100 Sentences With "equilibrate" | Random Sentence Generator

"He needed to re-equilibrate to the left," Mr. Grunberg said.

SARA EISEN: It's still negative in parts of Europe-- RICHARD FISHER: Markets equilibrate by moving money.

It's been calculated that to equilibrate to current CO 2 levels the planet still needs to warm by half a degree.

When carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere, it takes decades—in a technical sense, millennia—for the earth to equilibrate.

In other words, when real GDP growth picks up, consistent with faster productivity, interest rates rise to equilibrate available capital and profitable investment projects.

With an additional half a degree of warming locked in as the oceans equilibrate with the atmosphere, we could see our first 1.5 degree warming year within a decade.

This tendency to equilibrate, like a cup of coffee cooling to room temperature, is the most familiar outcome of the second law of thermodynamics, which says that energy constantly spreads and the entropy of the universe always increases.

Then, using an automated headspace sampling system, the bag was filled with nitrogen to equilibrate at room temperature for two hours before headspace was collected onto a thermal desorption unit (TDU) tube packed with 35-60 Tenax-TA adsorbent resin.

The evolutionary theory, which has been advanced to explain sex ratio, goes back to Darwin, but was fully formulated in 1930 by a British scientist named Ronald Fisher, who made the argument that if individuals vary in the sex ratio among their offspring (that is, some are more likely to produce more males or more females), the reproductive advantage in a population will always lie with the rarer sex, and thus the sex ratio will equilibrate toward 1:1.

This depth has been proven to be the relative humidity percentage that the slab will equilibrate once the top has been covered by a floor covering.

Caulton further demonstrated that RuCl2L3 species dissociate phosphine in some organic solvents, and ultimately equilibrate with the dimer species [RuCl2L2]2. The dimer consists of a halogen bridge between the two square pyramidal structures.

See, for instance, nn. 4, 8, 10, 11, 21, etc. Both are naturally extra-philosophical in nature. The sentences, however interesting they may be, only give us an inkling into the equilibrate soberness of Caxaro.

Whether run at high or low temperatures, the mixture of the kinetic and thermodynamic products eventually reach the same ratio, one in favor of the more stable thermodynamic product, when given time to equilibrate due to microreversal.

In a related experiment, a crystal suspension of a racemic amino acid derivative continuously stirred, results in a 100% crystal phase of one of the enantiomers because the enantiomeric pair is able to equilibrate in solution (compare with dynamic kinetic resolution).

If the description of the system requires variations in the intensive parameters that are too large, the very assumptions upon which the definitions of these intensive parameters are based will break down, and the system will be in neither global nor local equilibrium. For example, it takes a certain number of collisions for a particle to equilibrate to its surroundings. If the average distance it has moved during these collisions removes it from the neighborhood it is equilibrating to, it will never equilibrate, and there will be no LTE. Temperature is, by definition, proportional to the average internal energy of an equilibrated neighborhood.

The duration of action of a drug is the length of time that particular drug is effective. Duration of action is a function of several parameters including plasma half- life, the time to equilibrate between plasma and target compartments, and the off rate of the drug from its biological target.

Three methods of preparing crystals, A: Hanging drop. B: Sitting drop. C: Microdialysis Vapor diffusion is the most commonly employed method of protein crystallization. In this method, droplets containing purified protein, buffer, and precipitant are allowed to equilibrate with a larger reservoir containing similar buffers and precipitants in higher concentrations.

The interconversion of chair conformers is called ring flipping or chair-flipping. Carbon-hydrogen bonds that are axial in one configuration become equatorial in the other, and vice versa. At room temperature the two chair conformations rapidly equilibrate. The proton NMR spectrum of cyclohexane is a singlet at room temperature.

Rieman, William, Harold F. Walton, R. Belcher, and H. Freiser (2013). Ion Exchange in Analytical Chemistry International Series of Monographs in Analytical Chemistry. Burlington: Elsevier Science. For example, in a sulphonated polystyrene resin, a cation exchange resin, the chlorine ion of a hydrochloric acid buffer should equilibrate into the resin.

Pyrenoids therefore seem to have a role analogous to that of carboxysomes in cyanobacteria. Algae are restricted to aqueous environments, even in aquatic habitats, and this has implications for their ability to access CO2 for photosynthesis. CO2 diffuses 10,000 times slower in water than in air, and is also slow to equilibrate.

Solutes able to freely cross the membrane do not affect tonicity because they will always equilibrate with equal concentrations on both sides of the membrane without net solvent movement. It is also a factor affecting imbibition. There are three classifications of tonicity that one solution can have relative to another: hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic.

To measure the pH of a solution, the electrodes are used as probes, which are dipped into the test solutions and held there sufficiently long for the hydrogen ions in the test solution to equilibrate with the ions on the surface of the bulb on the glass electrode. This equilibration provides a stable pH measurement.

In the spring, shrews increase body mass and equilibrate to a slightly higher body mass than that of the previous summer. A large influx of mostly adult male shrews to the population locus occurs. Areal extent of the population can double. The once-stable winter home range mosaic is thereby disrupted, frequently resulting in intraspecific aggression.

