One approach to getting around this problem is to find a natural experiment in which either the supply of or demand for labour changes exogenously.
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Therefore, even when TRH is given exogenously, TSH levels do not rise as the pituitary is diseased.
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These genes participate in a wide variety of biological processes including the detoxification of exogenously and endogenously generated aldehydes.
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In lab use, this obstacle is overcome by addition of the helper plasmids, which exogenously expresses replication genes which AAV itself lacks.
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Transmembrane 33 (TMEM33) exogenously suppresses reticulon 4C function and therefore may play a role in dictating membrane curvature through inhibition of reticulon function.
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Another impossibility result where only one party has private information about its valuation can be shown to hold when the outside option payoffs are not exogenously given.
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In a model of firm behavior with competitive input markets, the prices of inputs are exogenously given, and the amounts of the inputs to use are endogenous.
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Whereas free steroids like estradiol are lipophilic and can enter cells via passive diffusion, steroid conjugates like E1S are hydrophilic and are unable to do so. Instead, steroid conjugates require active transport via membrane transport proteins to enter cells. Studies in animals and humans have had mixed findings on uptake of exogenously administered E1S in normal and tumorous mammary gland tissue. This is in contrast to substantial uptake of exogenously administered estradiol and estrone by the mammary glands.
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A prominent application is the property rights approach to the theory of the firm. In this application, π is often exogenously fixed to ½, while X and Y are determined by investments of the two parties.
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To ensure the success of dental pulp and dentin regeneration in the adult, exogenously delivered and/or endogenous growth factors must induce the sprouting of neural fibrils and endothelial cells along with other blood vessel resident cells.
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There is evidence that the primary visual cortex (V1) creates a bottom-up saliency map to guide attention exogenously, and this V1 saliency map is read out by the superior colliculus which receives monosynaptic inputs from V1.
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McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE. Sodium Hyaluronate (Hyaluronan). Proc. AAEP 2001 (47): 194-200. Exogenously administered HA has a half-life of 96 hours in normal joints but is shorter in diseased joints.Hilbert BJ, Rowley G, Antonas KN, et al.
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Ultimately, a greater proportion of the exogenously provided levodopa/L-DOPA reaches the brain. Commercially, carbidopa/levodopa combinations are available in the treatment of central dopamine deficiencies. Along with carbidopa, other DDC inhibitors are benserazide (Ro-4-4602), difluromethyldopa, and α-methyldopa.
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Consequently, unlike exogenously administered antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E or Coenzyme Q10), which provide a specific and finite antioxidative potential, omaveloxolone, through Nrf2, broadly activates intracellular and mitochondrial antioxidative pathways, in addition to pathways that may directly increase mitochondrial biogenesis (such as PGC1α) and bioenergetics.
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They may see one thing, but hear something entirely incompatible with that image. Schizophrenics often report experiencing thoughts that do not seem to originate from themselves, as if the idea was inserted exogenously. The individual feels no control over certain thoughts existing within their consciousness.
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An economic variable can be exogenous in some models and endogenous in others. In particular this can happen when one model also serves as a component of a broader model. For example, the IS model of only the goods market derives the market-clearing (and thus endogenous) level of output depending on the exogenously imposed level of interest rates, since interest rates affect the physical investment component of the demand for goods. In contrast, the LM model of only the money market takes income (which identically equals output) as exogenously given and affecting money demand; here equilibrium of money supply and money demand endogenously determines the interest rate.
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Studies using event-related potential (ERP) recordings have found that twenty- four hours of sleep deprivation decreases ERP response to signal inputs from endogenous, but not exogenous, sources. Therefore, it is suggested that sleep deprivation affects endogenously driven selective attention to a greater extent than exogenously driven selected attention.
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The overexpression of CYP2J2 and its effects on carcinoma cells are also evident when EETs are administered exogenously, suggesting a link between the production of EETs and cancer progression. Furthermore, tumor progression increases at a faster rate in cell lines with over-expression of CYP2J2 compared to control cancer cell lines.
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The key distinction from mainstream economic theories of money creation is that circuitism holds that money is created endogenously by the banking sector, rather than exogenously by the government through central bank lending: that is, the economy creates money itself (endogenously), rather than money being provided by some outside agent (exogenously). These theoretical differences lead to a number of different consequences and policy prescriptions; circuitism rejects, among other things, the money multiplier based on reserve requirements, arguing that money is created by banks lending, which only then pulls in reserves from the central bank, rather than by re- lending money pushed in by the central bank. The money multiplier arises instead from capital adequacy ratios, i.e. the ratio of its capital to its risk-weighted assets.
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Monetary circuit theory is a heterodox theory of monetary economics, particularly money creation, often associated with the post-Keynesian school. It holds that money is created endogenously by the banking sector, rather than exogenously by central bank lending; it is a theory of endogenous money. It is also called circuitism and the circulation approach.
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Postnatal taurine deficiency in the kitten results in a persistence of the cerebellar external granule cell layer: correction by taurine feeding. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 13(4), 521-528. As it is an indispensable amino acid, it must be provided exogenously through the diet at 10 mg/kg bodyweight/day.Burger, I. H., & Barnett, K. C. (1982).
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MMTV can be transferred either through an exogenous or endogenous route. If the virus is transferred exogenously, it is passed from the mother mouse to her pups through her milk. Alternatively, pups can be infected vertically through endogenous infection, inheriting the virus directly from their mother in the germline. Mice that become infected in this way have higher rates of occurrence of tumors.
