swimming capacity increase with the ionic strength and 100mM is the optimal concentration for the rotation of flagella. Despite the electrostatic repulsion energy from DLVO calculation between the bacteria and surface collector, the deposition could occur due to other interactions such as the steric impact of the presence of flagella on the cell environment and the strong hydrophobicity of the cell.

This alga has remarkable characteristics, including four flagella, a theca (polysaccharide envelope) and a vacuole (stigma or "eyespot") that contains photo-receptor molecules. T. convolutae lives in the free living state in the water column but is mainly benthics. Thus, in hospite, the alga does not have the same phenotype as in the free living state: it no longer has its flagella, its theca and stigma. These phenotypical differences did not allow Geddes, Delage and Haberlandt to deduce that the green cells in the tissues could have been micro-algae.

Unlike bacteria, archaea lack peptidoglycan in their cell walls. Methanobacteriales do have cell walls containing pseudopeptidoglycan, which resembles eubacterial peptidoglycan in morphology, function, and physical structure, but pseudopeptidoglycan is distinct in chemical structure; it lacks D-amino acids and N-acetylmuramic acid, substituting the latter with N-Acetyltalosaminuronic acid. Archaeal flagella are known as archaella, that operate like bacterial flagella – their long stalks are driven by rotatory motors at the base. These motors are powered by a proton gradient across the membrane, but archaella are notably different in composition and development.

Flagella are required for motility, biofilm formation, host cell interactions and host colonization. The production of flagella is energetically costly so the production must be regulated from metabolic standpoint. CsrA is a post- transcriptional regulator that regulates the expression of FlaA by binding to flaA mRNA and is able to repress its translation. CsrA mutant strains have been studied and the mutant strains exhibit dysregulation of 120-150 proteins that are included in motility, host cell adherence, host cell invasion, chemotaxis, oxidative stress resistance, respiration and amino acid and acetate metabolism.

The bacterial flagellum is made of about 20 proteins, with approximately another 30 proteins required for its regulation and assembly. The flagellum is a rotating structure driven by a reversible motor at the base that uses the electrochemical gradient across the membrane for power. The different arrangements of bacterial flagella: A-Monotrichous; B-Lophotrichous; C-Amphitrichous; D-Peritrichous Bacteria can use flagella in different ways to generate different kinds of movement. Many bacteria (such as E. coli) have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling.

Helicobacter pylori is a helix-shaped (classified as a curved rod, not spirochaete) Gram-negative bacterium about 3 μm long with a diameter of about 0.5 μm . H. pylori can be demonstrated in tissue by Gram stain, Giemsa stain, haematoxylin–eosin stain, Warthin–Starry silver stain, acridine orange stain, and phase-contrast microscopy. It is capable of forming biofilms and can convert from spiral to a possibly viable but nonculturable coccoid form. Helicobacter pylori has four to six flagella at the same location; all gastric and enterohepatic Helicobacter species are highly motile owing to flagella.

Species of Euduboscquella have two to four different flagellated spore types: mono-flagellated spores, bi-flagellated spores, spherical spores without flagella, and cystic spores without flagella, which are either oval or spindle shaped. Cystic spores are the most common spore type, especially near the end of their seasonal cycle. The lengths of these spores range from 2 micrometers to 20.5 micrometers, where mono- flagellated spores tend to be the shortest type and bi-flagellated tend to be the longest type. Euduboscquella lack chloroplasts, as they acquire nutrition exclusively through phagocytosis of their host’s cytoplasmic contents.

The variability of the cell shape is due to the continuous movement of the axostyle of the cell, an undulating ribbon-like structure consisting of microtubules running along the length of the cell. The axostyle propels the cell in a zig-zag manner that resembles a snake trashing in a bag. The cells may have 4, 8 or 12 flagella on the anterior end with 4 being the most common number. The flagella contribute little to the cell's locomotion as the cell is primarily propelled by its axostyle.

In fact, the composition of flagella is surprisingly diverse across bacteria with many proteins only found in some species but not others. Hence the flagellar apparatus is clearly very flexible in evolutionary terms and perfectly able to lose or gain protein components. Further studies have shown that, contrary to claims of "irreducible complexity", flagella and related protein transport mechanisms show evidence of evolution through Darwinian processes, providing case studies in how complex systems can evolve from simpler components. Multiple processes were involved in the evolution of the flagellum, including horizontal gene transfer.

Phyllobacterium catacumbae is a Gram-negative, aerobic, motile bacteria with a polar tuft of flagella from the genus of Phyllobacterium which was isolated from the tuff walls from the Roman catacombs of Saint Callixtus in Rome in Italy.

There are highly conserved regions in the flagellin protein among all bacteria, facilitating the recognition of flagellin by a germ-line encoded receptor such as TLR5. However, some Proteobacteria flagella have acquired mutations preventing their recognition by TLR5.

Proteromonas is a genus of heterokonts. It lives in the gut of amphibians and reptiles. An example is Proteromonas lacertae. Proteromonas is notable by location of mastigonemes not on its flagella, but on posterior part of the cell.

Thiorhodovibrio winogradskyi is a purple sulfur bacteria, the type species of its genus. Its cells are vibrioid-to spirilloid-shaped and motile by means of single polar flagella. It is moderately halophilic, with type strain SSP1 (=DSM 6702).

Komma caudata is a cryptomonad, and the only described species in the genus Komma, although four or five more species may exist. Its cells are 4.5–5.5 μm wide by 7–10 μm long and bear two unequal flagella.

B. burgdorferi is a microaerobic, motile spirochete with seven to 11 bundled perisplasmic flagella set at each end that allow the bacterium to move in low- and high-viscosity media alike, which is related to its high virulence factor.

Shewanella algicola is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped, aerobic and motile bacterium from the genus of Shewanella with a single polar flagella which has been isolated from the alga Sargassum thunbergii from the coast of Jeju Island on Korea.

Pseudomonas panacis is a Gram-negative, aerobic, motile with one or more polar flagella, rod-shaped bacterium. It derives its name from the fact that it causes rusty root lesions on Korean ginseng, as the ginseng genus is Panax.

Mamiellales are an order of green algae in the class Mamiellophyceae. Their cells and flagella are covered with spiderweb-like scales of several types. Some species lack scales but possess pigments similar to those of the scale- bearing species.

Listeria monocytogenes is a gram-positive bacterium. It is closely related to Bacillus and Staphylococcus. It is a rod-shaped, facultative anaerobe that is motile by peritrichous flagella. L. monocytogenes motility is limited from 20 °C to 25 °C.

Borrelia sinica is a spirochete bacterium. Its cells contain only four periplasmic flagella inserted at each end of the spirochaetes, differing from other Borrelia species. It is associated with Lyme disease. CMN3T is the type strain of this species.

Oxyrrhis marina, Gymnodinium sp. and Kofoidinium spp.), draw prey to the sulcal region of the cell (either via water currents set up by the flagella or via pseudopodial extensions) and ingest the prey through the sulcus. In several Protoperidinium spp., e.g.

The gradient can be used to transport molecules across membranes. It can be used to do mechanical work, such as rotating bacterial flagella. It can be used to produce ATP and NADPH, high-energy molecules that are necessary for growth.

Alcaligenes piechaudii is a bacterium; its type strain is CIP 60.75 (= Hugh 366-5 = IAM 12591 = LMG 1873). It is rod-shaped, aerobic, Gram negative, unpigmented, and motile by peritrichous flagella. It is found in humans and in the environment.

The regions of the carapace are usually not clearly defined. The "whip" of their antennules (antennular flagella) are small or rudimentary. They fold back into the body diagonally or almost vertically. The plate between them (the interantennular septum) is broad.

The joints are slender and linear, with a cleft triangular telson. Their flagella have two parts, and their labrum is whole, with triturative molars. The outer rami are shorter than the inner ones, and they have a smooth third epimeral plate.

Zoospores lose their flagella, become cysts, germinate and feed on the host via a germ tube, and produce more sporangia to continue the disease cycle.Jackson, G.V.H. (1980) Diseases and pests of taro. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 51 pp.

A. utahensis are irregular in size and shape. They form sporangia which are 5 to 18 micrometers in diameter, and contain spores arranged in irregular coils. A. utahensis are motile by way of a number of flagella at one end.

Heterokont zoospore of Saprolegnia with tinsel and whiplash flagella. A zoospore is a motile asexual spore that uses a flagellum for locomotion. Also called a swarm spore, these spores are created by some protists, bacteria and fungi to propagate themselves.

Mobiluncus mulieris is a curved, anaerobic bacteria from the vaginae of women. Its cells are motile and rod-shaped, having multiple subpolar flagella and multilayered gram-variable cell walls. Its type strain is ATCC 35243. According to Hoyles et al.

Although it has been most commonly studied in the context of immune evasion, it is observed in many other areas as well and is employed by various types of bacteria, including Salmonella species. Salmonella use this technique to switch between different types of the protein flagellin. As a result, flagella with different structures are assembled. Once an adaptive response has been mounted against one type of flagellin, or if a previous encounter has left the adaptive immune system ready to deal with one type of flagellin, switching types renders previously high affinity antibodies, TCRs, and BCRs ineffective against the flagella.

In the 1980s, Dieter Oesterhelt’s laboratory showed for the first time that haloarchaea switch the rotation of their archaellum from clockwise to counterclockwise upon blue light pulses. This led microbiologists to believe that the archaeal motility structure is not only functionally, but also structurally reminiscent of bacterial flagella. Nevertheless, evidence started to build up indicating that archaella and flagella shared their function, but not their structure and evolutionary history. For example, in contrast to flagellins, archaellins (the protein monomers which form the archaellum filament) are produced as preproteins which are processed by a specific peptidase prior to assembly.

A key difference between the two structures is that in a eukaryotic organism such as humans, flagella are used to propel the cell, while cilia are used to move substances across a surface. An example of each would be the flagellum present on a sperm cell and the cilium on the epithelial tissue of the lungs that clears out foreign particles. Motile cilia and flagella possess the same 9+2 axoneme structure. The 9 indicates the number of doublets present around the outer edge of the appendage while the 2 refers to a central pair of independent microtubules.

C. elegans Intraflagellar transport or IFT is a bidirectional motility along axonemal microtubules that is essential for the formation (ciliogenesis) and maintenance of most eukaryotic cilia and flagella. It is thought to be required to build all cilia that assemble within a membrane projection from the cell surface. Plasmodium falciparum cilia and the sperm flagella of Drosophila are examples of cilia that assemble in the cytoplasm and do not require IFT. The process of IFT involves movement of large protein complexes called IFT particles or trains from the cell body to the ciliary tip and followed by their return to the cell body.

Two additional genera, Hegneriella Earl 1971 and Bezzenbergeria Earl 1973, have not been considered as valid by subsequent authors (p. 249) The 5 recognized genera differ in terms of the number of nuclei, the appearance and location of the falx (two short, sickle-shaped rows of flagella), and whether the long rows of flagella (called "kineties") cover the body evenly or if there is a "bald spot". Due to the differences in body shape among the different life cycle stages within a species, the use of overall body shape - whether flat or cylindrical - to differentiate the genera has been de-emphasized.

Haplozoon (/hæploʊ’zoʊən/) are unicellular endo-parasites, primarily infecting maldanid polychaetes. They belong to Dinoflagellata but differ from typical dinoflagellates. Most dinoflagellates are free-living and possess two flagella. Instead, Haplozoon belong to a 5% minority of parasitic dinoflagellates that are not free-living.

Devosia is a genus of Gram-negative soil bacteria. It is named after the Belgian microbiologist Paul De Vos. They are motile by flagella, the cells are rod-shaped.Garrity, George M.; Brenner, Don J.; Krieg, Noel R.; Staley, James T. (eds.) (2005).

Likewise, most fungi do not produce cells with flagellae, but the primitive fungal chytrids do. Many protists take the form of single-celled flagellates. Flagella are generally used for propulsion. They may also be used to create a current that brings in food.

The genus was named by Robert Lauterborn in 1899. Thauma in Greek can mean ‘miracle,’ ‘wonder,’ or ‘marvel,’ while mastix is a suffix (also Greek-derived) that can be used to mean ‘scourge’ or ‘whip,’ which may refer to the organism’s flagella.

SRII in the plasma membrane binds its transducer via a number of bonds. Photon absorption induces structural changes in SRII, which when conducted to HtrII. HtrII in turn regulates level of unbound kinases in cytoplasm. Kinases regulate rotation of flagella via phosphorilation.

Eyespots are the simplest and most common "eyes" found in nature, composed of photoreceptors and areas of bright orange- red pigment granules. Signals relayed from the eyespot photoreceptors result in alteration of the beating pattern of the flagella, generating a phototactic response.

These flagella typically exist at a specific pole of the organism. This movement has been seen at room or at high temperatures, depending on the specific organism. In some species, these microorganisms can aggregate and form white-gray plaques.Tae-Yang Jung, Y.-S.

G. obscuriglobus is a large, roughly spherical bacterium with a cell diameter of 1–2μm. It is motile and possesses multiple flagella per cell (that is, it is multitrichous). Dense, compact DNA and a deeply invaginated membrane are characteristics of the species.

Eurybacteria is a taxon created by Cavalier-Smith, which includes several groups of Gram-negative bacteria. In this model, it is the ancestor of gram positive bacteria. Their endospores are characterized by producing and presenting external flagella or mobility by bacterial displacement.

The protein responsible for movement of cilia and flagella was first discovered and named dynein in 1963 (Karp, 2005). 20 years later, cytoplasmic dynein, which had been suspected to exist since the discovery of flagellar dynein, was isolated and identified (Karp, 2005).

PomA is a protein that is part of the stator in Na+ driven bacterial flagella. It has a high degree of homology to MotA, and Rhodobacter sphaeroides MotA can functionally complement a non-motile Vibrio alginolyticus with a non- functional pomA gene.

Paraburkholderia ginsengisoli is a gram-negative, rod-shaped, motile bacterium with unipolar polytrichous flagella from the genus Paraburkholderia and the family Burkholderiaceae which was isolated from soil of a ginseng field in South Korea. Paraburkholderia ginsengisoli has the ability to produce β-glucosidase.

Clostridium indolis is Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria that occurs singly or in pairs. It has motility due to its peritrichous flagella. It produces round to oval, swollen, terminal or subterminal spores. C. indolis is anaerobic, meaning it does not require oxygen.

It also has pili, but no flagella. Cardiobacterium hominis also causes endocarditis. Cardiobacterium hominis is part of the HACEK group of bacteria that cause infective endocarditis. S. indologenes is not part of the HAECK group of organisms but has very similar characteristics.

CheY induces tumbling by interacting with the flagellar switch protein FliM, inducing a change from counter-clockwise to clockwise rotation of the flagellum. Change in the rotation state of a single flagellum can disrupt the entire flagella bundle and cause a tumble.

Members of the Cryomonadida are single-celled organisms that are surrounded by a shell comprising layers of organic material. They possess two unequally long flagella, and a single nucleus with a distinct nucleolus. They have a laterally located cytostome, from which pseudopodia arise.

This ultimately divides to form new spores, which are released when the host's cells burst. Both resting spores and motile zoospores, which generally have two smooth flagella, are produced at different stages. Within the plasmodium, dividing nuclei have a distinctive cross-like appearance.

Bacillus safensis is a Gram-positive, spore-forming rod bacterium. B. safensis is also an aerobic chemoheterotroph. Cell size ranges from 0.5 to 0.7 μm in diameter and 1.0–1.2 μm in length. This species is motile, and use polar flagella for locomotion.

Deefgea is a genus of bacteria in the phylum Proteobacteria. Deefgea are described as Gram-negative, rod-shaped, facultative anaerobes which generally occur singly. Deefgea are motile, either by a single flagellum or two polar flagella. They are both catalase and oxidase positive.

Roseburia intestinalis is a saccharolytic, butyrate-producing bacterium first isolated from human faeces. It is anaerobic, gram-positive, non-sporeforming, slightly curved rod-shaped and motile by means of multiple subterminal flagella. L1-82T (= DSM 14610T = NCIMB 13810T) is the type strain.

The radial spoke is a multi-unit protein structure found in the axonemes of eukaryotic cilia and flagella. Although experiments have determined the importance of the radial spoke in the proper function of these organelles, its structure and mode of action remain poorly understood.

It has two apical flagella of different lengths and a haptonema. D.lutheri is capable of producing a large amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). This characteristic is therefore widely used to feed bivalve molluscs, crustaceans and fish.

Malikia granosa is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped, motile bacterium with one to two polar flagella from the new genus Malikia in family Comamonadaceae. It was isolated from activated sludge of a municipal wastewater treatment plant.Spring, S., et al. (2005). Malikia granosa gen. nov.

They also are flagellated and swim, they use their flagella and lists to wrap around another gamete cell for conjugation. Although the gametes are part of a dimorphic sexual cycle, sex cysts do not play an active role in the seeding of Dinophysis populations.

The Thiotrichaceae are a family of Proteobacteria, including Thiomargarita namibiensis, the largest known bacterium.George M. Garrity: Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. 2. Auflage. Springer, New York, 2005, Volume 2: The Proteobacteria, Part B: The Gammaproteobacteria Some species are movable by gliding, Thiospira by using flagella.

An eurasian coot swimming Aquatic locomotion is biologically propelled motion through a liquid medium. The simplest propulsive systems are composed of cilia and flagella. Swimming has evolved a number of times in a range of organisms including arthropods, fish, molluscs, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Thermocrinis minervae is a bacterium. Its cells are gram-negative and are approximately 2.4–3.9 micrometres long and 0.5–0.6 micrometres wide; they are motile rods with polar flagella. It grows in temperatures between and . Its type strain is CR11T (=5DSM 19557T =5ATCC BAA-1533T).

Dientamoeba fragilis is a type of trichomonad. Trichomonads are flagellated organisms but D. fragilis lacks flagella, having secondarily lost them over evolutionary time. Thus, it is an amoeba of flagellate ancestry. In point of ultrastructural and antigenic view, Dientamoeba is reclassified as a flagellate.

The cell body is lens-shaped or half spherical when mature with two flagella. The chloroplast is dish- or bowl-shaped. Pyrenoids may be present or absent, the stigma large. The nucleus is centrally located and there may be 4 to 8 contractile vacuoles.

Ammoniphilus oxalivorans is a Gram-variable, spore-forming, haloalkalitolerant, rod-shaped, aerobic, obligately oxalotrophic and motile bacteria from the genus of Ammoniphilus with peritrichous flagella which has been isolated from the rhizosphere of the plant Rumex acetosa from a public garden in Helsinki in Finland.

The novel third pattern of flagellar organization is somewhat of a hybrid of fla1 and fla2 but without a few crucial components. This suggests that both reductive evolution and horizontal gene transfer may have played a role in the acquisition of the flagella genes.

Archamoebae are a diverse group of amoebae. Many have flagella for motility, while others do not. They grow in the absence of oxygen, though some can tolerate small amounts. Most described species of Archamoebae either lack mitochondria or are described to have reduced mitosomes.

Inner membrane protein complexes, such as AgmU, propel the organism forward as these protein complexes function similar to the flagella complex of other motile organisms. These protein complexes, powered by a proton motive force, rotate within the membrane allowing cells to glide over surfaces.

Sporomusa termitida is a species of bacteria. It is an acetogen first isolated from termites (Nasutitermes nigriceps). Its cells are strictly anaerobic, Gram-negative, endospore-forming, straight to slightly curved rods (0.5–0.8×2–8 μm) that are motile by means of lateral flagella.

It has been shown that, in water droplets, one-way swimming magnetotactic bacteria can reverse their swimming direction and swim backwards under reducing conditions (less than optimal oxygen concentration), as opposed to oxic conditions (greater than optimal oxygen concentration). Regardless of their morphology, all magnetotactic bacteria studied so far are motile by means of flagella. Marine magnetotactic bacteria in particular tend to possess an elaborate flagellar apparatus which can involve up to tens of thousands of flagella. However, despite extensive research in recent years, it has yet to be established whether magnetotactic bacteria steer their flagellar motors in response to their alignment in magnetic fields.

In these species, sperm with longer flagella, despite their ability to swim faster do not increase fertilization success because they require more energy and cause a shorter sperm lifespan. In the superb fairywren, a socially monogamous species with a high frequency of extra pair copulations, the relative amount of extra-pair paternity was greater in individuals that had sperm with a shorter flagellum and a larger head. The males with longer flagella and smaller heads had higher within-pair paternity. Shorter sperm with large heads are more able to withstand long durations of storage whereas the opposite phenotype was better at outcompeting previously stored sperm.

In some cases the same regulators X and Y regulate several Z genes of the same system. By adjusting the strength of the interactions this motif was shown to determine the temporal order of gene activation. This was demonstrated experimentally in the flagella system of E. coli.

In microbiology labs, E. cloacae is frequently grown at 30 °C on nutrient agar or broth or at 35 °C in tryptic soy broth. It is a rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacterium, is facultatively anaerobic, and bears peritrichous flagella. It is oxidase- negative and catalase-positive.

Cupriavidus is a genus of bacteria that includes the former genus Wautersia. They are characterized as Gram-negative, motile, rod-shaped organisms with oxidative metabolism. They possess peritrichous flagella, are obligate aerobic organisms, and are chemoorganotrophic or chemolithotrophic. Resistance to metals (including copper) has been described.

Naegleria gruberi is a species of Naegleria. It is famous for its ability to change from an amoeba, which lacks a cytoplasmic microtubule cytoskeleton, to a flagellate, which has an elaborate microtubule cytoskeleton, including flagella. This "transformation" includes de novo synthesis of basal bodies (or centrioles).

Ceratiums have zygotic meiosis in their alternation of generation. Ceratium dinoflagellates may reproduce sexually or asexually. In asexual reproduction, the pellicle (shell) pulls apart and exposes the naked cell. The cell then increases in size and divides, creating 4–8 daughter cells, each with two flagella.

Pyrococcus horikoshii is a hyperthermophilic, anaerobic archaeon, first isolated from hydrothermal fluid samples obtained at the Okinawa Trough vents at a depth of . It is obligately heterotrophic, cells are irregular cocci with a tuft of flagella, growing optimally at 98 °C, sulphur greatly enhancing its growth.

There are the large long anterior free flagella and the fourth one is short and lies within the cystosome. There are no undulating membrane and axostyle. The cyst are lemons shaped with a small projection at the anterior end. The single nucleus lies near the centre.

Pseudocumatidae is a family of crustaceans of the order Cumacea. Its members have a small, free telson. The uropods bear endopods (interior branch) on one segment. The males have two pairs of rather rudimentary pleopods and the flagella of the second antenna reach far beyond the pereon.

Brachyspira aalborgi is a species of bacteria, one of the causative agents of intestinal spirochetosis. Its cells are anaerobic, sigmoidal with tapered ends, 2 to 6 µm long. Four flagella are inserted at each end of the cells. The maximal cell width is about 0.2 µm.

Transmission electron micrograph of cross-section through a dividing cell (the doublet). The light micrograph inset depicts a doublet in culture. Flagella are present from the daughter mastigote cells (white arrowheads) prior to emerging from the mother cell wall. n = nucleus; acc = accumulation body; pyr = pyrenoid.

Its ocular peduncles and antennae are a solid orange and the antennal flagella are transparent. The corneous has parallel ridges on the palm, with similar ridges on the crabs' dactyls (the movable part of their pincers). The halloween hermit crab can live for up to 10 years.

J. Bacteriol. 94 (1): 27–31. PMC 251866. PMID 6027998. Due to Leptospira’s morphology, researchers typically use dark-field microscopy as opposed to Light-field microscopy because the amphitrichous flagella produce quick movements along the microscope that are hard to see on a light-field microscope.

This morphology is consistent with bacteria with lophotrichous flagella which uses it for motile transport. No research has been done to elucidate the utility of the flagellum or lack thereof. L. mirabilis is a facultative anaerobe. It is capable of fermenting glucose, fructose, sucrose and mannitol.

They have no flagella or fimbria, no capsule. Mycobacterium tuberculosis group bacteria are 1.0 - 4.0 µm long by 0.2 - 0.3 µm wide in tissues. In culture they may appear as cocci, or as bacilli up to 6 - 8 µm long . The bacteria stain Gram-positive, acid-fast.

On core jakobids and excavate taxa: The ultrastructure of Jakoba incarcerata. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 48(4), 480-492. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2001.tb00183.x.. The anterior flagella are usually shorter than the body length while the posterior flagella are usually more than twice longer than the cell; the posterior flagella of S. incarcerata are generally shorter, usually about 1.5 times the cell length The anterior flagellum of S. incarcerata has single root made of two slightly separated microtubules, which originates close to the anterior basal body in the ventral, posterior end.. The posterior flagellum has two main microtubular roots: the left one is associated with three different non- microtubular fibres as well as a composite fibre, and the right one of one type. In addition, a singlet “root” circles the posterior basal body and supports the shape of the groove A dorsal vane attaches on the posterior flagellum, which is supported by a paraxonemal lamella that originates near the axoneme.. The axoneme is composed of the typical eukaryotic 9 x 2 motif.

In most such organisms, one or more flagella are located at or near the anterior of the cell, e.g., Euglena. Often there is one directed forwards and one trailing behind. Among animals, fungi, which are part of a group called the opisthokonts, there is a single posterior flagellum.

They lack flagella, and are covered by a smooth, clear cyst wall. Each cyst contains the organelles for two trophzoites: four nuclei, two ventral disks, etc. Multiple views of a Giardia lamblia cyst imaged by confocal microscopy. Bar = 10 micrometers (A) Cyst imaged by transmission (differential interference contrast).

Some distinguishing features of the bacteria include a thin spirochete, which is not reliably seen on gram stain. The bacteria's outer membrane has endotoxin- like lipids. Their axial filaments consists of endoflagella and periplasmic flagella. The creatures cannot be cultured in lab, and they are an obligate pathogen.

T. elfii has flagella uniformly distributed around its body, making it a peritrichous bacteria. It is also an obligate anaerobe, meaning it cannot tolerate oxygen. Electron acceptors include thiosulfate, arabinose, bio-trypticase, fructose, glucose, lactose, maltose, ribose, sucrose, and xylose. Electron donors include acetate, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen.

Species use their flagella to travel in straight lines while rotating along their axis, in which they travel in one direction for long distances and then abruptly change directions instantaneously without stopping. Some species differ from this pattern of movement and move in less rigid and structured fashion.

The sperm tail is a specialized type of cilium (aka flagella). In many animals the sperm tail is formed in a unique way, which is named Cytosolic ciliogenesis, since all or part of axoneme of the sperm tail is formed in the cytoplasm or get exposed to the cytoplasm.

Like in P. ascensionis, no distinct corneal elements are visible. The antennula has a large pointed stylocerite, which reaches about to the end of the second segment of the antennular peduncle. Two simple antennular flagella are present, both being very long. The scaphocerite is twice as long as wide.

The cell has two flagella for locomotion. Reproduction is by simple binary fission. In lateral view D. acuminata cells are irregularly egg-shaped, dorsally convex and have large hypothecal plates with a more or less oval shape. The dorsal contour is always more strongly convex than the ventral one.

These are entirely distinct from prokaryotic flagellae. They are supported by a bundle of microtubules arising from a centriole, characteristically arranged as nine doublets surrounding two singlets. Flagella also may have hairs, or mastigonemes, and scales connecting membranes and internal rods. Their interior is continuous with the cell's cytoplasm.

The free-living flagellate Trimastix is closely related to the oxymonads. It lacks mitochondria and has four flagella separated by a preaxostyle, but unlike the oxymonads has a feeding groove. This character places the Oxymonads and Trimastix among the Excavata, and in particular they may belong to the metamonads.

Most individuals have scales on the body surface, as well. The two flagella have separate functions. One undulates in waves and the other is coiled, producing a corkscrew-like propulsion to move the cell. The individual appears colorless, but a concentrated culture of cells may have a pink tinge.

Journal of Plankton Research 33(4) 629-39. It is cannibalistic, as well. It feeds by phagocytosis, totally engulfing its prey. It has been observed spinning one of its flagella in such a way that it creates a current, pulling the item closer so it can seize it.

P. ramorum produces both resting spores (chlamydospores) and zoospores, which have flagella enabling swimming. P. ramorum is spread by air;Davidson, J.M., et al. Phytophthora ramorum and Sudden Oak Death in California: II. Transmission and Survival. in Fifth Symposium on Oak Woodlands: Oaks in California's Changing Landscape. 2001.

In 1899, Luther created "Heterokontae" for some algae with unequal flagella, today called Xanthophyceae. Later, some authors (e.g., Copeland, 1956) would include other groups in Heterokonta, expanding its sense. The origin of the other name of the group, "stramenopile", is explained by David (2002) and Adl et al.

The cell walls of green algae usually contain cellulose, and they store carbohydrate in the form of starch. All green algae have mitochondria with flat cristae. When present, paired flagella are used to move the cell. They are anchored by a cross-shaped system of microtubules and fibrous strands.

1 at right: # Opisthokont. Posterior whiplash flagella, a characteristic of Chytridiomycota, and a proposed uniting trait of the Opisthokonts, a large clade of eukaryotes containing animals and fungi. In most of these, there is a single posterior flagellum (Fig. 1a), but in Neocallimastigales, there are up to 16 (Fig.

Neocallimastix patriciarum is a species of fungus that lives in the rumen of sheep, but has also been found in other species. It is an anaerobe similar to N. frontalis, but its zoospores possess 9–17 flagella; they also have no equatorial constriction and its organelles are distributed uniformly.

Desulfovibrio marinisediminis is a bacterium. It is sulfate-reducing. Its cells are vibrio-shaped, Gram-negative, motile rods (0.7-1.0 micrometres wide and 1.0-3.5 micrometres long) with single polar flagella. The type strain is C/L2(T) (=NBRC [corrected] 101113(T) =JCM 14577(T) =DSM 17456(T)).

Desulfotomaculum are straight or curved rods, are highly heat resistant and a free-living fixer of atmospheric nitrogen. They are motile with a peritrichous flagella and are common inhabitants of soil, water, geothermal run-off, insect intestines and in rumen. They also cause "sulphide stinker" spoilage of canned foods.

Swarming is a specialized form of motility that groups of multicellular, flagellated bacteria can undergo to expand their populations to new locations. The swarming capability of Proteus mirabilis is important because it is implicated in the pathogenesis of the bacteria and the swarming capability is associated with the bacteria's ability to express virulence factors Proteus mirabilis has a very characteristic bulls-eye appearance on an agar plate due to the regular periodic cycling between the vegetative and swarming state of the cells. In liquid culture, Proteus mirabilis exists as a vegetative cell that is approximately 2µm long and has four to ten peritrichous flagella. In the vegetative cell the flagella are used to propel the bacterium forward.