A conventional FPIA follows the procedure below: # A specific quantity of sample is added to reaction buffer. # The solution is allowed to equilibrate at room temperature for approximately two minutes. # The solution is evaluated in a fluorescence polarization analyzer to gather a baseline measurement. # A specific quantity of antigen conjugated with fluorophore is added to the solution.

Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility. A notable reagent is Schlosser's base, a mixture of n-butyllithium and potassium tert-butoxide. This reagent reacts with propene to form the compound allylpotassium (KCH2CHCH2). cis-2-Butene and trans-2-butene equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals.

Protonation of the vinylic radical gives the desired product (6). Julia olefination mechanism wiki The stereochemistry of the alkene (6) is independent of the stereochemistry of the sulfone intermediate 4. It is thought that the radical intermediates are able to equilibrate so that the more thermodynamically stable trans-olefin is produced most often. This transformation highly favors formation of the E-alkene.

Then the medium must equilibrate over night on a thermo plate at 37 °C under atmospheric air. For example, application of 50 mmol/l HEPES or an equivalent of BUFFER ALL (ca. 1%) to IMDM (Iscove’s Modified Dulbecco’s Medium, GIBCO/Invitrogen) will maintain a constant pH of 7.4 throughout long term perfusion culture under atmospheric air on a laboratory table.

The macromolecular components are recovered in the buffer used to pre-equilibrate the gel-filtration matrix, while the small molecules can be collected in a later fraction volume or be left trapped in the resin. One important feature to note when choosing a resin is that the small molecules targeted for removal must be several times smaller than the MWCO for proper separation.

The other case of special importance is when a molecule D2 dissociates into two atoms upon adsorption. Here, the following assumptions would be held to be valid: # D2 completely dissociates to two molecules of D upon adsorption. # The D atoms adsorb onto distinct sites on the surface of the solid and then move around and equilibrate. # All sites are equivalent.

Part II Ulrich Beutler, Peter C. Fuenfschilling, and Andreas Steinkemper Org. Process Res. Dev.; 2007; 11(3) pp. 341–45; (Article) Final step in Lumefantrine synthesis The initial reaction product is a 50:50 mixture of E and Z isomers but because both isomers equilibrate rapidly around their common hydroxyl precursor, the more stable Z-isomer can eventually be obtained.

The first test was played in Puerto Madryn, where there is a community of Welsh descent which was originally part of the Welsh settlement in Argentina in the second half of the 19th century. Argentina after an equilibrate match.. There were debuts for Wales: I. Evans, Hibbard, James Hook, and Alun-Wyn Jones Argentina: 15.Juan Martin Hernandez, 14.Jose Nunez Piossek, 13.

The concept in economics and banking of credit rationing describes the situation when a bank limits the supply of loans, although it has enough funds to loan out, and the supply of loans has not yet equalled the demand of prospective borrowers. Changing the price of the loans (interest rate) does not equilibrate the demand and supply of the loans.

Neuraminic acid anomeric configuration The alpha-anomer is the form that is found when sialic acid is bound to glycans. However, in solution, it is mainly (over 90%) in the beta-anomeric form. A bacterial enzyme with sialic acid mutarotase activity, NanM, that is able to rapidly equilibrate solutions of sialic acid to the resting equilibrium position of around 90% beta/10% alpha has been discovered.

That is, suppose all markets equilibrate at some initial instant of time. Agents in the model purchase and sell contracts, where a contract specifies, for example, a good to be delivered and the date at which it is to be delivered. The Arrow–Debreu model of intertemporal equilibrium contains forward markets for all goods at all dates. No markets exist at any future dates.

The bottle is then shaken upside down for a minimum of five minutes in order to equilibrate the dissolved gases into the headspace. It’s important to note that the bottle must be kept upside down for the remainder of analysis if manually injected. A known volume of headspace gas is then injected onto a gas chromatographic column. An automated process can also be utilized.

Large iron blobs cannot be dragged by convective forces in the primordial mantle, therefore they do not have enough time to hydrodynamically equilibrate and reach the stabilized size. Hence, they deposit at a rheological boundary (such as present day lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary), forming iron ponds. Eventually, ponded iron would sink into the comparatively less dense silicates underneath them. The mechanism is thought to resemble salt diapirs.

Fresh polyacrylamide gels are further hydrophilic, electrically neutral and do not bind proteins. Sieving effects due to gravity-induced compression of the gel can be excluded for the same reasons. In a medium without molecular sieving properties a high-resolution can be expected. Before an electrophoretic run is started the prepared 4% T (total polymer content (T)), 2.67% C (cross-linker concentration (C)) gel is pre-run to equilibrate it.

Isodars can be used to study density-dependent habitat selection between two species competing for two habitats. Species will equilibrate between the two habitats two maintain equal fitness within their own species and avoid competition with the other species. Isodars have also been used to show the effect of human habitat selection on biodiversity. They can also be employed to examine the cost and density dependence of habitat selection ina population.