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And the neoclassical formulation assumes that the factors of production are given only exogenously. Exogenous changes can come from population growth, industrial policies, the rate of capital accumulation (propensity for security) and technological inventions, among others. Dynamic developments endogenous to trade such as economic growth are not integrated into Ricardo's theory. And this is not affected by what is called "dynamic comparative advantage".
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An antidiuretic is a substance that helps to control fluid balance in an animal's body by reducing urination, opposing diuresis. Its effects are opposite that of a diuretic. The major endogenous antidiuretics are antidiuretic hormone (ADH; also called vasopressin) and oxytocin. Both of those are also used exogenously as medications in people whose bodies need extra help with fluid balance via suppression of diuresis.
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Oct3/4 can both repress and activate the Rex1 promoter. In cells that already express high level of Oct3/4, exogenously transfected Oct3/4 will lead to the repression of Rex1. However, in cells that are not actively expressing Oct3/4, an exogenous transfection of Oct3/4 will lead to the activation of Rex1. This implies a dual regulatory ability of Oct3/4 on Rex1.
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Hans Selye demonstrated in the 1940 that certain pregnane steroids could cause both anesthesia and sedation but 40 years later the molecular mechanism emerged to explain their depressant effect. In a rat brain slice preparation, the synthetic steroidal anesthetic alphaxalone (5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20 dione) enhanced both stimulus-evoked inhibition and the effects of exogenously applied muscimol which is a GABAA selective agonist.
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RNA interference (RNAi) is a means of silencing genes by way of mRNA degradation. Gene knockdown by this method is achieved by introducing small double-stranded interfering RNAs (siRNA) into the cytoplasm. Small interfering RNAs can originate from inside the cell or can be exogenously introduced into the cell. Once introduced into the cell, exogenous siRNAs are processed by the RNA- induced silencing complex (RISC).
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Sometimes modulation of transgene expression may be necessary since strong constitutive expression of a therapeutic gene in retinal tissues could be deleterious for long-term retinal function. Different methods have been utilized for the expression modulation. One way is using exogenously regulatable promoter system in AAV vectors. For example, the tetracycline- inducible expression system uses a silencer/transactivator AAV2 vector and a separate inducible doxycycline-responsive coinjection.
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A high nitric oxide concentration, such as one added exogenously to the enzyme, reverses cyanide inhibition of COX. Nitric oxide can reversibly bind to either metal ion in the binuclear center to be oxidized to nitrite. NO and CN- will compete with oxygen to bind at the site, reducing the rate of cellular respiration. Endogenous NO, however, which is produced at lower levels, augments CN- inhibition.
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Human alveolar echinococcosis is characterized by a lengthy incubation period of 5 to 15 years in immunocompetent individuals. The progression of disease is potentiated in immunocompromised patients. Following the ingestion of the eggs of E. multilocularis, the metacestode (larval) stage of the parasite typically embeds in the liver. As the disease progresses, the larval stage proliferates exogenously within the tissue, behaving similar to hepatic neoplasia.
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Using GnSAF would potentially eliminate the need to use human chorionic gonadotropin. Administration of GnSAF could also be used to prevent ovulation and replace exogenously administered steroids that are often perceived as being risky , or to delay the naturally premature LH surge observed in some hyperstimulated or infertile women. GnSAF could form part of a contraceptive drug or in treatments for infertility that target LH hypersecretion or abnormal ovarian cycles.
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Guanethidine is transported by uptake 1 into the presynaptic terminal transported by norepinephrine transporter (NET). (In this it competes with norepinephrine so can potentiate exogenously applied norepinephrine.) It becomes concentrated in norepinephrine transmitter vesicles, replacing norepinephrine in these vesicles. This leads to a gradual depletion of norepinephrine stores in the nerve endings. Once inside the terminal it blocks the release of norepinephrine in response to arrival of an action potential.
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A more recent example is the Markov switching multifractal model of Laurent E. Calvet and Adlai J. Fisher, which builds upon the convenience of earlier regime-switching models. It uses an arbitrarily large Markov chain to drive the level of volatility of asset returns. Dynamic macroeconomics heavily uses Markov chains. An example is using Markov chains to exogenously model prices of equity (stock) in a general equilibrium setting.
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Capital inflows (say to the Netherlands) may stimulate currency appreciation through demand for money. As the RER appreciates, the competitiveness of the traded-goods sectors falls (in terms of the international price of traded goods). In this model, there has been no change in real economy productivities, but money price productivity in traded goods has been exogenously lowered through currency appreciation. Since capital inflow is associated with high-income states (e.g.
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This gene encodes a member of the tob/btg1 family of anti- proliferative proteins that have the potential to regulate cell growth. When exogenously expressed, this protein suppresses cell growth in tissue culture. The protein undergoes phosphorylation by a serine/threonine kinase, 90 kDa ribosomal S6 kinase. Interactions of this protein with the v-erb-b2 erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 2 gene product p185 interferes with growth suppression.
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These nodules are thought to correspond to mature genetic recombination events or "crossovers". In male mice, gamma irradiation increases meiotic crossovers in SCs. This indicates that exogenously caused DNA damages are likely repaired by crossover recombination in SCs. The finding of an interaction between a SC structural component [synaptonemal central element protein 2 (SYCE2)] and recombinational repair protein RAD51 also suggests a role of the SC in DNA repair.
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Although the large majority of miRNAs undergo processing by Microprocessor, a small number of exceptions called mirtrons have been described; these are very small introns which, after splicing, have the appropriate size and stem-loop structure to serve as a pre-miRNA. The processing pathways for microRNA and for exogenously derived small interfering RNA converge at the point of Dicer processing and are largely identical downstream. Broadly defined, both pathways constitute RNA interference.
