83 Sentences With "equilibrated" | Random Sentence Generator

An implicit material point method for simulating non-equilibrated viscoelastic and elastoplastic solids sounds complicated but looks amazing when you see it simulating melted ice cream spreading across a bowl of cherries.

Before ion-exchange chromatography can be initiated, it must be equilibrated. The stationary phase must be equilibrated to certain requirements that depend on the experiment that you are working with. Once equilibrated, the charged ions in the stationary phase will be attached to its opposite charged exchangeable ions. Exchangeable ions such as Cl- or Na+.

Pavlov noticed the individual differences in the dogs through his research on salivary responses. He noticed there were weak and strong dogs. These groups were later divided into equilibrated and non-equilibrated, and then subdivided again into mobile and inert.Cuny, Hilaire (1962).

When the body heat is allowed to increase the temperature gradient between the common ostrich and ambient heat is equilibrated.

For reversible reactions that do not occur in aqueous buffers, the pre-equilibrated DCC approach can be used. The DCL was initially generated (or pre-equilibrated) in organic solvent, and then diluted into aqueous buffer containing the protein target for selection. Organic based reversible reactions, including Diels-Alder and alkene cross metathesis reactions, have been proposed or applied to protein-directed DCC using this method.

Some hornblende crystals have diameters of up to . Apatite and zircon are accessory minerals. Based on geochemical considerations, the magmas equilibrated at depths of and temperatures of .

In the negative temperature state, the atoms macroscopically occupy the maximum momentum state of the lattice. The negative temperature ensembles equilibrated and showed long lifetimes in an anti-trapping harmonic potential.

In Step 2, column 1 is washed, eluted, cleaned and re-equilibrated while loading separately continues on column 2. In Step 3, after regeneration of column 1, the columns are again inter-connected and column 2 is fully loaded while its breakthrough is captured on column 1. Finally, in Step 4 column 2 is washed, eluted, cleaned and re-equilibrated while loading continues independently on column 1. This cyclic process is repeated in a continuous way.

In other words, a population inversion (N2/N1 > 1) can never exist for a system at thermal equilibrium. To achieve population inversion therefore requires pushing the system into a non- equilibrated state.

In an conventional CCC experiment the biphasic solvent system is pre-equilibrated before the instrument is filled with the stationary phase and equilibrated with the mobile phase. An ion-exchange mode has been created by modifying both of the phases after pre-equilibration. Generally, an ionic displacer (or eluter) is added to mobile phase and an ionic retainer is added to the stationary phase. For example, the aqueous mobile phase may contain NaI as a displacer and the organic stationary phase may be modified with the quaternary ammonium salt called Aliquat 336 as a retainer.

Viscosity is usually described as the property of a fluid which determines the rate at which local momentum differences are equilibrated. Rotational viscosity is a property of a fluid which determines the rate at which local angular momentum differences are equilibrated. It is only appreciable if there are rotational degrees of freedom for the fluid particles. In the classical case, by the equipartition theorem, at equilibrium, if particle collisions can transfer angular momentum as well as linear momentum, then these degrees of freedom will have the same average energy.

Desalting occurs when buffer salts and other small molecules are removed from a sample in exchange for water (with the resin being pre-equilibrated in water). Buffer exchange occurs when the buffer salts in a sample are exchanged for those in another buffer.

In order to determine this percentage of isotopic exchange, which varies according to local humidity levels, standards of metabolically inert tissue from the species of interest can be constructed and equilibrated to local conditions. This allows measured δD from different geographic regions to be compared against each other.

The beheading of Spurius Cassius Viscellinus, fresco (1532–1535), Palazzo Pubblico, Siena. Compared to the equilibrated, geometric, and self-assured Florentine style, the Sienese style of painting edges into a more irrational and emotionally unbalanced world. Buildings are often transected, and perspectives awkward. The setting is often hallucinogenic; the colors, discordant.

This reversibility of collisions is the first example of microreversibility. According to Boltzmann, this microreversibility implies the principle of detailed balance for collisions: at the equilibrium ensemble each collision is equilibrated by its reverse collision. These ideas of Boltzmann were analyzed in detail and generalized by Richard C. Tolman.Tolman, R. C. (1938).

The temperature and pressure at which the mineralogical composition of a rock equilibrated can vary laterally through a metamorphic terrane. The two parameters together determine the metamorphic grade. The difference in grade between two locations is called the metamorphic gradient. Planes that connect points with the same metamorphic grade are called isograds.

Stolper et al. established this temperature calibration using laboratory equilibrated methane and field methane from known formation temperature, and applied this to several gas reservoirs to study natural gas formation and mixing. Wang et al. also reported strong non- equilibrium isotope effect in methane clumped isotopes from lab-cultured methanogens and field samples.

A slurry of resin, such as DEAE- Sephadex is poured into the column. The matrix that is used is insoluble with charged groups that are covalently attached. These charged groups are referred to as exchangers like cation and anion exchangers. After it settles, the column is pre-equilibrated in buffer before the protein mixture is applied.

The breakthrough product is captured on the subsequent column(s). In a next step the columns are disconnected from one another. The first column is washed and eluted, while the other column(s) are still being loaded. Once the (initially) first column is re-equilibrated, it is re-introduced to the loading stream, but as last column.