Swarming cells are only formed when the bacteria are grown on solid surfaces so the ability to detect these solid surfaces is a required feature. It has been proposed that Proteus mirabilis senses a solid surface by the inhibition of its’ flagellum rotation, and it is this lack of freely rotating flagella that let the bacteria know it is on a solid surface. When Proteus mirabilis encounters a solid surface, and other necessary conditions have been met, the cell will undergo the differentiation process into a swarmer cell. This differentiation process includes the elongation of the cell 20 to 50 times longer than the vegetative cell, multinucleation, and more than a 50-fold greater surface density of flagella.

The ciliates are a group of protozoans characterized by the presence of hair- like organelles called cilia, which are identical in structure to eukaryotic flagella, but are in general shorter and present in much larger numbers, with a different undulating pattern than flagella. Cilia occur in all members of the group (although the peculiar Suctoria only have them for part of their life-cycle) and are variously used in swimming, crawling, attachment, feeding, and sensation. Ciliates are an important group of protists, common almost anywhere there is water — in lakes, ponds, oceans, rivers, and soils. About 4,500 unique free-living species have been described, and the potential number of extant species is estimated at 27,000–40,000.

Cell scheme. 1-haptonema, 2-flagella, 3-mitochondrion, 4-Golgi apparatus, 5-nucleus, 6-scales, 7-chrysolaminarin vacuole, 8-plastid, 9-ribosomes, 10-stigma, 11-endoplasmic reticulum, 12-chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum, 13-pyrenoid, 14-thylakoids. The chloroplasts are pigmented similarly to those of the heterokonts, but the structure of the rest of the cell is different, so it may be that they are a separate line whose chloroplasts are derived from similar red algal endosymbionts. The cells typically have two slightly unequal flagella, both of which are smooth, and a unique organelle called a haptonema, which is superficially similar to a flagellum but differs in the arrangement of microtubules and in its use.

Trophozoites of Chilomastix have been described as pyriform, lemon-shaped or pear-shaped in various species with a rounded anterior and an elongated posterior end that comes to a point. Four flagella are present in all species; three flagella extend anteriorly and move freely, while the fourth flagellum is located within the feeding groove that acts as the cell mouth. This fourth, posteriorly orientated flagellum is vaned, due to the presence of two wing-like structures that extend from it. The feeding groove and fourth flagellum are positioned in the anterior region of the body and work together, involved in the function of endocytosis, enabling the movement of food particles towards the feeding groove.

T. socranskii is helically coiled and motile using periplasmic flagella. In liquid media, it can move linearly or in a twisting screw-like motion. The cell size ranges from 6-15μm long and 0.16-0.18μm wide. The cells are wider in the center than at the ends and are curved slightly.

Morphology Mature "A. aeolicus" cells are typically rod-shaped bacterium with an approximate length of 2.0-6.0μm and a diameter of 0.4-0.5μm. These cells are motile by means of a monopolar polytrichous flagella. Additionally, members of the species tend to form large cell conglomerations, of up to 100 individual cells.

Tanyptera is a genus of true crane flies; its species are lustrous and black and yellow or red in color. They resemble some Ichneumonidae. Segments of the flagella of males have three outgrowths each (two lower paired and one the upper unpaired). The antennae of the females are distinctly 13-segmented.

When spermatozoa reach the isthmic oviduct, their motility has been reported to be reduced as they attach to epithelium. Near the time of ovulation, hyperactivation occurs. During this process, the flagella move with high curvature and long wavelength.Mortimer, D., Aitken, R. J., Mortimer, S. T., and Pacey, A. A.(1995).

Most produce energy via the reduction of carbon dioxide with hydrogen, but some species can also use formate as a substrate. They are Gram-negative and move using flagella on the sides of the cells. They are strictly anaerobic, and they are found in wetland soil and anaerobic water treatment systems.

The arrangement of flagella differs and can be polar, bipolar, or in tufts. The first phylogenetic analysis on magnetotactic bacteria using 16S rRNA gene sequence comparisons was performed by P. Eden et al. in 1991. Another trait that shows considerable diversity is the arrangement of magnetosomes inside the bacterial cell.

To keep water flowing in and out, the flagella that line their pours beat in either direction. The sponge is most known and used for a molecule that can be extracted from it called calyculin A, which is a colorless oil used in a variety of different studies in modern medicine.

Desulfurobacterium atlanticum are sulphur-reducing, Gram-negative bacteria. They are straight or curved rods about 2.5-3.5 micrometers in length and 0.4-0.5 micrometers in width. D. atlanticum are a motile bacteria by flagella. These bacteria can occur in pairs, alone, or in chains of 5 to 6 bacteria long.

Swarming motility occurs on softer semi-solid and solid surfaces (which usually involves movement of a bacterial population in a coordinated fashion via quorum sensing, using flagella to propel them), or twitching motility on solid surfaces (which involves extension and retraction of type IV pili to drag the bacterium forward).

They range from spherical forms, such as Megasphaera and Veillonella, to curved rods, as typified by the selenomonads. Selenomonas has a characteristic crescent shape, with flagella inserted on the concave side, while Sporomusa is similar, but nonmotile. Their names refer to this distinctive morphology: selene means moon, and musa means banana.

Chaetosphaeridium globosum is a one-celled alga which is thought to represent an ancient lineage of the green plants. This organism exists in a filamentous form with one flagella per cell. It is a freshwater species. The flagellum is covered in scales in a 3-prong irregular shape called ‘maple leafs’.

Sketch of Collodictyon. The species in this genus range in size from 30 to 50 µm in length, can grow broad pseudopodia, and have four flagella and a ventral feeding groove or sulcus. They are devoid of cellulosic cell walls, chloroplasts or stigmata. There are two to several contractile vacuoles.

Tumebacillus flagellatus is a species of Gram positive, aerobic, bacterium. The cells are rod-shaped, motile, and form spores. It was first isolated from wastewater from a cassava processing plant in Guangxi, China. The species was first described in 2013, and the name refers to the flagella found in the cells.

H. arenicola is a protist with one rounded cell having two flagella for locomotion. It feeds on algae using a complex feeding tube when it leads an independent life. The feeding tube, however, is replaced by an endosymbiotic alga. The algal endosymbiont is a green alga from the genus Nephroselmis.

Acidiphilium cryptum is a species of heterotrophic bacteria, the type species of its genus. It is gram-negative, aerobic, mesophilic and rod-shaped. It does not form endospores and some cells are motile by means of one polar flagellum or two lateral flagella Lhet2 (=ATCC 33463) is the type strain.

Oceanobacillus oncorhynchi is a halotolerant, obligately alkaliphilic bacterium first isolated from the skin of a rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), hence its name. It is Gram-positive, rod-shaped and motile by peritrichous flagella and produces ellipsoidal spores. The type strain is R-2(T) (=JCM 12661(T) =NCIMB 14022(T)).

Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility. The bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane(s) and extrudes through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. A different type of flagellum is found in archaea and a different type is found in eukaryotes.

C. canimorsus is a fastidious, Gram-negative, fermentative, nonspore-forming rod. Bacilli are usually 1-3 μm in length. After growth on agar plates, longer rods tend to have a curved shape. The bacteria do not have flagella, but move with a gliding motion, although this can be difficult to see.

Scaffolds are used to display the heterologous protein on the bacterial cell surface. There are various scaffolds which have been used such as outer membrane proteins, fimbriae/flagella proteins and CPX (circularly permuted OmpX). The CPX scaffold allows peptide fusion at both termini of the scaffold. OMPs are common scaffolds for bacterial display.

As previously mentioned, Endomicrobia are important endosymbionts of Trichonympha. However, it has recently been determined that they may also play a role as ectosymbionts. Endomicrobia attach to the cell membrane and flagella of Trichonympha via protrusions. They are not present on every Trichonympha individual, suggesting that this symbiosis is facultative, not obligatory.

Campylobacter species generally appear as curved or comma-shaped rods, and are able to move via unipolar or bipolar flagella. They generally survive in environments with low oxygen. When exposed to atmospheric oxygen, C. jejuni is able to change into a coccal form. They are positive by the oxidase test and catalase test.

Paenibacillus macerans is a part of the family Paenibacillaceae which are facultative anaerobes. It is gram-variable, being gram-positive or gram-negative rods. Does not have a capsule and has peritrichous flagella for movement. It does form ellipsoidal, terminal, or subterminal spores which may last in the soil for many years.

The genus Ceratium is restricted to a small number (about 7) of freshwater dinoflagellate species. Previously the genus contained also a large number of marine dinoflagellate species. However, these marine species have now been assigned to a new genus called Tripos. Ceratium dinoflagellates are characterized by their armored plates, two flagella, and horns.

See figure 1 for general features of the flagella and cell body of Tetraselmis species. They have a single large chloroplast, usually with four anterior lobes, which occupies most of the cytoplasmic compartment.Norris, R.E., Hori, T., and Chihara, M. 1980: Revision of the Genus Tetraselmis (Class Prasinophyceae). Bot. Mag. Tokyo. 93: 317-339.

Non-motile sperm cells called spermatia lack flagella and therefore cannot swim. Spermatia are produced in a spermatangium. Because spermatia cannot swim, they depend on their environment to carry them to the egg cell. Some red algae, such as Polysiphonia, produce non-motile spermatia that are spread by water currents after their release.

The hairy flagellum points forward in an arc in sessile cells. Cafeteria is a eukaryotic organism, so it contains the typical organelles such as mitochondria and nuclei. Cafeteria roenbergensis reproduces asexually via binary fission, first replicating the flagella and internal organelles before the cell divides. No sexual activity is known for this species.

Cafeteria roenbergensis is a suspension feeder, meaning that it feeds by filtering suspended bacteria, its primary food source, and other particulate matter from the water. Its two flagella facilitate feeding, locomotion and attachment to substrates. The anterior flagellum is responsible for locomotion and feeding. It propels the cell in a swift spiral movement.

Excavata are considered primitive eukaryotes. They are characterized by a feeding groove with a posteriorly located flagella, which allows them to create a current that captures small food particles. The cytostome is the specialized structure that allows the protists this function. This supergroup Excavata includes the subgroups Diplomonads (Fornicata), Parabasalids, and Euglenozoans.

Leptospira interrogans is a Gram negative, obligate aerobe spirochete, with periplasmic flagella. When viewed through a dark-field microscope, it often resembles a question mark, and this gives the species its name. It is a member of the genus Leptospira. Some important pathogenic serovars from this species are Canicola, Icterohaemorrhagiae and Australis.

A. xylosoxidans is a Gram-negative rod that does not form spores. It is motile, with peritrichous flagella that distinguish it from Pseudomonas species, and is oxidase-positive, catalase-positive, and citrate-positive. It is urease and indole-negative. It produces acid oxidatively from xylose, but not from lactose, maltose, mannitol, or sucrose.

Sporangia may be retained by the subtending hyphae (noncaducous) or be shed readily by wind or water tension (caducous) acting as dispersal structures. Also, sporangia may release zoospores, which have two unlike flagella which they use to swim towards a host plant. The lifecycle of Phytophthora Phytophthora forms: A: Sporangia. B: Zoospore.

Adults grow to a total length of , with a carapace long. The antennal plate is visible in front of the carapace and has two large spines. The first pair of antennae are forked and the second pair are long, thick and spiny. There are long, slender flagella at the tips of the antennae.

Head The most conspicuous appendages arising from the head are the antennae. The first pair are biramous (having two flagella), except in Luciferidae, and are relatively small.Tavares & Martin, 2010, p. 106 The second pair can be 2–3 times the length of the body and are always uniramous (having a single flagellum).

The cell body is under 10 μm in size, and has a pair of reduced flagella, which are smooth and insert parallel to one another. It may also produce motile zoospores and cysts. Gymnophrys and Borkovia are the only confirmed genera, but other naked reticulose amoebae such as Biomyxa may be close relatives.

Roseivivax halotolerans is a species of bacteria. It is aerobic and bacteriochlorophyll-containing, first isolated from the epiphytes on the stromatolites of a saline lake located on the west coast of Australia. It is chemoheterotrophic, Gram-negative, motile, rod-shaped and with subpolar flagella. Its type strain is OCh 210T (= JCM 10271T).

These signals are a clear indication to the bacteria that they are no longer free in the environment, but in the gut. As a result, QseC phosphorylates QseB (which activates flagella), KpdE (which activates the LEE) and QseF. QseE phosphorylates QseF. The products QseBC and QseEF repress the expression of FusK and FusR.

The species within Methanogenium are coccoid in shape and Gram-negatives and, like other methanogenic archaea, they produce methane from carbon dioxide, hydrogen or formate as substrates. Although they occasionally have flagella, they are non- motile. They are strictly anaerobic, and can be found in marine and lake sediments that lack oxygen.

It is also possible to isolate these polar organelles from the bacterial cells and study them in face view in negatively stained preparations. The polar organelle bears a fine array of attached particles in hexagonal close packing and these have been shown to possess ATPase activity. The polar organelle is found in close juxtaposition to the points of insertion of the bacterial flagella into the plasma membrane, especially where multiple flagella bases are grouped in a region of the cell membrane. It may thus be inferred that the polar organelle could be of importance in the supply and transfer of energy to the bidirectional molecular rotational motor situated at the base of each individual bacterial flagellum (see also electrochemical gradient).

The ultrastructure of several species is well known. The periplast of H. brunnescens has crystalline plates and an unusual secondary layer composed of small "sausage-like" fibrils. The nucleomorph is located outside the pyrenoid between the pyrenoid and the nucleus. The flagella are covered with a layer of fibrillary scales overlapping with each other.

She has published research on centrosome biology and has also investigated the role of aneuploidy, polyploidy and genetic instability. She is considered a reference in the field of centrosomes biology and has edited a book about methods to study cilia and flagella. She is the author of 58 publications and has been cited 1,929 times.

The H antigen is a major component of flagella, involved in E. coli movement. It is generally encoded by the fliC gene. There are 53 identified H antigens, numbered from H1 to H56 (H13 and H22 were not E. coli antigens but from Citrobacter freundii, and H50 was found to be the same as H10).

R. azumiensis are gram-negative rods 1 μm wide and 2-4 μm long. They are capable of motility by a singular polar flagella. R. azumiensis uses budding to multiply, and form rosette-like clusters in older cultures. Colonies and liquid cultures are brownish red when grown phototrophically and colorless when grown aerobically in darkness.

Grown on R2a agar, colonies are off-white or cream, around 2-3mm in diameter, mucoid and translucent. Cells are gram-negative 0.4 by 2 µm rods. The cells are without any gliding motility and the genome revealed no flagella or chemotaxis systems. It is catalase-positive, oxidase-negative, and can not reduce nitrate.

The flagella ensnare food particles which are then engulfed. These cells often contain symbiotic diatoms, minute photosynthetic algae. These use carbohydrates manufactured by the sponge but also create sugars by photosynthesis when there is sufficient light. These diatoms benefit from the protection the sponge provides which enhances their prospects for survival in the Antarctic winter.

The supergroup Archaeplastida includes red algae, green algae and land plants. Each of these three groups have multicellular species and the green and red algae have many single-celled species. The land plants are not considered protists. Red algae are primarily multicellular, lack flagella, and range in size from microscopic, unicellular to large, multicellular forms.

J Sci Food Agric 93 1010-1015 2013. Members of A. citrulli are Gram-negative rod shaped bacteria with the dimensions 0.5× 1.7 μm. They move via polar flagella. No known reliable sources of BFB resistance exist today, so seed hygiene and thorough testing of breeding facilities are the best way to control spreading.

Australasian Plant Pathology 44.4 (2015): 445-53. Web. 21 Oct. 2015. The powdery pustules contain resting spores that release anisokont zoospores (asexual spore with two unequal length flagella) to infect the root hairs of potatoes or tomatoes. Powdery scab is a cosmetic defect on tubers, which can result in the rejection of these potatoes.

The landmark protein TipN is essential for the proper placement of the flagellum. Mutants lacking TipN make serious mistakes in development. Instead of making a single flagellum at the correct cell pole , the cell makes multiple flagella at various locations, even on the stalk. Fig#1 Cell development involves many such proteins working together.

They lack flagella, but hormogonia of some species can move about by gliding along surfaces. Many of the multicellular filamentous forms of Oscillatoria are capable of a waving motion; the filament oscillates back and forth. In water columns, some cyanobacteria float by forming gas vesicles, as in archaea. These vesicles are not organelles as such.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, Band 159, 1964, S. 668-686. The name means "the paradoxical being with mixed-up hairs" because this protist has both cilia and flagella, which was not supposed to be the case with protists where they were supposed to have one or the other.

This particular species is anaerobic, rod-shaped and motile, thanks to possessing eight petritichous flagella. It grows optimally in 7.5% (wt/vol) sodium chloride solution. Albeit, salt shock is achieved with a concentration of 2-2.5M, affecting cell division and protein synthesis. Its reaction to heat shock is also associated with the medium's salt concentration.

It is typically found on the edge of a colony after one day of culture. Between three and nine flagella project out from the cell wall in a lophotrichous fashion. Finally, the third morphology is similar to a sphaeroblast. It is 5 to 10 µm in diameter, and it is typically found in older cultures.

Laminaria agardhii typically reproduces between September and April, peaking in January. This species of kelp reproduces via sporangia that grow on the surface of blades. The sporangia release zoospores with flagella, allowing for a greater area of dispersal. Gametophytes of Laminaria consist of a chain-like series of cells that grow into a new organism.

Tektins are cytoskeletal proteins found in cilia and flagella as structural components of outer doublet microtubules. They are also present in centrioles and basal bodies. They are polymeric in nature, and form filaments.MA Pirner and RW Linck; Tektins are heterodimeric polymers in flagellar microtubules with axial periodicities matching the tubulin lattice; J. Biol. Chem.

Research suggests that all currently known AAPB contain Gram-negative cell walls. The majority, have shapes that resemble cylinders, as well as flagella and cilia. AAPB cell dimensions are normally, 1.2μ long, 0.7μ in diameter, and a cell volume of 0.5 μm3. Their dry weight is 0.05 pg and wet weight is 0.5 pg.

The Prorocentrales are a small order of dinoflagellates. They are distinguished by having their two flagella inserted apically, rather than ventrally as in other groups. One flagellum extends forward and the other circles its base, and there are no flagellar grooves. This arrangement is called desmokont, in contrast to the dinokont arrangement found in other groups.

The dysfunction may be related to the abnormal head shape of sperm or distinctive structural changes in flagella in sperm, and could be possible end up in male infertility. An increased rate of my gene has found in the haploid phase of male cell during meiosis, thus it is believed to relate to sperm cell and aid in spermatogenesis.

The name Brevundimonas derives from: Latin adjective brevis, short; Latin feminine gender noun unda, a wave; Latin feminine gender noun monas (μονάς), nominally meaning "a unit", but in effect meaning a bacterium; New Latin feminine gender noun Brevundimonas, bacteria with short wavelength flagella. Members of the genus Brevundimonas can be referred to as brevundimonad (viz. Trivialisation of names).

Members of Halomonas are Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria, generally 0.6-0.8 μm by 1.6-1.9 μm. They move by using flagella. They grow in the presence of oxygen, although some have been reported to be able to grow without oxygen. When grown on an agar plate, they form white/yellow colonies that turn light brown over time.

Achromobacter is a genus of bacteria, included in the family Alcaligenaceae in the order Burkholderiales. The cells are Gram-negative straight rods and are motile by using one to 20 peritrichous flagella. They are strictly aerobic and are found in water (fresh and marine) and soils.Garrity, George M.; Brenner, Don J.; Krieg, Noel R.; Staley, James T. (eds.) (2005).

Cells of the genus Azotobacter are relatively large for bacteria (2–4 μm in diameter). They are usually oval, but may take various forms from rods to spheres. In microscopic preparations, the cells can be dispersed or form irregular clusters or occasionally chains of varying lengths. In fresh cultures, cells are mobile due to the numerous flagella.

Gonyaulax is a genus of dinoflagellates that are aquatic organisms with two separate flagella: one extends backward and the other wraps around the cell in a lateral groove helping to keep the organism afloat by rotational motility. The plate formula in the genus Gonyaulax Diesing was redefined as Po, 3', 2a, 6", 6c, 4-8s, 5'", 1p, 1"".

Electron micrograph of Helicobacter pylori possessing multiple flagella (negative staining) In a 2005 study, researchers investigated the accuracy of Helicobacter pylori diagnosis in dyspeptic patients using salivary anti-H. pylori IgG levels. They determined that saliva testing for H. pylori antibodies “could be used reliably for screening dyspeptic patients in general practice.” That same year Tiwari, et al.

Amphipods have two pairs of antennae. In J. falcata the first antennae have two-segmented flagella and are shorter and more slender than the second antennae. Males are 7–13 mm long and females are 6–12 mm. Colours vary but are usually yellow-grey with brown, red or black patches depending on the colour of the habitat.

Their high numbers in plants are thought to be at least partly attributable to their lack of a flagellum, as flagella are known to induce plant defenses. Additionally, K. variicola is known to associate with a number of different plants including banana trees, sugarcane and has been isolated from the fungal gardens of leaf- cutter ants.

Cells of Thermosphaera are cocci (spherical) and form grape-like aggregates during the exponential growth phase. In the late exponential and stationary growth phases, smaller groups, including some single cells, were visible. Aggregates were shown to have several flagella; single cells could have as many as eight. The cell envelope is an amorphous layer covering a cytoplasmic membrane.

Henrique da Rocha Lima, a Brazilian doctor, discovered this bacterium in 1916. He named it after his colleague Stanislaus von Prowazek, who had died from typhus in 1915. Both Prowazek and Rocha Lima had been infected with typhus while studying its causative agent in a prison hospital in Hamburg, Germany. This bacterium lacks flagella and is aerobic.

Longer cells may resemble corynebacteria. Flagella are produced at room temperature, but not at 37 °C. Hemolytic activity on blood agar has been used as a marker to distinguish L. monocytogenes from other Listeria species, but it is not an absolutely definitive criterion. Further biochemical characterization may be necessary to distinguish between the different species of Listeria.

One of the most fascinating pattern forming Paenibacillus species is P. vortex, self-lubricating, flagella-driven bacteria. P. vortex organizes its colonies by generating modules, each consisting of many bacteria, which are used as building blocks for the colony as a whole. The modules are groups of bacteria that move around a common center at about 10 µm/s.

The cytoplasm of the prey is then drawn into a large posterior food vacuole. Following feeding cells lose their flagella, become spherical, encyst and divide (i.e. reproduce). The cysts are simple spheres. The food vacuole appears as a large central vacuole in the cyst; as division progresses the remnant vacuole material is reduced to a residual body.

In most species, there are two eyes at the front side of the head shield, often merged into a single dorsal eye lobe. The five posterior somites of the thorax form the pereon. The pleon (abdomen) consists of six cylindrical somites. The first antenna (antennule) has two flagella, the outer flagellum usually being longer than the inner one.

When mice swim, they use their tails like flagella and kick with their legs. Many snakes are excellent swimmers as well. Large adult anacondas spend the majority of their time in the water, and have difficulty moving on land. Many monkeys can naturally swim and some, like the proboscis monkey, crab-eating macaque, and rhesus macaque swim regularly.

Palaeococcus ferrophilus is a barophilic, hyperthermophilic archaeon from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent chimney. It cells are irregular cocci and motile with multiple polar flagella. Paleococcus was the third genus within Euryarchaeota to be described in the literature. These organisms prefer to use elemental sulfur as an electron acceptor, but they can also use ferrous oxide.

They contain oxidase and have one or more flagella, which are generally polar. Originally, these characteristics defined the family, which was divided into four genera. Two of these, Vibrio and Photobacterium, correspond to the modern group, although several new genera have been defined. Genetic studies have shown the other two original members--Aeromonas and Plesiomonas--belong to separate families.

The dinospore (8–13.5 × 10–12.5 μm), whose antero- posteriorly compressed shape resembles a hamburger, is the infective stage. In this phase, the armoured (cellulose wall) protist is capable of active swimming thanks to two flagella: one longitudinal, the other transverse. After adhesion to a new host, the dinospore transforms into a trophont within 5 to 20 minutes.

The distal filament and transition zone are the only components that are not produced by certain species. Flagellar hairs have a fixed number of distal subunit repeats, which varies between 2-44 subunits depending on the species. Thus, flagellar hairs are a good morphological tool for species comparison and classification. Figure 1 includes these hairs on the flagella drawing.

Cafeteria roenbergensis is a slightly flattened, kidney-shaped bicosoecid. Its cell typically measures between 3 and 10 μm and it has a volume of around 20 μm³. It is colorless and has two unequally sized flagella. The smooth flagellum, angled posteriorly, is shorter, and attaches to substrates in non-motile cells, but trails behind in motile cells.

Rhodoblastus acidophilus, formerly known as Rhodopseudomonas acidophila, is a gram-negative purple non-sulfur bacteria. The cells are rod-shaped or ovoid, 1.0 to 1.3 μm wide and 2 to 5 μm long. They are motile by means of polar flagella, and they multiply by budding. The photopigments consist of bacteriochlorophyll a and carotenoids of the spirilloxanthin series.

Its carapace is coloured bright red, with circular and elongated whitish patches. Its rostrum is red and its orbital hoods transparent. The antennal and antennular peduncles are reddish, while both flagella are purplish red. Its major and minor chelipeds are red; the merus showing a distal white patch; chelae are deep red, white on the tips of fingers.

When liberated, the sporangia inside the pustules are spread by wind, rain, and insects. After landing on a susceptible plant, each sporangium gives rise to about six zoospores which, under suitable conditions of moisture and light, form germ tubes which invade the plant's tissues. Zoospores are naked (wall-less), kidney-shaped and bi-flagellate. Both flagella are inserted laterally.

Thauera is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria in the family Zoogloeaceae of the order Rhodocyclales of the Betaproteobacteria. The genus is named for the German microbiologist Rudolf Thauer. Most species of this genus are motile by flagella and are mostly rod-shaped.Garrity, George M.; Brenner, Don J.; Krieg, Noel R.; Staley, James T. (eds.) (2005).

In addition Archaeocyathids, whose fossils are common in rocks from , are now regarded as a type of sponge. Cells of the protist choanoflagellate clade closely resemble sponge choanocyte cells. Beating of choanocyte flagella draws water through the sponge so that nutrients can be extracted and waste removed.Clark MA, Choi J and Douglas M (2018) Biology 2e, page 776, OpenStax. .

The species also contained a pouch with threads that may be difficult to discern from flagella. Therefore, Ekebom et al. (1996) then renamed the organism as Carpediemonas when it was found from substrate samples in the Great Barrier Reef and classified it as a metamonad. Additionally, a metabolic relationship of Carpediemonas with prokaryotic communities was found in Carpediemonas frisia.

Archaea and bacteria have generally similar cell structure, but cell composition and organization set the archaea apart. Like bacteria, archaea lack interior membranes and organelles. Like bacteria, the cell membranes of archaea are usually bounded by a cell wall and they swim using one or more flagella. Structurally, archaea are most similar to gram-positive bacteria.

Oxymonas have two pairs of flagella which originate from pairs of basal bodies, which are located at the base of the rostellum. These basal body pairs are connected to the preaxostyle, which is a paracrystalline structure. In addition to the preaxostyle, there is an axostyle. This organelle moves the Oxymonas by undulating and changing shape in a sinusoidal fashion.

Pseudomonas fluorescens has multiple flagella. It has an extremely versatile metabolism, and can be found in the soil and in water. It is an obligate aerobe, but certain strains are capable of using nitrate instead of oxygen as a final electron acceptor during cellular respiration. Optimal temperatures for growth of P. fluorescens are 25–30°C.

The motile flagellated form is gymnodinioid and athecate. The relative dimensions of the epicone and hypocone differ among species. The alveoli are most visible in the motile phase but lack fibrous cellulosic structures found in thecate ("armored") dinoflagellates. Between the points of origin of the two flagella is an extensible structure of unknown function called the peduncle.

Tubulin and microtubule-mediated processes, like cell locomotion, were seen by early microscopists, like Leeuwenhoek (1677). However, the fibrous nature of flagella and other structures were discovered two centuries later, with improved light microscopes, and confirmed in the 20th century with the electron microscope and biochemical studies.Wayne, R. 2009. Plant Cell Biology: From Astronomy to Zoology.

Three types of excavate cells. Top: Jakobida, 1-nucleus, 2-anterior flagellum, 3-ventral/posterior flagellum, 4-ventral feeding groove. Middle: Euglenozoa, 1-nucleus, 2-flagellar pocket/reservoir, 3-dorsal/anterior flagellum, 4-ventral/posterior flagellum, 5-cytostome/feeding apparatus. Bottom: Metamonada, 1-anterior flagella, 2-parabasal body, 3-undulating membrane, 4-posterior flagellum, 5-nucleus, 6-axostyle.

Prey such as bacteria and smaller flagellates is ingested through a cytostome, supported by microtubules. These are often packed together to form two or more rods, which function in ingestion, and in Entosiphon form an extendable siphon. Most phagotrophic euglenids have two flagella, one leading and one trailing. The latter is used for gliding along the substrate.

Methanothermococcus okinawensis is a thermophilic, methane-producing archaeon first isolated from deep-sea hydrothermal vent on the western Pacific Ocean. Its cells are highly motile, irregular cocci, with a polar bundle of flagella. Its type strain is IH1T (=JCM 11175T =DSM 14208T). It grows at an optimal temperature of 60–65 °C and pH of 6.7.

Roseivivax halodurans is a species of bacteria, the type species of its genus. It is aerobic and bacteriochlorophyll-containing, first isolated from the charophytes on the stromatolites of a saline lake located on the west coast of Australia. It is chemoheterotrophic, Gram-negative, motile, rod-shaped and with subpolar flagella. Its type strain is OCh 239T (= JCM 10272T).

Example of Social Motility of Myxococcus xanthus. Mechanisms that drive gliding motility are still unknown. However, despite lacking flagella, pili, and fimbriae, bacteria such as Myxococcus xanthus are able to move across surfaces in a gliding motion. Close studies of the myxococcus xanthus has proposed ideas of how the bacteria are able to move across surfaces.

George B. Witman is an American biologist currently George F. Booth Chair Professor at University of Massachusetts Medical School and an Elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. His current research is on cilia and flagella biology and has made extensive work involving Chlamydomonas. His highly cited published papers are 1608, 789 and 709.

These chloroplasts are surrounded by three membranes and contain chlorophylls A and B, along with other pigments, so are probably derived from a captured green alga. Reproduction occurs exclusively through cell division. During mitosis, the nuclear membrane remains intact, and the spindle microtubules form inside of it. The group is characterized by the ultrastructure of the flagella.