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PALM and STORM share a common fundamental principle, and numerous developments have tended to make the two techniques even more intertwined. Still, they differ in several technical details and a fundamental point. On the technical side, PALM is performed on a biological specimen using fluorophores expressed exogenously in the form of genetic fusion constructs to a photoactivatable fluorescent protein. STORM instead uses immunolabeling of endogenous molecules in the sample with antibodies tagged with organic fluorophores.
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One explanation for the increased irisin expression with exercise in mouse and man may have evolved as a consequence of muscle contraction during shivering. Muscle secretion of a hormone that activates adipose thermogenesis during this process might provide a broader, more robust defense against hypothermia. The therapeutic potential of irisin is obvious. Exogenously administered irisin induces the browning of subcutaneous fat and thermogenesis, and it presumably could be prepared and delivered as an injectable polypeptide.
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U.S. women's weekly earnings, employment, and percentage of men's earnings, by industry, 2009 This approach demonstrates the effects of gender inequalities by enhancing macroeconomic models. Bernard Walters shows that traditional neoclassical models fail to adequately assess work related to reproduction by assuming that the population and labor are determined exogenously. That fails to account for the fact that inputs are produced through caring labor, which is disproportionately performed by women. Stephen Knowels et al.
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Infected meat, however, should be eliminated through systematic meat inspection in production, and consequently, consumers will more often encounter meat exogenously spoiled by bacteria or fungi after the death of the animal.Lawrie, 159. One source of infectious organisms is bacteraemia, the presence of bacteria in the blood of slaughtered animals. The large intestine of animals contains some 3.3×1013 viable bacteria, which may infect the flesh after death if the carcass is improperly dressed.
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In neo- classical growth models, the long-run rate of growth is exogenously determined by either the savings rate (the Harrod–Domar model) or the rate of technical progress (Solow model). However, the savings rate and rate of technological progress remain unexplained. Endogenous growth theory tries to overcome this shortcoming by building macroeconomic models out of microeconomic foundations. Households are assumed to maximize utility subject to budget constraints while firms maximize profits.
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An angiogenesis inhibitor is a substance that inhibits the growth of new blood vessels (angiogenesis). Some angiogenesis inhibitors are endogenous and a normal part of the body's control and others are obtained exogenously through pharmaceutical drugs or diet. While angiogensis is a critical part of wound healing and other favorable processes, certain types of angiogensis are associted with the growth of malignant tumors. Thus angiogenesis inhibitors have been closely studied for possible cancer treatment.
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Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) are secreted glycoproteins that bind to receptor proteins on the surfaces of hemopoietic stem cells, thereby activating intracellular signaling pathways that can cause the cells to proliferate and differentiate into a specific kind of blood cell (usually white blood cells. For red blood cell formation, see erythropoietin). They may be synthesized and administered exogenously. However, such molecules can at a latter stage be detected, since they differ slightly from the endogenous ones in, e.g.
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Like the rep ORF, scAAV's cap ORF has been replaced by transgene and therefore is provided exogenously in a lab environment. The genes encoded in this ORF build capsid proteins and are responsible (along with intracellular processing) for conveying target specificity. Rep proteins participate in the integration of the genome into preformed capsids. Despite the fact that scAAV is designed to form dsDNA upon infection, the two complementary strands are not packaged in a double stranded manner.
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Besides the metabolic function, insulin receptors are also expressed on immune cells, such as macrophages, B cells, and T cells. On T cells, the expression of insulin receptors is undetectable during the resting state but up-regulated upon T-cell receptor (TCR) activation. Indeed, insulin has been shown when supplied exogenously to promote in vitro T cell proliferation in animal models. Insulin receptor signalling is important for maximizing the potential effect of T cells during acute infection and inflammation.
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The pharmacologic objective is to get an exogenous dopamine-precursor known as levodopa/L-DOPA into the dopamine-deficient brains of PD patients. Levodopa/L-DOPA can cross the blood–brain barrier, but dopamine cannot. The use of carbidopa seems counter-intuitive in Parkinson's disease (PD) in that it prevents DDC conversion of levodopa/L-DOPA to dopamine. However, exogenously provided, levadopa/L-DOPA gets metabolized peripherally to its active metabolite dopamine before reaching the blood–brain barrier.
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In classical, orthodox economic theory,See Classical growth-theory economic growth is assumed to be exogenously given: Growth is dependent on exogenous variables, such as population growth, technological improvement, and growth in natural resources. Classical theory claims that an increase in either of the factors of production, i.e. labor or capital, while holding the other constant and assuming no technological change, will increase output but at a diminishing rate that will eventually approach zero.Bjork (1999) pp.
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KCNE3 inhibits the fast inactivating Kv channel Kv4.3, which generates the transient outward Kv current (Ito) in human cardiac myocytes). similarly, KCNE3 was recently found to inhibit Kv4.2, and it is thought that this regulation modulates spike frequency and other electrical properties of auditory neurons. Kv12.2 channels were found to be inhibited by endogenous KCNE3 (and KCNE1) subunits in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Thus, silencing of endogenous KCNE3 or KCNE1 using siRNA increases the macroscopic current of exogenously expressed Kv12.2.
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Thus, equation (1.6) does not preclude short- term wage deviations with respect to its natural level. Eventually, note that μ is the only magnitude which is determined from outside the system: it is an amount set by customs and habits of society. This means that the number of workers employed (proportional to population), is determined by the system itself,Pasinetti, 1977, p. 10. unlike what happens in modern theories of economic growth, where the rate of population growth is taken as exogenously given.