In the early Universe, it was not possible to send a light signal between the two regions. Because they have had no interaction, it is difficult to explain why they have the same temperature (are thermally equilibrated). Historically, proposed solutions included the Phoenix universe of Georges Lemaître,, English in Gen. Rel. Grav. 29:641–680, 1997.

His first important pictures were In the Temple of Bacchus and Funeral Rites in Egypt (1881, Milan Exhibition), where the former won a prize of 1000 lire, and was praised by the critic Cesare Cantù as the most simple and equilibrated of the Exhibition. Dizionario degli Artisti Italiani Viventi: pittori, scultori, e Architetti., by Angelo de Gubernatis. Tipe dei Successori Le Monnier, 1889, page 318-320.

In addition, it is susceptible to contamination with water, so samples must be scrupulously dried. An adaption of this method is to determine the non-exchangeable (C-H) and exchangeable hydrogen (bounds to other elements, e.g. O, S and N) in organic matter. The samples are equilibrated with water in sealed autosampler carousels at 115 °C and then transferred into pyrolysis EA followed by IRMS measurement.

One of Pavlov's dogs with a surgically implanted cannula to measure salivation, preserved in the Pavlov Museum in Ryazan, Russia Pavlov was always interested in biomarkers of temperament types described by Hippocrates and Galen. He called these biomarkers "properties of nervous systems" and identified three main properties: (1) strength, (2) mobility of nervous processes and (3) a balance between excitation and inhibition and derived four types based on these three properties. He extended the definitions of the four temperament types under study at the time: phlegmatic, choleric, sanguine, and melancholic, updating the names to "the strong and impetuous type, the strong equilibrated and quiet type, the strong equilibrated and lively type, and the weak type." Pavlov and his researchers observed and began the study of transmarginal inhibition (TMI), the body's natural response of shutting down when exposed to overwhelming stress or pain by electric shock.

Commercially D4 is produced from dimethyldichlorosilane. Hydrolysis of the dichloride produces a mixture of cyclic dimethylsiloxanes and polydimethylsiloxane. From this mixture, the cyclic siloxanes including D4 can be removed by distillation. In the presence of a strong base such as KOH, the polymer/ring mixture is equilibrated, allowing complete conversion to the more volatile cyclic siloxanes: : [(CH3)2SiO] → [(CH3)2SiO]4 D4 and D5 are also precursors to the polymer.

A selection of solid phase extraction cartridges, available in many sizes, shapes, and types of stationary phase. A typical solid phase extraction involves five basic steps. First, the cartridge is equilibrated with a non-polar or slightly polar solvent, which wets the surface and penetrates the bonded phase. Then water, or buffer of the same composition as the sample, is typically washed through the column to wet the silica surface.

When companies raise capital by offering stock on more than one exchange, the potential exists for discrepancies in the valuation of shares on different exchanges. A keen investor with access to information about such discrepancies may invest in expectation of their eventual convergence, known as arbitrage trading. Electronic trading has resulted in extensive price transparency (efficient- market hypothesis) and these discrepancies, if they exist, are short-lived and quickly equilibrated.

Further workMohammad H. Amin, "Searching for quantum speedup in quasistatic quantum annealers" has advanced understanding of these test metrics and their reliance on equilibrated systems, thereby missing any signatures of advantage due to quantum dynamics. There are many open questions regarding quantum speedup. The ETH reference in the previous section is just for one class of benchmark problems. Potentially there may be other classes of problems where quantum speedup might occur.

Segregation can occur in various materials classes. In polycrystalline solids, segregation occurs at defects, such as dislocations, grain boundaries, stacking faults, or the interface between two phases. In liquid solutions, chemical gradients exist near second phases and surfaces due to combinations of chemical and electrical effects. Segregation which occurs in well-equilibrated systems due to the instrinsic to the chemical properties of the system is termed equilibrium segregation.

At yet lower temperatures, microcline, a triclinic polymorph of potassium feldspar, is stable. Due to the high temperature and rapid quenching, sanidine can contain more sodium in its structure than the two polymorphs that equilibrated at lower temperatures. Sanidine and high albite constitute a solid solution series with intermediate compositions termed anorthoclase. Exsolution of an albite phase does occur; resulting cryptoperthite can best be observed in electron microprobe images.

Putting aside questions of whether it is sufficiently equilibrated for thermodynamics to be applicable, there is certainly not enough time for weak interactions to occur, so flavor is conserved, and there are independent chemical potentials for all six quark flavors. The initial conditions (the impact parameter of the collision, the number of up and down quarks in the colliding nuclei, and the fact that they contain no quarks of other flavors) determine the chemical potentials. (Reference for this section:,).

A gas reaction which results in an increase in the number of molecules will lead to an increase in volume at constant external pressure. If it occurs inside a cylinder closed with a piston, the equilibrated reaction can proceed only by doing work against an external force on the piston. The extent variable for the reaction can increase only if the piston moves, and conversely, if the piston is pushed inward, the reaction is driven backwards.