Allomyces is a genus of fungi in the family Blastocladiaceae. It was circumscribed by British mycologist Edwin John Butler in 1911. Species in the genus have a polycentric thallus and reproduce asexually by zoospores that have a whiplash-like flagella. They are mostly isolated from soils in tropical countries, commonly in ponds, rice fields, and slow-moving rivers.

Giemsa staining may aid in identifying the flagellate. T. gallinae can be diagnosed by microscopic examination of a saline wet mount of oral excretions. The presence of a pear-shaped parasite with flagella is diagnostic. In psittacine birds, particularly in the early stages of infection, organisms often are not present on wet mounts of oral excretions.

For instance, the cell walls of oomycetes are composed of cellulose rather than chitin and generally do not have septations. Also, in the vegetative state they have diploid nuclei, whereas fungi have haploid nuclei. Most oomycetes produce self-motile zoospores with two flagella. One flagellum has a "whiplash" morphology, and the other a branched "tinsel" morphology.

For movement, the individual will extend and contract with a mixture of muscle movement and water (hydraulic) pressure. The hydraulic pressure is created inside the digestive cavity. Tiny cells line the digestive system that have flagella; this creates a current to draw water into the digestive cavity. This can extend the length of the body column.

The prasinophytes are morphologically diverse, including flagellates with one to eight flagella and non-motile (coccoid) unicells. The cells of many species are covered with organic body scales; others are naked. Well studied genera include Ostreococcus, considered to be the smallest (ca. 0.95 μm) free-living eukaryote, and Micromonas, both of which are found in marine waters worldwide.

E. vulneris is of the genus Escherichia, which it shares with the more commonly known E. coli. Its structure is rod- like (bacilli), and it is made motile by peritrichous flagella (covering the whole body of the bacteria). E. vulneris is facultatively anaerobic, and is not spore-forming. Optimal growth occurs at 35-37 °C, and can colonize on a simple nutrient medium.

The radial spoke is known to play a role in the mechanical movement of the flagellum/cilium. For example, mutant organisms lacking properly functioning radial spokes have flagella and cilia that are immotile. Radial spokes also influence the cilium "waveform"; that is, the exact bending pattern the cilium repeats. How the radial spoke carries out this function is poorly understood.

Like red algae, and in contrast to green algae and plants, glaucophytes store fixed carbon in the cytosol. Glaucophytes have mitochondria with flat cristae, and undergo open mitosis without centrioles. Motile forms have two unequal flagella, which may have fine hairs and are anchored by a multilayered system of microtubules, both of which are similar to forms found in some green algae.

Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens is a Gram-positive bacterium that causes disease on a variety of plants. Gram-positive bacterium characteristics include small irregular rods, lateral flagella, the ability to persist in aerobic environments, and cells containing catalase. In the interest of studying pathogenicity in plants, the species Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens is broken down further into pathovars, which help to better describe the pathogen.

Hypothetical protein structure of CFAP47 produced by I-Tasser. CXorf59 is a protein coding gene that is confirmed to be expressed in 27 different tissues. The liver, testis, thyroid, brain, and endometrium were higher in reads per kilobase of transcript (RPKM). While this gene is associated with cilia and flagella, there is no current functional information available on this protein.

Their ultrastructure plays an important role in classifying eukaryotes. Among protoctists and microscopic animals, a flagellate is an organism with one or more flagella. Some cells in other animals may be flagellate, for instance the spermatozoa of most animal phyla. Flowering plants do not produce flagellate cells, but ferns, mosses, green algae, and some gymnosperms and closely related plants do so.

The diplomonads (Greek for "two units") are a group of flagellates, most of which are parasitic. They include Giardia lamblia, which causes giardiasis in humans. They are placed among the metamonads, and appear to be particularly close relatives of the retortamonads. Most diplomonads are double cells: they have two nuclei, each with four associated flagella, arranged symmetrically about the body's main axis.

The flagellar movement produces forward propulsion and also a turning force. The longitudinal flagellum is relatively conventional in appearance, with few or no hairs. It beats with only one or two periods to its wave. The flagella lie in surface grooves: the transverse one in the cingulum and the longitudinal one in the sulcus, although its distal portion projects freely behind the cell.

These granules attract the other gamete. Inside the ring is a fertilization cone, which provides an entry point for the other gamete, referred to by Cleveland as the “sperm”. During fertilization the “sperm” enters the “egg” and their cytoplasms fuse to form a zygote The “sperm” loses all of its extranuclear organelles, such as its flagella, parabasal body and centrioles.

The cells are bar-shaped and can form long filaments. Most produce energy via the reduction of carbon dioxide with hydrogen, but some species can also use formate as a substrate. They are Gram-negative and move using flagella on the sides of the cells. They are strictly anaerobic, and found in wetland soil and anaerobic stages of water treatment systems.

Giardia trophozoites stained with Giemsa; 100x magnification. G. lamblia trophozoites are pear-shaped cells, 10 to 20 micrometers long, 7 to 10 micrometers across, and 2 to 4 micrometers thick. They are motile by way of four pairs of flagella, which propel the trophozoites through the intestine. Notably, each G. lamblia cell has two nuclei, both of which actively transcribe genes.

Evidence from DNA analysis suggests that all fungi are descended from one common ancestor, at least 600 million years ago. It is probable that these earliest fungi lived in water, and had flagella. Fungi moved to land at about the same time as plants, about 460 million years ago, at least. Fossils of land fungi date to almost 400 million years ago.

Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus is a bacterium with a rod-like shape, has circular ends, and can be classified as a Gram-negative bacterium. The bacterium is known for stimulating plant growth and being tolerant to acetic acid. With one to three lateral flagella, and known to be found on sugarcane, Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus was discovered in Brazil by Vladimir A. Cavalcante and Johanna Dobereiner.

Cilia and flagella associated protein 157 (CFAP157) also known as chromosome 9 open reading frame 117 (c9orf117) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CFAP157 gene. CFAP157 gene is "specifically required during spermatogenesis for flagellum morphogenesis and sperm motility and may be required to suppress the formation of supernumerary axonemes and ensure a correct ultrastructure," according to UniProt.

When on a yeast extract agar plate, L. cherrii forms a dissolvable brown pigment containing tyrosine. One or a few flagella aid them in their motility. Legionella organisms’ dependence on L-cysteine and their unique fatty acids and isoprenoid ubiquinone distinguish them from other aerobic bacteria. Like other Legionella species, L. cherrii does not form spores and is an aerobic, Gram-negative bacterium.

Some authors have argued that flagella cannot have evolved, assuming that they can only function properly when all proteins are in place. In other words, the flagellar apparatus is "irreducibly complex".Behe, M. (2007) The Edge of Evolution. Free Press, New York However, many proteins can be deleted or mutated and the flagellum still works, though sometimes at reduced efficiency.

In taxonomy, Thermococcus is a genus of thermophilic Archaea in the family the Thermococcaceae.See the NCBI webpage on Thermococcus. Data extracted from the Members of the genus Thermococcus are typically irregularly shaped coccoid species, ranging in size from 0.6-2.0 μm in diameter. Some species of Thermococcus are immobile, and some species have motility, using flagella as their main mode of movement.

They are able to aestivate for multiple years if necessary, burrowing into mud and exuding a cocoon of dead skin cells. Known predators include the American alligator and the mud snake. Their spermatozoa possess a pair of flagella, and their courtship behavior is unknown. Mating occurs in February and March, with mothers guarding clutches of eggs that hatch about two months later.

Eds Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Staley JT, Garrity GM, Boone, Vos P, Goodfellow M, Rainey FA, Schleifer K-H Springer-: Austin. Members belonging to the order are straight rods lacking prosthecae. While some members are non- motile, other species within the order are motile by means of flagella. Stenotrophomonas is the only genus capable of nitrate reduction within the Xanthomonadales.

Helicobacter pylori electron micrograph, showing multiple flagella on the cell surface Flagellin is a globular protein that arranges itself in a hollow cylinder to form the filament in a bacterial flagellum. It has a mass of about 30,000 to 60,000 daltons. Flagellin is the principal component of bacterial flagellum, and is present in large amounts on nearly all flagellated bacteria.

Other flagellates were able to multiply at much lower bacterial concentrations, indicating that bacterial concentration is a limiting factor for Cafeteria. Flagellates have varying abilities to gather bacteria to their mouths with their flagella, and this study suggests that the abilities of Cafeteria species may be inferior to other flagellates, since Cafeteria are usually specific to niches with high concentrations of bacteria.

The organism is typically 20–25 µm in length and 25–32 µm in width. The cells are compressed both in the anterior and posterior ends of this specimen. Alexandrium has two flagella that enable it to swim. While one flagellum encircles the cell causing the cell the rotate and move forward, the other extends behind the cell and controls the direction.

There are two genera within the order Chlorodendrales, Tetraselmis and Scherffelia. Both species are green, photoautotrophs, flagellated, and thecate. The difference between the two genera is the presence or absence of pyrenoids; Tetraselmis contains pyrenoids and Scherffelia does not. Flagella within the two genera are distinct in composition and morphology from species to species, which can be used to infer taxonomy and identification.

Prokaryotes have adhesion molecules on their cell surface termed bacterial adhesins, apart from using its pili (fimbriae) and flagella for cell adhesion. Adhesins can recognise a variety of ligands present on the host cell surfaces and also components in the extracellular matrix. These molecules also control host specificity and regulate tropism (tissue- or cell-specific interactions) through their interaction with their ligands.

In Micromonas, the central pair constantly rotates in an anti-clockwise direction, despite the motion of other components of the flagellum. While the cell size, shape and the location of insertion of the flagellum into the cell are similar among strains and genetic clades, the variation in respective hair point length results in different lengths of the flagella within the genus.

Members of Dictyochloropsis are free-living, unicellular green algae. Their cells lack flagella and are globular at all life cycle stages. In this genus, young cells from autospores can be as small as 6 μm in diameter, and the largest species grow up to 50 μm in diameter before reproducing. The cell is often surrounded by a thick envelope of mucilage when mature.

Achromobacter xylosoxidans (formerly Alcaligenes xylosoxidans) is a Gram- negative, aerobic, oxidase and catalase-positive, motile bacterium with peritrichous flagella, from the genus Achromobacter. It is generally found in wet environments. Achromobacter xylosoxidans can cause infections such as bacteremia, especially in patients with cystic fibrosis. In 2013, the complete genome of an A. xylosoxidans strain from a patient with cystic fibrosis was sequenced.

However, both parasites are very similar. The northern rat flea, Nosopsyllus fasciatus acts as the vector for the parasite, harboring the epimastigote stage in its midgut. The trypomastigote is the stage that is present in the main host, the rodent. The epimastigote form attaches itself to the rectum of the insect using its flagella to burrow through the rectal walls.

The haploid gametophyte produces haploid gametes by mitosis and the diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis. The only visible difference between the gametes and spores of Cladophora is that the gametes have two flagella and the spores have four. The Cladophora species can be a major nuisance causing major alteration to benthic conditions linked particularly with increased phosphorus loading.

Transmission electron micrograph of Desulfovibrio vulgaris showing a single flagellum at one end of the cell. Scale bar is 0.5 micrometers long. Many bacteria are motile (able to move themselves) and do so using a variety of mechanisms. The best studied of these are flagella, long filaments that are turned by a motor at the base to generate propeller-like movement.

The gametophyte lives underground as a saprophyte, sometimes in a mycorrhizal association. When the gametophyte is mature, it produces both egg and sperm cells. The sperm cells swim using several flagella and when they reach an egg cell, unite with it to form the young sporophyte. A mature sporophyte may grow to a height of or more but lacks true leaves.

Edwardsiella tarda is a member of the family Hafniaceae. The bacterium is a facultatively anaerobic, small, motile, gram negative, straight rod with flagella. Infection causes Edwardsiella septicemia (also known as ES, edwardsiellosis, emphysematous putrefactive disease of catfish, fish gangrene, and red disease) in channel catfish, eels, and flounder. Edwardsiella tarda is also found in largemouth bass and freshwater species such as rainbow trout.

The zoospore has two flagella, which it uses to swim in its marine habitat. It is ingested by its mollusc host, which is often an oyster of the genus Crassostrea. It then becomes a trophozoite, which proliferates in the tissues of the host. P. marinus often infests the hemocytes, cells in the blood of the host, analogous to malaria in vertebrates.

The flagellate is pear-shaped and biflagellate: this means that it has two flagella. This stage can be inhaled into the nasal cavity during swimming or diving. This biflagellate form occurs when trophozoites are exposed to a change in ionic concentration, such as placement in distilled water. The flagellate form does not exist in human tissue, but can exist in the cerebrospinal fluid.

The Archamoebae are a group of protists originally thought to have evolved before the acquisition of mitochondria by eukaryotes. They include genera that are internal parasites or commensals of animals (Entamoeba and Endolimax). A few species are human pathogens, causing diseases such as amoebic dysentery. The other genera of archamoebae live in freshwater habitats and are unusual among amoebae in possessing flagella.

Aliivibrio fischeri (also called Vibrio fischeri) is a Gram-negative, rod- shaped bacterium found globally in marine environments. A. fischeri has bioluminescent properties, and is found predominantly in symbiosis with various marine animals, such as the Hawaiian bobtail squid. It is heterotrophic, oxidase-positive, and motile by means of a single polar flagella. Free-living A. fischeri cells survive on decaying organic matter.

Chlorella is a genus of single-celled green algae belonging to the division Chlorophyta. It is spherical in shape, about 2 to 10 μm in diameter, and is without flagella. It contains the green photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll-a and -b in its chloroplast. In ideal conditions it multiplies rapidly, requiring only carbon dioxide, water, sunlight, and a small amount of minerals to reproduce.

Molecular propellers can be rotated by molecular motors that can be driven by chemical, biological, optical and electrical means, or various ratchet-like mechanisms. Nature realizes most biological activities with a large number of highly sophisticated molecular motors, such as myosin, kinesin, and ATP synthase. For example, rotary molecular motors attached to protein-based tails called flagella can propel bacteria.

Pathogenic Leptospira spp. has features of both a gram-positive and gram-negative pathogen. Features of the gram-negative pathogen is the presences of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), but the closeness of the cytoplasmic membrane to the cell wall shows more of a gram-positive feature. Also, the virulence factors on the flagella of pathogenic leptospires have thought to be involved in the overall infection.

The haploid gametes (daughter cells produced after meiosis) were discovered in 2014. The haploid trypomastigote-like gametes can interact with each other via their flagella and undergo cell fusion (the process is called syngamy). Thus, in addition to binary fission, T. brucei can multiply by sexual reproduction. Trypanosomes belong to the supergroup Excavata and are one of the earliest diverging lineages among eukaryotes.

They are flagellated eukaryotes that combine photoautotrophy when light is available, and heterotrophy via phagocytosis. Dinoflagellates are one of the most diverse and numerous species of phytoplankton, second to diatoms. Dinoflagellates have long whip-like structures called flagella that allow them to move freely throughout the water column. They are mainly marine but can also be found in freshwater environments.

The apusomonads s have two flagella inserted at right angles, near the anterior of the cell. They move by gliding, with one flagellum trailing along the side and one directed to the anterior. The form of the mitochondria varies between the different orders. Among the apusomonads they have tubular cristae, the ancyromonads flat cristae, and the hemimastigids ambiguous or sacculate cristae.

Colponema is a genus of single-celled flagellates that feed on eukaryotes in aquatic environments and soil. The genus contains 6 known species and has not been thoroughly studied. Colponema has two flagella which originate just below the anterior end of the cell. One extends forwards and the other runs through a deep groove in the surface and extends backwards.

The flagella are heterodynamic and originate just below the anterior of the cell. One flagellum points towards the anterior end of the cell and has mastigonemes near the base. The other has a fold near the base and runs through the cell’s feeding groove to point posteriorly. Prey are engulfed whole through the feeding groove and digested in large food vacuoles.

The type species, R. amitus, has been described in Baltic plankton. It has an elongated pear shaped body, often more concave on one side than the other. A disc separates the flagellar apparatus ingestion pocket and two flagella pocket as they emerge from the cell. They have been found feeding on planktonic diatoms cytoplasm and gills of crayfish and crabs.

Gliding motility is a type of translocation that is independent of propulsive structures such as flagella or pili. Gliding allows microorganisms to travel along the surface of low aqueous films. The mechanisms of this motility are only partially known. The speed of gliding varies between organisms, and the reversal of direction is seemingly regulated by some sort of internal clock.

The "tinsel" flagellum is unique to the Kingdom Heterokonta. Spores of the few fungal groups which retain flagella (such as the Chytridiomycetes) have only one whiplash flagellum. Oomycota and fungi have different metabolic pathways for synthesizing lysine and have a number of enzymes that differ. The ultrastructure is also different, with oomycota having tubular mitochondrial cristae and fungi having flattened cristae.

The name was coined to differentiate from the analogous structures present in prokaryotic cells. It is structurally a complex of microtubules along with motor proteins. The usage of the term was early supported by Lynn Margulis, especially in support of endosymbiotic theory. The eukaryotic cilia are structurally identical to eukaryotic flagella, although distinctions are sometimes made according to function and/or length.

Unicellular organisms can move in order to find food or escape predators. Common mechanisms of motion include flagella and cilia. In multicellular organisms, cells can move during processes such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer metastasis. For example, in wound healing in animals, white blood cells move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection.

Chromobacterium violaceum is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, non- sporing coccobacillus. It is motile with the help of a single flagellum which is located at the pole of the coccobacillus. Usually, there are one or two more lateral flagella as well. It is part of the normal flora of water and soil of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world.

Polykrikos is a colony of zooids (units of a colonial organism) that carry out simultaneous functions of a whole cell. All Polykrikos species have: 1) a slightly curved longitudinal furrow, sulcus, extending to posterior end of the organism 2) a loop-shaped acrobase, which is an anterior extension from the sulcus 3) a transverse furrow, cingulum, with the displacement 4) taeniocyst- nematocyst complexes 5) two or four times less the number of nuclei than of zooids, and 6) ability to disassemble into pseudocolonies with fewer zooids and only one nucleus. The most distinctive trait of this genus is the formation of multinucleated pseudocolonies that consist of an even number of zooids. Each zooid has a pair of flagella (transverse and longitudinal flagella) and has its own transverse groove, cingulum, but zooid longitudinal furrows, sulci, are fused.

After reproducing through binary fission, the epimastigotes move onto the rectal cell wall, where they become infectious. Infectious T. cruzi are called metacyclic trypomastigotes. When the triatomine bug subsequently takes a blood meal from a human, it defecates. The trypomastigotes are in the feces and are capable of swimming into the host's cells using flagella, a characteristic swimming tail dominant in the Euglenoid class of protists.

Cells are roughly spherical (coccoid), averaging about 1 μm long by 0.7 μm wide. The cell's ultrastructure is very simple, lacking a cell wall and consisting of a nucleus, a single mitochondrion, a single chloroplast, and a single Golgi apparatus. Cells also lack flagella. Initially described as containing 14 chromosomes, it is now known that the nucleus contains 20 chromosomes, in all about 33 fg of DNA.

Dinoflagellates are alveolates possessing two flagella, the ancestral condition of bikonts. About 1,555 species of free-living marine dinoflagellates are currently described. Another estimate suggests about 2,000 living species, of which more than 1,700 are marine (free-living, as well as benthic) and about 220 are from fresh water. The latest estimates suggest a total of 2,294 living dinoflagellate species, which includes marine, freshwater, and parasitic dinoflagellates.

The cell wall composition is peculiar. Members of this family are all obligate anaerobes, and occur in habitats such as rivers, lakes, and the intestines of vertebrates. They range from spherical forms, such as Megasphaera and Veillonella, to curved rods, as typified by the Selenomonads. Selenomonas has a characteristic crescent-shape, with flagella inserted on the concave side, while Sporomusa is similar but non-motile.

Also, only some species are flagellates, and when they do have flagella, have only two basal body rings to support them, whereas gram-negative have four. Both gram- positive and gram-negative bacteria commonly have a surface layer called an S-layer. In gram-positive bacteria, the S-layer is attached to the peptidoglycan layer. Gram-negative bacteria's S-layer is attached directly to the outer membrane.

The most notable cell types of sponges are the goblet-shaped cells called choanocytes, so named for their similarity to choanoflagellates. The similarities between these two cells types makes scientists believe that choanoflagellates are the sister taxa to metazoa. The flagella of these cells are what drive the water movement through the sponge body. The cell body of choanocytes is what is responsible for nutrient absorption.

Acetobacter aceti is a Gram-negative bacterium that moves using its peritrichous flagella. Louis Pasteur proved it to be the cause of conversion of ethanol to acetic acid in 1864. It is a benign microorganism which is present everywhere in the environment, existing in alcoholic ecological niches which include flowers, fruits, and honey bees, as well as in water and soil. It lives wherever sugar fermentation occurs.

B. burgdorferi is a microaerophilic organism, requiring little oxygen to survive. Unlike most bacteria, B. burgdorferi does not use iron, hence avoiding the difficulty of acquiring iron during infection. It lives primarily as an extracellular pathogen. Like other spirochetes, such as Treponema pallidum (the agent of syphilis), B. burgdorferi has an axial filament composed of flagella that run lengthways between its cell wall and outer membrane.

Homaxinella balfourensis is a filter feeder. Water circulates through the sponge, entering through small openings, the ostia, and leaving through larger oscula. Oxygen and food particles are removed from the water in the process and waste products are carried away. The food-capturing cells are called choanocytes and have flagella which beat synchronously, creating a current which draws water through the sponge and past the cells.

Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. betavasculorum is a gram negative, rod bacteria with peritichous flagella. For it to enter sugar beet, and thus cause infection, it is essential that there is an injury to the leaves, petioles or crown. Infection will often start at the crown and then move down into the root, and can occur at any point in the growing season if environmental conditions are favorable.

The cryptophyceae are a class of algae, most of which have plastids. About 220 species are known,Cryptophyceae - :: Algaebase and they are common in freshwater, and also occur in marine and brackish habitats. Each cell is around 10–50 μm in size and flattened in shape, with an anterior groove or pocket. At the edge of the pocket there are typically two slightly unequal flagella.

Ciliates use small flagella called cilia to move through the water. One ciliate will generally have hundreds to thousands of cilia that are densely packed together in arrays. During movement, an individual cilium deforms using a high-friction power stroke followed by a low-friction recovery stroke. Since there are multiple cilia packed together on an individual organism, they display collective behavior in a metachronal rhythm.

The genome of Reticulomyxa is repetitive and approximately 320 Mbp in size. The genome contains genes for flagellar components, despite no flagellated form observed. Also, genes coding for proteins associated with meiosis are present in the Reticulomyxa genome but are not actively transcribed. The presence of flagella and meiosis related genes suggests that there is a possibility of sexual reproduction and gamete production in this genus.

Thermotoga naphthophila is a rod-shaped species. It has 2-7\mum in length by 0.8-1.2 \mum in width and multiple flagella. It also possesses a unique morphology trait exclusive to the Thermotoga genus, an outer sheath-like structure dubbed a “toga”. T. naphthophila is a hyperthermophile with an optimal temperature of 80°C (176°F), but can survive in 48-86°C (118.4-186.8°F).

The Pasteurellaceae comprise a large family of Gram-negative bacteria. Most members live as commensals on mucosal surfaces of birds and mammals, especially in the upper respiratory tract. Pasteurellaceae are typically rod- shaped, and are a notable group of facultative anaerobes. Their biochemical characteristics can be distinguished from the related Enterobacteriaceae by the presence of oxidase, and from most other similar bacteria by the absence of flagella.

The Ectothiorhodospiraceae are a family of purple sulfur bacteria, distinguished by producing sulfur globules outside of their cells.George M. Garrity: Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. 2. Auflage. Springer, New York, 2005, Volume 2: The Proteobacteria, Part B: The Gammaproteobacteria The cells are rod-shaped, vibrioid, or spirilla, and they are able to move using flagella. In general, they are marine and prefer anaerobic conditions.

Halomonas meridiana is a Gram-negative halophilic organism found in the lakes of Antarctica. It is a rod-shaped cell with rounded ends, and it has peritrichous, all over the surface, flagella. It is between 2 and 3 micrometers in length and 1 micrometer wide. This organism has an average genome currently sized 3.8 mega base pairs (Mbp) containing 56.96% GC's, or guanine and cytosine content.

TRadial spoke head protein 4 homolog A appears to be a component the radial spoke head, as determined by homology to similar proteins in the biflagellate alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and other ciliates. Radial spokes, which are regularly spaced along cilia, sperm, and flagella axonemes, consist of a thin 'stalk' and a bulbous 'head' that form a signal transduction scaffold between the central pair of microtubules and dynein.

The functionality of the fifth flagellum is not known. In addition, a conspicuous barb-like axostyle projects opposite the four-flagella bundle. The axostyle may be used for attachment to surfaces and may also cause the tissue damage seen in trichomoniasis infections. While T. vaginalis does not have a cyst form, organisms can survive for up to 24 hours in urine, semen, or even water samples.

A nonmotile, round, pseudocystic form with internalized flagella has been observed under unfavorable conditions. This form is generally regarded as a degenerate stage as opposed to a resistant form, although viability of pseudocystic cells has been occasionally reported. The ability to revert to trophozoite form, to reproduce and sustain infection has been described, along with a microscopic cell staining technique to visually discern this elusive form.

Radial spoke head protein 6 homolog A is similar to a sea urchin radial spoke head protein. Radial spoke protein complexes form part of the axoneme of eukaryotic flagella and are located between the axoneme's outer ring of doublet microtubules and central pair of microtubules. In Chlamydomonas, radial spoke proteins are thought to regulate the activity of dynein and the symmetry of flagellar bending patterns.

The species name refers to the dark-colored margins of the pronotum. The species is similar in many aspects to Neoperla flagellate and N. tuberculata, but can be distinguished by the size of the aedeagus. The Aedeagal sac and tube are approximately the same length, with the sac being membranous and covered in numerous small spines. A pair of flagella are discernable at the sac's apex.

Two dissimilar flagella that are involved in locomotion are present in the cingulum and sulcus. The cytoplasm contains many yellow-green chloroplasts. The plastid of Karenia is especially notable as it is the product of tertiary endosymbiosis, by uptake of a haptophyte. Therefore, they lack the typical dinoflagellate pigment peridinin and have a plastid with pigments chlorophylls a+c and 19′-hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin, typically haptophyte pigments.

Most Euglenozoa are photoautotrophic, but some are chemoorganotrophs (saprophytic). They are commonly found in freshwater. The members of the phylum Euglenozoa have a pellicle for support, a red eye spot called a stigma to orient the cell toward light, chlorophyll a and b to assist in the process of photosynthesis, contractile vacuoles, and flagella. 260x260px One major pathogen from the phylum Euglenozoa is Leishmania.

In taxonomy, Methanotorris is a genus of the Methanocaldococcaceae.See the NCBI webpage on Methanotorris. Data extracted from the The organisms in this genus differ from those of Methanothermococcus in that they are hyperthermophiles and from those of Methanocaldococcus in that they have no flagella, are not motile, and do not require selenium to grow. These microbes have not been shown to cause any illnesses.

Sinorhizobium meliloti is a Gram-negative bacterium which fixes atmospheric nitrogen. It forms a symbiotic relationship with legumes from the genera Medicago, Melilotus and Trigonella, including the model legume Medicago truncatula. This symbiosis results in a new plant organ termed a root nodule and is deemed symbiotic as it leaves excess nitrogen behind for the plant. S. meliloti are mobile and possess a cluster of peritrichous flagella.

Organisms traditionally classified as protozoa are abundant in aqueous environments and soil, occupying a range of trophic levels. The group includes flagellates (which move with the help of whip-like structures called flagella), ciliates (which move by using hair-like structures called cilia) and amoebae (which move by the use of foot-like structures called pseudopodia). Some protozoa are sessile, and do not move at all.

Despite the ubiquitous presence, greatest growth of the genera's species is seen in the polar climatic zones. Tetraspora species are non-motile and instead of having flagella, they possess pairs of pseudoflagella which are part of the pseudociliary apparatus. On average the cell diameter of Tetraspora ranges from 6-13 μm. Energy is accumulated via photosynthesis through two cup-shaped chloroplasts, making the species primary producers.

Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of flagellar synthesis in C. jejuni enables proper biosynthesis of flagella and it is important for pathogenesis of this bacteria. Other important virulence factors of C. jejuni are the ability to produce N-linked glycosylation of more than 30 proteins. These proteins are important for the bacteria colonization, adherence and invasion. C. jejuni secretes Campylobacter invasive antigens (Cia) which facilitates the motility.

When examined by phase-contrast and transmission electron microscopy a limited number of cells were observed to exhibit a tumbling motility that was highly dependent on growth phase, medium pH and substrate. An irregular, corrugated outer membrane was consistently observed. Cells were rod shaped, with sizes ranging from 0.5–0.7 µm in diameter and 2.5–3.0 µm in length. Neither spores nor flagella were observed.

In contrast to certain other species of the genus, Mesodinium chamaeleon can be maintained in culture for short periods only. It captures and ingests flagellates including cryptomonads. The prey is ingested very rapidly into a food vacuole without the cryptomonad flagella being shed and the trichocysts being discharged. The individual food vacuoles subsequently serve as photosynthetic units, each containing the cryptomonad chloroplast, a nucleus, and some mitochondria.

Cochlosoma species have asymmetrical ovoidal shaped bodies (6-18 µm) that are broader anteriorly and narrower posteriorly. Their anterior end is truncated by a spiraled adhesive disc that is used to attach to the intestinal mucosa of the host. A lateral groove develops along the side of the body from the disc. Six flagella of varying lengths arise from the anterior end of the cell.

All "Proteobacteria" are Gram-negative (though some may stain Gram-positive or Gram-variable in practice), with an outer membrane mainly composed of lipopolysaccharides. Many move about using flagella, but some are nonmotile or rely on bacterial gliding. The latter include the myxobacteria, an order of bacteria that can aggregate to form multicellular fruiting bodies. Also, a wide variety in the types of metabolism exists.

The mother cell then divides (cytokinesis) soon after exposure to light and releases two motile cells. The initiation and duration of motility varies among species. Approaching or at the end of the photoperiod the mastigotes cease swimming, release their flagella, and undergo a rapid metamorphosis into the coccoid form. As cultures reach stationary growth phase, fewer and fewer motile cells are observed, indicating slower division rates.

This complex acts as a template for α/β-tubulin dimers to begin polymerization; it acts as a cap of the (−) end while microtubule growth continues away from the MTOC in the (+) direction. The centrosome is the primary MTOC of most cell types. However, microtubules can be nucleated from other sites as well. For example, cilia and flagella have MTOCs at their base termed basal bodies.