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The Goodwin model, sometimes called Goodwin's class struggle model, is a model of endogenous economic fluctuations first proposed by the American economist Richard M. Goodwin in 1967. It combines aspects of the Harrod–Domar growth model with the Phillips curve to generate endogenous cycles in economic activity (output, unemployment and wages) unlike most modern macroeconomic models in which movements in economic aggregates are driven by exogenously assumed shocks. Since Goodwin's publication in 1967, the model has been extended and applied in various ways.
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Congenital nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI) may result from V2R or aquaporin-2 (AQP2) mutations. Exogenously administered V2R antagonists can bind to misfolded intracellular V2R, and improve transport of V2R to the cell membrane. Clinical studies in patients with X-linked NDI showed that the selective V1R antagonist relcovaptan (SR49059, Sanofi-Aventis) significantly increased urine osmolality and decreased 24-hour urine flow. Thus V1R and/or V2R antagonists may serve as molecular chaperones to mitigate misfolding defects in selected patients with type 2 NDI.
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Post-translational modifications of prolidase regulate its enzymatic abilities. Phosphorylation of prolidase has been shown to increase its activity while dephosphorylation leads to a decrease in enzyme activity. Analysis of known consensus sequence required for serine/threonine phosphorylation revealed that prolidase contains at least three potential sites for serine/threonine phosphorylation. Nitric oxide, both exogenously acquired and endogenously generated, was shown to increase prolidase activity in a time- and dose-dependent manner via phosphorylation at these serine and threonine sites.
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In test with rabbits, significant improvement in protection against arrhythmic effects and infarct size reduction was observed after administrating exogenously SRTX-c (in dosage of 0.24 nmol/kg, i.v.) prior the coronary occlusion accident. That was achieved thanks to ability of SRTX-c to activate selected ETB receptors. In rat thoracic aorta, the contractile activity is grouped as follows: ET-1 > SRTX-b > SRTX-a > SRTX-c at lower concentrations, but SRTX-b > ET-1 > SRTX-a > SRTX-c at higher concentrations.
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In 1995 Ehsan Hoque discovered that Lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), a toxic substance which accumulates in the ischemic myocardium when applied exogenously, causes ischemia-like changes, suggesting that LPC is one of the important factors in producing ischemia-reperfusion derangements in terms of mechanical and metabolic functions. He also found that prevention of LPC accumulation can protect heart from ischemia/reperfusion injury. In 1997 Ehsan Hoque was the first to demonstrate the potential protective effect of NHE (Na+-H+ Exchange) inhibition on Lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) -induced cardiac injury.
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As a dependovirus, scAAV remains in a latent state within the cell until the cell experiences certain permissive conditions. These can include presence of a helper virus infection (such as adenovirus) or other toxic events such as exposure to UV light or carcinogens. Because the endogenous rep ORF has been replaced with transgene, exogenously provided rep genes encode the proteins required for genome replication and other viral life cycle components. The ITRs located 5' and 3' of the viral genome serve as the origin of replication.
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19, No.1 (May 1999):33-47). were highly supportive of creeping convergence, as was his content analysis of what he has labeled “adentity”. In the latter case, messages of self-identification in Japan, while becoming more locally profuse and variegated, have also become exogenously-homogeneous—insofar as their self-orientation appears more similar to ad messages from the West. Appraising the implications of Holden's grounded theorization, Kenji Kosaka observed that such adentifications reflect a departure from the past, where identity was often mediated by the group.
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A. oxyrhynchus contains tetrodotoxin (TTX), a potent neurotoxin that induces muscle paralysis and/or death. Unlike Atelopus varius, which do not retain TTX when raised in captivity and thus acquires TTX exogenously, A. oxyrhynchus maintains its toxicity when raised in captivity. This has also been shown for the rough-skinned newt, Taricha granulosa. These organisms raise questions about the source of TTX, as the most supported hypothesis for TTX toxicity in other animals is an exogenous origin, either through dietary uptake or bacterial symbiosis.
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The association with these matrix structures is mediated by its ability to interact with numerous extracellular matrix constituents including fibronectin, proteoglycans, laminins and tropoelastin. In blood, fibulin-1 binds to fibrinogen and incorporates into clots. Fibulins are secreted glycoproteins that become incorporated into a fibrillar extracellular matrix when expressed by cultured cells or added exogenously to cell monolayers. The five known members of the family share an elongated structure and many calcium-binding sites, owing to the presence of tandem arrays of epidermal growth factor-like domains.
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These include macrophage inflammatory protein-1 (MIP), macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), the interleukins IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8, and TNF-α. Receptors for these molecules have been identified on astrocytes, and the molecules, when exogenously introduced, have been shown to induce, enhance, or accompany astrogliosis. Astrocytes themselves also produce cytokines, which may be used for self-regulation or for the regulation of microglia, which contain similar cytokine receptors. This phenomenon creates a feedback loop, allowing both microglia and astrocytes to regulate one another.
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RNA silencing or RNA interference refers to a family of gene silencing effects by which gene expression is negatively regulated by non-coding RNAs such as microRNAs. RNA silencing may also be defined as sequence-specific regulation of gene expression triggered by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). RNA silencing mechanisms are highly conserved in most eukaryotes. The most common and well- studied example is RNA interference (RNAi), in which endogenously expressed microRNA (miRNA) or exogenously derived small interfering RNA (siRNA) induces the degradation of complementary messenger RNA.
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Progesterone, which is the endogenous precursor to the inhibitory neurosteroids 5α-dihydroprogesterone and allopregnanolone, as well as, more distantly, THDOC, when administered exogenously, has been found to behave as a prodrug to these neurosteroids, with clinical signs of their action, such as sedation, readily evident in humans. Exogenous pregnenolone has similarly been found to act as a prodrug of allopregnanolone. Metyrapone, a reversible inhibitor of the enzyme steroid 11β-hydroxylase, may increase inhibitory neurosteroid levels. Conversely, it may inhibit the production of cortisol-derived excitatory neurosteroids.