Detailed balance states that in equilibrium each elementary process is equilibrated by its reverse process and requires reversibility of all elementary processes. For many real physico-chemical complex systems (e.g. homogeneous combustion, heterogeneous catalytic oxidation, most enzyme reactions etc.), detailed mechanisms include both reversible and irreversible reactions. If one represents irreversible reactions as limits of reversible steps, then it becomes obvious that not all reaction mechanisms with irreversible reactions can be obtained as limits of systems or reversible reactions with detailed balance.

Herb tundra dominated during the LGM, due to cold and dry conditions. Coastal environments during the Last Glacial Maximum were complex. The lowered sea level, and an isostatic bulge equilibrated with the depression beneath the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, exposed the continental shelf to form a coastal plain. While much of the coastal plain was covered with piedmont glaciers, unglaciated refugia supporting terrestrial mammals have been identified on Haida Gwaii, Prince of Wales Island, and outer islands of the Alexander Archipelago.

At equilibrium, the relationship between these polyelectrolyte layers and a fluid bulk is called the Donnan equilibrium. The polyelectrolyte volume charge creates an equilibrated electric potential known as the Donnan potential.IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd Edition (1997) Part of the Donnan potential is located inside of the polyelectrolyte layer, while the other part is associated with the external double layer located in the dispersion medium. In another feature, the cells are not in an equilibrium with the fluid bulk.

J. Chem. Soc. London 1947, 561–581. An isotopologue with a doubly substituted bond is therefore slightly more thermodynamically stable, which will tend to produce a higher abundance of the doubly substituted (or “clumped”) species than predicted by the statistical abundance of each heavy isotope (known as a stochastic distribution of isotopes). This effect increases in magnitude with decreasing temperature, so the abundance of the clumped species is related to the temperature at which the gas was formed or equilibrated.

If the chromic acid oxidation is performed with stoichiometric oxidant in the presence of diethyl ether as co-solvent, a method introduced by H.C. Brown, the epimerization of l-menthone to d-isomenthone is largely avoided. If menthone and isomenthone are equilibrated at room temperature, the isomenthone content will reach 29%. Pure l-menthone has an intensely minty clean aroma. By contrast, d-isomenthone has a "green" note, increasing levels of which are perceived to detract from the odor quality of l-menthone.

Since there is no equilibrated neighborhood, the concept of temperature doesn't hold, and the temperature becomes undefined. It is important to note that this local equilibrium may apply only to a certain subset of particles in the system. For example, LTE is usually applied only to massive particles. In a radiating gas, the photons being emitted and absorbed by the gas doesn't need to be in a thermodynamic equilibrium with each other or with the massive particles of the gas in order for LTE to exist.

Stearin is obtained from animal fats created as a byproduct of processing beef. It can also be found in tropical plants such as palm. It can be partially purified by dry fractionation by pressing tallow or other fatty mixtures, leading to separation of the higher melting stearin-rich material from the liquid, which is typically enriched in fats derived from oleic acid. It can be obtained by interesterification, again exploiting its higher melting point which allows the higher melting tristearin to be removed from the equilibrated mixture.

SAE J2452 is a standard defined by the Society of Automotive Engineers to measure the rolling resistance of tires. Where the older standard, SAE J1269, produces measurements of rolling resistance under steady-state (i.e. thermally equilibrated) operating conditions, SAE J2452 produces measurements during a transient history of speed that is intended to mimic a vehicle coastdown event. During the SAE J2452 test, the tire is not in thermal equilibrium, but the coastdown event is rapid enough that the tire operates at a roughly iso- thermal condition.

Concrete moisture meters measure only the top inch at most and this area is drier than the concrete further down. Once a floor covering has been installed the moisture in the slab equilibrates. In order to ensure the equilibrated moisture will be a safe level for a floor covering, a relative humidity sensor must be drilled and placed at 40% of the depth of the slab.ASTM F 2170, ”Standard Test Method for Determining Relative Humidity in Concrete Floor Slabs Using in situ Probes,” ASTM International.

The α-chain and β- of DP is encoded by the HLA- DPA1 locus and HLA-DPB1 loci, respectively. This cluster is located at the proximal (centromeric) end of the HLA superlocus in human chromosome 6p21.31. It is distal from HLA-DR and HLA-DQ encoding loci and therefore is much more equilibrated with respect to other HLA loci. In the Super B8 complex DP locus is more frequently substituted, either as a result of its distance from other loci, or because it was not as actively selected in the evolution of Super B8.

Historically, it was thought that no commercial countercurrent chromatograph could cope with the high viscosities of ionic liquids. However, modern instruments that can accommodate 30 to 70+ % ionic liquids (and potentially 100% ionic liquid, if both phases are suitably customized ionic liquids) have become available. Ionic liquids can be customized for polar / non-polar organic, achiral and chiral compounds, bio-molecule, and inorganic separations, as ionic liquids can be customized to have extraordinary solvency and specificity. After the biphasic solvent system has been chosen a batch of is formulated and equilibrated in a separatory funnel.

Any dive which is started while the tissues retain residual inert gas in excess of the surface equilibrium condition is considered a repetitive dive. This means that the decompression required for the dive is influenced by the diver's decompression history. Allowance must be made for inert gas preloading of the tissues which will result in them containing more dissolved gas than would have been the case if the diver had fully equilibrated before the dive. The diver will need to decompress longer to eliminate this increased gas loading.