The opposite of a thermally isolated system is a thermally open system, which allows the transfer of heat energy and entropy. Thermally open systems may vary, however, in the rate at which they equilibrate, depending on the nature of the boundary of the open system. At equilibrium, the temperatures on both sides of a thermally open boundary are equal. At equilibrium, only a thermally isolating boundary can support a temperature difference.

There is a ceramic plug, which serves as a contact to the test solution, providing low resistance while preventing mixing of the two solutions. With these electrode designs, the voltmeter is detecting potential differences of ±1400 millivolts. The electrodes are further designed to rapidly equilibrate with test solutions to facilitate ease of use. The equilibration times are typically less than one second, although equilibration times increase as the electrodes age.

The major function of the lungs is gas exchange between the lungs and the blood. The alveolar and pulmonary capillary gases equilibrate across the thin blood–air barrier. This thin membrane (about 0.5 –2 μm thick) is folded into about 300 million alveoli, providing an extremely large surface area (estimates varying between 70 and 145 m2) for gas exchange to occur. respiratory muscles in expanding the rib cage.

The stapes is then attached to the inner ear, where the sound waves will be transduced into a neural signal. The middle ear is connected to the pharynx through the Eustachian tube, which helps equilibrate air pressure across the tympanic membrane. The tube is normally closed but will pop open when the muscles of the pharynx contract during swallowing or yawning. Mechanoreceptors turn motion into electrical nerve pulses, which are located in the inner ear.

In economics, saving is defined as after tax income minus consumption. The fraction of income saved is called the average propensity to save, while the fraction of an increment to income that is saved is called the marginal propensity to save. The rate of saving is directly affected by the general level of interest rates. The capital markets equilibrate the sum of (personal) saving, government surpluses, and net exports to physical investment.

Pallid bats are also more effective pollinators than some of the nectarivorous bats with whom they compete for cacti. Pallid bats are a unique bat species because they are heterothermic, meaning they can be either poikilothermic or homoeothermic depending on the time of year. They have the ability to control their body temperature and equilibrate it with the environment during winter hibernation and whenever they rest. Pallid bat size varies greatly depending on their habitat.

Upon opening the nozzle valve, the water is pushed out through the nozzle as the pressurized air attempts to re-equilibrate with atmospheric pressure. This system allows pumping energy to be stored and used as needed. As well, unlike the methods noted above, this air pressure system allows production of a uniform, continuous stream of water. The limitation of this design is the need for a large number of strokes to pressurize a larger reservoir.

Pomarose is a high-impact captive odorant patented by Givaudan. It is a double-unsaturated ketone that does not occur in nature. Pomarose has a powerful fruity rose odor with nuances of apples, plums and raisins, which is almost entirely due to the (2E,5Z)-stereoisomer, while its (2E,5E)-isomer is barely detectable for most people. Catalyzed by traces of acids, both isomers equilibrate however quickly upon standing in glass containers.

Intravascular bubbles cause clumping of red blood cells, platelets are used up, white blood cells activated, vascular permeability is increased. The gas in a bubble will equilibrate with the surrounding tissues and will therefore contain water vapor, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, as well as the inert gas. Vascular bubbles appear to form at the venous end of capillaries and pass through the veins to the right side of the heart, and thereafter are circulated to the lungs.

The intellectual property surrounding these materials has been licensed to several manufacturers including BASF, General Motors for the Chevy Volt and Chevy Bolt, and Toda. The mechanism for the high capacity and the gradual voltage fade has been extensively examined. It is generally believed the high voltage activation step induces various cation defects that on cycling equilibrate through the lithium-layer sites to a lower energy state that exhibits a lower cell voltage but with a similar capacity,.

The changes to the Fermi levels of the scanning Kelvin probe (SKP) sample and probe during measurement are shown. On electrical connection of the probe and sample their Fermi levels equilibrate, and a charge develops at the probe and sample. A backing potential is applied to null this charge, returning the sample Fermi level to its original position. In SKP the probe and sample are held parallel to each other and electrically connected to form a parallel plate capacitor.

Thermodynamic enolates are favored by longer equilibration times at higher temperatures, conditions that give relatively covalent metal–oxygen bonding, and use of a slight sub- stoichiometric amount of strong base. By using insufficient base to deprotonate all of the carbonyl molecules, the enolates and carbonyls can exchange protons with each other and equilibrate to their more stable isomer. Using various metals and solvents can provide control over the amount of ionic character in the metal–oxygen bond.

The Adam-Gibbs model from 1965 suggested a resolution of the Kauzmann paradox according to which the relaxation time diverges at the Kauzmann temperature, implying that one can never equilibrate the metastable supercooled liquid here. A critical discussion of the Kauzmann paradox and the Adam-Gibbs model was given in 2009. Data on several supercooled organic liquids do not confirm the Adam-Gibbs prediction of a diverging relaxation time at any finite temperature, e.g. the Kauzmann temperature.

The rubber band experiment demonstrates entropic force and a refrigeration cycle using a simple rubber band. The rubber band experiment is performed by sensing the temperature of a rubber band as it is stretched, and then released. The rubber band first heats up as its stretched, then allowed to equilibrate back to room temperature. The rubber band cools below room temperature when the tension is released, the effect is large enough to be noticed by touch.