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Therefore, when required to report the digits in the order they were presented, participants had to continuously switch filters, which impacted accuracy. Neural basis of early selection for visual inputs may reside in the primary visual cortex, also called V1, the first stage in the neocortex along the visual pathway for visual input information from the retina --- evidence has been accumulating in support of the V1 Saliency Hypothesis (V1SH) proposed in the late 1990s that V1 creates a bottom-up saliency map to guide attention exogenously, and thus selection for visual inputs starts at V1.
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The rationale underlying these results is that an exogenously imposed probability of return to the home country is tantamount to a probable wage cut, given that wages in the home country are lower than wages in the host country. A higher perceived probability of return induces migrants to beef up their savings. A similar reasoning explains them working harder and increasing their labor supply. If return migration does not take place, then the said response to the probability of return helps account for positive migrant-native earning differentials.
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According to the sequence motifs of the Homo Sapiens, TMEM33 it is predicted to be at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) 48%, mitochondria 35%, and nucleus 13%. TMEM33 orthologs in vertebrates, invertebrates, and fungi were also predicted to localize to these three cellular locations: the ER first and the mitochondria second, and some orthologs a third location was predicted and it was the nucleus. Homo Sapiens TMEM33 localized with ER membrane and NE exogenously. The fission yeast TMEM33 ortholog, Tts1, was reported to localize to the ER and to the NE (nuclear envelope).
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Anthocharis cardamines (orange tip butterfly), which oviposits on almost all crucifer species, avoids E. cheiranthoides. Similarly, the crucifer-feeding specialist Pieries rapae (white cabbage butterfly) is deterred from feeding and oviposition on E. cheiranthoides. However, another pierid species, Pieris napi oleracea (green veined white butterfly), not only is less sensitive to exogenously added cardenolides than P. rapae in oviposition assays, but also oviposits more readily on E. cheiranthoides leaves. In the case of P. rapae, oviposition experiments with extracts of E. cheiranthoides sprayed onto Brassica oleracea (cabbage) identified both attractants and deterrents.
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In chemical biology, bioorthogonal chemical reporter is a non-native chemical functionality that is introduced into the naturally occurring biomolecules of a living system, generally through metabolic or protein engineering. These functional groups are subsequently utilized for tagging and visualizing biomolecules. Jennifer Prescher & Carolyn R. Bertozzi, the developers of bioorthogonal chemistry, defined bioorthogonal chemical reporters as "non- native, non-perturbing chemical handles that can be modified in living systems through highly selective reactions with exogenously delivered probes." It has been used to enrich proteins and to conduct proteomic analysis.
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Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is an endogenous fatty acid amide, belonging to the class of nuclear factor agonists. PEA has been studied in in vitro and in vivo systems using exogenously added or dosed compound; there is evidence that it binds to a nuclear receptor, through which it exerts a variety of biological effects, some related to chronic inflammation and pain. A main target of PEA is proposed to be the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α). PEA also has affinity to cannabinoid-like G-coupled receptors GPR55 and GPR119.
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This is viewed by Posner and colleagues (1976) as an endogenous (voluntary) strategy in responding to one's environment. Conversely, Koppen and Spence suggest that attentional bias towards the visual modality may be exogenously (reflexively) mediated. That is to say, visual stimuli may in actual fact capture a person's attention more effectively than stimuli from other sensory modalities. Koppen and Spence (2007a) investigated what role exogenous (reflexive) attention plays in sensory modality, and found that the Colavita effect can be regulated (but not terminated), depending on which sensory modality (audition or vision) individuals focus their exogenous attention on.
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Several strategies have been proposed to deal with the issue of controlling self- organized criticality: #The design of controlled avalanches. Daniel O. Cajueiro and Roberto F. S. Andrade show that if well-formulated small and medium avalanches are exogenously triggered in the system, the energy of the system is released in a way that large avalanches are rarer. # The modification of the degree of interdependence of the network where the avalanche spreads. Charles D. Brummitt, Raissa M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht show that the dynamics of self-organized critical systems on complex networks depend on connectivity of the complex network.
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TMEM33 localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane and the nuclear envelope, and therefore must function in these regions. TMEM33 exogenously suppresses reticulon 4C function, which is a protein that induces the formation of the tubular structure of the ER. Therefore, TMEM33 is thought to regulate tubular ER structure through modulation of reticulon activity. Tts1, TMEM33 ortholog in S. pombe, has been found to be involved in dictating ER curvature as well. In the nucleus, knock-out studies indicate Tts1 has a role in directing the spindle pole bodies and nuclear core complexes in the nuclear envelope during mitosis.
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It is the highest attainable growth rate that would bring about the fullest possible employment of the resources existing in the economy. See Harrod (1939) If the actual economic growth-rate falls below the natural rate, then the unemployment rate will rise; if it rises above it, the unemployment rate will fall. Consequently, the natural rate of growth must be the rate of growth that keeps the rate of unemployment constant. If the natural rate of growth is not exogenously given, but is endogenous to demand, or to the actual rate of growth, this has two implications.
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The rental rate of capital, r, has two conflicting effects: more expensive capital induces the firm to substitute away from physical capital usage and into more labor usage, contingent on any particular level of output; but the higher capital cost also induces the firm to produce less output, requiring less usage of both inputs. Depending on which effect predominates, labor demand could be either increasing or decreasing in r. The short-run labor demand function is the result of the same optimization except that capital usage K is exogenously given by past physical investment rather than being a choice variable.