It allows the leader and the subordinate to communicate in different circumstances, suitable for exploring the subordinate's professional objectives and what type of work assignments he favours. Essentially, a mentoring meeting represents an opportunity for a closer communication. While one of the purposes of this method is to understand the readiness of the subordinate in carrying out supplementary duties, it also provides feedback for the leader, guiding him on whether he should continue using the current style of leadership or further improve it. The elimination of de-motivation results in a more equilibrated theory.

A common technique is to use an Immobilized pH gradient (IPG) in the first dimension. This technique is referred to as IPG-DALT. The sample is first separated onto IPG gel (which is commercially available) then the gel is cut into slices for each sample which is then equilibrated in SDS-mercaptoethanol and applied to an SDS-PAGE gel for resolution in the second dimension. Typically IPG-DALT is not used for quantification of proteins due to the loss of low molecular weight components during the transfer to the SDS-PAGE gel.

The water-soluble and charged molecules such as proteins, amino acids, and peptides bind to moieties which are oppositely charged by forming ionic bonds to the insoluble stationary phase.Luqman, Mohammad, and Inamuddin (2012). Ion Exchange Technology II. Springer Netherlands. p. 1. . The equilibrated stationary phase consists of an ionizable functional group where the targeted molecules of a mixture to be separated and quantified can bind while passing through the column—a cationic stationary phase is used to separate anions and an anionic stationary phase is used to separate cations.

If the column is not properly equilibrated the desired molecule may not bind strongly to the column. The target analytes (anions or cations) are retained on the stationary phase but can be eluted by increasing the concentration of a similarly charged species that displaces the analyte ions from the stationary phase. For example, in cation exchange chromatography, the positively charged analyte can be displaced by adding positively charged sodium ions. The analytes of interest must then be detected by some means, typically by conductivity or UV/visible light absorbance.

Here k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature of the system in the equilibrium state A or, equivalently, the temperature of the heat reservoir with which the system was thermalized before the process took place. The over-line indicates an average over all possible realizations of an external process that takes the system from the equilibrium state A to a new, generally nonequilibrium state under the same external conditions as that of the equilibrium state B. (For example, in the textbook case of a gas compressed by a piston, the gas is equilibrated at piston position A and compressed to piston position B; in the Jarzynski equality, the final state of the gas does not need to be equilibrated at this new piston position). In the limit of an infinitely slow process, the work W performed on the system in each realization is numerically the same, so the average becomes irrelevant and the Jarzynski equality reduces to the thermodynamic equality \Delta F = W (see above). In general, however, W depends upon the specific initial microstate of the system, though its average can still be related to \Delta F through an application of Jensen's inequality in the JE, viz.

The amount of rebound depends on the rate of dialysis (K) in relation to the size of the patient (V). Equations have been devised to predict the amount of rebound based on the ratio of K/V, but usually this is not necessary in clinical practice. One can use such equations to calculate an "equilibrated Kt/V" or a "double-pool Kt/V", and some think that this should be used as a measure of dialysis adequacy, but this is not widely done in the United States, and the KDOQI guidelines (see below) recommend using the regular single pool Kt/V for simplicity.

Once equilibrium is reached, the final concentration of molecules is dependent on the volumes of the solutions involved, and if the equilibrated dialysate is replaced (or exchanged) with fresh dialysate (see procedure below), diffusion will further reduce the concentration of the small molecules in the sample. Dialysis can be used to either introduce or remove small molecules from a sample, because small molecules move freely across the membrane in both directions. This makes dialysis a useful technique for a variety of applications. See dialysis tubing for additional information on the history, properties, and manufacturing of semipermeable membranes used for dialysis.

To obtain in a perfusion culture experiment a high saturation of O2 a selected medium such as IMDM has to be transported through a gas permeable silicone tube. The use of a silicone tube provides a large surface for gas exchange by diffusion due to a thin wall (1 mm), the small inner diameter (1 mm) and its extended length (1 m). For example, analysis of IMDM (3024 mg/l NaHCO3, 50 mmol/l HEPES) equilibrated against atmospheric air during a standard perfusion culture experiment shows constant partial pressures of at least 160 mmHg O2 [7].

If the description of the system requires variations in the intensive parameters that are too large, the very assumptions upon which the definitions of these intensive parameters are based will break down, and the system will be in neither global nor local equilibrium. For example, it takes a certain number of collisions for a particle to equilibrate to its surroundings. If the average distance it has moved during these collisions removes it from the neighborhood it is equilibrating to, it will never equilibrate, and there will be no LTE. Temperature is, by definition, proportional to the average internal energy of an equilibrated neighborhood.

The atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, and this has an effect on the absolute pressure of the diving environment. The most important effect is that the diver must decompress to a lower surface pressure, and this requires longer decompression for the same dive profile. A second effect is that a diver ascending to altitude, will be decompressing en route, and will have residual nitrogen until all tissues have equilibrated to the local pressures. This means that the diver should consider any dive done before equilibration as a repetitive dive, even if it is the first dive in several days.