The mechanism of the Horner- Wadsworth-Emmons reaction The ratio of alkene isomers 5 and 6 is dependent upon the stereochemical outcome of the initial carbanion addition and upon the ability of the intermediates to equilibrate. The electron-withdrawing group (EWG) alpha to the phosphonate is necessary for the final elimination to occur. In the absence of an electron-withdrawing group, the final product is the α-hydroxyphosphonate 3a and 3b.Corey, E. J.; Kwiatkowski, G. T. J. Am. Chem. Soc.

Ion exchange chromatography separates compounds according to the nature and degree of their ionic charge. The column to be used is selected according to its type and strength of charge. Anion exchange resins have a positive charge and are used to retain and separate negatively charged compounds (anions), while cation exchange resins have a negative charge and are used to separate positively charged molecules (cations). Before the separation begins a buffer is pumped through the column to equilibrate the opposing charged ions.

Alfred Marshall criticised Smith's definition of the economy on several points. He argued that man should be equally important as money, services are as important as goods, and that there must be an emphasis on human welfare, instead of just wealth. The "invisible hand" only works well when both production and consumption operates in free markets, with small ("atomistic") producers and consumers allowing supply and demand to fluctuate and equilibrate. In conditions of monopoly and oligopoly, the "invisible hand" fails.

Diagram of nucleosome assembly. Nucleosomes can be assembled in vitro by either using purified native or recombinant histones. One standard technique of loading the DNA around the histones involves the use of salt dialysis. A reaction consisting of the histone octamers and a naked DNA template can be incubated together at a salt concentration of 2 M. By steadily decreasing the salt concentration, the DNA will equilibrate to a position where it is wrapped around the histone octamers, forming nucleosomes.

A. B. Reitz, S. O. Nortey, A. D. Jordan, Jr., M. S. Mutter, and Bruce E. Maryanoff, "Dramatic Concentration Dependence of Stereochemistry in the Wittig Reaction. Examination of the Lithium-Salt Effect", J. Org. Chem., 51, 3302–3308 (1986) The mechanism of the Wittig reaction Mechanisms differ for aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes and for aromatic and aliphatic phosphonium ylides. Evidence suggests that the Wittig reaction of unbranched aldehydes under lithium-salt-free conditions do not equilibrate and are therefore under kinetic reaction control.

The chemical potential is like a force which pushes an increase in particle number. In cases where there are a mixture of chemicals and phases, this is a useful concept. For example, if a container holds water and water vapor, there will be a chemical potential (which is negative) for the liquid, pushing water molecules into the vapor (evaporation) and a chemical potential for the vapor, pushing vapor molecules into the liquid (condensation). Only when these "forces" equilibrate is equilibrium obtained.

The eluent is optimized in small scale pretests, often using thin layer chromatography (TLC) with the same stationary phase. There is an optimum flow rate for each particular separation. A faster flow rate of the eluent minimizes the time required to run a column and thereby minimizes diffusion, resulting in a better separation. However, the maximum flow rate is limited because a finite time is required for the analyte to equilibrate between the stationary phase and mobile phase, see Van Deemter's equation.

The influence of sea spray on the surface heat and moisture exchange peaks during times of greatest difference between air and sea temperatures. When air temperature is low, sea spray sensible heat flux can be nearly as great as the spray latent heat flux at high latitudes. In addition, sea spray enhances the air/sea enthalpy flux during high winds as a result of temperature and humidity redistribution in the marine boundary layer. Sea spray droplets injected into the air thermally equilibrate ~1% of their mass.

Metamorphic belts are a consequence of thermal perturbations, due to low temperature with respect to pressure ratios (dT/dP) in oceanic trenches and high temperature with respect to pressure ratios (dT/dP) in arcs. Paired metamorphic belts are the product of subducted colder crustal rocks, which are taken to depth, metamorphosed and then exhumed. However, if the rock unit is not exhumed relatively quickly after subduction ceases, the rock unit will re-equilibrate to the standard geothermal gradient and the geological record will be lost.

In both cases, the temperature of the solution is caused to rise by a small amount in microseconds (or less in the case of laser heating). This allows the study of the shift in equilibrium of reactions that equilibrate in milliseconds (or microseconds with laser temperature jump), these changes most commonly being observed using absorption spectroscopy or fluorescence spectroscopy. Due to the small volumes involved the temperature of the solution returns to that of its surroundings in minutes. The fractional extent of the reaction (i.e.

Ion channels conduct most of the flow of simple ions in and out of cells. When a channel type that is selective to one species of ion dominates within the membrane of a cell (because other ion channels are closed, for example) then the voltage inside the cell will equilibrate (i.e. become equal) to the reversal potential for that ion (assuming the outside of the cell is at 0 volts). For example, the resting potential of most cells is close to the K+ (potassium ion) reversal potential.