SEM They are covered in silicate scales and spines. In Synura, these are formed on the surface of the chloroplasts, two of which are usually present, but sometimes only one divided into two lobes is seen. The cells have two heterokont flagella, inserted parallel to one another at the anterior, whose ultrastructure is a distinguishing characteristic of the group. Both asexual and isogamous sexual reproduction occur.

In flagellates and ciliates, the position of the flagellum or cilium is determined by the mother centriole, which becomes the basal body. An inability of cells to use centrioles to make functional flagella and cilia has been linked to a number of genetic and developmental diseases. In particular, the inability of centrioles to properly migrate prior to ciliary assembly has recently been linked to Meckel–Gruber syndrome.

Mitochondria have tubular cristae, Golgi with six cisternae and these are micronemes, and rhoptries (secretory organelles). A reduced pseudoconoid (no.of microtubules) and conoid-associated micronemes alongside the rhoptries are considered useful for penetration into the host cell (Lepelletier et al. 2014). The refractile body in zoospore with two dissimilar flagella and heteromorphic pair of central microtubules in the anterior axoneme (Reñé et al. 2017).

A. baumannii has been noted for its apparent ability to survive on artificial surfaces for an extended period of time, therefore allowing it to persist in the hospital environment. This is thought to be due to its ability to form biofilms. For many biofilm-forming bacteria, the process is mediated by flagella. However, for A. baumannii, this process seems to be mediated by pili.

Species in this order typically have four to six flagella at the cell's apical pole, one of which is recurrent - that is, it runs along a surface wave, giving the aspect of an undulating membrane. Like other parabasalids, they typically have an axostyle, a pelta, a costa, and parabasal bodies. In Histomonas only one flagellum and a reduced axostyle are found, and in Dientamoeba, both are absent.

Thermococcus chitonophagus is a chitin-degrading, hyperthermophilic archaeon isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent. It is anaerobic, round to slightly irregular coccus-shaped, 1.2–2.5 μm in diameter, and motile by means of a tuft of flagella. T. chitonophagus is one of only three species of archaeon that can grow on chitin. The chitinase was isolated and found to have a molecular weight of 70 kDa.

It is also raptorial, approaching and pouncing on the prey item, especially when the item is a protist. O. marina can sense and respond to certain chemicals that are exuded by algal prey. The locomotion of the O. marina cell is helical due to the simultaneous movement of its two flagella. It mostly swims in a straight line, but it makes turns when it detects food.

Chitinimonas is a genus of Gram-negative, chitinolytic, rod-shaped bacteria which have flagella from the family of Burkholderiaceae which belongs to the class Betaproteobacteria.eol All species of Chitinimonas have been found in regions of Asia. Species of this genus are found to be both aerobic and anaerobic. Chitinimonas is optimally grown and cultured at 25 °C to 37 °C, with very little concentrations of NaCl.

Gammarus obruki is a species of freshwater amphipod, collected from İnderesi Cave, Bartın Province, Turkey. This species belongs to the Gammarus pulex- group. The most discriminant characters of this species are the presence of prolonged extremities, including a very long antennae, up to 52 segmented flagella, a densely setose fifth peduncle, l flagellar segments of antenna, and a fourth peduncle segment that has no long setae.

Helicobacter species are able to thrive in the very acidic mammalian stomach by producing large quantities of the enzyme urease, which locally raises the pH from about 2 to a more biocompatible range of 6 to 7. Bacteria belonging to this genus are usually susceptible to antibiotics such as penicillin, are microaerophilic (optimal oxygen concentration between 5 and 14%) capnophiles, and are fast-moving with their flagella.

Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney Draggan and C.J.Cleveland, National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington DC The genus is named after Theodor Escherich, the discoverer of Escherichia coli. Escherichia are facultative aerobes, with both aerobic and anaerobic growth, and an optimum temperature of 37 °C. Escherichia are usually motile by flagella, produce gas from fermentable carbohydrates, and do not decarboxylate lysine or hydrolyze arginine .

E. coli stains Gram-negative because its cell wall is composed of a thin peptidoglycan layer and an outer membrane. During the staining process, E. coli picks up the color of the counterstain safranin and stains pink. The outer membrane surrounding the cell wall provides a barrier to certain antibiotics such that E. coli is not damaged by penicillin. Strains that possess flagella are motile.

Because the flagellar motor has no on-off switch, the protein epsE is used as a mechanical clutch to disengage the motor from the rotor, thus stopping the flagellum and allowing the bacterium to remain in one place. The cylindrical shape of flagella is suited to locomotion of microscopic organisms; these organisms operate at a low Reynolds number, where the viscosity of the surrounding water is much more important than its mass or inertia. The rotational speed of flagella varies in response to the intensity of the proton motive force, thereby permitting certain forms of speed control, and also permitting some types of bacteria to attain remarkable speeds in proportion to their size; some achieve roughly 60 cell lengths per second. At such a speed, a bacterium would take about 245 days to cover 1 km; although that may seem slow, the perspective changes when the concept of scale is introduced.

B. dendrobatidis, a waterborne pathogen, disperses zoospores into the environment. The zoospores use flagella for locomotion through water systems until they reach a new host and enter cutaneously. The B. dendrobatidis’ lifecycle continues until new zoospores are produced from the zoosporangium and exit to the environment or reinfect the same host. Once the host is infected with B. dendrobatidis, it can potentially develop chytridiomycosis, but not all infected hosts develop it.

Amastigotes, shown as the smaller stained dots inside the cell. An amastigote is a protist cell that does not have visible external flagella or cilia. The term is used mainly to describe an intracellular phase in the life-cycle of trypanosomes that replicates. It is also called the leishmanial stage, since in Leishmania it is the form the parasite takes in the vertebrate host, but occurs in all trypanosome genera.

Jakoba are small bacterivorous zooflagellates (jakobids) found in marine and hypersaline environments. They are free swimming trophic cells with two flagella and range between five and ten micrometers in length. Cells rotate along their longitudinal axis to allow for swimming in straight lines unless deformation and “squirming” occurs due to compression in debris. During feeding, bacteria are removed from the water column by a current created by the posterior flagellum.

The ANT4 protein contains six transmembrane helices, and a homodimer functional unit, which serves as an ADP/ATP channel protein. Unlike the other three ANT isoforms, ANT4 has additional amino acids at its N- and C-terminals. These amino acid sequences may interact with different factors for specialized functions such as localization to sperm flagella. The SLC25A31 gene is composed of 6 exons over a stretch of 44 kbp of DNA.

Some of the bacteria possessing a T3SS have flagella as well and are motile (Salmonella, for instance), and some do not (Shigella, for instance). Technically speaking, type III secretion is used both for secreting infection-related proteins and flagellar components. However, the term "type III secretion" is used mainly in relation to the infection apparatus. The bacterial flagellum shares a common ancestor with the type III secretion system.

Dynein heavy chain 9, axonemal is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DNAH9 gene. This gene encodes the heavy chain subunit of axonemal dynein, a large multi-subunit molecular motor. Axonemal dynein attaches to microtubules and hydrolyzes ATP to mediate the movement of cilia and flagella. The gene expresses at least two transcript variants; additional variants have been described, but their full length nature has not been determined.

Ceratium hirundinella. Ceratium species are characterized by their horns and two flagella located in the transverse and longitudinal positions. Ceratium tripos is recognisable by its U-shaped horns Ceratium species belong to the group of dinoflagellates known as dinophysiales, meaning they contain armored plates. They contain a pellicle, which is a shell, that is made from the cell membrane and vesicles; vesicles are composed of cross-linked cellulose, forming the plates.

Species of Ceratium contain two flagella of different lengths that are orientated in the transverse and longitudinal positions. The transverse flagellum is structurally complex and wraps around the cingulum. The movement of the flagellum is described as "wave-like" and allows the organism to spin as it swims. The longitudinal flagellum extends from a groove known as the sulcus, and this flagellum is simpler in structure than the transverse flagellum.

Cilia are formed through the process of ciliogenesis. An early step is docking of the basal body to the growing ciliary membrane, after which the transition zone forms. The building blocks of the ciliary axoneme, such as tubulins, are added at the ciliary tips through a process that depends partly on intraflagellar transport (IFT). Exceptions include Drosophila sperm and Plasmodium falciparum flagella formation, in which cilia assemble in the cytoplasm.

Spironucleus is a diplomonad genus that is bilaterally symmetrical and can be found in various animal hosts . This genus is a binucleate flagellate, which is able to live in the anaerobic conditions of animal intestinal tracts. A characteristic of Spironucleus that is common to all metamonads is that it does not have aerobic mitochondria, but instead rely on hydrogenosomes to produce energy. Spironucleus has six anterior and two posterior flagella.

Early single-cell organisms' need for motility (mobility) support that the more mobile flagella would be selected by evolution first, but the T3SS evolving from the flagellum can be seen as 'reductive evolution', and receives no topological support from the phylogenetic trees. The hypothesis that the two structures evolved separately from a common ancestor accounts for the protein similarities between the two structures, as well as their functional diversity.

Pinguiochrysidaceae is a family of marine Heterokontophyta. It is the only family in the order Pinguiochrysidales, which is the only order in the class Pinguiophyceae. It includes five species of unicellular organisms with high concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the cytoplasm. The other common features are the lack of cell wall and the tendency for flagella loss even on the stage of zoospore, which is unusual for heterokonts.

These are small (< 20 μm in diameter) flagellated protists. The life cycle of consists of two main stages: flagellated trophozoites and cysts, which are the reproductive stage in the life cycle. Morphologically the trophozoites of Colpodella are similar to Perkinsus zoospores, although the two taxa are not specifically related. The motile stages of both genera have a pair of anterior orthogonal flagella, vesicular mitochondrial cristae, inner alveolar membranes and micropores.

Sphaeropleales is an order of green algae that used to be called Chlorococcales. The order includes some of the most common freshwater planktonic algae such as Scenedesmus and Pediastrum. The Spaeropleales includes vegetatively non-motile unicellular or colonial taxa that have biflagellate zoospores with flagella that are directly opposed in direction (the DO arrangement): Sphaeroplea, Atractomorpha, Neochloris, Hydrodictyon, and Pediastrum. All of these taxa have basal body core connections.

Joel Rosenbaum (born October 4, 1933) is a professor of cell biology at Yale University. Rosenbaum received his bachelor's degree from Syracuse University in 1955, and later his M.Sc. Ed. from St. Lawrence University in 1957. He returned later to Syracuse for his Masters in 1959 and Ph.D. in 1963. His lab at Yale studies cilia and flagella, small tail-like organelles, using the model species Chlamydomonas, a single-cell alga.

The cells have peritrichous flagella which enable motility. The species also produces a diffusible yellow-green or red-violet pigment which fluoresces bluish-white under ultraviolet light. A. agilis was first isolated and described by Martinus Beijerinck in 1901, who obtained the species from Dutch canal water in Delft. Beijernick's original strain has been lost, so the strain isolated by Albert Kluyver and van den Bout is now the neotype.

Like most other metamonads, Carpediemonas does not rely on an aerobic mitochondria to produce energy. Instead, it contains hydrogenosomes that are used to produce ATP. This organism has two flagella: a posterior one used for feeding on the substrate, and an anterior one that moves in a slower sweeping motion. Carpediemonas is assigned to the fornicates, where similar Carpediemonas-like organisms are used in researching the evolution within excavates.

Very little is known about xenophyophore reproduction. It is assumed that an alternation of generations takes place, as in other foraminifera; however, this has not been confirmed. Gametes form in a specialised part of the granellare that may look like swollen side-branch (in Psammetta) or a stalked bulb (in Cerelasma). Gametes are reportedly about 20µm in diameter, with two flagella; after this, an amoeba-like stage seems to be present.

Regardless of a large or small change in organic enrichment, studies show a consistency to these morphological changes. However, the amount of change that occurs varies between species and is dependent on the specific organic nutrients present. If the amount of organic nutrients in the genus’ habitat is insufficient, occasionally they form resting cysts. If this occurs, the cells would expand (swell) and become more rounded, and also lose their flagella.

Cable bacteria lack flagella, but are capable of motility in the form of gliding by propelling themselves forward through the excretion of substances. Cable bacteria have been observed to move as fast as 2.2 µm/s, with an average speed of 0.5 µm/s. Speed of motility in cable bacteria is not related to size of the bacteria. The average distance a cable bacterium glides is approximately 74 µm without interruption.

The zoospores are flattened cells that contain a cup- shaped green chromatophore and two flagella of equal length arising from the basal body and extending beyond the length of body. They contain one contractile vacuole, nucleus, dictyosome, chloroplast, and single mitochondrial reticulum or branched mitochondria linked to microbody. Some species have a stigma (eyespots) which helps orient zoospores towards high light intensity. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum cisternae.

A common characteristic of opisthokonts is that flagellate cells, such as the sperm of most animals and the spores of the chytrid fungi, propel themselves with a single posterior flagellum. It is this feature that gives the group its name. In contrast, flagellate cells in other eukaryote groups propel themselves with one or more anterior flagella. However, in some opisthokont groups, including most of the fungi, flagellate cells have been lost.

Honeybees accumulate an electric charge during flying and when their body parts are moved or rubbed together. Bees emit constant and modulated electric fields during the waggle dance. Both low- and high- frequency components emitted by dancing bees induce passive antennal movements in stationary bees according to Coulomb's Law. The electrically charged flagella of mechanoreceptor cells are moved by electric fields and more strongly so if sound and electric fields interact.

Following dispersal, the zoospore experiences a short period of motility in which it searches for a substrate. When attached to a substrate, the ring of flagella is lost, and the zoospore begins dividing to form a new filament. Germination of aplanospores and akinetes is uncommon but possible. An aplanospore is non- motile and formed within a vegetative cell, the wall of which is distinct from that of the parent cell.

Cochlosoma is a genus of flagellated protozoa in the order Trichomonadida created by Kotlán (1923). Some of their typical features include a prominent adhesive disc, axostyle, costa, and 6 flagella – one of which is attached to an undulating membrane that runs laterally along the body. Cochlosoma species are parasites found in the intestines of birds and mammals. They are known to cause runting and enteritis in young turkey and ducks.

Edwardsiella ictaluri (also known as enteric septicaemia of catfish, hole in the head disease, and ESC) is a member of the family Hafniaceae. The bacterium is a short, gram negative, pleomorphic rod with flagella. It causes the disease enteric septicaemia of catfish (ESC), which infects a variety of fish species (including many catfish species, knifefish and barbs). The bacteria can cause either acute septicaemia or chronic encephalitis in infected fish.

A diagram of C. tetani showing the bacterium alone, with a spore being produced, and the spore alone C. tetani is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacterium, typically up to 0.5 μm wide and 2.5 μm long. It is motile by way of various flagella that surround its body. C. tetani cannot grow in the presence of oxygen. It grows best at temperatures ranging from 33 to 37°C.

This particular lineage is unusual among described Symbiodinium by possessing mucocysts, and chloroplasts with parallel and peripheral thylakoid arrangements. Flagella are seen in cross section in the space between daughter cells. (B) A thick cellulosic cell wall is observed for many cultured isolates. (C) TEM of a cross-section through a chloroplast lobe at the periphery of the cell with parallel and peripheral thylakoids grouped in sets of three.

The conjugation machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins. It was discovered in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor). The VirB complex of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the prototypic system. The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation.

Micrograph of thin cross-section of Chlamydomonas axoneme A simplified model of intraflagellar transport. An axoneme is the microtubule-based cytoskeletal structure that forms the core of a cilium or flagellum. Cilia and flagella are found on many cells, organisms, and microorganisms, to provide motility. The axoneme serves as the "skeleton" of these organelles, both giving support to the structure and, in some cases, the ability to bend.

Members of the Enterobacteriaceae are bacilli (rod-shaped), and are typically 1–5 μm in length. They typically appear as medium to large-sized grey colonies on blood agar, although some can express pigments. Most have many flagella used to move about, but a few genera are nonmotile. Most members of Enterobacteriaceae have peritrichous, type I fimbriae involved in the adhesion of the bacterial cells to their hosts.

B. andersonii stains as G- due to the peptidoglycan in the triple-layered outer membrane. Its metabolism is chemoorganotrophic. The organism exists in microaerophilic environments. B. andersonii is a motile and flexible helical shaped spiral bacteria that possess a triple-layered outer envelope. Between the outer membrane and the peptidoglycan layer there is a single sheathed flagella in the 1-2-1 configuration, as well as a protoplasmic cylinder.

It gets its name from the combination of "Sarcodina" (which is an older term used for amoeboids) and "Mastigophora" (which is an older term for flagellates). The characteristics of phylum sarcomastigophora are : (1) Nucleus is of one type except in the stages of certain foraminifera. (2) Locomotory organ either pseudopodia or flagella or both. (3) Reproduction asexual , but when sexually it is essentially by _syngamy_ (4) Spore formation is absent.

They are motile due to polar flagella, and grow well on MacConkey agar producing pigmented colonies. S. maltophilia is catalase-positive, oxidase-negative (which distinguishes it from most other members of the genus) and has a positive reaction for extracellular DNase. S. maltophilia is ubiquitous in aqueous environments, soil, and plants; it has also been used in biotechnology applications. In immunocompromised patients, S. maltophilia can lead to nosocomial infections.

The kinetoplast, after which the class is named, contains the mitochondrial genome and is a dense DNA-containing granule within the cell's single mitochondrion. The structure is made up of a network of concatenated circular DNA molecules and their related structural proteins along with DNA and RNA polymerases. The kinetoplast is found at the base of a cell's flagella and is associated to the flagellum basal body by a cytoskeletal structure.

Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 77(5), 1593–1600. doi:10.1128/AEM.01717-10 When grown on Cytophaga Agar, F. psychrophilum produces bright yellow colonies with thin spreading margins not greater than 3mm in diameter. Motility is achieved by gliding, movement that does not involve the use of pili or flagella. The bacterium is positive for gelatin hydrolysis, albumin digestion, tributyrin digestion, tributyrin hydrolysis, E.coli cell autolysis, and casein hydrolysis.

They have a nucleus near the middle of the cell and two unequal, heterodynamic flagella emerging from a shallow, subapical pocket. The anterior flagellum appears inactive and just wraps around the anterior part of the cell. It is about the same length or slightly shorter than the cell. It is held forward with a single anterior curve that is held perpendicular to the substrate and curves back over the rostrum.

Along with their two flagella, they have two nearly parallel basal bodies. They also house discoid shaped mitochondrial cristae and a compact kinetoplast (a DNA-containing granule located within a single mitochondrion) that is associated with the flagellar bases. The kinetoplasts are naked, but the cytoskeletal microtubules beneath the cell membrane are developed. They have a cytoplasm usually filled with symbiotic bacteria and small glycosomes that possess glycolytic enzymes.

The flagella have a beating action and are used for rapid movement. The proximal part of the long flagellum may adhere to the pellicle, which causes it to trail posteriorly. The trailing flagellum is always directed backwards and is attached to the body for a considerable distance (6-9μm) by an accessory filament called a funis. There are one to four funises (rib-like strictures) extending backwards beneath the body surface.

D. salina can reproduce asexually through division of motile vegetative cells and sexually through the fusion of two equal gametes into a singular zygote. Though D. salina can survive in salinic environments, Martinez et al. determined that sexual activity of D. salina significantly decreases in higher salt concentrations (>10%) and is induced in lower salt concentrations. Sexual reproduction begins when two D. salina’s flagella touch leading to gamete fusion.

Developing microgametocytes have a peripheral nucleus without a visible nucleolus but contain dense patches of peripheral chromatin. The surface of the microgametocyte is covered in deep invaginations which provide increased surface area. Microgametes have flagella with a typical 9+2 axoneme structure, and five microtubules run parallel to the nucleus along the length of the gamete. Macrogametocytes are bound by a pellicle comprising two membranes perforated by multiple micropores.

Hence, the mother protist gives rise to green-coloured and white-coloured daughter cells. The latter behaves like a predator until it ingests a Nephroselmis green alga. The alga then loses its flagella and cytoskeleton, while the Hatena, now a host, switches to photosynthetic nutrition, gains the ability to move towards light and loses its feeding apparatus. Thus, the protist exhibits an unusual life cycle of alternating autotrophy and heterotrophy.

Propidium iodide staining revealed that only the basal surface of the hook is of nuclear origin. These apical hooks are deployed in female reproductive tract (mechanism responsible involved the remodeling of actin filaments in the hook). Deployed apical hooks combine with apical hooks and flagella of other spermatozoa. The aggregates of spermatozoa that result form "mobile trains", which have experimentally been determined to possess better motility in the female reproductive tract.

Diplonema feature two short flagella of equal length and two subapical openings. Most are free living, but there have been reported cases of infection in clams and sudden decomposition of aquarium plants. It was described initially in 1914 and later rediscovered in the 60s and called Isonema, wrongly classified among euglenids.W. Marande, J. Lukeš y G. Burger, Unique Mitochondrial Genome Structure in Diplonemids, the Sister Group of Kinetoplastids, Eukaryot Cell.

Many metal cations are also required in the process. EDTA control and extensive cation presence/absence tests show that Ca(II), Mn(II), Cu(II) and Zn(II) are all essential in this process, probably functioning as a part of a coenzyme or prosthetic group. Mg(II) has partial effect, while Fe(II) and Fe(III) are inhibitory to some degree. Flagella are considered to contribute to pellicle formation.

Eukaryotic undulipodium. 1-axoneme, 2-cell membrane, 3-IFT (intraflagellar transport), 4-basal body, 5-cross section of axoneme, 6-triplets of microtubules of basal body. An undulipodium (a Greek word meaning "swinging foot") or a 9+2 organelle is a motile filamentous extracellular projection of eukaryotic cells. It is basically synonymous to flagella and cilia which are differing terms for similar molecular structures used on different types of cells.

Alcaligenes is a genus of Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria. The species are motile with amphitrichous flagella and rarely nonmotile. It is a genus of non-fermenting bacteria (in the family Alcaligenaceae). Additionally, some strains of Alcaligenes are capable of anaerobic respiration, but they must be in the presence of nitrate or nitrite; otherwise, their metabolism is respiratory and never fermentative; The genus does not use carbohydrates.

They depend on the fish to make up the difference. Electron microscopy of these bacteria in some species reveals they are Gram- negative rods that lack capsules, spores, or flagella. They have double- layered cell walls and mesosomes. A pore connects the esca with the seawater, which enables the removal of dead bacteria and cellular waste, and allows the pH and tonicity of the culture medium to remain constant.

The first is called scotophobotaxis (from the word "scotophobia"), which is observed only under a microscope. This occurs when a bacterium swims by chance out of the area illuminated by the microscope. Entering darkness signals the cell to reverse flagella rotation direction and reenter the light. The second type of phototaxis is true phototaxis, which is a directed movement up a gradient to an increasing amount of light.

It divides to replicate and then leaves via a final lysis of the host's cell wall and membranes. The newly emerging Bdellovibrio use their newly grown powerful flagella to swim away and find the next suitable host. Because of this intermittent bdelloplast stage, and momentary parasitic phase (15-20 mins), Bdellovibrio could be considered bacterial predators or parasites. Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus was first described by Stolp and Petzold in 1962.

Notably, while the species mentioned above are all relatively close taxonomic relatives (in the Fungi/Metazoa group), P. infestans has a distinct evolutionary history; it is classified as an oomycete, and is a member of the Kingdom Stramenopila (the Heterokonts in some schemes) along with diatoms and brown algae. The single Cdc14 gene of P. infestans (PiCdc14) is expressed distinctly from those of fungi and metazoans; instead of being transcribed throughout the cell cycle and regulated post- translationally, PiCdc14 is under strong transcriptional control and is not expressed in hyphae, where most mitosis takes place. Instead, PiCdc14 is made during the formation of asexual spores, including its biflagellated zoospores. PiCdc14 was found to accumulate near the basal bodies, at the base of the flagella. In light of the varying roles of Cdc14 in fungi and animals, it was suggested that the P. infestans data implied that an ancestral role of Cdc14 involved the flagella stage of eukaryotes.

The cells are generally around 10 μm in length, without any shell or covering. They produce filose pseudopods to capture bacteria, but do not use them for locomotion, which usually takes place by gliding along surfaces. Most members have two flagella, one directed forward and one trailing under the cell, inserted at right angles near its anterior. The nucleus is connected to the flagellar bases and accompanied by a characteristic paranuclear body.

In dinoflagellate species with desmokont flagellation (e.g., Prorocentrum), the two flagella are differentiated as in dinokonts, but they are not associated with grooves. Dinoflagellates have a complex cell covering called an amphiesma or cortex, composed of a series of membranes, flattened vesicles called alveolae (= amphiesmal vesicles) and related structures. In In armoured dinoflagellates, these support overlapping cellulose plates to create a sort of armor called the theca or lorica, as opposed to athecate dinoflagellates.

General chemical structure of an N-acyl homoserine lactone N-Acyl homoserine lactones (Abbreviated as AHLs or N-AHLs) are a class of signaling molecules involved in bacterial quorum sensing. Quorum sensing is a method of communication between bacteria that enables the coordination of group-based behavior based on population density. They signal changes in gene expression, such as switching between the flagella gene and the gene for pili for the development of a biofilm.

Cells of H. larsenii are extremely pleomorphic and irregularly shaped with a diameter of 0.8-1.5 µm. Motility of cells has been noted, but flagella have not been observed by electron microscopy. The major polar lipids are the C20C20 derivatives of phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol phosphate methyl ester, diglycosyl glycerol diether, and sulfated diglycosyl diether. The DNA G+C content of DNA of the ZJ206T strain is 62.2±0.8 mol% as determined by thermal denaturation.

Citrobacter freundii is a species of facultative anaerobic gram-negative bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. The bacteria have a long rod shape with a typical length of 1–5 μm. Most C. freundii cells generally have several flagella used for locomotion, but some do not and are non-motile. C. freundii is a soil organism, but can also be found in water, sewage, food and in the intestinal tracts of animals and humans.

An archaellum (plural: archaella, formerly archaeal flagellum) is a unique whip-like structure on the cell surface of many archaea. The name was proposed in 2012 following studies that showed it to be evolutionarily and structurally different from the bacterial and eukaryotic flagella. The archaellum is functionally the same – it can be rotated and is used to swim in liquid environments. The archaellum was found to be structurally similar to the type IV pilus.

The bryophytes, which include liverworts, hornworts and mosses, reproduce both sexually and vegetatively. They are small plants found growing in moist locations and like ferns, have motile sperm with flagella and need water to facilitate sexual reproduction. These plants start as a haploid spore that grows into the dominant gametophyte form, which is a multicellular haploid body with leaf-like structures that photosynthesize. Haploid gametes are produced in antheridia (male) and archegonia (female) by mitosis.

A clear distinction from Naegleria is the absence of the interzonal bodies during nuclear division. As of yet, no sexual reproduction has been observed, but asexual reproduction has been described in both the flagellated and the amoeboid stages. The temporary flagellated stage is often between 16.5 and 25 μm in size with a mean cell volume of 2500 μm3. It usually features 4 flagella and lacks a cytosome, however their size and structure can vary.

Additional data in support of this theory was later obtained from studies in zebrafish, where its Cdc14 proteins were also found to localize to the basal body and play roles in the formation of cilia, which are short forms of flagella. Cdc14 is also involved in regulation of key steps during meiosis in budding yeast. Cdc55, a regulatory subunit of Protein phosphatase 2 (PP2A), sequesters Cdc14 in the nucleolus during early stage of meiosis.

The antennae possess short peduncles and flagella, with that on the first pair being somewhat stout with fused flagellar segments near the base. In males the first antennal pair is covered with brushlike setae. On the first four body segments are four very large, non-overlapping, and deep coxal plates, forming a sort of skirt on the front half of the body. The fourth plates are subovate in shape and are the largest.

A paraxial rod also runs parallel to the axoneme of the single flagellum on one side, giving the flagella increased thickness, robustness, and strength. As mentioned earlier, these organisms also have glycosomes, which are specialized peroxisomes. Depending on the species examined, these glycosomes may take the form of two rows separated by filamentous fibres. Some isolates of the genus also have a contractile vacuole located at the anterior end, near the flagellar pocket.

Herminiimonas glaciei is a species of ultramicrobacterium in the family Oxalobacteraceae. These small gram-negative cells have a variable number of long flagella at the ends and sides of their rod-shaped bodies. With dimensions of 0.5–0.9 by 0.3–0.4 µm, H. glaciei is roughly 10 to 50 times smaller than Escherichia coli. Discovered in 2009, the species (as strain UMB49T) was isolated from 120,000 years old glacial ice, deep, from Greenland.

Calamus muelleri, commonly known as lawyer vine, or wait-a-while, is a vine- like climbing palm with sharp hooks along its leaf sheath, leaf edged, and along flagella that extend from the end of each vine. The palm is common in rainforest in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, especially in National Parks such as Nightcap National Park and Lamington National Park. It flowers and fruits in all months of the year.

Outside the body, Listeria has flagellar-driven motility, sometimes described as a "tumbling motility". However, at 37 °C, flagella cease to develop and the bacterium instead usurps the host cell's cytoskeleton to move. Listeria, inventively, polymerizes an actin tail or "comet", from actin monomers in the host's cytoplasm with the promotion of virulence factor ActA. The comet forms in a polar manner and aids the bacterial migration to the host cell's outer membrane.

When microtubules visibly slid out of the ends of the flagellar fiber, the flagella disintegrated. He then extended the mechanism to mammals, confirming the motility mechanism of bull sperm cilia is the same as that for sea urchins. After these findings, Gibbons switched his focus to the molecular biology of dyneins, and determined the DNA sequence of the largest subunit of dynein in 1991. In 1993, he became the director of the Kewalo Marine Laboratory.

Typically Colpodella divides into four daughter cells (sometimes just two). This is in contrast to true Apicomplexa and Perkinsus, which typically produce many more daughter cells during reproduction - Perkinsus species can produce up to 32 cells, for example, while Toxoplasma produces 128. The daughter cells grow flagella, the cyst wall ruptures, and the cells swim away, leaving the residual body behind. A possible sexual process has been observed in at least two species.

V. paradoxus cells are curved rods in shape, with dimensions of 0.3-0.6 x 0.7-3.0 μm in size and normally occur as either single or pairs of cells. Typically, cells have 1-3 peritrichous, degenerate flagella. Colonies of V. paradoxus are yellow-green in colour, due to the production of carotenoid pigments, and often have an iridescent sheen. Colony shape is normally convex, round and smooth, but can also display flat, undulate margins.

During feeding, it beats at about 40 times per second to create a current of water that moves about 100 micrometers/second. This current brings bacteria to its mouthparts. The food is ingested below the base of the flagella, which is referred to as the ventral side. In nonmotile C. roenbergensis cells, (cells that prefer to anchor themselves to a substrate) the posterior flagellum helps attach the organism to a substrate while it is feeding.