When Samuli Miettinen quit Inearthed (the original name of Children of Bodom) in 1996, Seppälä joined the band, (asked by lead guitarist and singer, Alexi Laiho) he then adopted the 5-string bass. He is the frontman of the band when it comes to interviews and public appearances. Other than the fact that he can speak Russian, Finnish, English, Swedish and some Spanish and French, he is also the most equilibrated member of the band, in a general way. He studies development studies and political history at the University of Helsinki when he has time, which is not too often.

In physics and chemistry, there are two main macroscopic consequences of the time-reversibility of microscopic dynamics: the principle of detailed balance and the Onsager reciprocal relations. The statistical description of the macroscopic process as an ensemble of the elementary indivisible events (collisions) was invented by L. Boltzmann and formalised in the Boltzmann equation. He discovered that the time-reversibility of the Newtonian dynamics leads to the detailed balance for collision: in equilibrium collisions are equilibrated by their reverse collisions. This principle allowed Boltzmann to deduce simple and nice formula for entropy production and prove his famous H-theorem.

Wet snow avalanches can be initiated from either loose snow releases, or slab releases, and only occur in snow packs that are water saturated and isothermally equilibrated to the melting point of water. The isothermal characteristic of wet snow avalanches has led to the secondary term of isothermal slides found in the literature (for example in Daffern, 1999, page 93).Daffern, Tony: Avalanche Safety for Skiers, Climbers and Snowboarders, Rocky Mountain Books: 1999. At temperate latitudes wet snow avalanches are frequently associated with climatic avalanche cycles at the end of the winter season, when there is significant daytime warming.

According to the band's founders and songwriters, Tito Auger and Ricky Laureano, the concept of the album and its title (which translated as "equilibrium") comes from their feelings towards the current state of their country, Puerto Rico. Lead singer Auger says about it that "things are a bit indecipherable. We are facing a future in which we have to make drastic changes and, in our way towards that, we feel we're walking on a wire trying to keep ourselves equilibrated while trying not to lose ourselves in the process." Among the situations they mentioned was the level of unemployment in the island.

Clumped isotopes analyses have traditionally been used in lieu of conventional δ18O analyses when the δ18O of seawater or source water is poorly constrained. While conventional δ18O analysis solves for temperature as a function of both carbonate and water δ18O, clumped isotope analyses can provide temperature estimates that are independent of the source water δ18O. Δ47-derived temperature can then be used in conjunction with carbonate δ18O to reconstruct δ18O of the source water, thus providing information on the water with which the carbonate was equilibrated. Clumped isotope analyses thus allow for estimates of two key environmental variables: temperature and water δ18O.

The scheme is widely used due to the efficiency with which it relaxes a system to some target (bath) temperature. In many instances, systems are initially equilibrated using the Berendsen scheme, while properties are calculated using the widely known Nosé–Hoover thermostat, which correctly generates trajectories consistent with a canonical ensemble. However, the Berendsen thermostat can result in the flying ice cube effect, an artifact which can be eliminated by using the more rigorous Bussi–Donadio–Parrinello thermostat; for this reason, it has been recommended that usage of the Berendsen thermostat be discontinued in almost all cases except for replication of prior studies.

Hydrogen atoms easily separate from electronegative bonds such as hydroxyl bonds (O-H), nitrogen bonds (N-H), and thiol/mercapto bonds (S-H) on hour to day long timescales. This rapid exchange is particularly problematic for measurements of bulk organic material with these functional groups because isotope compositions are more likely to reflect the source water and not the isotope effect. For this reason, records of paleoclimate that are not measuring ancient waters, rely on other isotopic markers. Advancements in the 1990s held promising potential to resolve this problem: samples were equilibrated with two variations of heavy water and compared.

The fact that Alex loses the challenge to Teetsi and is spanked by Nana in Madagascar gives him the impression he is a horrible fighter, but this is not true, because (in the Nana case), she only gets Alex by surprise, but was more visible when in Madagascar 2, he has a short, but equilibrated fight against Nana. Alex is shown to have a superhuman level of interior physical strength, seeing that he broke the zoo's public telephone, and lifts Melman, Marty and Gloria with relative ease. Alex made another appearance in "The Return of the Revenge of Dr. Blowhole." Wally Wingert reprises his role from the first video game.

Assumptions and choices about the macroscale evolution are crucial in the equation-free scheme. The key assumption is that the variables we choose for the macroscale coupling must effectively close on the chosen macroscale. If the chosen macroscale length is too small then more coarse scale variables may be needed: for example, in fluid dynamics we conventionally close the PDEs for density, momentum and energy; yet in high speed flow especially at lower densities we need to resolve modes of molecular vibration because they have not equilibrated on the time scales of the fluid flow. Qualitatively the same considerations apply to the equation-free approach.

The basic operating principle of an adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator (ADR) is the use of a strong magnetic field to control the entropy of a sample of material, often called the "refrigerant". Magnetic field constrains the orientation of magnetic dipoles in the refrigerant. The stronger the magnetic field, the more aligned the dipoles are, corresponding to lower entropy and heat capacity because the material has (effectively) lost some of its internal degrees of freedom. If the refrigerant is kept at a constant temperature through thermal contact with a heat sink (usually liquid helium) while the magnetic field is switched on, the refrigerant must lose some energy because it is equilibrated with the heat sink.