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Institutional reform, such as privatization, failed to deliver the predicted economic growth, not because of lacking credible commitment on part of actors but due to the absence of endogenous credibility. For this reason, Grabel noted that “credibility is always secured endogenously (. . .) rather than exogenously by virtue of the epistemological status of the theory that promotes it.” In contrast, the growth of the Chinese economy despite lack of many institutions considered to be essential for economic growth indicated that institutional arrangements do not necessarily determine economic outcomes, and also at the same time economic development does not automatically lead to teleologically predetermined institutional forms.
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A structural parameter is also said to be "policy invariant" whereas the value of reduced-form parameter can depend on exogenously determined parameters set by public policy makers. The distinction between structural and reduced-form estimation within "microeconometrics" is related to the Lucas critique of reduced-form macroeconomic policy predictions. The original distinction between structure and reduced-form was between the underlying system and the direct relationship between observables implied by the system. Different combinations of structural parameters can imply the same reduced-form parameters, so structural estimation must go beyond the direct relationship between variables.
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Pyramidal cell dendritic arbor formation in the anterior cingulate cortex (layers 2/3) is more complex in males and, in contrast the orbital prefrontal regions, dendritic arborization is greater in females suggesting a fundamental difference in the prefrontal organization in males and females. In rats, for example, exposure to estrogen either exogenously or endogenously during proestrous leads to increases in CA1 spine densities. These differences may be due to the presence of gonadal hormones which have been demonstrated to influence cell structure in the hippocampus. Treatment with testosterone has been shown to affect cortical neuron structure.
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However, the exchange rate is controlled by the local monetary authority in the framework of a fixed exchange rate system. To maintain the exchange rate and eliminate pressure on it, the monetary authority purchases foreign currency using domestic funds in order to shift the LM curve to the right. In the end, the interest rate stays the same but the general income in the economy increases. In the IS-LM-BoP graph, the IS curve has been shifted exogenously by the fiscal authority, and the IS and BoP curves determine the final resting place of the system; the LM curve merely passively reacts.
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Of the basic set of twenty amino acids (not counting selenocysteine), humans cannot synthesize eight. In addition, the amino acids arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, histidine, proline, serine, and tyrosine are considered conditionally essential, meaning they are not normally required in the diet but must be supplied exogenously to specific populations that do not synthesize it in adequate amounts. For example, enough arginine is synthesized by the urea cycle to meet the needs of an adult but perhaps not those of a growing child. Amino acids that must be obtained from the diet are called essential amino acids.
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Exogenously applied ATP stimulates the closure of the Venus flytrap Purinergic receptors, represented by several families, are among the most abundant receptors in living organisms and appeared early in evolution. Among invertebrates, the purinergic signalling system has been found in bacteria, amoeba, ciliates, algae, fungi, anemones, ctenophores, platyhelminthes, nematodes, crustacea, molluscs, annelids, echinoderms, and insects. In green plants, extracellular ATP and other nucleotides induce an increase in the cytosolic concentration of calcium ions, in addition to other downstream changes that influence plant growth and modulate responses to stimuli. In 2014, the first purinergic receptor in plants, DORN1, was discovered.
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The resultant decrease in the terms of trade, however, means a lower growth rate for the South. This creates a negative feedback cycle in which the growth rate of the South is exogenously determined by that of the North. Note that the growth rate of the north, gn, is equal to n + m, where n is population growth and m is growth of labor-augmenting technical progress, as per the Solow-Swan model. Growth in the North South Model The conclusion, which fits in with dependency theory, is that the South can never grow faster than the North, and thus will never catch up.
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Endogenous money is an economy’s supply of money that is determined endogenously—that is, as a result of the interactions of other economic variables, rather than exogenously (autonomously) by an external authority such as a central bank. The theoretical basis of this position is that money comes into existence through the requirements of the real economy and that the banking system reserves expand or contract as needed to accommodate loan demand at prevailing interest rates. Central banks implement policy primarily through controlling short-term interest rates. The money supply then adapts to the changes in demand for reserves and credit caused by the interest rate change.
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The 'Solow growth model' is not intended to explain or derive the empirical residual, but rather to demonstrate how it will affect the economy in the long run when imposed on an aggregate model of the macroeconomy exogenously. This model was really a tool for demonstrating the impact of "technology" growth as against "industrial" growth rather than an attempt to understand where either type of growth was coming from. The Solow residual is primarily an observation to explain, rather than predict the outcome of a theoretical analysis. It is a question rather than an answer, and the following equations should not obscure that fact.
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Arrow was one of the precursors of endogenous growth theory, which seeks to explain the source of technical change, which is a key driver of economic growth. Until this theory came to prominence, technical change was assumed to occur exogenously – that is, it was assumed to occur outside economic activities, and was outside (exogenous) to common economic models. At the same time there was no economic explanation for why it occurred. Endogenous-growth theory provided standard economic reasons for why firms innovate, leading economists to think of innovation and technical change as determined by economic actors, that is endogenously to economic activities, and thus belong inside the model.
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Depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition was thought to be due to a reduction in pre-synaptic neurotransmitter release for 2 reasons. 1) The magnitudes of spontaneously evoked inhibitory post-synaptic currents (IPSCs), caused by the release of a single pre-synaptic vesicle filled with GABA, remained unchanged and 2) The cellular responses to exogenously applied GABA remained the same. These observations suggested that no changes occurred in the post-synaptic cell to change its responsiveness to GABA during depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition. Somehow, depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition appeared to be mediated by a retrograde synaptic messenger whose synthesis or release was stimulated by the depolarization of the target cell.