In addition, Vampirococcus specifically preys upon various species within the bacterial genus, Chromatium, a freshwater purple sulfur bacteria. Because Chromatium is a primary producer as a phototroph, it has been suggested that Vampirococcus could be considered a primary consumer as a predator of photosynthetic bacteria. There is some disagreement in the scientific community regarding Vampirococcus's motility. Many papers have stated that this specific predatory prokaryote does not have cilia or flagella, rendering the prokaryote immotile.

One of the more distinctive morphotypes is an apparently multicellular bacterium referred to as the many-celled magnetotactic prokaryote (MMP). Regardless of their morphology, all MTB studied so far are motile by means of flagella and are gram-negative bacteria of various phyla. Despite the majority of known species' being proteobacteria, e.g. Magnetospirillum magneticum an alphaproteobacterium, members of various phyla possess the magnetosome gene cluster, such as Candidatus Magnetobacterium bavaricum, a Nitrospira.

Since Candidatus Liberibacter cannot be cultivated outside of its vector or host, genetics, bacteria-vector and bacteria-plant interaction have not yet been thoroughly explored. Factors important for adaption and colonization or possible coevolution are not yet understood. Liberibacter activates salicylic acid pathway in host, likely due to recognition of extracellular molecules such as lipopolyscacharides or flagella. Pathogen in turn likely mitigates the effects, because it encodes SA hydroxylase, that degrades salicylic acid.

The primary classification of algae is based on certain morphological features. The chief among these are (a) pigment constitution of the cell, (b) chemical nature of stored food materials, (c) kind, number, point of insertion and relative length of the flagella on the motile cell, (d) chemical composition of cell wall and (e) presence or absence of a definitely organized nucleus in the cell or any other significant details of cell structure.

Asexual reproduction via zoospore is also very common and occurs in vegetative (benthic) cells. Vegetative cells produce zoosporangia – the enclosure in which spores are formed – which give rise to the zoospores. Each zoospore has a small hyaline anterior region, and at the base of this region is a ring of flagella (~150). Once emerged from the zoosporangium, a zoospore is still enveloped by a fragile vesicle, from which it is soon discharged.

Mallomonas is a genus of many from the phylum Ochrophyta, which describes organisms as having heterokont flagella in some part of their life history. At first, the family Mallomonadaceae was placed under class Chrysophyceae. However, after finding key biochemical and ultrastructural differences, the family was then placed under the class Synurophyceae. In a broader context, both Chrysophyceae and Synurophyceae are referred to as “chrysophytes”, meaning “golden algae”, because of their close similarities.

Phylogenetic trees were constructed to visually demonstrate the novelty of the DHVE2 group as well as A. boonei. A draft genome of A. boonei strain T469 resulted in 31 scaffolds averaging approximately 47kbp (kilo- basepairs) in size, with a G+C% content of 39%. The reconstruction pieced together a map of genes involved in flagella formation, and show that the organism's novel organization resembles both prevailing architectures of flagellar genes in archaea; fla1 and fla2.

Vibrio azasii (Vibrio sp. Azasii) is a bioluminescent bacterium belonging to vibrio spp. It is a Gram-negative bacterium possessing a curved rod shape (comma shape) and moves by means of flagella. Research has been done with V. azasii as a sustainable source of bioluminescence as an alternative to electric streetlights They are photosynthetic, so as long as a healthy population could be sustained, they could be a feasible option for sustainable lighting.

A. saccharovorans has a coccoid morphology of 1–2 μm diameter with a relatively thick S-layer and a bundle of flagella. It has an optimal growth temperature of 80–85°C (qualifying it as a hyperthermophile) and an optimal pH of 3.5–4.0. It is an obligate anaerobe with fermentative metabolism. Its growth is accelerated by the presence of elemental sulfur, which is reduced to hydrogen sulfide; however, sulfur is not essential for growth.

The Flabellinia are a subclass of Amoebozoa. During locomotion the cells are flattened and have a clear layer called hyaloplasm along the front margin. Some form slender subpseudopodia projecting outward from the hyaloplasm, but the cell mass does not flow into these as in true pseudopodia, and advances without a definite central axis as in the Tubulinea. They also lack distinctive features like shells and flagella, and are united mainly by evidence from molecular trees.

The retortamonads are a small group of flagellates, most commonly found in the intestines of animals as commensals, although a free-living species called the Chilomastix cuspidata exists. They are grouped under the taxon, Archezoa. They are usually around 5-20 μm in length, and all of their small subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequences are very similar to each other. There are two genera: Retortamonas with two flagella, and Chilomastix with four.

The classification of euglenids is still variable, as groups are being revised to conform with their molecular phylogeny. Classifications have fallen in line with the traditional groups based on differences in nutrition and number of flagella; these provide a starting point for considering euglenid diversity. Different characteristics of the euglenids' pellicles can provide insight into their modes of movement and nutrition. As with other Euglenozoa, the primitive mode of nutrition is phagocytosis.

First, the basal bodies and flagella replicate, then the cytostome and microtubules (the feeding apparatus), and finally the nucleus and remaining cytoskeleton. Once this occurs, the organism begins to cleave at the basal bodies, and this cleavage line moves towards the center of the organism until two separate euglenids are evident. Because of the way that this reproduction takes place and the axis of separation, it is called longitudinal cell division or longitudinal binary fission.

D. dadantii is a motile, nonsporing, straight rod-shaped cell with rounded ends. Cells range in size from 0.8 to 3.2 μm by 0.5 to 0.8 μm and are surrounded by numerous flagella (peritrichous). In the natural plant environment, D. dadantii causes plant maladies such as necrosis, blight and “soft rot,” which is a progressive tissue maceration. D. dadantii contains many pectinases that are able to macerate and break down the plant cell wall material.

Pandorina is a genus of green algae composed of 8, 16, or sometimes 32 cells, held together at their bases to form a sack globular colony surrounded by mucilage. The cells are ovoid or slightly narrowed at one end to appear keystone- or pear-shaped. Each cell has two flagella with two contractile vacuoles at their base, an eyespot, and a large cup-shaped chloroplast with at least one pyrenoid. Pandorina sp.

The male can inseminate the hermaphrodite, which will preferentially use male sperm (both types of sperm are stored in the spermatheca). Once he recognizes a hermaphrodite worm, the male nematode begins tracing the hermaphrodite with his tail until he reaches the vulval region. The male then probes the region with his spicules to locate the vulva, inserts them, and releases sperm. The sperm of C. elegans is amoeboid, lacking flagella and acrosomes.

Springer-:Berlin Heidelberg Species within this group are nonsporulating, strict or facultative anaerobes that are capable of thriving in a diverse set of ecological niches. Gordonibacter species are the only members capable of motility by means of flagella within the class. Several species within the Coriobacteriia class have been implicated with human diseases that range in severity. Atopobium, Olsenella, and Cryptobacterium species have responsible for human oral infections including periodontitis, halitosis, and other endodontic infections.

Vibrio is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria, possessing a curved-rod (comma) shape, several species of which can cause foodborne infection, usually associated with eating undercooked seafood. Typically found in salt water, Vibrio species are facultative anaerobes that test positive for oxidase and do not form spores. All members of the genus are motile and have polar flagella with sheaths. Vibrio species typically possess two chromosomes, which is unusual for bacteria.

Cell scheme Each choanoflagellate has a single flagellum, surrounded by a ring of actin-filled protrusions called microvilli, forming a cylindrical or conical collar (choanos in Greek). Movement of the flagellum draws water through the collar, and bacteria and detritus are captured by the microvilli and ingested. Water currents generated by the flagellum also push free- swimming cells along, as in animal sperm. In contrast, most other flagellates are pulled by their flagella.

The beating of these flagella resemble a flame, giving the cell its name. The cup is attached to a tube cell, whose inner surface is also coated in cilia, which help to move liquid through the tube cell. The tube opens externally through a nephropore, or, in the trematoda, into an excretory bladder. The function of these cells is to regulate the osmotic pressure of the worm, and maintain its ionic balance.

The classification of Pelomyxa has been the subject of considerable discussion, in recent decades. Pelomyxa lack mitochondria, as well as several other organelles usually found in eukaryote cells (notably, peroxisomes and dictyosomes). At one time, they were also believed to lack flagella and to be incapable of mitosis. As nucleated cells that lacked "nearly every other cell-inclusion of eukaryotes", Pelomyxa were, for a time, regarded as surviving "proto-Eukaryotes",Whatley, Jean M. et al.

Male gametangia have been observed only between April and July (Southern Hemisphere, Australia). They are borne in a similar manner to the female gametangia, and contain 64 zooids, each 5 µm long by 2-3 µm wide. Both gametes are pyriform in shape (pear form) with two laterally inserted flagella (the anterior one longer than the posterior). They each possess one eyespot - and have never been observed to contain two or more.

Under a light microscope, host-dependent Bdellovibrio appears to be a comma-shaped motile rod that is about 0.3–0.5 by 0.5–1.4 µm in size with a barely discernible flagellum. Bdellovibrio show up as a growing clear plaque in an E. coli “lawn”. Notably, Bdellovibrio has a sheath that covers its flagellum – a rare feature for bacteria. Flagellar motion stops once Bdellovibrio has penetrated its prey, and the flagella is then shed.

The amoeboid stage is roughly cylindrical, typically around 20-40 μm in length. They are traditionally considered lobose amoebae, but are not related to the others, and unlike them, do not form true lobose pseudopods. Instead, they advance by eruptive waves, where hemispherical bulges appear from the front margin of the cell, which is clear. The flagellate stage is slightly smaller, with two or four anterior flagella anterior to the feeding groove.

Sporomusa ovata is a species of bacteria with characteristic banana-shaped cells. Its cells are strictly anaerobic, Gram-negative, endospore-forming, straight to slightly curved rods that are motile by means of lateral flagella. It has been the subject of much research into electrosynthesis of energy- containing carbon chains. Sporomusa ovata is a candidate as the biological catalyst for an "artificial leaf" that converts sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into oxygen and liquid fuels.

Hemiselmis are typically 4 to 9 micrometers long, free-swimming, biflagellate monads. They are generally bean-shaped with the flagella located between 1/3 and 1/2 the cell length from the anterior. A tubular gullet lined with usually two rows of ejectisomes is found to be in the posterior region of the cell. A single plastid and nucleomorph are present, with it possessing the biliprotein pigment Cr-phycoerythrin 555 or one of Cr-phycocyanin, 577, 612 and 630.

However, they are now known to have lost mitochondria secondarily, and retain both organelles and nuclear genes derived from them. Mitochondrial relics include hydrogenosomes, which produce hydrogen, and small structures called mitosomes. It now appears the Metamonada are, together with Malawimonas, sister clades of the Podiata. All of these groups are united by having flagella or basal bodies in characteristic groups of four, which are often associated with the nucleus, forming a structure called a karyomastigont.

Leptospira have a Gram-negative-like cell envelope consisting of a cytoplasmic and outer membrane. However, the peptidoglycan layer is associated with the cytoplasmic rather than the outer membrane, an arrangement that is unique to spirochetes. The two flagella of Leptospira extend from the cytoplasmic membrane at the ends of the bacterium into the periplasmic space and are necessary for the motility of Leptospira. The outer membrane contains a variety of lipoproteins and transmembrane outer membrane proteins.

The flagella/cilia apparatus pulls the body of the sperm forwards. The sperm have only a tiny distance to travel to the archegonia, of which there are usually two or three. Two sperm are produced, one of which successfully fertilizes the ovule. Although it is widely held that fertilization of ginkgo seeds occurs just before or after they fall in early autumn, embryos ordinarily occur in seeds just before and after they drop from the tree.

Additionally, G. semen displays the pigments chlorophyll c1 and c2, diadinoxanthin, trans-neoxanthin, cis-neoxanthin, α and β carotene, violaxanthin, zeaxanthin and alloxanthin. Like other heterokont algae, the planktonic cells of G. semen possess two differently shaped flagella, which enable them to actively swim around in the water column. Under physical stress, small organelles that sit under the cell membrane and are called trichocysts, explode and release slimy threads. This likely represents a deterring mechanism against predators.

Within the first week inside the host, the parasites elongate to form "giant" versions of themselves inside the pylorus of the host. After 12 days, cells migrate to the salivary glands via the haemolymph. It is here, in the salivary glands, where multiplication resumes again, producing regular sized forms for infection of plant hosts. Depending on species and isolate, these promastigote forms may or may not be attached to the cell walls of the salivary glands with their flagella.

Dikarya is a subkingdom of Fungi that includes the divisions Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, both of which in general produce dikaryons, may be filamentous or unicellular, but are always without flagella. The Dikarya are most of the so-called "higher fungi", but also include many anamorphic species that would have been classified as molds in historical literature. Phylogenetically the two divisions regularly group together. In a 1998 publication, Thomas Cavalier-Smith referred to this group as the Neomycota.

Avasthi uses Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a unicellular green alga, to investigate the assembly of cilia. She was particularly interested in the cellular machinery needed to maintain cilia, and used small molecule chemical inhibitors to identify important features in ciliary transport. Avasthi found that actin, a cytoskeleton protein, was required for intraflagellar transport (IFT) regulation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The actin is recruits IFT to basal bodies during the elongation of flagella; and without actin the flagellar length is lost.

The cells of Pyrococcus are about 0.8–2 μm and are slightly irregular cocci in shape. They show a polar grouping of flagella and are enveloped by an S-layer enclosing a periplasmic space around the cytoplasmic membrane. Pyrococcus species are anaerobic but vary slightly concerning their metabolism. Peptide fermentation is the principle metabolic pathway however, growth has been observed for P. furiosus and P. abyssi on starch, maltose, and pyruvate but not for P. horikoshii.

The microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) is a structure found in eukaryotic cells from which microtubules emerge. MTOCs have two main functions: the organization of eukaryotic flagella and cilia and the organization of the mitotic and meiotic spindle apparatus, which separate the chromosomes during cell division. The MTOC is a major site of microtubule nucleation and can be visualized in cells by immunohistochemical detection of γ-tubulin. The morphological characteristics of MTOCs vary between the different phyla and kingdoms.

Two flagella emanate from the anterior papilla of the cell, and cells have two contractile vacuoles at the flagellar base. Polytoma possesses a leukoplast in place of a chloroplast, in which many starch grains are concentrated; there is no pyrenoid. Since they lack photosynthetic capability, Polytoma species are entirely saprotrophic, obtaining nutrients from decaying organic matter. Some species possess an eyespot apparatus (stigma) in the anterior portion of the leucoplast, but in others this organelle is absent.

This genus was first described by Félix Dujardin, a French zoologist in 1841 as having variable shape, then typified in 1970 by Bourelly as an Anisonema.Dujardin, F. (1841). “Histoire naturelle des zoophytes. Infusoires, comprenant la physiologie et la classification de ces animaux, et la manière de les étudier à laide du microscope”. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.51143 In 1970, Stein modified the description to include cells with two flagella and two new species’ descriptions with one containing ingestion rods.

The Neisseriaceae are a family of Proteobacteria, within the Neisseriales order. While many organisms in the family are mammalian commensals or part of the normal flora, the genus Neisseria includes two important human pathogens, specifically those responsible for gonorrhea (caused by N. gonorrhoeae) and many cases of meningitis ("meningococcal meningitis", caused by N. meningitidis). As a group, the Neisseriaceae are strictly aerobic and Gram- negative, occur mainly in pairs (diplococci), and typically do not have flagella.

The intricacies of dinoflagellate pellicle cysts: the example of Alexandrium minutum cysts from a bloom-recurrent area (Bay of Baiona, NW Spain). Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 57: 166–174. These are not pellicle or resting cysts since they are not dormant. Similarly, palmelloid or mucilage stages are not pellicle or resting cysts, but stages in which the monad loses its flagella and becomes enveloped in multilayered mucilage wherein division takes place.

Eustigmatophyte zoids (gametes) possess a single or pair of flagella, originating from the apex of the cell. Unlike other heterokontophytes, eustigmatophyte zoids do not have typical photoreceptive organelles (or eyespots); instead an orange-red eyespot outside a chloroplast is located at the anterior end of the zoid. Ecologically, eustigmatophytes occur as photosynthetic autotrophs across a range of systems. Most eustigmatophyte genera live in freshwater or in soil, although Nannochloropsis contains marine species of picophytoplankton (2–4 μm).

During any of the life stages it is possible for Tetraselmis species to undergo a complete transformation and develop flagella, becoming motile. Tetraselmis species undergo cell division during the non-motile stage, producing two daughter cells, and most species only undergo one division cycle. During cell division, organelles divide synchronously before nuclear division. Cell division is aided by a phycoplast, which is a microtubule structure that helps the cell divide the nuclei into each daughter cell.

Collodictyonidae (also Diphylleidae) is a group of aquatic, unicellular eukaryotic organisms with two to four terminal flagella. They feed by phagocytosis, ingesting other unicellular organisms like algae and bacteria. The most remarkable fact of this clade is its uncertain position in the tree of life. A recent phylogenomic analysis places it either as sister group of the excavate protist Malawimonas or as sister group of the Bikonta clade, although both positions received considerably low branch support values.

Deacon, p. 57. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells. Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla, and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients. Although fungi are opisthokonts—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum—all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella.

Prasinococcus have a firm cell wall lacking scales and also lack flagella. The mitochondrial lobe and chloroplast outer membrane both protrude into the pyrenoid matrix which is considered characteristic of the genus. The cell wall has a protruding circular collar which is surrounded by holes which penetrate the cell wall. Its method of asexual reproduction is also considered characteristic - after cell division one daughter cell remains within the original cell wall while the other is extruded.

Symbiosis, Philadelphia, Pa.(USA) However, in recent years, through molecular methods, evidence of recombination and sexual fusions of gamates of the same size suggests the occurrence of sexual reproduction. The zygotes, quite distinct from zoospores, are 6.6 um in diameter and smooth walled with two round chloroplasts. First, the gametes pair up and fuse with each other, leading to the formation of zygotes. Then, the flagella disappear and the zygote develops in a normal vegetative pattern.

Two gametes further paired up with their ventral sides and fused forming a planozygote. For P. kofoidii two copulation finger-shaped structures were observed in gametes that are presumably involved in gamete contact and fusion, but more data is needed to confirm this. The ventrally fused gametes required a complex rearrangement of eight flagella and formation of sulci and cinguli. The 4-zooid planozygote had only one nucleus and had two developmental pathways depending on food availability.

Upon exposure to various conditions, C. tetani can shed its flagella and form a spore. Each cell can form a single spore, generally at one end of the cell, giving the cell a distinctive drumstick shape. C. tetani spores are extremely hardy and are resistant to heat, various antiseptics, and boiling for several minutes. The spores are long-lived and are distributed worldwide in soils as well as in the intestines of various livestock and companion animals.

The green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. Although some green algae are classified as protists, others such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land plants. Algae can grow as single cells, or in long chains of cells. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms.

Each lamella is provided with capillaries separated from the outer sea water by a thin wall that acts as the osmoregulatory membrane. The movement of the organs maintain a constant water flow for gaseous exchange. The oxygen is diffused in from the water and the carbon dioxide is expelled out. The coxae of the last pair of appendages bear short scopulate flagella which helps to clean the gills and serves to sense the oxygen content of the water current.

Social motility leads to a spatial distribution of cells with many clusters and few isolated single cells. An important part of M. xanthus behavior is its ability to move on a solid surface by a mechanism called "gliding". Gliding Motility is a method of locomotion that allows for movement, without the help of flagella, on a solid surface. Gliding Motility is separated into two groups for the M. xanthus: A-motility (adventurous) and S-motility (social).

While Mixotricha has four anterior flagella, it does not use them for locomotion, but more for steering. For locomotion, about 250,000 hairlike Treponema spirochaetes, a species of helical bacteria, are attached to the cell surface and provide the cell with cilia-like movements. The wavelength of the cilia is about and suggests that the spirochaetes are somehow in touch with each other. Mixotricha also has rod-shaped bacteria arranged in an ordered pattern on the surface of the cell.

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a single-cell green alga about 10 micrometres in diameter that swims with two flagella. It has a cell wall made of hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins, a large cup-shaped chloroplast, a large pyrenoid, and an eyespot that senses light. Chlamydomonas species are widely distributed worldwide in soil and fresh water. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is an especially well studied biological model organism, partly due to its ease of culturing and the ability to manipulate its genetics.

Most are mobile with flagella located in the polar regions although some species are nonmobile. The reaction catalysed by these bacteria is the first step in the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate. Nitrosomonas europaea are also important in the treatment of industrial and sewage waste in the first step of oxidizing ammonia to nitrate. Evidence suggests that ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) contribute significantly to the global production of nitrous oxide (produced by the reduction of nitrite).

At a later stage these bodies accumulated in the vesicles. There is a single Golgi body in the cell which appears to be closely linked with the vesicles. The transition to the next stage is marked by the shrinking of the cytoplasm away from the cell wall. Following this, flagella appear within cytoplasmic vesicles and the paired centrioles of the vegetative cells take on the function of basal bodies (organelles that form the base of a flagellum or cilium).

In some parasites, the flagella end in acronemes. The nucleus is generally situated near the anterior end of the body and contains a central endosome surrounded by chromatin granules, some species have pelta-like structures below the nucleus. The cytoplasm is granular with or without vacuoles. Electron microscopic imaging of Monocercomonoides has found that the intracellular morphology lacks any Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, or potential homologs of the two, Golgi-associated proteins have been detected, but mitochondrial ones have not.

Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from within the green algae, some authors are starting to include them. The clade that includes both green algae and embryophytes is monophyletic and is referred to as the clade Viridiplantae and as the kingdom Plantae. The green algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, most with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid and filamentous forms, and macroscopic, multicellular seaweeds. There are about 8,000 species of green algae.

Yet, flagellin, the main protein component of flagella, can act as an immunomodulator and activate the innate immune response in Hydra. Therefore, bacteria have less chance to evade the immune system and to colonize host tissues. Another explanation is that 3-hydroxy-HSL induces carbon metabolism and fatty acid degradation genes in Hydra. This allows the bacterial metabolism to adjust itself to the host growth conditions, which is essential for the colonization of the ectodermal mucus layer of Hydra.

Contrast to many bacilli-shaped bacteria, most cocci bacteria do not have flagella and are non-motile. Cocci is an English loanword of a modern or neo-Latin noun, which in turn stems from the Greek masculine noun cóccos (κόκκος) meaning "berry". Structure Structure for cocci may vary between gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial wall types. The cell wall structure for cocci may vary between gram-positive (thick peptidoglycan layers) and gram-negative (thin peptidoglycan layers).

Chilomastix is a genus of pyriform excavates within the family Retortamonadidae All species within this genus are flagellated, structured with three flagella pointing anteriorly and a fourth contained within the feeding groove. Chilomastix also lacks Golgi apparatus and mitochondria but does possess a single nucleus. The genus parasitizes a wide range of vertebrate hosts, but is known to be typically non-pathogenic, and is therefore classified as harmless. The life cycle of Chilomastix lacks an intermediate host or vector.

Two separate eyestalks extend forwards from below the rostrum, each bearing a pigmented, movable compound eye. These are followed by two pairs of antennae. The first pair (the antennules) are biramous, with the two flagella of similar size, one of 65 segments, and one of 50 segments; the second pair are uniramous and much thicker and longer than the first pair, reaching twice the length of the carapace. The antennal glands open at the base of the second antennae.

The author asked the reader to "imagine the effects of natural selection on those organisms that fortuitously evolved the flagella ... without the concommitant control mechanisms". An early concept of irreducibly complex systems comes from Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1972), an Austrian biologist.Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1952). Problems of Life: An Evaluation of Modern Biological and Scientific Thought, pg 148 He believed that complex systems must be examined as complete, irreducible systems in order to fully understand how they work.

Calcium is a ubiquitous second messenger with wide-ranging physiological roles. These include muscle contraction, neuronal transmission (as in an excitatory synapse), cellular motility (including the movement of flagella and cilia), fertilization, cell growth (proliferation), neurogenesis, learning and memory as with synaptic plasticity, and secretion of saliva. High levels of cytoplasmic Ca2+ can also cause the cell to undergo apoptosis. Other biochemical roles of calcium include regulating enzyme activity, permeability of ion channels, activity of ion pumps, and components of the cytoskeleton.

With the aid of a teaching assistantship and a research fellowship, she became a graduate student in zoology at UC Berkeley and in February 1943 married a fellow graduate student Frank Pitelka. The birth of their first child delayed Dorothy Patella's progress toward a Ph.D., which she received in 1948 under the supervision of Harold Kirby. Her research for the dissertation involved the study of protozoan flagella by means of an electron microscope. She was one of the first electron microscopists at Berkeley.

Telluria mixta (formerly called Pseudomonas mixta) is a species of Gram- negative soil bacteria that actively degrades polysaccharides including dextran, inulin, pectate, starch, and xylan. The bacterium is straight-rod- shaped, 0.5 to 1.0 μm wide and usually 2 to 3 μm long, and can grow both lateral and polar flagella. Optimal growth is seen between 30 and 35 °C, at a neutral pH, and with no salt present. Growth is totally inhibited in a sodium chloride concentration of 1.5% or more.

The action of these vibrations through the mass of bristles is to gradually move the robot, in the preferential direction of the bristles. There is some comparison between the vibration of a bristlebot and the lashing of bacterial flagella. Most bristlebots are electrically driven, making use of modern developments in low-mass motors and batteries. As bristlebots have such crude locomotion, for both efficiency and control, they are not usually considered as appropriate for sophisticated control systems or responsive behaviours.

Most phylogenetic trees identify it as the sister group to Opisthokonta, another major clade which contains both fungi and animals as well as some 300 species of unicellular protists. Amoebozoa and Opisthokonta are sometimes grouped together in a high-level taxon, variously named Unikonta, Amorphea or Opimoda. Amoebozoa includes many of the best-known amoeboid organisms, such as Chaos, Entamoeba, Pelomyxa and the genus Amoeba itself. Species of Amoebozoa may be either shelled (testate), or naked, and cells may possess flagella.

Clostridium sordellii is a rare anaerobic, gram-positive, spore-forming rod with peritrichous flagella that is capable of causing pneumonia, endocarditis, arthritis, peritonitis, and myonecrosis. C. sordellii bacteremia and sepsis occur rarely. Most cases of sepsis from C. sordellii occur in patients with underlying conditions. Severe toxic shock syndrome among previously healthy persons has been described in a small number of C. sordellii cases, most often associated with gynecologic infections in women and infection of the umbilical stump in newborns.

As mentioned above, the needle complex shares similarities with bacterial flagella. More specifically, the base of the needle complex is structurally very similar to the flagellar base; the needle itself is analogous to the flagellar hook, a structure connecting the base to the flagellar filament. The base is composed of several circular rings and is the first structure that is built in a new needle complex. Once the base is completed, it serves as a secretion machine for the outer proteins (the needle).

Like other diplomonads, Giardia have two nuclei, each with four associated flagella, and were thought to lack both mitochondria and a Golgi apparatus. However they are now known to possess a complex endomembrane system as well as mitochondrial remnants, called mitosomes, through mitochondrial reduction. The mitosomes are not used in ATP synthesis the way mitochondria are, but are involved in the maturation of iron-sulfur proteins. The synapomorphies of genus Giardia include cells with duplicate organelles, absence of cytostomes, and ventral adhesive disc.

The main corals on which Cliona delitrix grows are Siderastrea siderea, Diploria labyrinthiformis and Montastraea cavernosa. The sponge is a filter feeder, removing bacteria and other organic particles from the current of water sucked in through its many pores by the movement of flagella. There are channels and chambers inside the sponge and the water finds its way through them and exits through the osculi. The zoanthid coral Parazoanthus parasiticus is often found growing on the surface of this sponge.

The functions of bacterial DNA-binding proteins are not limited to DNA replication. Researchers have been investigating other pathways these proteins affect. The DNA-binding protein H-NS has been known to play roles in chromosome organization and gene regulation; however, recent studies have also confirmed their role in indirectly regulating flagella functions. Some motility regulatory linkages that H-NS influences include the messenger molecule Cyclic di-GMP, the bio-film regulatory protein CsgD, and the sigma factors, σ(S) and σ(F).

The bolidophyte form lacks silica plates and has two unequal flagella inserted ventrally, vaguely reminiscent of Chlamydomonas. The parmalean form is similar to the diatoms as it is coated in silicate plates. These silicate plates are used to divide the Parmales into separate genera based upon the number and location of the siliceous plates. Unlike the diatoms, the Parmales are able to grow in silica-limiting environments because the synthesis of the silica plates is not directly connected to growth or reproduction.

Though they have been given different names, motile cilia and flagella have nearly identical structures and have the same purpose: motion. The movement of the appendage can be described as a wave. The wave tends to originate from the cilium base and can be described in terms of frequency (ciliary beat frequency or CBF), amplitude and wave length. The beating motion is created by dynein arm structures the sliding of outer doublets, and originates in the axoneme, not at the basal body.

Eukaryotic flagella or cilia, probably an ancestral characteristic, are widespread in almost all groups of eukaryotes, as a relatively perennial condition, or as a flagellated life cycle stage (e.g., zoids, gametes, zoospores, which may be produced continually or not). The first situation is found either in specialized cells of multicellular organisms (e.g., the choanocytes of sponges, or the ciliated epithelia of metazoans), as in ciliates and many eukaryotes with a "flagellate condition" (or "monadoid level of organization", see Flagellata, an artificial group).

Gibbons moved to the Kewalo Marine Laboratory, University of Hawaii at Manoa, in 1967 as an associate professor. He found the cilia of sea urchin sperms easier to work with than the cilia and flagella of Tetrahymena. In 1969, he was promoted to professor of biophysics. Throughout the 1970s, Gibbons and his wife Barbara showed the sliding of microtubules caused cilia motility (known as the sliding tubule mechanism), and that this sliding was dependent on the energy generated from ATP hydrolysis by ATPase.

Panulirus brunneiflagellum in a Tokyo aquarium Panulirus brunneiflagellum is a species of spiny lobster that lives around the Ogasawara Group (Bonin Islands) of southern Japan. Its members were previously included in P. japonicus, although it may be more closely related to P. femoristriga. It has been fished for more than 150 years by Japanese fishermen, who call the species aka-ebi. It differs from related species by the lack of banding along the flagella of the first pair of antennae.

Less than 2,000 species of bacteria occur in the marine environment out of the 100,000 species. Although this group of species is small, they play a tremendous role in energy transfer, mineral cycles, and organic turnover. The monera differs from the four other kingdoms as "members of the Monera have a prokaryotic cytology in which the cells lack membrane-bound organelles such as chloroplasts, mitochondria, nuclei, and complex flagella." The bacteria can be divided into two major subkingdoms: Eubacteria and Archaebacteria.