The strangeness production and its diagnostic potential as a signature of quark–gluon plasma has been discussed for nearly 30 years. The theoretical work in this field today focuses on the interpretation of the overall particle production data and the derivation of the resulting properties of the bulk of quark–gluon plasma at the time of breakup. The global description of all produced particles can be attempted based on the picture of hadronizing hot drop of quark–gluon plasma or, alternatively, on the picture of confined and equilibrated hadron matter. In both cases one describes the data within the statistical thermal production model, but considerable differences in detail differentiate the nature of the source of these particles.

Affinity capillary electrophoresis (ACE) refers to a number of techniques which rely on specific and nonspecific binding interactions to facilitate separation and detection through a formulary approach in accordance with the theory of electromigration. Using the intermolecular interactions between molecules occurring in free solution or mobilized onto a solid support, ACE allows for the separation and quantitation of analyte concentrations and binding and dissociation constants between molecules. With ACE, scientists hope to develop strong binding drug candidates, understand and measure enzymatic activity, and characterize the charges on proteins. Affinity capillary electrophoresis can be divided into three distinct techniques: non- equilibrium electrophoresis of equilibrated sample mixtures, dynamic equilibrium ACE, and affinity-based ACE.

Nonequilibrium electrophoresis of equilibrated sample mixtures is generally used in the separation and study of binding interactions of large proteins and involves combining both the analyte and its receptor molecule in a premixed sample. These receptor molecules often take the form of affinity probes consisting of fluorophore-labeled molecules that will bind to target molecules that are mixed with the sample being tested. This mixture, and its subsequent complexes, are then separated through capillary electrophoresis. Because the original mixture of analyte and receptor molecule were bound together in an equilibrium, the slow dissociation of these two bound molecules during the electrophoretic experiment will result in their separation and a subsequent shift in equilibrium towards further dissociation.

Scale build-up effectively decreases pipeline diameter and reduces flow rate The three prevailing water-related problems that upset oil companies today are corrosion, gas hydrates and scaling in production systems. The reservoir water has a high composition of dissolved minerals equilibrated over millions of years at constant physicochemical conditions. As the reservoir fluids are pumped from the ground, changes in temperature, pressure and chemical composition shift the equilibria and cause precipitation and deposition of sparingly soluble salts that build up over time with the potential of blocking vital assets in the oil production setups. Scaling can occur at all stages of oil/gas production systems (upstream, midstream and downstream) and causes blockages of well-bore perforations, casing, pipelines, pumps, valves etc.

An ideal thermometer is a thermometer which does not measurably change the state of the system it is measuring. Assuming that the unchanging reading of an ideal thermometer is a valid "tagging" system for the equivalence classes of a set of equilibrated thermodynamic systems, then if a thermometer gives the same reading for two systems, those two systems are in thermal equilibrium, and if we thermally connect the two systems, there will be no subsequent change in the state of either one. If the readings are different, then thermally connecting the two systems will cause a change in the states of both systems and when the change is complete, they will both yield the same thermometer reading. The zeroth law provides no information regarding this final reading.

Creep and shrinkage of concrete are two physical properties of concrete. The creep of concrete, which originates from the calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) in the hardened Portland cement paste (which is the binder of mineral aggregates), is fundamentally different from the creep of metals and polymers. Unlike the creep of metals, it occurs at all stress levels and, within the service stress range, is linearly dependent on the stress if the pore water content is constant. Unlike the creep of polymers and metals, it exhibits multi-months aging, caused by chemical hardening due to hydration which stiffens the microstructure, and multi-year aging, caused by long-term relaxation of self-equilibrated micro-stresses in the nano-porous microstructure of the C-S-H.

The horizon problem is the problem of determining why the Universe appears statistically homogeneous and isotropic in accordance with the cosmological principle. For example, molecules in a canister of gas are distributed homogeneously and isotropically because they are in thermal equilibrium: gas throughout the canister has had enough time to interact to dissipate inhomogeneities and anisotropies. The situation is quite different in the big bang model without inflation, because gravitational expansion does not give the early universe enough time to equilibrate. In a big bang with only the matter and radiation known in the Standard Model, two widely separated regions of the observable universe cannot have equilibrated because they move apart from each other faster than the speed of light and thus have never come into causal contact.

D2R conformers are equilibrated between two full active (D2HighR) and inactive (D2LowR) states, while in complex with an agonist and antagonist ligand, respectively. The monomeric inactive conformer of D2R in binding with risperidone was reported in 2018 (PDB ID: 6CM4). However, the active form which is generally bound to an agonist, is not available yet and in most of the studies the Homology modeling of the structure is implemented. The difference between the active and inactive of G protein-coupled receptor is mainly observed as conformational changes at the cytoplasmic half of the structure, particularly at the transmembrane domains (TM) 5 and 6. The conformational transitions occurred at the cytoplasmic ends are due to the coupling of G protein to the cytoplasmic loop between the TM 5 and 6.