However, at higher temperatures the molecules have enough energy to cross over both energy barriers leading to the products. In such a case, the product ratio is determined solely by the energies of the products and energies of the barrier do not matter. This is known as thermodynamic control and it can only be achieved when the products can inter-convert and equilibrate under the reaction condition. A reaction coordinate diagram can also be used to qualitatively illustrate kinetic and thermodynamic control in a reaction.

The neutralization is described by the equation: :: HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2CO3 The carbonic acid rapidly equilibrates with carbon dioxide and water through catalysis by carbonic anhydrase enzymes bound to the gut epithelial lining, leading to a net release of carbon dioxide gas within the lumen associated with neutralisation. In the absorptive upper intestine, such as the duodenum, both the dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid will tend to equilibrate with the blood, leading to most of the gas produced on neutralisation being exhaled through the lungs.

Also known as volumetric blending. This must be done at constant temperature for best accuracy, though it is possible to compensate for temperature changes in proportion to the accuracy of the temperature measured before and after each gas is added to the mixture. Partial pressure blending is commonly used for breathing gases for diving. The accuracy required for this application can be achieved by using a pressure gauge which reads accurately to 0.5 bar, and allowing the temperature to equilibrate after each gas is added.

This water electrolysis can alter the pH in the channel and adversely affect biological cells and biomolecules, while gas bubbles tend to "clog" microfluidic systems. In further analogy with microelectronic systems, the switching time for a flowFET is inversely proportional to its size. Scaling down a flowFET results in a reduction in the amount of time for the flow to equilibrate to a new flow rate following a change in the applied electrical field. It should be noted, however, that the frequency of flowFET is many orders of magnitude slower than with an electronic FET.

Previously, the age of the Moon had been thought to be 4.527 ± 0.010 billion years. The impact in this scenario would have created a magma ocean on Earth and the proto-Moon with both bodies sharing a common plasma metal vapor atmosphere. The shared metal vapor bridge would have allowed material from the Earth and proto-Moon to exchange and equilibrate into a more common composition. Yet another hypothesis proposes that the Moon and the Earth have formed together instead of separately like the giant-impact hypothesis suggests.

Involuntary unemployment occurs when a person is willing to work at the prevailing wage yet is unemployed. Involuntary unemployment is distinguished from voluntary unemployment, where workers choose not to work because their reservation wage is higher than the prevailing wage. In an economy with involuntary unemployment there is a surplus of labor at the current real wage. This occurs when there is some force that prevents the real wage rate from decreasing to the real wage rate that would equilibrate supply and demand (such as a minimum wage above the market-clearing wage).

Considerable differences aid in distinguishing the descending and ascending limbs of the loop of Henle. The descending limb is permeable to water and noticeably less permeable to salt, and thus only indirectly contributes to the concentration of the interstitium. As the filtrate descends deeper into the hypertonic interstitium of the renal medulla, water flows freely out of the descending limb by osmosis until the tonicity of the filtrate and interstitium equilibrate. The hypertonicity of the medulla (and therefore concentration of urine) is determined in part by the size of the loops of Henle.

The antiprotons lose energy and equilibrate with the cold electrons by Coulomb interaction. The electrons are ejected before mixing the antiprotons with positrons. Each AD shot results in about cold antiprotons for interaction experiments. The positron accumulator slows, traps and accumulates positrons emitted from a radioactive source (1. Bq 22Na). Accumulation for 300 s yields 1. positrons, 50% of which are successfully transferred to the mixing trap, where they cool by synchrotron radiation. The mixing trap has the axial potential configuration of a nested Penning trap (Fig. 1b), which permits two plasmas of opposite charge to come into contact.

Desalting and buffer exchange are methods to separate soluble macromolecules from smaller molecules (desalting) or replace the buffer system used for another one suitable for a downstream application (buffer exchange). These methods are based on gel filtration chromatography, also called molecular sieve chromatography, which is a form of size-exclusion chromatography. Desalting and buffer exchange are two of the most common gel filtration chromatography applications, and they can be performed using the same resin. Desalting and buffer exchange both entail recovering the components of a sample in whatever buffer is used to pre- equilibrate the small, porous polymer beads (resin).

Low carbon dioxide levels are important to the Arctic Ocean due to intense cooling, fresh water runoff, and photosynthesis from marine organisms. Reductions in sea ice have allowed more carbon dioxide to equilibrate with the arctic water, resulting in increased acidification. The decrease in sea ice has also allowed more Pacific Ocean water to flow into in the Arctic Ocean during the winter, called Pacific winter water. Pacific Ocean water is high in carbon dioxide, and with decreased amounts of sea ice, more Pacific Ocean water has been able to enter the Arctic Ocean, carrying carbon dioxide with it.

Furthermore, a very grave economic crisis loomed on the horizon, the result of years of mismanagement, a global recession, and the onset of the so-called Latin American debt crisis. Faced with the choices of mounting a fresh repressive campaign to re-equilibrate the reeling regime (with the increased international isolation such a move would entail) or call elections, the high command chose the latter. In July 1982, General Torrelio was replaced with General Guido Vildoso, who was charged with returning the country to democratic rule. Torrelio then retired and did not return to play any role in Bolivian politics.