When examined by phase- contrast and transmission electron microscopy cells were observed to be nonmotile, ovoid to rod shaped, with sizes ranging from 1.4 to 1.8 µm in width and 2.4–3.2 µm in length. Neither spores nor flagella were observed. When investigated in R2A media, cultures of A. rosea were observed to be aerobic and chemoheterotrophic with no evidence of growth under anaerobic conditions. It is negative for the following tests: nitrate respiration, fermentative growth, catalase, and cytochrome oxidase.

Cytoplasmic dynein on a microtubule Dynein is a family of cytoskeletal motor proteins that move along microtubules in cells. They convert the chemical energy stored in ATP to mechanical work. Dynein transports various cellular cargos, provides forces and displacements important in mitosis, and drives the beat of eukaryotic cilia and flagella. All of these functions rely on dynein's ability to move towards the minus-end of the microtubules, known as retrograde transport, thus, they are called "minus-end directed motors".

This sliding produces the bending movement needed for cilia to beat and propel the cell or other particles. Groups of dynein molecules responsible for movement in opposite directions are probably activated and inactivated in a coordinated fashion so that the cilia or flagella can move back and forth. The radial spoke has been proposed as the (or one of the) structures that synchronizes this movement. The regulation of axonemal dynein activity is critical for flagellar beat frequency and cilia waveform.

He witnessed the events of exflagellation and became convinced that the moving flagella were parasitic microorganisms. He noted that quinine removed the parasites from the blood. Laveran called this microscopic organism Oscillaria malariae and proposed that malaria was caused by this protozoan. This discovery remained controversial until the development of the oil immersion lens in 1884 and of superior staining methods in 1890–1891. In 1885, Ettore Marchiafava, Angelo Celli and Camillo Golgi studied the reproduction cycles in human blood (Golgi cycles).

Unlike other parasitic protozoa (Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica etc.), Trichomonas vaginalis exists in only one morphological stage, a trophozoite, and cannot encyst. The T. vaginalis trophozoite is oval as well as flagellated, or "pear" shaped as seen on a wet- mount. It is slightly larger than a white blood cell, measuring 9 × 7 μm. Five flagella arise near the cytostome; four of these immediately extend outside the cell together, while the fifth flagellum wraps backwards along the surface of the organism.

The Raphidophyceae (raphidophytes, formerly referred to as Chloromonadophyceae and Chloromonadineae) are a small group of eukaryotic algae that includes both marine and freshwater species. All raphidophytes are unicellular, with large cells (50 to 100 μm), but no cell walls. Raphidophytes possess a pair of flagella, organised such that both originate from the same invagination (or gullet). One flagellum points forwards,and is covered in hair-like mastigonemes, while the other points backwards across the cell surface, lying within a ventral groove.

Most aspects of sponge biology, including feeding, reproduction, and gas exchange, depend on a low pressure flow of water generated by the flagella of the choanoderm. Three grades of organization, asconoid, syconoid, and leuconoid, reflect the degree of elaboration of the choanoderm layer and mesohyl. In the asconoid plan the interior water space, or atrium, is large and unpartitioned. In the syconoid plan the periphery of the atrium is divided into numerous small flagellated chambers with increased surface area for choanocytes.

Motile sperm cells of algae and seedless plants Motile sperm cells typically move via flagella and require a water medium in order to swim toward the egg for fertilization. In animals most of the energy for sperm motility is derived from the metabolism of fructose carried in the seminal fluid. This takes place in the mitochondria located in the sperm's midpiece (at the base of the sperm head). These cells cannot swim backwards due to the nature of their propulsion.

Diatoms are generally 2 to 200 micrometers in size, with a few larger species. Their yellowish-brown chloroplasts, the site of photosynthesis, are typical of heterokonts, having four membranes and containing pigments such as the carotenoid fucoxanthin. Individuals usually lack flagella, but they are present in male gametes of the centric diatoms and have the usual heterokont structure, including the hairs (mastigonemes) characteristic in other groups. Diatoms are often referred as "jewels of the sea" or "living opals" due to their optical properties.

Cardiolipin is a typical lipid of bacterial membranes; phosphatidylcholine, on the other hand, is mostly present in symbiotic prokaryotes of eukaryotic cells. For symbiotic adaptation, the host trypanosome has undergone alterations such as reduced paraflagellar rod, which is required full motility of the bacterial flagella. Yet the paraflagellar rod gene PFR1 is fully functional. The bacteria are known to provide essential nutrients to the host, and provide electron transport system for the production of cellular energy, the ATP molecules through its glycosomes.

Fibrous sheath CABYR binding protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FSCB gene, which is found on chromosome 14. It is found in Homo sapiens, and has the following lineage: Eukaryota; Metazoa; Chordata; Craniata; Vertebrata; Euteleostomi; Mammalia; Eutheria; Euarchontoglires; Primates; Haplorrhini; Catarrhini; Hominidae; Homo. The sub-cellular function of the protein is to localize to the cortex of the fibrous sheath, including the surface of the longitudinal columns and ribs of the main part of sperm flagella.

Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms that can either have a bacilli, spirilli, or cocci shape and measure between 0.5-20 micrometers. They were one of the first living cells to evolve and have spread to inhabit a variety of different habitats including hydrothermal vents, glacial rocks, and other organisms. They share characteristics with eukaryotic cells including the cytoplasm, cell membrane, and ribosomes. Some unique bacterial features include the cell wall (also found in plants), flagella (not common for all bacteria), and the nucleoid.

Hammer p.55 Each motile mature cell has an intertwined bundle of flagella appearing as a single flagellum consisting of a long filament with a short hook and a basal body complex, but it is distinguishable by electron microscope as 10 to 30 strands with diameters of 12.5 to 16 nm each. S. natans stores reserves of poly- beta -hydroxybutyrate as internal globules making up 30 to 40% of the dry weight of a colony. Gram and Neisser staining reactions are negative.

Locomotion is often provided by cilia or flagella or may proceed via the advance of pseudopodia, food may be gathered by phagocytosis, energy needs may be supplied by photosynthesis and the cell may be supported by an endoskeleton or an exoskeleton. Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies. Metazoans are multicellular organism, different groups of cells of which have separate functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates.

Jakobids are widely dispersed, having been found in soil, freshwater, and marine habitats, but generally not common. However, environmental DNA surveys suggest that Stygiellidae are abundant in anoxic marine habitats. Some are capable of surviving hypersaline and anoxic environments, though the Histionids have only been found in freshwater ecosystems, where they attach themselves to algae or zooplankton. Outside of obligate sessile species, many species of jakobids can attach temporarily to surfaces, using either of the two flagella or the cell body itself.

New DNA analysis has shown several isolates of T. litoralis, MW and Z-1614, which are most likely new strains. MW and Z-1614 were confirmed to be strains of T. litoralis through DNA-DNA hybridization, C–G ratios (38–41 mol%), and immunoblotting analyses. They slightly differ in morphology from the previously isolated T. litoralis in that they all have flagella. Through the same processes it has been shown that the previously discovered Caldococcus litoralis was actually T. litoralis.

Flagella are microtubule-based structures that allow cells to have controlled movement to a certain degree. The root of the microtubule arrangement that is associated with the flagellar basal bodies, R1, which is also the site of cytoskeletal microtubules, is positioned uniquely in the genus Mallomonas. Instead of pulling away from the basal bodies, R1 actually loops around them in a clockwise fashion. There is also a second root of microtubules extending from the point of origin towards the cell’s centre.

This organism is a Gram-negative, microaerophilic, helical shaped, chemoorganotrophic organism from the genus Brevinema. Brevinema andersonii is host associated, strains have been isolated from blood and other tissues of short-tailed shrews (Blarina brevicauda) and white-footed mice (Peromyscus Zeucopus) and are infectious for laboratory mice and Syrian hamsters.B. andersonii is readily identified by restriction enzyme analysis, and SDS-PAGE, or fatty acid composition data. Another identifier for B. andersonii is the sheathed periplasmic flagella in the 1-2-1 configuration.

2011; Maktar et al. 2008). Water-soaked lesions can also appear on unripe fruit, and although they start small, the lesions can turn into firm depressions (Webb 1985). Dry conditions can allow infected plants to recover and produce unaffected, fruit-producing branches. Erwinia papayae is a Gram-negative, straight rod bacterium with peritrichous flagella, so diagnosis can be made using a Gram stain. On King’s medium B, colonies are creamy and mucoid with a non-diffusible blue pigment (Vawdrey 2011).

Members of the Hemitrichia follow the typical plasmodial slime mold life cycle, which exhibits two main stages as well as possible sexual reproduction. Slime molds spend a period of their life cycle as a myxameoba or a swarm cells. These cells are able to exist as either amoeba or flagellates depending on the conditions the cell experiences, and are hence known as amoeboflagellates. The amoeba form is preferred for terrestrial environments, while the swimming ability of flagella is preferred in a wet environment.

Cobetia amphilecti is a Gram-negative, aerobic, oxidase-negative, catalase- positive, bacterium. It has non-pigmented, rod-shaped cells, 0.8–0.9 µm in diameter and 1.1–1.3 µm long, motile by means of one polar and/or two or three lateral flagella. Growth is observed in 0–20 % NaCl with an optimum at 5 % NaCl, and at 4–42 °C with an optimum at 37 °C. Growth is slow in the absence of NaCl and in the presence of 0.5 % NaCl.

The bacteria use their flagella for moving between cell layers. They bind to cells such as fibroblasts, macrophages, endothelial cells, and kidney epithelial cells. They also bind to several human proteins such as complement proteins, thrombin, fibrinogen, and plasminogen using surface leptospiral immunoglobulin-like (Lig) proteins such as LigB and LipL32, whose genes are found in all pathogenic species. Through innate immune system, endothelial cells of the capillaries in the human body are activated by the presence of these bacteria.

Bacteria swarming refers to a rapid cellular bacterial surface movement powered by rotating flagella. Key features of swarming bacteria are large-scale swirling and streaming motions. During Escherichia coli swarming, in the edge area, the density of the bacteria is the lowest; in the peak area, the cell density is the highest, followed by falloff, where the density drops, and plateau 1 and 2, where the density remains almost the same.Darnton, N. C., Turner, L., Rojevsky, S., & Berg, H. C. (2010).

Colponema is a colorless biflagellate with a pronounced ventral feeding groove. Cell size ranges from 4-14 µm in width and 8-17 µm in length and they have an oval shape that narrows at the anterior end. The cells have 1 µm long toxicysts, a type of organelle that is extruded from the cell and are used to immobilize prey. Species of Colponema vary in the presence of a contractile vacuoles, degree of dorsoventral flattening, and the length of flagella.

Rhynchopus is a genus of flagellate excavates in the class Diplonemea. They usually have flagella of different lengths and a single subapical opening with the flagellar pocket openings and adjacent feeding apparatus merging into one. When food is scarce, mobile flagellated cells are produced, suggesting the presence of a fully flagellated and dispersive phase in the life cycle, serving to distinguish Rhynchopus from Diplonema. Most species are free- living, others are symbionts and R. coscinodiscivorus is an intracellular parasite of diatoms.

The fertilized cell contains all the nuclear and organellar materials from both gametes until the onset of meiosis, which occurs 24 hours after the insect-host molts and triggers the digestion of one flagellum and one centriole from one gamete and the axostyles of both gametes. After meiosis is complete, the remaining centriole duplicates producing new flagella and axostyles. In mitotic cell division, only the axostyle is digested and renewed. There are some subtle differences in sexual reproduction between Saccinobaculus species.

All animals are posited by biologists to have evolved from a flagellated eukaryote. Their closest known living relatives are the choanoflagellates – collared flagellates whose cell morphology is similar to the choanocyte cells of certain sponges. Molecular studies place animals in a supergroup called the opisthokonts, which also include the choanoflagellates, fungi, and a few small parasitic protists. The name comes from the posterior location of the flagellum in motile cells, such as most animal spermatozoa, whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella.

Arturia canariensis has a small, lacy structure and is a bright lemon yellow colour. It is an asconoid with many tiny flask-like tubes. Water is drawn in through fine holes near their base, the ostia, moved along by flagella and expelled from the oscula at the top, each osculum being a single exit formed from many fused ascon tubes. The skeleton is composed of large calcareous spicules called megascleres, made predominantly of calcite, forming a soft, fragile, supporting network.

The structures which can be negatively stained are much smaller than those studied with the light microscope. Here, the method is used to view viruses, bacteria, bacterial flagella, biological membrane structures and proteins or protein aggregates, which all have a low electron-scattering power. Some stains, such as osmium tetroxide and osmium ferricyanide, are very chemically active. As strong oxidants, they cross-link lipids mainly by reacting with unsaturated carbon- carbon bonds, and thereby both fix biological membranes in place in tissue samples and simultaneously stain them.

Dinoflagellate anatomy Dinoflagellates are unicellular and possess two dissimilar flagella arising from the ventral cell side (dinokont flagellation). They have a ribbon-like transverse flagellum with multiple waves that beats to the cell's left, and a more conventional one, the longitudinal flagellum, that beats posteriorly. The transverse flagellum is a wavy ribbon in which only the outer edge undulates from base to tip, due to the action of the axoneme which runs along it. The axonemal edge has simple hairs that can be of varying lengths.

Laboratory IX – Ginkgo, Cordaites, and the Conifers The fertilization of ginkgo seeds occurs via motile sperm, as in cycads, ferns, mosses and algae. The sperm are large (about 70–90 micrometres) and are similar to the sperm of cycads, which are slightly larger. Ginkgo sperm were first discovered by the Japanese botanist Sakugoro Hirase in 1896. The sperm have a complex multi-layered structure, which is a continuous belt of basal bodies that form the base of several thousand flagella which actually have a cilia-like motion.

Voltage-dependent anion-selective channel protein 3 (VDAC3) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the VDAC3 gene on chromosome 8. The protein encoded by this gene is a voltage-dependent anion channel and shares high structural homology with the other VDAC isoforms. Nonetheless, VDAC3 demonstrates limited pore-forming ability and, instead, interacts with other proteins to perform its biological functions, including sperm flagella assembly and centriole assembly. Mutations in VDAC3 have been linked to male infertility, as well as Parkinson’s disease.

Male solifugid in South African veld: Its flagella are visible near the tips of the chelicerae, looking like large, backward-curling bristles. As in most species, it holds its pedipalps clear of the ground; its front legs serve as tactile sensors, barely touching the ground with their setae. Like most other arachnids, although Solifugae appear to have five pairs of legs, only the hind four pairs actually are "true" legs. Each true leg has seven segments: coxa, trochanter, femur, patella, tibia, metatarsus, and tarsus.

In 1977, archaea were first classified as a separate group of prokaryotes in the three-domain system of Carl Woese and George E. Fox, based on the differences in the sequence of ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) genes. This domain possesses numerous fundamental traits distinct from both the bacterial and the eukaryotic domains. Many archaea possess a rotating motility structure that at first seemed to resemble the bacterial and eukaryotic flagella. The flagellum (Latin for whip) is a lash-like appendage that protrudes from the cell.

The morphologies are observed during all growth phases and resemble budding bacteria thus suggesting that TM7x cells undergo bud formation while attached to XH001, and thus divide by budding. The different morphologies may reflect different budding stages. TM7x also do not have flagella or pili and this suggests that TM7x cells adhere in a directional manner using the cell surface or membrane proteins. During the lag, exponential and stationary phase, TM7x cells present in the co-culture appear as cocci, although slightly elongated forms are also seen.

Palaeococcus helgesonii is a hyperthermophillic, anaerobic yet microaerobic archaeon from a geothermal well found in Vulcano, Italy. It is characterized as sphere-shaped, has a cell diameter ranging from 0.6 to 1.5 μm, a cell envelope consisting of a cytoplasmic membrane, a periplasmic space, a thin, electron-dense layer, and tufts of polar flagella. It occurs singly or in pairs. It can survive in temperatures ranging from 45 to 80°C, a pH range of 5 to 8, and a salt range of 0.5 to 6.0%.

S. americana has long helically coiled cells, is gram-negative, and is chemotrophic in its metabolism. Spirochaeta also have unique flagella, sometimes called axial filaments, which run lengthwise between the cytoplasmic membrane and outer membrane. These cause a twisting motion which allows the spirochaete to move about. Despite the extreme environment that they require, "their cell walls are very delicate, and it is difficult to keep them alive for long periods in the laboratory," says Dr. Elena Pikuta, one of the discoverers of S. americana.

When moving through a fluid, rotating systems carry an efficiency advantage only at extremely low Reynolds numbers (i.e. viscosity-dominated flows) such as those experienced by bacterial flagella, whereas oscillating systems have the advantage at higher (inertia-dominated) Reynolds numbers. Whereas ship propellers typically have efficiencies around 60% and aircraft propellers up to around 80% (achieving 88% in the human-powered Gossamer Condor), much higher efficiencies, in the range of 96%–98%, can be achieved with an oscillating flexible foil like a fish tail or bird wing.

Diatoms are mostly non-motile; however, sperm found in some species can be flagellated, though motility is usually limited to a gliding motion. In centric diatoms, the small male gametes have one flagellum while the female gametes are large and non-motile (oogamous). Conversely, in pennate diatoms both gametes lack flagella (isoogamous). Certain araphid species, that is pennate diatoms without a raphe (seam), have been documented as anisogamous and are, therefore, considered to represent a transitional stage between centric and raphid pennate diatoms, diatoms with a raphe.

Trimastix were first described by William Kent in 1881 when he observed a Trimastix cell in a sample sourced from decaying fuci seaweed. He described the genera at the time as free-swimming naked animalcules that are oval, or pear shaped, with a membranous border and three flagella inserted on the anterior end. Kent observed one flagellum facing forwards and two facing backwards. It was also noted in this account that Trimastix had a visually apparent nucleus and contractile vacuole but no visual oral aperture.

Several systemic host defenses also contribute to the immune response. B. pseudomallei triggers both the complement system and coagulation cascade, however the thick bacterial capsule prevent the action of the complement membrane attack complex. Additional elements of the immune system are activated by the host toll-like receptors such as TLR2, TLR4, and TLR5 that recognize the conserved pieces of the bacteria such as LPS and flagella. This activation results in the production of cytokines such as interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) and interleukin 18 (IL-18).

Great appendages are interpret as raptorial limbs involved in predation, with those of some genus such as Yohoia are structurally comparable to the raptorial maxillipeds of mantis shrimp. While the great appendages of leanchoilid megacheirans such as Leanchoilia and Yawunik have elongated flagella, suggest a sensory role alongside predatory function. Radiodonts such as Anomalocaris have multi-segmented frontal appendages, which are suggested to be either homologous or non-homologous with the megacheiran's great appendages. Radiodont's frontal appendages have controversial relationships to those of the megacheirans.

Though amoeba locomotion is assisted by appendages like flagella and cilia, the main source of movement in these cells is pseudopodial locomotion. This process takes advantage of the different consistencies of the endoplasm and ectoplasm to create a pseudopod. Pseudopod, or “false foot” is the term for the extension of a cell's plasma membrane into what appears to be an appendage that pulls the cell forward. The process behind this involves the gel of the ectoplasm, and sol, more fluid, portion of the endoplasm.

While the treatment for V. vulnificus can be as straightforward as making the rapid choice of appropriate antibiotics, there have been cases in which the genes mutated, thus rendering antibiotics ineffective. While looking for an answer to this problem, researchers found that one way to stop the infection from spreading is to again mutate the bacteria. This mutation happens on the flagellum of the bacteria. When injected with flgC and flgE (two genes in the flagella that cause the mutation), the flagellum no longer function properly.

Stylized cutaway diagram of an animal cell (with flagella) The kingdom Animalia contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile (although some have secondarily adopted a sessile lifestyle). Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are also known as eumetazoans. They have an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings; the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development. Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have undifferentiated cells.

Structure of a plant cell Plant cells are eukaryotic cells present in green plants, photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Their distinctive features include primary cell walls containing cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin, the presence of plastids with the capability to perform photosynthesis and store starch, a large vacuole that regulates turgor pressure, the absence of flagella or centrioles, except in the gametes, and a unique method of cell division involving the formation of a cell plate or phragmoplast that separates the new daughter cells.

Although occasionally it has been found in environmental soil and water samples, its natural habitat is still not known. Bacteria of this genus lack flagella, whip-like structures many bacteria use for locomotion, but exhibit twitching or swarming motility. This may be due to the activity of type IV pili, pole-like structures that can be extended and retracted. Motility in A. baumannii may also be due to the excretion of exopolysaccharide, creating a film of high-molecular-weight sugar chains behind the bacterium to move forward.

The heterokonts or stramenopiles (formally, Heterokonta or Stramenopiles) are a major line of eukaryotes. Most are algae, ranging from the giant multicellular kelp to the unicellular diatoms, which are a primary component of plankton. Other notable members of the Stramenopiles include the (generally) parasitic oomycetes, including Phytophthora of Great Famine of Ireland infamy and Pythium which causes seed rot and damping off. The name "heterokont" refers to the type of motile life cycle stage, in which the flagellated cells possess two differently shaped flagella (see zoospore).

Species in the genus Dunaliella are morphogically similar to Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with the main exception being that Dunaliella lack both a cell wall and a contractile vacuole. Dunaliella has two flagella of equal length and has a single cup-like chloroplast that often contains a central pyrenoid. The chloroplast can hold large amounts of β-carotene, which makes it appear orange-red. The β-carotene appears to protect the organism from long-term UV radiation that D. salina is exposed to in its typical environments.

It emerges from the same reservoir as the larger propulsive flagellum, but turns toward the posterior. It does not sit freely, like the trailing flagella of Dinema and Entosiphon, but adheres to the outside of the cell membrane, in a groove along its ventral surface. Next to the reservoir, lies Peranema's highly developed feeding apparatus, a cytostomal sac supported on one side by a pair of rigid rods, fused together at the anterior end. The use of this "rod-organ" in feeding has attracted considerable scholarly interest.

Type III secretion system (T3SS or TTSS) is structurally similar and related to the basal body of bacterial flagella. Seen in some of the most virulent Gram- negative bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia, Vibrio, it is used for injecting toxic proteins into eukaryotic cells. For its structure, it is often described as injectisomes or needle and syringe-like apparatus. Discovered from Yersinia pestis, it was found that T3SS can injected toxins directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host's cells.

"Flagellata" from Ernst Haeckel's Artforms of Nature, 1904 Parasitic Excavata (Giardia lamblia) Green algae (Chlamydomonas) A flagellate is a cell or organism with one or more whip-like appendages called flagella. The word flagellate also describes a particular construction (or level of organization) characteristic of many prokaryotes and eukaryotes and their means of motion. The term presently does not imply any specific relationship or classification of the organisms that possess flagellae. However, the term "flagellate" is included in other terms (such as "dinoflagellate" and "choanoflagellata") which are more formally characterized.

Trichonympha is a genus of single-celled, anaerobic parabasalids of the order Hypermastigia that is found exclusively in the hindgut of lower termites and wood roaches. Trichonympha’s bell shape and thousands of flagella make it an easily recognizable cell. The symbiosis between lower termites/wood roaches and Trichonympha is highly beneficial to both parties: Trichonympha helps its host digest cellulose and in return receives a constant supply of food and shelter. Trichonympha also has a variety of bacterial symbionts that are involved in sugar metabolism and nitrogen fixation.

Vertical migration, or movement of phytoplankton within the water column, contributes to the establishment of the DCM due to the diversity of resources required by the phytoplankton. Dependent on factors like nutrients and available light, some phytoplankton species will intentionally move to different depths to fulfill their physiological requirements. A mechanism employed by certain phytoplankton, such as certain species of diatoms and cyanobacteria, is to regulate their own buoyancy to move through the water column. Other species such as dinoflagellates use their flagella to swim to their desired depth.

VDACs have also been observed to interact with pro- or antiapoptotic proteins, such as Bcl-2 family proteins and kinases, and so may contribute to apoptosis independently from the MPTP. VDAC2 in particular has demonstrated a protective effect in cells undergoing mitochondrial apoptosis, and may even confer protection during aging. Furthermore, VDAcs have been linked to spermatogenesis, sperm maturation, motility, and fertilization. Though all VDAC isoforms are ubiquitously expressed, VDAC2 is majorly found in the sperm outer dense fiber (ODF), where it is hypothesized to promote proper assembly and maintenance of sperm flagella.

Nonetheless, experiments reveal a lack of pore-forming ability in the VDAC3 isoform, suggesting that it may perform different biological functions. Notably, though all VDAC isoforms are ubiquitously expressed, VDAC3 is majorly found in the sperm outer dense fiber (ODF), where it is hypothesized to promote proper assembly and maintenance of sperm flagella. Because the ODF membranes are not likely to support pore formation, VDAC3 may interact with protein partners to carry out other functions in the ODF. For instance, within cells, VDAC3 predominantly localizes to the centrosome and recruits Mps1 to regulate centriole assembly.

MotA has four transmembrane domains. Both proteins are part of the H+ channel that makes possible the flux of protons and the motor's rotation. In MotA mutants, the motor function is reestablished if the MotA protein is expressed. Though MotA and MotB are part of the proteins required for H+ mediated flagellar motility, they show a high degree of homology to the PomA and PomB proteins present in bacterial species utilizing Na+ ion fluxes to power flagella and studies have revealed that a 'pomA' mutant of Vibrio alginolyticus can regain motility by expression of MotA.

The second form consists of Coccidinium multiplying rapidly inside the host, however the nucleus does not undergo division until after the death of the host and the encystment of the parasite in its remains. Coccidinium are haplontic, meaning that for the majority of their life cycle they are haploid. Reproduction can occur either asexually or sexually. Sexual reproduction has been clearly observed in 1934 when Chatton and Biecheler witnessed a two-by-two fusion of imperceptibly dissimilar spores from separate organisms of C. mesnilii, resulting in a mobile zygote with two pairs of flagella.

These microbe associated molecules interact with receptors on the surface of plant cells, and activate a biochemical response that is thought to include several different genes at a number of loci. Several other signaling molecules have been linked to both induced systemic responses and pathogen-induced systemic responses, such as jasmonic acid and ethylene. Cell envelope components such as bacterial flagella and lipopolysaccharides, which are recognized by plant cells as components of pathogens. Certain iron metabolites produced by Pseudomonas have also been shown to create an induced systemic response.

Unusually, the male gonopore opens on the dorsal surface of the animal, above the pharynx, while the female reproductive system lacks any of the usual ducts and related structures found in other flatworms. The sperm is nonmobile and lacks flagella or cilia. Asexual reproduction by paratomy is common, and it usually leads to a chain of organisms (zooids), hence the name, from Latin catenula, small chain. Members of the symbiotic genus Paracatenula lack a digestive tract, and instead harbor intracellular chemoautotrophic bacterial symbionts that are assumed to provide their nutrition.

The Termite-flg RNA motif (also called tg-flg) is a conserved RNA structure identified by bioinformatics. Genomic sequences corresponding to Termite-flg RNAs have been identified only in uncultivated bacteria present in the termite hindgut. As of 2010 it has not been identified in the DNA of any cultivated species, and is thus an example of RNAs present in environmental samples. Termite-flg RNAs are consistently located in what is presumed to be the 5' untranslated regions of genes that encode proteins whose functions relate to flagella.

The etymology of the name Selenomonas comes from the Ancient Greek noun selênê (σελήνη), meaning the moon, a linking -o- and the noun monas (μόνας) which in microbiology has come to mean bacterium. The name Selenomonas simply refers to the crescent moon-shaped profile of this organism and not in any way to the chemical element selenium. The unique cell morphology of certain large selenomonads (with its in-folding of the cell membrane behind the flagella) would indicate bilateral symmetry along the long axis—an unusual property for prokaryotes.

The pharynx forms the first part of the digestive system. The endostyle produces a supply of mucus which is then passed into the rest of the pharynx by the beating of flagella along its margins. The mucus then flows in a sheet across the surface of the pharynx, trapping planktonic food particles as they pass through the stigmata, and is collected in the ridge on the dorsal surface. The ridge bears a groove along one side, which passes the collected food downwards and into the oesophageal opening at the base of the pharynx.

In contrast, the flagella of female antennae lack these trichoid sensilla projections that make the male antennae appear to be larger and more feather-like. Each trichoid sensilla is innervated by two male specific olfactory receptor cells, with each cell being tuned (most sensitive) to one of two major chemical components of the pheromone. By evolving larger, pheromone-specific receptors in the peripheral olfactory system, male M. sexta have an improved sensitivity to female pheromones that enhances mate detection. 2) There is also a sex difference in the neural basis of pheromone detection.

Non-motile cilia are also called primary cilia which serve as sensory organelles. Most mammalian cell types possess a single non-motile, primary cilium, which functions as a cellular antenna. Exceptions include olfactory neurons which possess several non-motile cilia and cells of the transient embryonic node, which possess singular motile cilia known as nodal cilia, critical for the establishment of left to right body asymmetry. In eukaryotes, motile cilia and flagella (together known as undulipodia) are structurally similar, although distinctions are sometimes made according to function or length.

The bacterial flagellum is driven by a rotary engine (Mot complex) made up of protein, located at the flagellum's anchor point on the inner cell membrane. The engine is powered by proton motive force, i.e., by the flow of protons (hydrogen ions) across the bacterial cell membrane due to a concentration gradient set up by the cell's metabolism (Vibrio species have two kinds of flagella, lateral and polar, and some are driven by a sodium ion pump rather than a proton pump). The rotor transports protons across the membrane, and is turned in the process.

Euglena gracilis is a freshwater species of single-celled alga in the genus Euglena. It has secondary chloroplasts, and is a mixotroph able to feed by photosynthesis or phagocytosis. It has a highly flexible cell surface, allowing it to change shape from a thin cell up to 100 µm long, to a sphere of approximately 20 µm. Each cell has two flagella, only one of which emerges from the flagellar pocket (reservoir) in the anterior of the cell, and can move by swimming, or by so-called "euglenoid" movement across surfaces.

Therefore the use of the terms pedium and luxuria are suggested instead. Within the cyst wall, a thick cellulose-like layer called the endospore is present which is birefringent under crossed nichols. Cysts may be identified using the overal body shape but more often based on the characteristic furrows housing the flagella (cingulum and sulcus) or details of the patterns of plates covering many motiles (thecal tabulation). The one distinctive feature common to all cysts is the excystment opening (archaeopyle) through which the emerging new motile stage exits.

Tetraselmis species have three life stages which includes a flagellated stage, a vegetative non-motile stage, and a cyst stage. The vegetative non-motile stage is the dominant life-stage of most species. The only structural difference between the flagellated and vegetative stage is the number of scale layers in the thecal-wall; the flagellated stage only ever has one layer, while the vegetative state has two or more. Cells in the cyst stage lose their flagella, and are termed as being aflagellate, and they produce a thick thecal-shell for protection.