In other words, the set of all systems each in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium may be divided into subsets in which every system belongs to one and only one subset, and is in thermal equilibrium with every other member of that subset, and is not in thermal equilibrium with a member of any other subset. This means that a unique "tag" can be assigned to every system, and if the "tags" of two systems are the same, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other, and if different, they are not. This property is used to justify the use of empirical temperature as a tagging system. Empirical temperature provides further relations of thermally equilibrated systems, such as order and continuity with regard to "hotness" or "coldness", but these are not implied by the standard statement of the zeroth law.

In practice, doses of doubly labeled water for metabolic work are prepared by simply mixing a dose of deuterium oxide (heavy water) (90 to 99%) with a second dose of H218O, which is water which has been separately enriched with 18O (though usually not to a high level, since doing this would be expensive, and unnecessary for this use), but otherwise contains normal hydrogen. The mixed water sample then contains both types of heavy atoms, in a far higher degree than normal water, and is now "doubly labeled." The free interchange of hydrogens between water molecules (via normal ionization) in liquid water ensures that the pools of oxygen and hydrogen in any sample of water (including the body's pool of water) will be separately equilibrated in a short time with any dose of added heavy isotope(s).

The creep of concrete, which originates from the calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) in the hardened Portland cement paste (which is the binder of mineral aggregates), is fundamentally different from the creep of metals as well as polymers. Unlike the creep of metals, it occurs at all stress levels and, within the service stress range, is linearly dependent on the stress if the pore water content is constant. Unlike the creep of polymers and metals, it exhibits multi-months aging, caused by chemical hardening due to hydration which stiffens the microstructure, and multi-year aging, caused by long-term relaxation of self-equilibrated micro-stresses in the nano-porous microstructure of the C-S-H. If concrete is fully dried it does not creep, though it is difficult to dry concrete fully without severe cracking.

Those urea studies aimed to understand the processes occurring in living organisms and hinted that formic acid and urea should react at ambient conditions and form formylurea. After his return to the Collège de France in 1898 Matignon generalised his work to the thermodynamics of chemical systems and formulated an empirical law which Walther Nernst named the "Le Chatelier-Matignon rule". The law stated that for an equilibrated system of one gaseous and one or more solid phases the ratio of the heat Q evolved at constant pressure and of the temperature T at which the gaseous pressure is equal one atmosphere is Q/T = 32. This law can be applied to such cases as sublimation and dissociation of calcium carbonate and can predict whether a chemical reaction will proceed and whether it will be reversible.

It is a very fragile human tower and it needs technical and equilibrated castellers to complete it. It is considered the third most difficult tower of 8 levels, after the 4 in 8 and the 3 in 8, and the first of the high range of 8, followed by the 7 in 8 and 5 in 8. Until 2014, 22 groups of castellers have attempted this tower and all of them have completed it. It has been completed by Colla Vella dels Xiquets de Valls, Nens del Vendrell, Castellers de Vilafranca, Colla Joves Xiquets de Valls, Minyons de Terrassa, Colla Jove Xiquets de Tarragona, Xiquets de Reus, Xiquets de Tarragona, Castellers de Terrassa, Castellers de Barcelona, Bordegassos de Vilanova, Capgrossos de Mataró, Xics de Granollers, Xicots de Vilafranca, Sagals d'Osona, Castellers de Sants, Castellers de Lleida, Castellers de la Vila de Gràcia, Castellers de Sabadell, Castellers de Sant Cugat, Marrecs de Salt and Moixiganguers d'Igualada.

By 1956, the Navy had equilibrated at a total of seven permanent billets bearing four-star rank: the chief of naval operations (CNO); the vice chief of naval operations (VCNO), the commanders in chief of the unified commands in the Pacific (CINCPAC) and Atlantic (CINCLANT); the commander in chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet (CINCPACFLT); the commander in chief of U.S. Naval Forces, Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean (CINCNELM) (retitled commander in chief of U.S. Naval Forces Europe (CINCUSNAVEUR) in 1960); and the commander in chief of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces in Southern Europe (CINCSOUTH). In 1965, an eighth billet was added when the chief of naval material (CNM) was promoted to admiral. Occasionally this count would fluctuate when a Navy officer was selected as the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS), as the chairman's four-star representative to the NATO Military Committee (USMILREP), or as the director or deputy director of central intelligence; or by special legislation.

Edward Sang (1805–1890) Bridge number 74A carrying the Bolton and Preston Railway over the Leeds and Liverpool Canal The development of the intrados of a skew arch built to the logarithmic pattern Detailed view of the intrados of bridge 74A The search for a technically pure orthogonal method of constructing a skew arch led to the proposal of the logarithmic method by Edward Sang, a mathematician living in Edinburgh, in his presentation in three parts to the Society for the Encouragement of the Useful Arts between 18 November 1835 and 27 January 1836, during which time he was elected vice-president of the Society, though his work was not published until 1840. The logarithmic method is based on the principle of laying the voussoirs in "equilibrated" courses in which they follow lines that run truly perpendicular to the arch faces at all elevations, while the header joints between the stones within each course are truly parallel with the arch face. Hyde, 1899, op. cit., pp. 40–41.