According to the original formulation of DICE, staying below the 2°C as agreed by the Paris agreement would cost more in mitigation investments than would be saved in damage from climate change. An updated damage function revised this conclusion, showing that a warming of around 2°C would be "optimal", depending on the climate sensitivity to greenhouse gases. The DICE model is an example of a neoclassical energy-economy-environment model. The central assumption of this type of model is that prices coordinate the actions of representative agents and the prices adjust to equilibrate markets for production factors.

Pressure jump is a technique used in the study of chemical kinetics. It involves making rapid changes to the pressure of an experimental system and observing the return to equilibrium or steady state. This allows the study of the shift in equilibrium of reactions that equilibrate in periods between milliseconds to hours (or longer),This contrasts with temperature jump in which cooling curves typically limit the time window to a minute or so. these changes often being observed using absorption spectroscopy, or fluorescence spectroscopy though other spectroscopic techniques such as CD, FTIR or NMR can also be used.

The deuterated compound was then treated with butyllithium in ether, with dimethoxyethane and 2N HCl regenerating the starting material. The cyclic analog (III, shown below) was deuterated in the same manner, and addition of deuterated I, followed by quenching to regenerate the protonated form, was analyzed by NMR. There was one proton peak, and it was shown to equilibrate equally between compounds II and III, indicating that compounds had similar acidity. From this result, the researchers concluded that compound III was not aromatic, because stabilizing effect of aromaticity on the anion should increase the acidity of the parent compound.

Here, the embryo is grown outside of the shell. In this method, the eggs are first kept in inside a humidified incubator for up to a period of 3 days, to ensure that the position of the embryo is opposite to the position where the egg will be subsequently cracked. A small hole is made on the side of the air chamber to equilibrate the pressure, followed by the cracking of the egg on a petri-dish. This method is ideal for visualizing the growing embryo and their manipulation without limitations in accessing the embryo during the different stages of development.

Arctic sea ice has experienced an extreme reduction over the past few decades, with the minimum area of sea ice being 4.32 million km2 in 2019, a sharp 38% decrease from 1980, when the minimum area was 7.01 million km2. Sea ice plays an important role in the health of the Arctic Ocean, and its decline has had detrimental effects on Arctic Ocean chemistry. All oceans equilibrate with the atmosphere by pulling carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere and into the ocean, which lowers the pH of the water. Sea ice limits the air-sea gas exchange with carbon dioxide by protecting the water from being completely exposed to the atmosphere.

Once there, the oxidized form can be converted to methylmercury, which is its organic form. Research suggests that current levels anthropogenic emissions will not equilibrate between the atmosphere and ocean for a period of decades to centuries, which means we can expect current mercury concentrations in the ocean to keep rising. Mercury is a potent neurotoxin, and poses health risks to the whole food web, beyond the mesopelagic species that consume it. Many of the mesopelagic species, such as myctophids, that make their diel vertical migration to the surface waters, can transfer the neurotoxin when they are consumed by pelagic fish, birds and mammals.

The relatively low body temperature is conjectured to help reduce risk of bubble formation by providing a higher solubility of nitrogen in the blood. Some marine mammals reduce the risk of decompression sickness and nitrogen narcosis by limiting the amount of air in the lungs during a dive, basically exhaling before the dive, but this limits the oxygen available from lung contents. As dive endurance is proportional to available oxygen, this strategy limits dive duration, and some animals inhale before diving. This increases decompression risk, and this may be behaviourally mitigated by limiting ascent rate or spending fairly ling periods at or near the surface to equilibrate between dives.

Initially, the droplet of protein solution contains comparatively low precipitant and protein concentrations, but as the drop and reservoir equilibrate, the precipitant and protein concentrations increase in the drop. If the appropriate crystallization solutions are used for a given protein, crystal growth occurs in the drop.Rhodes, G. (2006) Crystallography Made Crystal Clear, Third Edition: A Guide for Users of Macromolecular Models, 3rd Ed., Academic Press This method is used because it allows for gentle and gradual changes in concentration of protein and precipitant concentration, which aid in the growth of large and well-ordered crystals. Vapor diffusion can be performed in either hanging-drop or sitting-drop format.

Passive osmosis and diffusion: Some substances (small molecules, ions) such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), can move across the plasma membrane by diffusion, which is a passive transport process. Because the membrane acts as a barrier for certain molecules and ions, they can occur in different concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. Diffusion occurs when small molecules and ions move freely from high concentration to low concentration in order to equilibrate the membrane. It is considered a passive transport process because it does not require energy and is propelled by the concentration gradient created by each side of the membrane.

To generate a standard of known clumped isotope composition, current practice is to internally equilibrate analyte gas at high temperatures in the presence of a metal catalyst and assume that it has the Δ value predicted by equilibrium calculations. Developing isotopic reference materials specifically for clumped isotope analysis remains an ongoing goal of this rapidly developing field and was a major discussion topic during the 6th International Clumped Isotopes Workshop in 2017. It is possible that researchers in the future will measure clumped isotope ratios against internationally distributed reference materials, similar to the current method of measuring the bulk isotope composition of unknown samples.

Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways. Over oceans, the air temperature remains relatively stable for two reasons: water has a relatively high heat capacity (3.9 to 4.2 J g−1 K−1), and because both conduction and convection will equilibrate a hot or cold surface with deeper water (up to 50 metres). In contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities (0.19 to 0.35 J g−1 K−1), and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection.

According to the hypothesis, very high local concentrations of progesterone occur in skin capillaries after transdermal application and are taken up by red blood cells. The transit time of red blood cells from capillaries and the release of steroid hormones from red blood cells are both very rapid, so it is suggested that progesterone is delivered through circulation to tissues via red blood cells without having time to equilibrate with systemic blood. This could potentially explain the low levels of progesterone in venous blood in spite of very high levels in capillary blood and saliva. However, one study assessed progesterone levels in red blood cells with transdermal progesterone and found that they were significantly increased but still very low.

The movement of water out of the capillary at the arteriolar end causes the concentration of the substances that cannot cross the capillary wall to increase as the blood moves to the venular end of the capillary. The most important substances that are confined to the capillary tube are plasma albumin, the plasma globulins and fibrinogen. They, and particularly the plasma albumin, because of its molecular abundance in the plasma, are responsible for the so-called "oncotic" or "colloid" osmotic pressure which draws water back into the capillary, especially at the venular end. The net effect of all of these processes is that water moves out of and back into the capillary, while the crystalloid substances in the capillary and interstitial fluids equilibrate.

Crustal thickening has an upward component of motion and often occurs when continental crust is thrust onto continental crust. Basically nappes (thrust sheets) from each plate collide and begin to stack one on top of the other; evidence of this process can be seen in preserved ophiolitic nappes (preserved in the Himalaya), and in rocks with an inverted metamorphic gradient. The preserved inverted metamorphic gradient indicates that nappes were actually stacked on top of each other so quickly, that hot rocks did not have time to equilibrate before being thrust on top of cool rocks. The process of nappe stacking can only continue for so long, as gravity will eventually disallow further vertical growth (there is an upper limit to vertical mountain growth).

Unmodified human and porcine insulins tend to complex with zinc in the blood, forming hexamers. Insulin in the form of a hexamer will not bind to its receptors, so the hexamer has to slowly equilibrate back into its monomers to be biologically useful. Hexameric insulin delivered subcutaneously is not readily available for the body when insulin is needed in larger doses, such as after a meal (although this is more a function of subcutaneously administered insulin, as intravenously dosed insulin is distributed rapidly to the cell receptors, and therefore, avoids this problem). Zinc combinations of insulin are used for slow release of basal insulin. Basal insulin support is required throughout the day representing about 50% of daily insulin requirement,Owens DR. 2011 Insulin preparations with prolonged effect.

Gas exchange in mammals occurs between this alveolar air (which differs significantly from fresh air) and the blood in the alveolar capillaries. The gases on either side of the gas exchange membrane equilibrate by simple diffusion. This ensures that the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood leaving the alveolar capillaries, and ultimately circulates throughout the body, are the same as those in the FRC. The marked difference between the composition of the alveolar air and that of the ambient air can be maintained because the functional residual capacity is contained in dead-end sacs connected to the outside air by long, narrow, tubes (the airways: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their branches and sub-branches down to the bronchioles).

If there is an additional magnitude of value or a loss of value after transformation, then the relation between values (proportional to labor) and prices (proportional to total capital advanced) is incomplete. Various solutions and impossibility theorems have been offered for the transformation, but the debate has not reached any clear resolution. LTV does not deny the role of supply and demand influencing price, since the price of a commodity is something other than its value. In Value, Price and Profit (1865), Karl Marx quotes Adam Smith and sums up: > It suffices to say that if supply and demand equilibrate each other, the > market prices of commodities will correspond with their natural prices, that > is to say, with their values as determined by the respective quantities of > labor required for their production.

Carryover cooking (sometimes referred to as resting) is when foods are halted from actively cooking and allowed to equilibrate under their own retained heat. Because foods such as meats are typically measured for cooking temperature near the center of mass, stopping cooking at a given central temperature means that the outer layers of the food will be at higher temperature than that measured. Heat therefore will continue to migrate inwards from the surface, and the food will cook further even after being removed from the source of heat. Carryover cooking is often used as a finishing step in preparation of foods that are roasted or grilled, and should be accounted for in recipes as it can increase the internal temperature of foods by temperatures between 5 and 25 degrees Fahrenheit (3–14°C).

The horizon problem is the problem of determining why the Universe appears statistically homogeneous and isotropic in accordance with the cosmological principle. For example, molecules in a canister of gas are distributed homogeneously and isotropically because they are in thermal equilibrium: gas throughout the canister has had enough time to interact to dissipate inhomogeneities and anisotropies. The situation is quite different in the big bang model without inflation, because gravitational expansion does not give the early universe enough time to equilibrate. In a big bang with only the matter and radiation known in the Standard Model, two widely separated regions of the observable universe cannot have equilibrated because they move apart from each other faster than the speed of light and thus have never come into causal contact.