The syncytium's cytoplasm, the soupy fluid that fills the interiors of cells, is organized into "rivers" that transport nuclei, organelles ("organs" within cells) and other substances. Instead of choanocytes, they have further syncytia, known as choanosyncytia, which form bell-shaped chambers where water enters via perforations. The insides of these chambers are lined with "collar bodies", each consisting of a collar and flagellum but without a nucleus of its own. The motion of the flagella sucks water through passages in the "cobweb" and expels it via the open ends of the bell-shaped chambers.

In cases where two sponges are fused, for example if there is a large but still unseparated bud, these contraction waves slowly become coordinated in both of the "Siamese twins". The coordinating mechanism is unknown, but may involve chemicals similar to neurotransmitters. However, glass sponges rapidly transmit electrical impulses through all parts of the syncytium, and use this to halt the motion of their flagella if the incoming water contains toxins or excessive sediment. Myocytes are thought to be responsible for closing the osculum and for transmitting signals between different parts of the body.

Kent determined that Trimastix was a distinct genus, despite similarities to Dallingeria, because of the lateral border he observed which was not present in Dallingeria. It was later determined that the lateral border Kent was referring to was in fact the oral aperture of Trimastix, which also contained a fourth flagella . Today, the morphology of Trimastix is better understood, including details not initially observed by Kent, such as Trimastix lacking a conventional mitochondrion.Zubáčová, Z., Novák, L., Bublíková, J., Vacek, V., Fousek, J., Rídl, J., Tachezy J, Doležal P, Vlček C, & Hampl, V. (2013).

As such, many researchers are currently studying how we can utilize biofilm conductivity to our advantage to produce even higher current densities. Low pH environments have been found to change redox potentials, thus inhibiting electron transfer from microorganisms to cytochromes. In addition, biofilms have been found to become less conductive with decreasing temperature, although raising the temperature back up again can restore biofilm conductivity without any adverse effects. The presence of pili or flagella on Geobacter species has been found to increase electric current generation by enabling more efficient electron transfer.

Hypoacylated lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from C. jejuni induces moderate TLR4-mediated inflammatory response in macrophages and such LPS bioactivity may eventually result in the failure of local and systemic bacterial clearance in patients. At the same time, moderation of anti-bacterial responses may be advantageous for infected patients in clinical practice, since such an attenuated LPS may not be able to induce severe sepsis in susceptible individuals. One of the most important virulence factor of C. jejuni are flagella. The flagellar protein FlaA has been proven to be one of the abundant proteins in the cell.

Pathogens, both bacterial and fungal, can use exoenzymes as a primary mechanism with which to cause disease. The metabolic activity of the exoenzymes allows the bacterium to invade host organisms by breaking down the host cells' defensive outer layers or by necrotizing body tissues of larger organisms. Many gram-negative bacteria have injectisomes, or flagella-like projections, to directly deliver the virulent exoenzyme into the host cell using a type three secretion system. With either process, pathogens can attack the host cell's structure and function, as well as its nucleic DNA.

The motilities of Pseudomonas, Vibrio and Leptospira strains were also severely disrupted by lactose utilization by L. lactis. Using Salmonella flagellar as the experimental group, Nakamura’s team found that a product of lactose fermentation is the cause of motility impairment in Salmonella. It is suggested that the L. lactis supernatant mainly affects Salmonella motility through disturbing flagellar rotation but not through irreversible damage against morphologies and physiologies. Lactose fermentation by L. lactis produces Acetate that reduces the intracellular pH of Salmonella, which in turn slow down the rotation of their flagella.

Its ability to grow at temperatures as low as 0 °C permits multiplication at typical refrigeration temperatures, greatly increasing its ability to evade control in human foodstuffs. Motile via flagella at 30 °C and below, but usually not at 37 °C, L. monocytogenes can instead move within eukaryotic cells by explosive polymerization of actin filaments (known as comet tails or actin rockets). Studies suggest up to 10% of human gastrointestinal tracts may be colonized by L. monocytogenes. Nevertheless, clinical diseases due to L. monocytogenes are more frequently recognized by veterinarians, especially as meningoencephalitis in ruminants.

Role of the centrosome in cell cycle progression Centrosomes are associated with the nuclear membrane during the prophase stage of the cell cycle. In mitosis the nuclear membrane breaks down and the centrosome nucleated microtubules can interact with the chromosomes to build the mitotic spindle. The mother centriole, the older of the two in the centriole pair, also has a central role in making cilia and flagella. The centrosome is copied only once per cell cycle so that each daughter cell inherits one centrosome, containing two structures called centrioles (see also: centrosome cycle).

They are involved in maintaining the structure of the cell and, together with microfilaments and intermediate filaments, they form the cytoskeleton. They also make up the internal structure of cilia and flagella. They provide platforms for intracellular transport and are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including the movement of secretory vesicles, organelles, and intracellular macromolecular assemblies (see entries for dynein and kinesin). They are also involved in cell division (by mitosis and meiosis) and are the major constituents of mitotic spindles, which are used to pull eukaryotic chromosomes apart.

However, by some unknown mechanism, A. fischeri is able to outcompete other bacteria in the mucus. Adult Euprymna scolopes with scale. As A. fischeri cells aggregate in the mucus, they must use their flagella to migrate through the pores and down into the ciliated ducts of the light organ and endure another barrage of host factors meant to ensure only A. fischeri colonization. Besides the relentless host-derived current that forces motility-challenged bacteria out of the pores, a number of reactive oxygen species makes the environment unbearable.

Vibrio harveyi is a Gram-negative, bioluminescent, marine bacterium in the genus Vibrio. V. harveyi is rod-shaped, motile (via polar flagella), facultatively anaerobic, halophilic, and competent for both fermentative and respiratory metabolism. It does not grow below 4 °C ( optimum growth: 30° to 35 °C). V. harveyi can be found free-swimming in tropical marine waters, commensally in the gut microflora of marine animals, and as both a primary and opportunistic pathogen of marine animals, including Gorgonian corals, oysters, prawns, lobsters, the common snook, barramundi, turbot, milkfish, and seahorses.

The best prominent example of a motor protein is the muscle protein myosin which "motors" the contraction of muscle fibers in animals. Motor proteins are the driving force behind most active transport of proteins and vesicles in the cytoplasm. Kinesins and cytoplasmic dyneins play essential roles in intracellular transport such as axonal transport and in the formation of the spindle apparatus and the separation of the chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis. Axonemal dynein, found in cilia and flagella, is crucial to cell motility, for example in spermatozoa, and fluid transport, for example in trachea.

B. pseudomallei measures 2–5 μm in length and 0.4–0.8 μm in diameter and is capable of self-propulsion using flagella. The bacteria can grow in a number of artificial nutrient environments, especially betaine- and arginine- containing ones. In vitro, optimal proliferation temperature is reported around 40 °C in neutral or slightly acidic environments (pH 6.8–7.0). The majority of strains are capable of oxidation, not fermentation, of sugars without gas formation (most importantly, glucose and galactose; older cultures are reported to also metabolize maltose and starch).

Neobodo are diverse protists belonging to the eukaryotic supergroup Excavata. They are Kinetoplastids in the subclass Bodonidae. They are small, free- living, heterotrophic flagellates with two flagella of unequal length used to create a propulsive current for feeding.Kirchman, D. 2008: Microbial ecology of the oceans / [edited by] David L. Kirchman. (2nd ed.).As members of Kinetoplastids, they have an evident kinetoplast Tikhonenkov, D. V., Janouškovec, J., Keeling, P. J., and Mylnikov, A. P. 2016: The Morphology, Ultrastructure and SSU rRNA Gene Sequence of a New Freshwater Flagellate, Neobodo borokensis n. sp.

The pathogen Aphanomycete cochlioides, like most oomycete fungi, survives and overwinter as oospores in plant debris or soil. When the soil warms in the spring the oospores receive signals to germinate. The oospores have the ability to directly infect the root in the soil but it is more common for the oospore to play a smaller role in the life cycle producing a specialized hyphae called sporangium. The sporangium has the ability to produce zoospores- which have two different types of flagella, tinsel and whiplash, that allow them to be motile in soil water.

An axostyle is a sheet of microtubules found in certain protists. It arises from the bases of the flagella, sometimes projecting beyond the end of the cell, and is often flexible or contractile, and so may be involved in movement and provides support for the cell. Axostyles originate in association with a flagellar microtubular root and occur in two groups, the oxymonads and parabasalids; they have different structures and are not homologous. Within Trichomonads the axostyle has been theorised to participate in locomotion and cell adhesion, but also karyokinesis during cell division.

In the beginning the nuclei are in a central position, each being closely linked with a chloroplast. In the course of the first few divisions the chloroplast loses its characteristic star-shaped shape and the pyrenoid becomes smaller and occupies a side position. Subsequently the nuclei are concentrated near the outer areas of the cytoplasm, and flagella appear to divide into separate types within vesicles before the division of individual meiospores (spores produced by meiosis). The chloroplasts meanwhile have largely regained a star- shaped form with a central pyrenoid.

Monocercomonoides is a genus of flagellate Excavata belonging to the order Oxymonadida. It was established by Bernard V. Travis and was first described as those with "polymastiginid flagellates having three anterior flagella and a trailing one originating at a single basal granule located in front of the anteriorly positioned nucleus, and a more or less well-defined axostyle".Travis, B. V. 1932. A Discussion of Synonymy in the Nomenclature of Certain Insect Flagellates, with the Description of a New Flagellate from the Larvae of Ligyrodes relictus Say (Coleoptera-Scarabaeidae).

The NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome is involved in host defense. NAIPs are activated by binding to the bacterial PAMPs in the cytosol, given by the rod (NAIP2) and needle (NAIP1) components of the bacterial type-3 secretion system (T3SS), as well as flagellin, the molecular building block of flagella (NAIP5 and 6). Following ligand binding, NAIPs interact with NLRC4 to initiate the assembly of the NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome, which then recruits and activates pro-caspase-1 via its CARD domain. Palmitate has been shown experimentally to induce the NLRC4 inflammasome without any bacteria present.

Flagella are only present in the motile male gametes of charophytes bryophytes, pteridophytes, cycads and Ginkgo, but are absent from the gametes of Pinophyta and flowering plants. Members of the class Chlorophyceae undergo closed mitosis in the most common form of cell division among the green algae, which occurs via a phycoplast. By contrast, charophyte green algae and land plants (embryophytes) undergo open mitosis without centrioles. Instead, a 'raft' of microtubules, the phragmoplast, is formed from the mitotic spindle and cell division involves the use of this phragmoplast in the production of a cell plate.

Most euglenozoa have two flagella, which are inserted parallel to one another in an apical or subapical pocket. In some these are associated with a cytostome or mouth, used to ingest bacteria or other small organisms. This is supported by one of three sets of microtubules that arise from the flagellar bases; the other two support the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the cell. Some other euglenozoa feed through absorption, and many euglenids possess chloroplasts, the only eukaryotes outside Diaphoretickes to do so without performing kleptoplasty, and so obtain energy through photosynthesis.

Primary studies done in the 1900s by Griessmann and Skuja had initially grouped Diplonemidae (or more specifically, the Diplonema and Rhynchopus taxa) with the euglenids. This was due to the two groups sharing many morphological similarities with the euglenids, such as metaboly, locomotion and a microtubule-reinforced feeding apparatus. However, this conclusion was met with some controversy, as diplonemids lacked characteristic features shared by all euglenids, such as possession of pellicle strips and paraxonemal rods on their flagella. Instead, they were placed in the euglenozoan phylum and shared this taxon with the kinetoplastids and euglenids.

Strains of bacteria without this protein, or lacking the ability to methylate and demethylate them were unable to respond to stimuli. An increase in concentration of attractants led to an increase in methylation level of MCP; similarly, a decrease in attractants or increase in repellents led to a decrease in methylation level. By the 1980s, it was determined that bacterial chemotaxis resulted from the regulation of flagellar rotation by chemoreceptors. Bacteria swam more smoothly due to a counterclockwise rotation of their flagella in the presence of increasing attractant.

The overall morphology of Thermoplasma volcanium isolates take on different shapes depending on their placement within the growth curve. During early logarithmic growth, the isolates take on forms of all shapes including, but not limited to, coccoid-, disc-, and club-shaped of around 0.2-0.5 micrometers. During stationary and late logarithmic growth phases, the isolates primarily take on a spherical (coccoid) shape and can produce buds around 0.3 micrometers in width that are thought to contain DNA. A single flagella is present on the organism, emerging from one polar end of the cell.

Karenia brevis is a microscopic, single-celled, photosynthetic organism that is part of the Karenia (dinoflagellate) genus, a marine dinoflagellate commonly found in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. It is the organism responsible for the "Florida Red Tides" (coastal infestations), commonly referred to as red tides that affect the Gulf coasts of Florida and Texas in the U.S., and nearby coasts of Mexico. K. brevis has been known to travel great lengths around the Florida peninsula and as far north as the Carolinas. Each cell has two flagella that allow it to move through the water in a spinning motion.

Obligate secondary endosymbionts become dependent on their organelles and are unable to survive in their absence. RedToL, the Red Algal Tree of Life Initiative funded by the National Science Foundation highlights the role red algae or Rhodophyta played in the evolution of our planet through secondary endosymbiosis. One possible secondary endosymbiosis in process has been observed by Okamoto & Inouye (2005). The heterotrophic protist Hatena behaves like a predator until it ingests a green alga, which loses its flagella and cytoskeleton, while Hatena, now a host, switches to photosynthetic nutrition, gains the ability to move towards light and loses its feeding apparatus.

Septins have been implicated in the localization of cellular processes at the site of cell division, and at the cell membrane at sites where specialized structures like cilia or flagella are attached to the cell body. In yeast cells, they compartmentalize parts of the cell and build scaffolding to provide structural support during cell division at the septum, from which they derive their name. Research in human cells suggests that septins build cages around pathogenic bacteria, that immobilize and prevent them from invading other cells. As filament forming proteins, septins can be considered part of the cytoskeleton.

The most researched T3SSs are from species of Shigella (causes bacillary dysentery), Salmonella (typhoid fever), Escherichia coli (Gut flora, some strains cause food poisoning), Vibrio (gastroenteritis and diarrhea), Burkholderia (glanders), Yersinia (plague), Chlamydia (sexually transmitted disease), Pseudomonas (infects humans, animals and plants) and the plant pathogens Erwinia, Ralstonia and Xanthomonas, and the plant symbiont Rhizobium. The T3SS is composed of approximately 30 different proteins, making it one of the most complex secretion systems. Its structure shows many similarities with bacterial flagella (long, rigid, extracellular structures used for motility). Some of the proteins participating in T3SS share amino- acid sequence homology to flagellar proteins.

In addition to being a part of the Acetobacter family, Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus belongs to the Proteobacteria phylum, the Alphaprotebacteria class, and the Gluconacetobacter genus while being a part of the Rhodosprillales order. Other nitrogen-fixing species in this same genus include Gluconacetobacter azotocaptans and Gluconacetobacter johannae Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus cells are shaped like rods, have ends that are circular or round, and have anywhere from one to three flagella that are lateral. Based on these descriptions of the cell, Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus can be classified with the bacillus genus. The cells be viewed as darkish brown or orange colonies under a microscope.

Calamus caryotoides (also Palmijuncus caryotoides), more commonly known as fishtail lawyer cane is a North-East Queensland tropical forest climbing palm with very thin () flexible trunks; no crownshaft; small spikes; dark green, glossy, fish-tail shaped leaves reaching up to high ( spread); and very thin hooked flagella. It tends to clump and grow up into the shaded understory of Queensland's wet tropical forests, and is a close relative of the more infamous Calamus radicalis (aka Wait-a-While).Calamus caryotoides, palm- trees.org. Accessed 24 June 2009Cairns Botanical Gardens (no date) Aboriginal Plant Use Garden: Cairns Rainforest Region.

In comparison to macroscopic life forms, it is very fast indeed when expressed in terms of number of body lengths per second. A cheetah, for example, only achieves about 25 body lengths per second. Although according to Through use of their flagella, E. coli is able to move rapidly towards attractants and away from repellents, by means of a biased random walk, with 'runs' and 'tumbles' brought about by rotating its flagellum counterclockwise and clockwise, respectively. The two directions of rotation are not identical (with respect to flagellum movement) and are selected by a molecular switch.

At least 10 protein components of the bacterial flagellum share homologous proteins with the type three secretion system (T3SS), hence one likely evolved from the other. Because the T3SS has a similar number of components as a flagellar apparatus (about 25 proteins), which one evolved first is difficult to determine. However, the flagellar system appears to involve more proteins overall, including various regulators and chaperones, hence it has been argued that flagella evolved from a T3SS. However, it has also been suggested that the flagellum may have evolved first or the two structures evolved in parallel.

While at Harvard, Gibbons studied the structure of cilia and flagella of a protozoan called Tetrahymena with electron microscopes. In 1963, he discovered a novel protein on microtubules and published its pictures. Two years later, he purified two regions of the protein, known as its two "arms", naming the protein "dynein". During his last year at Harvard, Gibbons demonstrated the protein making up microtubules was distinct from actin, in that the former was associated with guanine nucleotides while the latter with adenine nucleotides , but refrained from naming it; Hideo Mohri from the University of Tokyo named it tubulin afterwards.

Planktonic P. syringae is able to enter plants using its flagella and pili to swim towards a target host. It enters the plant via wounds of natural opening sites, as it is not able to breach the plant cell wall. An example of this is the partnership with the leaf-mining fly Scaptomyza flava , which creates holes in leaves during oviposition that the pathogen can take advantage of. The role of taxis in P. syringae has not been well-studied, but the bacteria are thought to use chemical signals released by the plant to find their host and cause infection.

Axonemal dynein causes sliding of microtubules in the axonemes of cilia and flagella and is found only in cells that have those structures. Cytoplasmic dynein, found in all animal cells and possibly plant cells as well, performs functions necessary for cell survival such as organelle transport and centrosome assembly. Cytoplasmic dynein moves processively along the microtubule; that is, one or the other of its stalks is always attached to the microtubule so that the dynein can "walk" a considerable distance along a microtubule without detaching. Cytoplasmic dynein helps to position the Golgi complex and other organelles in the cell.

Data extracted from the Prasinophyceae are defined by their cellular scales which are composed of carbohydrates, and Chlorodendrales are unique within this group due to these scales forming a fused thecal wall. Cells of Chlorodendrales are completely covered in scales, which fuse around the cell body producing the theca, but remain individually separated on the flagella, of which there are typically four per cell. Species within Chlorodendrales live in both marine and fresh water habitats, occupying both benthic and planktonic food webs. Additionally, they are photoautotrophs, meaning they produce their own food through the conversion of sunlight into chemical energy.

Diatoms have two distinct shapes: a few (centric diatoms) are radially symmetric, while most (pennate diatoms) are broadly bilaterally symmetric. A unique feature of diatom anatomy is that they are surrounded by a cell wall made of silica (hydrated silicon dioxide), called a frustule. These frustules have structural coloration due to their photonic nanostructure, prompting them to be described as "jewels of the sea" and "living opals". Movement in diatoms primarily occurs passively as a result of both water currents and wind-induced water turbulence; however, male gametes of centric diatoms have flagella, permitting active movement for seeking female gametes.

Motile plankton have been observed to be able to detect and swim towards higher nutrient concentrations and/or light intensities. This mechanism is called chemotaxis and is partly responsible for the formation of thin layers at depths where nutrients are abundant. Another mechanism specific to dinoflagellates is called helical klinotaxis where the algal cell's ability to respond to both positive and negative chemosensory signals is crucial to their motility. If dinoflagellates were not capable of both positive and negative chemotaxis, they would not navigate successfully due to the nature of the transverse and longitudinal flagella causing rotating and translating motions, respectively.

In some charophyte groups, such as the Zygnematophyceae or conjugating green algae, flagella are absent and sexual reproduction does not involve free-swimming flagellate sperm. Flagellate sperm, however, are found in stoneworts (Charales) and Coleochaetales, orders of parenchymatous charophytes that are the closest relatives of the land plants, where flagellate sperm are also present in all except the conifers and flowering plants. Fossil stoneworts of early Devonian age that are similar to those of the present day have been described from the Rhynie chert of Scotland.Somewhat different charophytes have also been collected from the Late Devonian (Famennian) Waterloo Farm lagerstätte of South Africa.

Phacus, like all photosynthetic Euglenoids, obtained their plastids through secondary endosymbiosis, where the ancestral phagocytic Euglenoid engulfed a green alga, and the resulting organism became the plastid. Most of these organisms also possess a semi-rectangular eyespot, often reddish in color, and a single flagellum, although some species have two, which emerges anteriorly. The flagellum is responsible for cell movement by gyrating in the direction of travel allowing the cell to glide and swim in the water. Furthermore, some flagella vary in length from short all the way to the length of the cell in other species.

Somewhat conserved features in pathogens include bacterial cell-surface lipopolysaccharides (LPS), lipoproteins, lipopeptides, and lipoarabinomannan; proteins such as flagellin from bacterial flagella; double-stranded RNA of viruses; or the unmethylated CpG islands of bacterial and viral DNA; and also of the CpG islands found in the promoters of eukaryotic DNA; as well as certain other RNA and DNA molecules. For most of the TLRs, ligand recognition specificity has now been established by gene targeting (also known as "gene knockout"): a technique by which individual genes may be selectively deleted in mice. See the table below for a summary of known TLR ligands.

Millipede sperm lack flagella, a unique trait among myriapods. In all except the bristle millipedes, copulation occurs with the two individuals facing one another. Copulation may be preceded by male behaviours such as tapping with antennae, running along the back of the female, offering edible glandular secretions, or in the case of some pill-millipedes, stridulation or "chirping". During copulation in most millipedes, the male positions his seventh segment in front of the female's third segment, and may insert his gonopods to extrude the vulvae before bending his body to deposit sperm onto his gonopods and reinserting the "charged" gonopods into the female.

A mother and daughter centriole, attached orthogonally Centrioles are involved in the organization of the mitotic spindle and in the completion of cytokinesis. Centrioles were previously thought to be required for the formation of a mitotic spindle in animal cells. However, more recent experiments have demonstrated that cells whose centrioles have been removed via laser ablation can still progress through the G1 stage of interphase before centrioles can be synthesized later in a de novo fashion. Additionally, mutant flies lacking centrioles develop normally, although the adult flies' cells lack flagella and cilia and as a result, they die shortly after birth.

The role of biofilm in the intestinal colonization of Vibrio cholerae When consumed, most bacteria do not survive the acidic conditions of the human stomach. The few surviving bacteria conserve their energy and stored nutrients during the passage through the stomach by shutting down protein production. When the surviving bacteria exit the stomach and reach the small intestine, they must propel themselves through the thick mucus that lines the small intestine to reach the intestinal walls where they can attach and thrive. Once the cholera bacteria reach the intestinal wall, they no longer need the flagella to move.

Klebsiella aerogenes, previously known as Enterobacter aerogenes, is a Gram- negative, oxidase negative, catalase positive, citrate positive, indole negative, rod-shaped bacterium. The bacterium is approximately 1-3 microns in length, and is capable of motility via peritrichous flagella. K. aerogenes is a nosocomial and pathogenic bacterium that causes opportunistic infections including most types of infections. The majority are sensitive to most antibiotics designed for this bacteria class, but this is complicated by their inducible resistance mechanisms, particularly lactamase, which means that they quickly become resistant to standard antibiotics during treatment, requiring a change in antibiotic to avoid worsening of the sepsis.

Mouth and teeth of A. caninum A. caninum egg A. caninum females are typically long and wide, while the males are smaller at in length and in width. Males have a copulatory bursa , which consists of spine-like spicules positioned on three muscular rays that grasp the female during mating. As with other nematodes, the sperm lack flagella. The copulatory bursa is a unique feature of Strongylida members, thus making it a useful means for identifying members of this suborder; it is also used to distinguish members within the suborder due to differences in bursa appearance between species.

Diplonemidae is a family of biflagellated unicellular protists that may be among the more diverse and common groups of planktonic organisms in the ocean. Although this family is currently made up of three named genera; Diplonema, Rhynchopus, and Hemistasia, there likely exist thousands of still unnamed genera. Organisms are generally colourless and oblong in shape, with two flagella emerging from a subapical pocket. They possess a large mitochondrial genome composed of fragmented linear DNA These non-coding sequences must be massively trans-spliced, making it one of the most complicated post- transcriptional editing process known to eukaryotes.

Another unique characteristic of B. wadsworthia is its positive catalase reaction with a 15% hydrogen peroxide reagent; its catalase reaction is unlike other catalase-positive species because the reaction is explosive with bubble formation and is very quick. The most accurate method to identify this bacterium from other similar species is through gas liquid chromatography (GLC); GLC results show that there are a lot of acetic acid peaks and minimal succinic acid present. B. wadsworthia is non-motile and is non-spore forming. In addition, this bacterium has irregular cell walls and no flagella attached to it.

Pelomyxa have multiple nuclei, which can number from two to several thousand in rare cases. A moving cell is cylindrical in shape, with a single hemispherical pseudopod at the front and a semipermanent projection called a uroid at the back, which is covered in tiny non-motile flagella. They consume a wide variety of food, and have many vacuoles containing both food, such as diatoms, and debris such as sand. Pelomyxa are reliant on symbiotic bacteria that function similarly to the mitochondrion of aerobic creature, enabling the otherwise anaerobic species to live in more aerobic environments.

The C1-FFL with an AND gate was shown to have a function of a ‘sign-sensitive delay’ element and a persistence detector both theoretically and experimentally with the arabinose system of E. coli. This means that this motif can provide pulse filtration in which short pulses of signal will not generate a response but persistent signals will generate a response after short delay. The shut off of the output when a persistent pulse is ended will be fast. The opposite behavior emerges in the case of a sum gate with fast response and delayed shut off as was demonstrated in the flagella system of E. coli.

So even though you may see microphotographs of delicately etched silicon gears, such devices are currently little more than curiosities with limited real world applications, for example, in moving mirrors and shutters. Surface tension increases in much the same way, thus magnifying the tendency for very small objects to stick together. This could possibly make any kind of "micro factory" impractical: even if robotic arms and hands could be scaled down, anything they pick up will tend to be impossible to put down. The above being said, molecular evolution has resulted in working cilia, flagella, muscle fibers and rotary motors in aqueous environments, all on the nanoscale.

Another method of heterologous protein fusion is fusion with fimbriae/flagella, which are filamentous protrusions on the cell surface. There are many fimbriae on mainly Gram-negative bacteria, so displaying proteins on fimbriae is advantageous over some other surface proteins which are less numerous. A disadvantage of using fimbriae is that there is a relatively small insert size limit of 10-30 amino acids. Flow Cytometer Instrument Once the heterologous protein has been fused with the bacterial cell surface protein, it is exposed to either an enzyme, a cell (expressing a target protein) or an antibody (usually fluorescently tagged), depending on the application of the experiment.

The human genome includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes: 80% of these genes are expressed in adult testes. The testes have the highest fraction of tissue type-specific genes compared to other organs and tissues: about 1000 of them are highly specific for the testes, and about 2,200 show an elevated pattern of expression here. A majority of these genes encode for proteins that are expressed in the seminiferous tubules and have functions related to spermatogenesis. Sperm cells express proteins that result in the development of flagella; these same proteins are expressed in the female in cells lining the fallopian tube, and cause the development of cilia.

Gas vesicles are likely one of the most early mechanisms of motility among microscopic organisms due to the fact that it is the most widespread form of motility conserved within the genome of prokaryotes, some of which have evolved about 3 billion years ago. Modes of active motility such as flagella movement require a mechanism that could convert chemical energy into mechanical energy, and thus is much more complex and would have evolved later. Functions of the gas vesicles are also largely conserved among species, although the mode of regulation might differ, suggesting the importance of gas vesicles as a form of motility. In certain organism such as enterobacterium Serratia sp.

S. enterica, through some of its serotypes such as Typhimurium and Enteriditis, shows signs of the ability to infect several different mammalian host species, while other serotypes such as Typhi seem to be restricted to only a few hosts. Some of the ways that Salmonella serotypes have adapted to their hosts include loss of genetic material and mutation. In more complex mammalian species, immune systems, which include pathogen specific immune responses, target serovars of Salmonella through binding of antibodies to structures such as flagella. Through the loss of the genetic material that codes for a flagellum to form, Salmonella can evade a host's immune system.

H. glaciei cells are small, gram- negative, thin rods, with dimensions of 0.5–0.9 by 0.3–0.4 µm; the average cell has a volume of 0.043 µm3. They have long flagella, either 1 or 2 at either end of the cell, and may also have 1 to 3 more along the sides. Although the original colony pigmentation is brown-purple, regrowth on agar plates (made using tryptic soy agar with glucose), colonies are circular with an entire edge, convex, smooth, and translucent white to tan colored. This species can grow at temperatures between 1–35 °C, with the optimal growth temperature being 30 °C.

They have whiplash flagella and can swim to reach new seagrass plants and can also crawl on the surface of the leaves in an amoeboid way by extending pseudopodia forward. This parasite causes galls to form in the internodes of the rhizomes of its host seagrasses, species of the genus Zostera. The condition is known as wasting disease, the nodes bunch up together and root development is poor so the plants are more easily uprooted in storms. Detached floating plants may spread the infection to new areas and when the seagrass has been planted for erosion control, the target seabed cover may not be achieved.

Great appendages of various megacheirans, featured by Leanchoilia (A), Yawunik (B), Parapeytoia (C), Fortiforceps (D), Yohoia (E,F) and Haikoucaris (G). Great appendages are claw-like appendages which attach to the heads of the "great appendage arthropods", a name usually refers to Megacheira, a class of extinct arthropod characterized by a pair of "short-great appendages" bearing in front of the animal's head. Reconstruction of Yawunik kootenayi, showing great appendages with elongated flagella. In general, megacheiran's great appendage have 6 segments, with the promixal two segments forming a peduncle and the finger-like distal four segments forming a claw, both connect by an elbow joint.

Like other enzymes, the activity of F1FO ATP synthase is reversible. Large- enough quantities of ATP cause it to create a transmembrane proton gradient, this is used by fermenting bacteria that do not have an electron transport chain, but rather hydrolyze ATP to make a proton gradient, which they use to drive flagella and the transport of nutrients into the cell. In respiring bacteria under physiological conditions, ATP synthase, in general, runs in the opposite direction, creating ATP while using the proton motive force created by the electron transport chain as a source of energy. The overall process of creating energy in this fashion is termed oxidative phosphorylation.