In 1838, Alexander James Adie, son of the famous optical instrument manufacturer of the same name, as resident engineer on the Bolton and Preston Railway was the first to put the theory into practice,Bashforth, 1855, op. cit., Preface p. iii. building several skew bridges to the logarithmic pattern on that route, including the semi-elliptical Grade II listed bridge number 74A that carries the line over the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, which was formerly known as the southern section of the Lancaster Canal with the intention of connecting it to the northern section, though this was never achieved as the necessary aqueduct over the River Ribble proved too expensive to build. He presented a paper on the subject to the Institution of Civil Engineers the following year and in 1841, academic William Whewell of Trinity College, Cambridge published his book The Mechanics of Engineering in which he expounded the virtues of building skew bridges with equilibrated courses, but due to the poor complexity to benefit ratio, there have been few other adopters.

At a high temperature and pH ranging from 283-383K and pH 4-7 respectively, equilibrated KOH/HCl solution, insoluble CrPO4 solid and aqueous cation solution yield a sorption reaction. Studies reveal that CrPO4 catalyzes the adsorption of divalent cations onto its amorphous surface through the cation exchange mechanism. The mechanism suggests that the H+ ions are liberated from the solid to aqueous phase as the cations become hydrolyzed and adsorb onto the catalyst surface. Thus, a decrease in the pH of the reaction is used as a direct indicator of the rate of adsorption in the reaction: nP-OH + Mz+ ⇔ (P-O) n Mz-n + nH+ where P-O = solid A plot of the Kurbatov equation is used to relate the release of H+ ion to the equilibrium constant of the reaction: Log Kd = log Kex + npHeq where Kd (l g-1) represents the distribution coefficient, and n is the slope of the straight line giving an indication of the H+/Mz+ stoichiometry of the exchange reaction.

In quantum mechanics, the results of the quantum particle in a box can be used to look at the equilibrium situation for a quantum ideal gas in a box which is a box containing a large number of molecules which do not interact with each other except for instantaneous thermalizing collisions. This simple model can be used to describe the classical ideal gas as well as the various quantum ideal gases such as the ideal massive Fermi gas, the ideal massive Bose gas as well as black body radiation (photon gas) which may be treated as a massless Bose gas, in which thermalization is usually assumed to be facilitated by the interaction of the photons with an equilibrated mass. Using the results from either Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics, Bose–Einstein statistics or Fermi–Dirac statistics, and considering the limit of a very large box, the Thomas–Fermi approximation (named after Enrico Fermi and Llewellyn Thomas) is used to express the degeneracy of the energy states as a differential, and summations over states as integrals. This enables thermodynamic properties of the gas to be calculated with the use of the partition function or the grand partition function.

SPACEHAB Payloads included the Advanced X-Ray Detector (ADV XDT), Advanced Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (ADV CGBA), EORF, Mechanics of Granular Materials (MGM) Experiment, Intra-Vehicular Radiation Environment Measurements by the Real-Time Radiation Monitor (RME-1312), Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS), VOA and the Volatile Removal Assembly prototype for the ISS Water Recovery System In-cabin payloads included the Microgravity Plant Nutrient Experiment (MPNE), Shuttle Ionospheric Modification with Pulsed Local Exhaust (SIMPLEX), Closed Equilibrated Biological Aquatic System (CEBAS), TeleMedicine Instrumentation Pack (TMIP), Global Positioning System Development Test Objective (GPS DTO), Human Performance (HP) Experiment, MSD, EarthKAM, Orbiter Space Vision System (OSVS) Shuttle Condensate Collection (RME-1331), Thermo-Electric Holding Module (TEHM), Space Linear Acceleration Mass Measurement Device (DSO 914), Co-Culture Experiments (CoCult) and the Biochemistry of 3-D Tissue Engineering (BIO3D). Getaway Special experiments included the University of Michigan G-093 – Vortex Ring Transit Experiment (VORTEX), the German Aerospace Center and University Giessen G-141 – Structure of Marangoni Convection in Floating Zones Payload, the German Aerospace Center and the Technical University of Clausthal G-145 Glass Fining Experiment and the Chinese Academy of Sciences G-432 canister containing 5 crystal growth and material sciences experiments.

Richard E. Wagner, going beyond the "idea of a kaleidic economy or society" that is "strongly associated with George Shackle and his vision of Keynesian kaleidics", asserted that "the central thrust of the Austrian tradition in economic analysis can be described by the term 'Viennese kaleidics'."Wagner (2011) Wagner argues that, in either version of kaleidics, the analytical stress is placed on treating time seriously and not just notionally, which, Wagner claimed, "leads in turn to recognition that economic processes are better treated as turbulent than as equilibrated." Although Wagner recognized that turbulence is a natural feature of the unavoidable incompleteness of intertemporal coordination, he submits that it is subject to mitigation and concludes that "individual liberty and private ordering [are] generally superior to state policy and public ordering in calming the turbulence that naturally characterizes a kaleidic society." According to Wagner, the Walrasian idea of an orderly system of relationships has pervaded the corpus of Austrian theory and Ludwig von Mises’ (1966) formulation of an evenly rotating economy gives recognition to this systemic quality. Moreover, as Wagner also points out, Friedrich Hayek’s (1932) treatment of the business cycle as departing from a position of Walrasian equilibrium is a similar effort.