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In 1964, Donald D. Hester criticizedHester (1964) the F/M paper for "bias" against a "Keynesian" outcome. For that purpose, Hester argued that government deficits are endogenously determined, and not exogenously, and thus no single-equation approach could properly capture government spending and deficits, while the same principle applies for short- run private investment. Also, Hester emphasized that the actual data should have been empirically tested in first-differential form so as to extricate the trends of both explanatory variables, and thus demonstrate only the endogenously generated economic growth. Hester stated that, when he tried "improved" data and empirical methods, “the autonomous expenditure theory outperformed the quantity theory [of money],” i.e.
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Solow's model of economic growth, often known as the Solow–Swan neo- classical growth model as the model was independently discovered by Trevor W. Swan and published in "The Economic Record" in 1956, allows the determinants of economic growth to be separated into increases in inputs (labour and capital) and technical progress. The reason these models are called "exogenous" growth models is the saving rate is taken to be exogenously given. Subsequent work derives savings behavior from an inter-temporal utility- maximizing framework. Using his model, Solow (1957) calculated that about four-fifths of the growth in US output per worker was attributable to technical progress.
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Horace Barlow proposed the efficient coding hypothesis in 1961 as a theoretical model of sensory coding in the brain.Barlow, H. (1961) "Possible principles underlying the transformation of sensory messages" in Sensory Communication, MIT Press Limitations in the applicability of this theory in the primary visual cortex (V1) motivated the V1 Saliency Hypothesis (V1SH) that V1 creates a bottom-up saliency map to guide attention exogenously. With attentional selection as a center stage, vision is seem as composed of encoding, selection, and decoding stages. The default mode network is a network of brain regions that are active when an individual is awake and at rest.
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Dembski formulates and proposes a law of conservation of information as follows: > This strong proscriptive claim, that natural causes can only transmit CSI > but never originate it, I call the Law of Conservation of Information. > Immediate corollaries of the proposed law are the following: # The specified > complexity in a closed system of natural causes remains constant or > decreases. # The specified complexity cannot be generated spontaneously, > originate endogenously or organize itself (as these terms are used in > origins-of-life research). # The specified complexity in a closed system of > natural causes either has been in the system eternally or was at some point > added exogenously (implying that the system, though now closed, was not > always closed).
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Several fluorescent protein exist in nature, but the most important one as a research tool is Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria, which spontaneously fluoresces upon folding via specific serine-tyrosine- glycine residues. The benefit that GFP and other fluorescent proteins have over organic dyes or quantum dots is that they can be expressed exogenously in cells alone or as a fusion protein, a protein that is created by ligating the fluorescent gene (e.g., GFP) to another gene and whose expression is driven by a housekeeping gene promoter or another specific promoter. This approach allows fluorescent proteins to be used as reporters for any number of biological events, such as sub-cellular localization and expression patterns.
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Thus, manipulating the endogenous levels of this gas evokes specific physiological changes; # Functions of this endogenous gas can be mimicked by its exogenously applied counterpart; # Its cellular effects may or may not be mediated by second messengers, but should have specific cellular and molecular targets. In 2011, a European Network on Gasotransmitters (ENOG) was formed. The aim of the network is to promote research on NO, CO and in order to better understand the biology of gasotransmitters and to unravel the role of each mediator in health and disease. Moreover, the network aims to contribute to the translation of basic science knowledge in this area of research into therapeutic or diagnostic tools.
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WAY-267464 is a potent, selective, non-peptide agonist for the oxytocin receptor, with negligible affinity for the vasopressin receptors. Contradictorily however, though originally described as selective for the oxytocin receptor and lacking affinity for the vasopressin receptors, it has since been reported to also act as a potent vasopressin V1A receptor antagonist (in contrast to oxytocin, which is a weak agonist of the V1A receptor). WAY-267464 has been shown to cross the blood-brain-barrier to a significantly greater extent than exogenously applied oxytocin, and in animal tests produces centrally-mediated oxytocinergic actions such as anxiolytic effects, but with no antidepressant effect evident. It was developed by a team at Ferring Pharmaceuticals.
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Economists have tried to model sticky prices in a number of ways. These models can be classified as either time-dependent, where firms change prices with the passage of time and decide to change prices independently of the economic environment, or state-dependent, where firms decide to change prices in response to changes in the economic environment. The differences can be thought of as differences in a two-stage process: In time-dependent models, firms decide to change prices and then evaluate market conditions; In state-dependent models, firms evaluate market conditions and then decide how to respond. In time-dependent models price changes are staggered exogenously, so a fixed percentage of firms change prices at a given time.
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Knowledge of MPTP and its use in reliably recreating Parkinson's disease symptoms in experimental models has inspired scientists to investigate the possibilities of surgically replacing neuron loss through fetal tissue implants, subthalamic electrical stimulation and stem cell research, all of which have demonstrated initial, provisional successes. It has been postulated that Parkinson's disease may be caused by minute amounts of MPP+-like compounds from ingestion or exogenously through repeated exposure and that these substances are too minute to be detected significantly by epidemiological studies. In 2000, another animal model for Parkinson's disease was found. It was shown that the pesticide and insecticide rotenone causes Parkinsonism in rats by killing dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.
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The Ricardian model of comparative advantage has trade ultimately motivated by differences in labour productivity using different "technologies". Heckscher and Ohlin did not require production technology to vary between countries, so (in the interests of simplicity) the "H–O model has identical production technology everywhere". Ricardo considered a single factor of production (labour) and would not have been able to produce comparative advantage without technological differences between countries (all nations would become autarkic at various stages of growth, with no reason to trade with each other). The H–O model removed technology variations but introduced variable capital endowments, recreating endogenously the inter- country variation of labour productivity that Ricardo had imposed exogenously.