Microtubules are nucleated and organized by microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), such as the centrosome found in the center of many animal cells or the basal bodies found in cilia and flagella, or the spindle pole bodies found in most fungi. There are many proteins that bind to microtubules, including the motor proteins kinesin and dynein, microtubule-severing proteins like katanin, and other proteins important for regulating microtubule dynamics. Recently an actin-like protein has been found in a gram-positive bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, which forms a microtubule-like structure called a nanotubule, involved in plasmid segregation. Other bacterial microtubules have a ring of five protofilaments.

Campylobacter concisus is a Gram-negative, highly fastidious, mesophilic bacterium that grows under both anaerobic and microaerobic conditions with the presence of hydrogen significantly aiding growth. Motile, with either unipolar or bipolar flagella, the organisms have a characteristic spiral/corkscrew appearance and are oxidase-positive. Although the human oral cavity is the natural colonization site of the bacterium, C. concisus may also colonize the intestinal tract of some individuals. In particular, several studies have reported higher intestinal prevalence of C. concisus in patients with IBD compared to healthy controls, which has led to current speculation of the bacterium's implication in the induction of Crohn's disease.

By cooperatively moving their flagella, choanocytes filter particles out of the water and into the spongocoel, and out through the osculum. This improves both respiratory and digestive functions for the sponge, pulling in oxygen and nutrients and allowing a rapid expulsion of carbon dioxide and other waste products. Although all cells in a sponge are capable of living on their own, choanocytes carry out most of the sponge's ingestion, passing digested materials to the amoebocytes for delivery to other cells. Choanocytes can also turn into spermatocytes when needed for sexual reproduction, due to the lack of reproductive organs in sponges (amoebocytes become the oocytes).

Similarly, replicating the environmental conditions of the hydrothermal vent systems is difficult to do in laboratory settings and often results in more fastidious deep-sea organisms outcompeting the DHVE2. To date the only cultured representative of the DHVE2 group is Aciduliprofundum boonei which is described as an obligate thermoacidophilic heterotroph capable of fermenting peptides for energy and carbon. A. boonei has a unique S-layer which is more flexible and allows it to generate vesicles that bud off the cells. Further, this particular archaeon reveals unique genomic arrangement of its flagellar genes suggesting horizontal gene transfer or reductive evolution of its flagella production pathway.

Paraburkholderia is a genus of Proteobacteria that are gram negative, slightly curved rods that are motile by means of flagella. They have been reported to colonize endophytic tissues of hybrid spruce (Picea glauca x engelmannii) and lodgepole pine with a strong potential to perform biological nitrogen fixation and plant growth promotion. Unlike Burkholderia species, Paraburkholderia members are not commonly associated with human infection. Paraburkholderia members form a monophyletic clade within the Burkholderiaceae family, which is what prompted their distinction as a genus independent from Burkholderia species, in combination with the finding of robust conserved signature indels which are unique to Paraburkholderia species, and are lacking in members of the genus Burkholderia.

Barlow graduated with a BSc in Zoology from the University of Southampton in 1974, continuing on to study a PhD in Physiology and Biochemistry at the School of Biomedical Sciences on the Boldrewood Campus. His doctoral studies were focused on cilia flagella, and research on brine and fairy shrimps. Barlow's first film work was on David Attenborough's landmark 1978 nature series Life on Earth, filming microscoping single-cell pond organisms. However, he was also working on projects for the National Health Service and others, and in 1983 he was commissioned to provide specialist microscopic biomedical photography for a Channel 4 series, The Living Body.

Drawing upon fundamental works in classical homogenization theory, Berlyand advanced the methods of homogenization in many versatile applications. He obtained mathematical results applicable to diverse scientific areas including biology, fluid mechanics, superconductivity, elasticity, and material science. His mathematical modeling explains striking experimental result in the collective swimming of bacteria.L. Berlyand, M. Tournus, A. Kirshtein, I. Aranson. Flexibility of bacterial flagella in external shear results in complex swimming trajectories, Journal of the Royal Society Interface 12 (102) (2014) His homogenization approach to multi-scale problems was transformed into a practical computational tool by introducing a concept of polyharmonic homogenization which led to a new type of multiscale finite elements.

Deer tick life cycle Borrelia bacteria, the causative agent of Lyme disease, magnified Ixodes scapularis, the primary vector of Lyme disease in eastern North America Tick Ixodes ricinus, developmental stages Lyme disease is caused by spirochetes, spiral bacteria from the genus Borrelia. Spirochetes are surrounded by peptidoglycan and flagella, along with an outer membrane similar to Gram- negative bacteria. Because of their double-membrane envelope, Borrelia bacteria are often mistakenly described as Gram negative despite the considerable differences in their envelope components from Gram-negative bacteria. The Lyme-related Borrelia species are collectively known as Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, and show a great deal of genetic diversity.

Thermoplasma volcanium is an extremophile, as is characteristic of most archaea. Thermoplasma volcanium is a highly motile (via flagella) thermoacidophilic archaea found in hydrothermal vents, hot springs, solfatara fields, volcanoes, and other aquatic places of extreme heat, low pH, and high salinity content. The lack of a cell wall in Thermoplasma volcanium is what allows it to survive and thrive in temperatures of 33-67 °C (optimal at 60 °C) and pH of 1.0-4.0 (optimal at 2.0). To amend the lack of a cell wall, a specialized cell membrane is present within the archaea species; the cell membrane is made up of ether-linked molecules of glycerol and fatty acids.

Approximately 5% of the red algae occur in freshwater environments with greater concentrations found in warmer areas. Except for two coastal cave dwelling species in the asexual class Cyanidiophyceae, there are no terrestrial species, which may be due to an evolutionary bottleneck where the last common ancestor lost about 25% of its core genes and much of its evolutionary plasticity.Why don't we live on a red planet? The red algae form a distinct group characterized by having eukaryotic cells without flagella and centrioles, chloroplasts that lack external endoplasmic reticulum and contain unstacked (stroma) thylakoids, and use phycobiliproteins as accessory pigments, which give them their red color.

Evolution from type three secretion systems. Scientists regard this argument as having been disproved in the light of research dating back to 1996 as well as more recent findings.Miller, Kenneth R. The Flagellum Unspun: The Collapse of "Irreducible Complexity" with reply here They point out that the basal body of the flagella has been found to be similar to the Type III secretion system (TTSS), a needle-like structure that pathogenic germs such as Salmonella and Yersinia pestis use to inject toxins into living eucaryote cells. The needle's base has ten elements in common with the flagellum, but it is missing forty of the proteins that make a flagellum work.

Intraflagellar transport protein 20 homolog is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IFT20 gene. The gene is composed of 6 exons and is located on human chromosome 17p11.1. This gene is expressed in human brain, lung, kidney and pancreas, and lower expression were also detected in human placenta, liver, thymus, prostate and testis. Intraflagellar transport (IFT), in which molecular motors and IFT particle proteins participate, is very important in assembling and maintaining many cilia/flagella, such as the motile cilia that drive the swimming of cells and embryos, the nodal cilia that generate left- right asymmetry in vertebrate embryos, and the sensory cilia that detect sensory stimuli in some animals.

One of the key features of the flagellated cell in genus Psalteriomonas is the four complex mastigote systems, which can be observed in the flagellated stage. A set of the mastigote system consists of 4 basal bodies (or kinetosomes) of the four flagella with associated structures. At the anterior end of the mastigote system, the kinetosomes are arranged in pairs (left/right anterior kinetosomes and left/right posterior kinetosomes). Two microtubular rows, with 6 to 8 microtubules are attached to the right region of the right anterior and the right posterior kinetosomes, and a separate row of about 6 microtubules is attached to the left anterior kinetosome on the left side of the flagellar aperture.

Natural selection therefore explains why wheels are an unlikely solution to the problem of locomotion: a partially evolved wheel, missing one or more key components, would probably not impart an advantage to an organism. The exception to this is the flagellum, the only known example of a freely rotating propulsive system in biology; in the evolution of flagella, individual components were recruited from older structures, where they performed tasks unrelated to propulsion. The basal body that is now the rotary motor, for instance, might have evolved from a structure used by the bacterium to inject toxins into other cells. This recruitment of previously evolved structures to serve new functions is called exaptation.

A ribosome is a biological machine that utilizes protein dynamics on nanoscales Proteins are not however strictly static objects, but rather populate ensembles of conformational states. Transitions between these states typically occur on nanoscales, and have been linked to functionally relevant phenomena such as allosteric signaling and enzyme catalysis. Protein dynamics and conformational changes allow proteins to function as nanoscale biological machines within cells, often in the form of multi-protein complexes. Examples include motor proteins, such as myosin, which is responsible for muscle contraction, kinesin, which moves cargo inside cells away from the nucleus along microtubules, and dynein, which moves cargo inside cells towards the nucleus and produces the axonemal beating of motile cilia and flagella.

When conditions are unfavourable due to prolonged dryness or exposure to low salinity waters, Dunaliella cells undergo sexual reproduction. Two haploid vegetative motile cells will touch flagella and then fuse their equal-sized gametes with one another in a very similar way to Chlamydomonas by the formation of a cytoplasmic bridge. After this isogamous fertilization, the diploid zygote, which is red and/or green in colour, develops a thick and smooth wall and takes on a circular shape very similar to the cyst form of Dunaliella. In fact, after observing zygotes, there was discussion on whether the cysts seen after and algal bloom at the Dead Sea in 1992 were in fact, zygotes.

The organisms in this genus have streamlined morphology in spherical, oval, or elliptical forms, and they have a wide range of sizes that vary from the smallest being 10 µm to the largest being 100 µm. Two flagella emerge from the anterior apical flagellar pocket; one can be easily seen in the light microscope as it is longer and covered in hairs (called mastigonemes) while the other is much shorter, with no hairs, and is not as easily seen. Pigments such as chlorophyll c1 and fucoxanthin within the chloroplasts cause the cells to have a distinct, golden or yellow-brown colour. The chloroplasts themselves are bi- lobed, but some cells have two single-lobed chloroplasts.

The IFT machinery is organized in two structural complexes — A and B. These complexs are involved in the coordinated movement of macromolecular cargo from the basal body along axonemal microtubules to the cilium tip and back again. The anterograde movement of IFT particles out to the distal tip of cilia and flagella is driven by kinesin-2 while the retrograde movement of particles back to the cell body is driven by cytoplasmic dynein 1b/2 The IFT-A protein complex is involved in retrograde ciliary transport. Disruption of IFT43 disturbs transport from the ciliary tip to the base. Anterograde transport in the opposite direction remains normal resulting in accumulation of the IFT complex B proteins in the ciliary tip.

Morphologically, Neocercomonas is similar to the genus Cercomonas, though genetic analysis has indicated that they are separate taxa. Cells are 13-60 micrometers long, feed on bacteria, and are usually flattened in shape. They have a ragged 'tail' formed from the protoplasm at their posterior end, as well as two flagella near the front end of the cell, each being around one and a half times the cell's length. The anterior flagellum beats rapidly in front of the cell to propel its movement; the posterior flagellum remains attached to both the body and the substrate to provide stability while the organism glides. Two cytoskeletal 'roots' are attached to different points along the posterior flagellum’s length, adding further support.

Production of interferons occurs mainly in response to microbes, such as viruses and bacteria, and their products. Binding of molecules uniquely found in microbes—viral glycoproteins, viral RNA, bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide), bacterial flagella, CpG motifs—by pattern recognition receptors, such as membrane bound Toll like receptors or the cytoplasmic receptors RIG-I or MDA5, can trigger release of IFNs. Toll Like Receptor 3 (TLR3) is important for inducing interferons in response to the presence of double-stranded RNA viruses; the ligand for this receptor is double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). After binding dsRNA, this receptor activates the transcription factors IRF3 and NF-κB, which are important for initiating synthesis of many inflammatory proteins.

The flagella of certain bacteria constitute a molecular motor requiring the interaction of about 40 different protein parts. Behe presents this as a prime example of an irreducibly complex structure defined as "a single system composed of several well-matched, interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning", and argues that since "an irreducibly complex system that is missing a part is by definition nonfunctional", it could not have evolved gradually through natural selection. Reducible complexity. In contrast to Behe's claims, many proteins can be deleted or mutated and the flagellum still works, even though sometimes at reduced efficiency.

While the bacterial flagellum is hollow, which allows flagellin monomers to travel through its interior to the tip of the growing filament, the archaellum filament is thinner, precluding the passage of archaellin monomers. This evidence suggested that the mechanism of assembly of the archaellum is more similar to the assembly mechanism observed in type IV pili (in which the monomers assemble at the bottom of the growing filament) than the assembly mechanism of flagella via a type III secretion system. The similarities between archaella and T4P became more obvious with the identification of two archaella motor complex proteins that have homologues in T4P and type IV and II secretion systems. Specifically, ArlJ and ArlI are homologous to PilC and PilB/PilT, respectively.

Generally, small hydrophobic molecules can readily cross phospholipid bilayers by simple diffusion. Particles that are required for cellular function but are unable to diffuse freely across a membrane enter through a membrane transport protein or are taken in by means of endocytosis, where the membrane allows for a vacuole to join onto it and push its contents into the cell. Many types of specialized plasma membranes can separate cell from external environment: apical, basolateral, presynaptic and postsynaptic ones, membranes of flagella, cilia, microvillus, filopodia and lamellipodia, the sarcolemma of muscle cells, as well as specialized myelin and dendritic spine membranes of neurons. Plasma membranes can also form different types of "supramembrane" structures such as caveolae, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, desmosome, hemidesmosome, focal adhesion, and cell junctions.

Eukaryotic motile cilium Inside cilia and flagella is a microtubule-based cytoskeleton called the axoneme. The axoneme of a primary cilium typically has a ring of nine outer microtubule doublets (called a 9+0 axoneme), and the axoneme of a motile cilium has, in addition to the nine outer doublets, two central microtubule singlets (called a 9+2 axoneme). The axoneme acts as a scaffold for axonemal inner and outer dynein arms that move motile cilia, and provides tracks for molecular motor proteins, such as Kinesin II, that carry proteins along the length of the cilium through a process called intraflagellar transport (IFT). IFT is bi-directional and retrograde IFT employ the cytoskeletal dynein motor 2 to move back toward the cell body.

Most sponges work rather like chimneys: they take in water at the bottom and eject it from the osculum ("little mouth") at the top. Since ambient currents are faster at the top, the suction effect that they produce by Bernoulli's principle does some of the work for free. Sponges can control the water flow by various combinations of wholly or partially closing the osculum and ostia (the intake pores) and varying the beat of the flagella, and may shut it down if there is a lot of sand or silt in the water. Although the layers of pinacocytes and choanocytes resemble the epithelia of more complex animals, they are not bound tightly by cell-to-cell connections or a basal lamina (thin fibrous sheet underneath).

The acronematic posterior flagellum is used in feeding and to attach to substrate, while the anterior flagellum beats less rapidly and in a slow sweeping motion. Further studies by Simpson and Patterson (1999) go into greater detail about the flagella and describe the flagellar apparatus as having a third, barren basal body. Supporting the dorsal side of the cell is a microtubular fan with a microtubular root at the anterior end. On the ventral side, microtubules extending from different flagellar roots support the ventral groove. The anterior flagellum has a ‘9+2’ axoneme. Simpson and Patterson described that in addition to the ‘9+2’ axoneme, the posterior flagellum also has “three radiating lamellae of electron-dense material which form the central components of vanes”.

In the bloodstream, the bacteria can infect both phagocytes and nonphagocytes. B. pseudomallei uses flagella to move near host cells, then attaches to the cells using various adhesion proteins, including the type IV pilus protein PilA and adhesion proteins BoaA and BoaB. Additionally, adhesion of the bacteria partially depends on the presence of the host protein protease-activated receptor-1, which is present on the surface of endothelial cells, platelets, and monocytes. Once bound, the bacteria enter host cells through endocytosis, ending up inside an endocytic vesicle. As the vesicle acidifies, B. pseudomallei uses its type 3 secretion system (T3SS) to inject effector proteins into the host cell, disrupting the vesicle and allowing the bacteria to escape into the host cytoplasm.

Erythropsidinium cells are a relatively large by dinoflagellate standards (50-120μm in longest dimension) and possess two flagella and two unusual organelles, the ocelloid and the piston. The ocelloid is light-responsive structure organized similarly to a multicellular organism's eye, considered a synapomorphic character for the Warnowiaceae; cells typically contain one ocelloid but occasional examples have been reported of cells containing two, without other indications of ongoing cell division. The piston is a long contractile structure protruding from the cell body, which is highly variable in length and morphology, and may contain prominent nodules along its length. As with the ocelloid, most cells possess a single piston, but in some cases specimens have been observed with two pistons on the same cell.

Moreover, it is involved in many cell signaling pathways and in the uptake of extracellular material (endocytosis), the segregation of chromosomes during cellular division, the cytokinesis stage of cell division, as scaffolding to organize the contents of the cell in space and in intracellular transport (for example, the movement of vesicles and organelles within the cell) and can be a template for the construction of a cell wall. Furthermore, it can form specialized structures, such as flagella, cilia, lamellipodia and podosomes. The structure, function and dynamic behavior of the cytoskeleton can be very different, depending on organism and cell type. Even within one cell, the cytoskeleton can change through association with other proteins and the previous history of the network.

B. subtilis can divide symmetrically to make two daughter cells (binary fission), or asymmetrically, producing a single endospore that can remain viable for decades and is resistant to unfavourable environmental conditions such as drought, salinity, extreme pH, radiation, and solvents. The endospore is formed at times of nutritional stress and through the use of hydrolysis, allowing the organism to persist in the environment until conditions become favourable. Prior to the process of sporulation the cells might become motile by producing flagella, take up DNA from the environment, or produce antibiotics. These responses are viewed as attempts to seek out nutrients by seeking a more favourable environment, enabling the cell to make use of new beneficial genetic material or simply by killing off competition.

All Stygiella species have a similar morphology: they are laterally crescent-shaped or ovoidal, aloricate cells with pointed ends (S. incarcerata), and a diamond-shaped ventral groove covers most of the ventral side to the posterior end.. There are two distinct types of body shapes present in every species: grooved cells with broadly open grooves, and swimming cells with shortened, narrower grooves. The bodies of swimming cells usually narrow from middle to the end, whereas the grooved cells are more ovoid. Reported cell lengths usually range from 6.0 to 9.0 μm The cells are biflagellated, with flagella originating close to the anterior end of the groove and extending towards the anterior and the posterior ends of the cell.Simpson, A. G., & Patterson, D. J. (2001).

In this electron micrograph of bacteriophages attached to a bacterial cell, the viruses are the size and shape of coliphage T1 Bacterial cells are protected by a cell wall of polysaccharides, which are important virulence factors protecting bacterial cells against both immune host defenses and antibiotics. To enter a host cell, bacteriophages attach to specific receptors on the surface of bacteria, including lipopolysaccharides, teichoic acids, proteins, or even flagella. This specificity means a bacteriophage can infect only certain bacteria bearing receptors to which they can bind, which in turn, determines the phage's host range. Polysaccharide- degrading enzymes, like endolysins are virion-associated proteins to enzymatically degrade the capsular outer layer of their hosts, at the initial step of a tightly programmed phage infection process.

Burkholderia is a genus of Proteobacteria whose pathogenic members include the Burkholderia cepacia complex, which attacks humans and Burkholderia mallei, responsible for glanders, a disease that occurs mostly in horses and related animals; Burkholderia pseudomallei, causative agent of melioidosis; and Burkholderia cepacia, an important pathogen of pulmonary infections in people with cystic fibrosis (CF). The Burkholderia (previously part of Pseudomonas) genus name refers to a group of virtually ubiquitous Gram-negative, obligately aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are motile by means of single or multiple polar flagella, with the exception of Burkholderia mallei, which is nonmotile. Members belonging to the genus do not produce sheaths or prosthecae and are able to use poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) for growth. The genus includes both animal and plant pathogens, as well as some environmentally important species.

The outer surface bears usually eight comb rows, called swimming-plates, which are used for swimming. The rows are oriented to run from near the mouth (the "oral pole") to the opposite end (the "aboral pole"), and are spaced more or less evenly around the body, although spacing patterns vary by species and in most species the comb rows extend only part of the distance from the aboral pole towards the mouth. The "combs" (also called "ctenes" or "comb plates") run across each row, and each consists of thousands of unusually long cilia, up to . Unlike conventional cilia and flagella, which has a filament structure arranged in a 9 + 2 pattern, these cilia are arranged in a 9 + 3 pattern, where the extra compact filament is suspected to have a supporting function.

Diagram of the DNA injection process Just like all other viruses, T-even phages don't just randomly attach to the surface of their host; instead they "search" and bind to receptors, specific protein structures, found on the surface of the host. These receptors vary with the phage; teichoic acid, cell wall proteins and lipopolysaccharides, flagella, and pili all can serve as receptors for the phage to bind to. In order for the T-even phage to infect its host and begin its life cycle it must enter the first process of infection, adsorption of the phage to the bacterial cell. Adsorption is a value characteristic of phage- host pair and the adsorption of the phage on host cell surface is illustrated as a 2-stage process: reversible and irreversible.

Flagellated lifecycle stages are found in many groups, e.g., many green algae (zoospores and male gametes), bryophytes (male gametes), pteridophytes (male gametes), some gymnosperms (cycads and Ginkgo, as male gametes), centric diatoms (male gametes), brown algae (zoospores and gametes), oomycetes (assexual zoospores and gametes), hyphochytrids (zoospores), labyrinthulomycetes (zoospores), some apicomplexans (gametes), some radiolarians (probably gametes), foraminiferans (gametes), plasmodiophoromycetes (zoospores and gametes), myxogastrids (zoospores), metazoans (male gametes), and chytrid fungi (zoospores and gametes). Flagella or cilia are completely absent in some groups, probably due to a loss rather than being a primitive condition. The loss of cilia occurred in red algae, some green algae (Zygnematophyceae), the gymnosperms except cycads and Ginkgo, angiosperms, pennate diatoms, some apicomplexans, some amoebozoans, in the sperm of some metazoans, and in fungi (except chytrids).

Charophyta are complex green algae that form a sister group to the Chlorophyta and within which the Embryophyta emerged. The chlorophyte and charophyte green algae and the embryophytes or land plants form a clade called the green plants or Viridiplantae, that is united among other things by the absence of phycobilins, the presence of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, cellulose in the cell wall and the use of starch, stored in the plastids, as a storage polysaccharide. The charophytes and embryophytes share several traits that distinguish them from the chlorophytes, such as the presence of certain enzymes (class I aldolase, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, glycolate oxidase, flagellar peroxidase), lateral flagella (when present), and, in many species, the use of phragmoplasts in mitosis. Thus Charophyta and Embryophyta together form the clade Streptophyta, excluding the Chlorophyta.

The F1 region also shows significant similarity to hexameric DNA helicases (especially the Rho factor), and the entire enzyme region shows some similarity to -powered T3SS or flagellar motor complexes. The α3β3 hexamer of the F1 region shows significant structural similarity to hexameric DNA helicases; both form a ring with 3-fold rotational symmetry with a central pore. Both have roles dependent on the relative rotation of a macromolecule within the pore; the DNA helicases use the helical shape of DNA to drive their motion along the DNA molecule and to detect supercoiling, whereas the α3β3 hexamer uses the conformational changes through the rotation of the γ subunit to drive an enzymatic reaction. The motor of the FO particle shows great functional similarity to the motors that drive flagella.

As the tubule passes through the nozzle, it opens the operculum and uncoils after. Ballistics in cnidarians nematocysts is driven by synthesis of osmotic propellant poly gamma glutamate synthase, PgsAA, while in Polykrikos it is thought to occur due induced pressure as a result of capsular fibre contraction in the capsule wall. Nucleus is uniquely characterised by a double-layered fibrous cortex that underlines evaginated nuclear envelope; cortex is hypothesized to provide strength and shape to the nucleus, while nuclear evaginations are thought to increase nuclear-cytoplasmic exchange area at cortex perforation sites. In Polykrikos, well-defined fibrous ribbons are involved in nuclear-flagellar connections, and anchoring to flagellar apparatus might serve in orientation of the nucleus in relation to flagella during processes of movement, mitosis and cell division.

The first investigation of sperm flagellar morphology was begun in 1888, by German cytologist Ballowitz, who observed using light microscopy and mordant stains that a rooster sperm flagellum could be splayed into as many as 11, longitudinal fibrils. About 60 years later, Grigg and Hodge in 1949 and a year later Manton and Clarke observed these 11 fibers in splayed flagella by electron microscopy (EM) ; these investigators proposed that two thinner fibers were surrounded by nine thicker outer fibers. In 1952, using advancements in fixation, embedding, and ultramicrotomy, Fawcett and Porter proved by EM thin sections that the core of epithelial cilia within the ciliary membrane consisted of nine doublet microtubules surrounding two central, singlet microtubules (i.e., the “central pair microtubule apparatus”), and hence the term, the “9 + 2” axonema.

Diagram showing how H. pylori reaches the epithelium of the stomach To avoid the acidic environment of the interior of the stomach (lumen), H. pylori uses its flagella to burrow into the mucus lining of the stomach to reach the epithelial cells underneath, where it is less acidic. H. pylori is able to sense the pH gradient in the mucus and move towards the less acidic region (chemotaxis). This also keeps the bacteria from being swept away into the lumen with the bacteria's mucus environment, which is constantly moving from its site of creation at the epithelium to its dissolution at the lumen interface. H. pylori urease enzyme diagram H. pylori is found in the mucus, on the inner surface of the epithelium, and occasionally inside the epithelial cells themselves.

The organism probably swam, wafting its outer flap-limbs in waves along its body to gain propulsion, in the manner of Anomalocaris. Its inner limb branches do not appear to be optimised for walking, although it is possible they helped the organism move along the sea floor. A variety of other functions have been suggested, such as clinging to algal fronds; they seem best suited to grabbing onto, and tearing up, other animals, suggesting that the organism was probably a scavenger. However, its large eyes and the long flagella on its great appendages, combined with its large feeding apparatus and the spines on its inner limb branches, are more consistent with a predatory lifestyle, and the most recent interpretation has it feeding on organisms that lived on or in the surface of the sea floor.

This triptych (animal + micro-algae + bacterial consortium) is a good example of the Holobiont paradigm that explains that an organism (animal or plant) is a complex and dynamic association involving microbial populations necessary for development, growth and to some extent, for the life of the organism. S. roscoffensis does not have a digestive system at any time during its development. However, on its ventral side there is an orifice considered as "a mouth" which allows it to ingest (without digesting) the micro-algae Tetraselmis convolutae. The latter gives access to a digestive syncytium through which the future micro-algae in hospite is first vacuolated (it loses its flagella and its theca) then transits to be finally located under the epidermis of the animal without being internalized in the cells but in contact and between the cells of the worm.

Bacteria live in soil water, including the film of moisture surrounding soil particles, and some are able to swim by means of flagella. The majority of the beneficial soil-dwelling bacteria need oxygen (and are thus termed aerobic bacteria), whilst those that do not require air are referred to as anaerobic, and tend to cause putrefaction of dead organic matter. Aerobic bacteria are most active in a soil that is moist (but not saturated, as this will deprive aerobic bacteria of the air that they require), and neutral soil pH, and where there is plenty of food (carbohydrates and micronutrients from organic matter) available. Hostile conditions will not completely kill bacteria; rather, the bacteria will stop growing and get into a dormant stage, and those individuals with pro-adaptive mutations may compete better in the new conditions.

Aristaeomorpha foliacea is a large decapod crustacean, a shrimp or prawn which has a firm and, flexible and light red exoskeleton and black eyes. In mature females black colour of the black ovaries darkens the dorsal part of the abdomen. There is a slight keel along the dorsal midlines of the third segment which becomes more probounced on the next three segments, ending in a sharp posterior point. It has long pleopods, antennal, hepatic and branchiostegal spines on its carapace, a very short upper antennal flagella, strong spines to the rear of the midpoint on the third to sixth abdominal segments, a telson with four small mobile lateral spines, the females have an open telicum and the species shows secondary sexual dimorphism in body size and the length of the rostrum with the adult females being larger and having a longer rostrum, extending well beyond the antennal scale.

Further information: Morphology (biology) NBP35 bacterial plasmids F (the classical Escherichia coli sex factor) is found in all nuclear genes in vegetative and gametic flagella of the unicellular green algae C. reinhardtii and nuclear Fe/S protein biogenesis required for cytosolic iron-sulfur protein assembly; MNP =MRP-like; MRP (Multiple Resistance and pH adaptation) MRP/NBP35-like P-loop NTPase similar to; and functions as minD_arch; cell division ATPase MinD, archaeal and homologue's of NUBP1. The NBP35 gene is conserved in archaea Bacteria, Metazoa, Fungi and other Eukaryotes and with considerable divergence from the yeast; Cfd1-Nbp35 Fe-S to man. In a scaffold complex protein to form large molecular assemblies that store Fe(III) and 4Fe-4S seen as secondary to defects inactivated to accomplish its functions as physiologically relevant form(s) Fe/S proteins Iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) is regulated through prevents deficiencies and increased mutation rates that characterized a plant P loop NTPase with sequence similarity to Nbp35 homologue's of NUBP1.

A ribosome translating a protein The most complex macromolecular machines are found within cells, often in the form of multi-protein complexes. Some biological machines are motor proteins, such as myosin, which is responsible for muscle contraction, kinesin, which moves cargo inside cells away from the nucleus along microtubules, and dynein, which moves cargo inside cells towards the nucleus and produces the axonemal beating of motile cilia and flagella. "[I]n effect, the [motile cilium] is a nanomachine composed of perhaps over 600 proteins in molecular complexes, many of which also function independently as nanomachines ... Flexible linkers allow the mobile protein domains connected by them to recruit their binding partners and induce long-range allostery via protein domain dynamics." Other biological machines are responsible for energy production, for example ATP synthase which harnesses energy from proton gradients across membranes to drive a turbine-like motion used to synthesise ATP, the energy currency of a cell.

Kenneth Miller's The Collapse of Intelligent Design: Section 5 Bacterial Flagellum (Case Western Reserve University, 2006 January 3) The TTSS system negates Behe's claim that taking away any one of the flagellum's parts would prevent the system from functioning. On this basis, Kenneth Miller notes that, "The parts of this supposedly irreducibly complex system actually have functions of their own."Unlocking cell secrets bolsters evolutionists (Chicago Tribune, 2006 February 13)Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum (Talk Design, 2006 September) Studies have also shown that similar parts of the flagellum in different bacterial species can have different functions despite showing evidence of common descent, and that certain parts of the flagellum can be removed without completely eliminating its functionality. Dembski has argued that phylogenetically, the TTSS is found in a narrow range of bacteria which makes it seem to him to be a late innovation, whereas flagella are widespread throughout many bacterial groups, and he argues that it was an early innovation.