In classical 1,4-didehydrobenzene experiments, heating to 300 °C, [1,6-D2]-A readily equilibrates with [3,2-D2]-B, but does not equilibrate with C or D. The simultaneous migration of deuterium atoms to form B, and the fact that none of C or D is formed can only be explained by a presence of a cyclic and symmetrical intermediate–1,4-didehydrobenzene. center Two states were proposed for 1,4-didehydrobenzene: singlet and triplet, with the singlet state lower in energy. Triplet state represents two noninteracting radical centers, and hence should abstract hydrogens at the same rate as phenyl radical. However, singlet state is more stabilized than the triplet, and therefore some of the stabilizing energy will be lost in order to form the transition state for hydrogen cleavage, leading to slower hydrogen abstraction.

The implication of the conjectured constant real rate is that monetary events such as monetary policy actions will have no effect on the real economy --for example, no effect on real spending by consumers on consumer durables and by businesses on machinery and equipment. Some contrary models assert that, for example, a rise in expected inflation would increase current real spending contingent on any nominal rate and hence increase income, limiting the rise in the nominal interest rate that would be necessary to re- equilibrate money demand with money supply at any time. In this scenario, a rise in expected inflation \pi^e results in only a smaller rise in the nominal interest rate i and thus a decline in the real interest rate r. It has also been contended that the Fisher hypothesis may break down in times of both quantitative easing and financial sector recapitalisation.

The chemically stable anion of Fluorine-18-Fluoride is a bone-seeking radiotracer in skeletal imaging. [18F]NaF has an affinity to deposit at areas where the bone is newly mineralizing. Many studies have [18F]NaF PET to measure bone metabolism at the hip, lumbar spine, and humerus. [18F]NaF is taken-up in an exponential manner representing the equilibration of tracer with the extracellular and cellular fluid spaces with a half-life of 0.4 hours, and with kidneys with a half-life of 2.4 hours. The single passage extraction of [18F]NaF in bone is 100%. After an hour, only 10% of the injected activity remains in the blood. 18F- ions are considered to occupy extracellular fluid spaces because, firstly, they equilibrate with transcellular fluid spaces and secondly, they are not entirely extracellular ions. Fluoride undergoes equilibrium with hydrogen fluoride, which has a high permeability allowing fluoride to cross the plasma blood membrane.

This allowed Lippincott-Schwartz and her post-doc George Patterson to track the transport of cargo molecules through the Golgi with great precision, leading to the realization that cargo transport is not an ordered sequential process; instead, the apparently separate membranous stacks of the Golgi are a single continuous structure, and proteins rapidly equilibrate through the layers. Lippincott-Schwartz's work on photoactivatable GFP led to a collaboration with Eric Betzig of Howard Hughes Medical Institute’s Janelia Farm Research Campus in which the ability to turn GFP fluorescence on and off was used to develop one of the first “superresolution imaging” technologies, photoactivation localization microscopy (PALM). The development of "super-resolved fluorescence microscopy" was recognized in 2014 by the award of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Eric Betzig along with William E. Moerner of Stanford University, and Stefan W. Hell of Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry. Lippincott-Schwartz has used PALM to assess the stoichiometry and composition of membrane receptors and has collaborated with Vladislav Verkhusha of Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York to develop two-color PALM.

Mass resolution can be improved in axial MALDI-TOF mass spectrometer where ion production takes place in vacuum by allowing the initial burst of ions and neutrals produced by the laser pulse to equilibrate and to let the ions travel some distance perpendicularly to the sample plate before the ions can be accelerated into the flight tube. The ion equilibration in plasma plume produced during the desorption/ionization takes place approximately 100 ns or less, after that most of ions irrespectively of their mass start moving from the surface with some average velocity. To compensate for the spread of this average velocity and to improve mass resolution, it was proposed to delay the extraction of ions from the ion source toward the flight tube by a few hundred nanoseconds to a few microseconds with respect to the start of short (typically, a few nanosecond) laser pulse. This technique is referred to as "time-lag focusing" for ionization of atoms or molecules by resonance enhanced multiphoton ionization or by electron impact ionization in a rarefied gas and "delayed extraction" for ions produced generally by laser desorption/ionization of molecules adsorbed on flat surfaces or microcrystals placed on conductive flat surface.

In spite of a number of reforms of varying importance, the 1853 constitution is still substantially the base of the current Argentine juridical system. It was closely inspired by the juridical and political doctrines of the United States Federal Constitution, establishing for instance a Republican division of powers, a high level of independence for the provinces, and a federal power controlled by a strong executive government yet limited by a bicameral national congress to equilibrate the population's representation with equity among the provinces. The model, elaborated by the constitutional deputies from the precedent constitutional attempts and the pioneer work of Juan Bautista Alberdi, has been the target of repeated critics; the mechanism of the federal model has been objected to, and its true effectiveness has been questioned for being based in foreign experiences instead of following the particular Argentine history, far different from the North American colonialism by the British. Nevertheless, the historical importance of the constitutional project has been unquestionable, and virtually all disputes regarding the political theory and practice in modern Argentina include an either positive or negative reference on the political consequences of the 1853 constitution.