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Li Zhaoping is known as the creater of the V1 Saliency Hypothesis, V1SH (pronounced 'vish'), that the primary visual cortex (V1) in primates creates a saliency map of the visual field to guide visual attention or gaze shifts exogenously. Proposed in the late-1990s, V1SH was unpopular initially, since it was contrary to the main and popular idea that the frontal and parietal areas of the brain are responsible for the saliency map. As V1SH gathered more experimental support, Zhaoping became more sought after for keynote or invited speeches in international conferences ,and V1SH rises from being unpopular to being controversial. Some report experimental data for the theory, while others report evidence against it. .
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In the simple supply and demand model, a change in consumer tastes is unexplained by the model and imposes an exogenous change in demand that leads to a change in the endogenous equilibrium price and the endogenous equilibrium quantity transacted. Here the exogenous variable is a parameter conveying consumer tastes. Similarly, a change in the consumer's income is exogenously given, outside the model, and appears in the model as an exogenous change in demand. In the LM model of interest rate determination, the supply of and demand for money determine the interest rate contingent on the level of the money supply, so the money supply is an exogenous variable and the interest rate is an endogenous variable.
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In a system of fixed exchange rates, central banks announce an exchange rate (the parity rate) at which they are prepared to buy or sell any amount of domestic currency. Thus net payments flows into or out of the country need not equal zero; the exchange rate e is exogenously given, while the variable BoP is endogenous. Under the fixed exchange rate system, the central bank operates in the foreign exchange market to maintain a specific exchange rate. If there is pressure to devalue the domestic currency's exchange rate because the supply of domestic currency exceeds its demand in foreign exchange markets, the local authority buys domestic currency with foreign currency to decrease the domestic currency's supply in the foreign exchange market.
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The Mundell–Fleming model applied to a small open economy facing perfect capital mobility, in which the domestic interest rate is exogenously determined by the world interest rate, shows stark differences from the closed economy model. Consider an exogenous increase in government expenditure. Under the IS-LM model, the IS curve shifts rightward, with the LM curve intact, causing the interest rate and output to rise. But for a small open economy with perfect capital mobility and a flexible exchange rate, the domestic interest rate is predetermined by the horizontal BoP curve, and so by the LM equation given previously there is exactly one level of output that can make the money market be in equilibrium at that interest rate.
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Stark considers a community of migrants whose members are at an equilibrium level of assimilation that was chosen as a result of the maximization of a utility function that has as its arguments income, the cost of assimilation effort, and a measure of relative deprivation. He asks how vulnerable this assimilation equilibrium is to the appearance of a “mutant” - a member of the community who is exogenously endowed with a superior capacity to assimilate. If the mutant were to act on his enhanced ability, his earnings would be higher than those of his fellow migrants, which will expose them to greater relative deprivation. Stark finds that the stability of the pre- mutation assimilation equilibrium depends on the cohesion of the migrants’ community, expressed as an ability to effectively sanction and discourage the mutant from deviating.
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In essence, the PDGFs allow a cell to skip the G1 checkpoints in order to divide. It has been shown that in monocytes-macrophages and fibroblasts, exogenously administered PDGF stimulates chemotaxis, proliferation, and gene expression and significantly augmented the influx of inflammatory cells and fibroblasts, accelerating extracellular matrix and collagen formation and thus reducing the time for the healing process to occur. In terms of osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells, comparing PDGF to epidermal growth factor (EGF), which is also implicated in stimulating cell growth, proliferation, and differentiation, MSCs were shown to have stronger osteogenic differentiation into bone-forming cells when stimulated by epidermal growth factor (EGF) versus PDGF. However, comparing the signaling pathways between them reveals that the PI3K pathway is exclusively activated by PDGF, with EGF having no effect.
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Those who believe the money supply is controlled exogenously by a central bank may attribute an 'expansionary monetary policy' to said bank and (should one exist) a governing body or institution; others who believe that the money supply is created endogenously by the banking sector may attribute such a 'policy' with the behavior of the financial sector itself, and view the state as a passive or reactive factor. This may determine how central or relatively minor/inconsequential policies like fractional reserve banking and the central bank's efforts to raise or lower short-term interest rates are to one's view on the creation, inflation and ultimate implosion of an economic bubble. Explanations focusing on interest rates tend to take on a common form, however: When interest rates are set excessively low, (regardless of the mechanism by which it is accomplished) investors tend to avoid putting their capital into savings accounts. Instead, investors tend to leverage their capital by borrowing from banks and invest the leveraged capital in financial assets such as stocks and real estate.
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This debate has important policy consequences: proponents of exogenous causes of crises such as neoclassicals largely argue for minimal government policy or regulation (laissez faire), as absent these external shocks, the market functions, while proponents of endogenous causes of crises such as Keynesians largely argue for larger government policy and regulation, as absent regulation, the market will move from crisis to crisis. This division is not absolute – some classicals (including Say) argued for government policy to mitigate the damage of economic cycles, despite believing in external causes, while Austrian School economists argue against government involvement as only worsening crises, despite believing in internal causes. The view of the economic cycle as caused exogenously dates to Say's law, and much debate on endogeneity or exogeneity of causes of the economic cycle is framed in terms of refuting or supporting Say's law; this is also referred to as the "general glut" (supply in relation to demand) debate. Until the Keynesian revolution in mainstream economics in the wake of the Great Depression, classical and neoclassical explanations (exogenous causes) were the mainstream explanation of economic cycles; following the Keynesian revolution, neoclassical macroeconomics was largely rejected.
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