75 Sentences With "enzootic" | Random Sentence Generator

It's enzootic [the animal equivalent of an endemic disease in people] in the wildlife, the birds, the mosquitoes.

Enzootic Calcinosis Gruenberg MS, PhD, DECAR DECBHM. W.G., April 2014. Enzootic Calcinosis. The Merck Veternary Manual.

Enzootic subtypes of VEE are diseases endemic to certain areas. Generally these serotypes do not spread to other localities. Enzootic subtypes are associated with the rodent-mosquito transmission cycle. These forms of the virus can cause human illness but generally do not affect equine health.

The enzootic nasal tumor virus of the betaretrovirus genus is a carcinogenic retrovirus that causes enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma in sheep and goats. Strain ENTV-1 is found in sheep and strain ENTV-2 is found in goats. The virus causes tumor growth in the upper nasal cavity and is closely related to JSRV which also causes respiratory tumors in ovine. The disease, enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma is common in North America and is found in sheep and goats on every continent except New Zealand and Australia.

In nature enzootic disease patterns suggest that the virus can be latent and can be cleared over the course of a year.

Symptoms of enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma do not appear until it is too late. An ovine that grows a tumor will eventually die of suffocation.

Enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma is a fatal, malignant neoplastic, infectious disease in sheep and goats. It is caused by the Enzootic nasal tumor virus, a retrovirus similar to Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus, which causes a similar disease, also in sheep and goats called Ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma (OPA). Symptoms include nasal discharge, dyspnea, facial deformity, and weight loss. Like OPA, the disease has a very long incubation period and is invariably fatal.

"CDC H5N1 Outbreaks and Enzootic Influenza by Robert G. Webster et al. Dr. Robert Webster explains: "If you use a good vaccine you can prevent the transmission within poultry and to humans.

Oswaldo Cruz 104 (Suppl. 1): 31–40. PubMed Enzootic infection is prevalent across the southern United States, where there are 24 reservoir species and triatomine vectors, including T. indictiva reported in 28 states.

Full member (academician) from 1952 of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. Served on the editorial board of Pathologia Veterinaria. Ivanov's research focused on linguatulosis, sheep pox, equine infectious anaemia, bovine enzootic pneumonia, and osteomyelosclerosis in poultry.

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae is a species of bacteria known to cause the disease porcine enzootic pneumonia, a highly contagious and chronic disease affecting pigs.Whittlestone, P. 1979. Porcine Mycoplasmas, p. 133–166. In J. G. Tully and R. F. Whitcomb (ed.), The Mycoplasmas, vol.

In some large outbreaks, a million or more birds may die. Ducks appear to be affected most often. An enzootic form of duck botulism in Western USA and Canada is known as "western duck sickness".W.B. Gross (1984), Botulism, in "Diseases of poultry", ed.

Connors Lake is a lake in Sawyer County, Wisconsin, United States. It is located in the Flambeau River State Forest. The lake covers an area of and reaches a maximum depth of . Fish species enzootic to Connors Lake include bluegill, largemouth bass, muskellunge, smallmouth bass, and walleye.

Rocio viral encephalitis is an epidemic flaviviral disease of humans first observed in São Paulo State, Brazil, in 1975. Low-level enzootic transmission is likely continuing in the epidemic zone, and with increased deforestation and population expansion, additional epidemics caused by Rocio virus are highly probable. If migratory species of birds are, or become involved in, the virus transmission cycle, the competency of a wide variety of mosquito species for transmitting Rocio virus experimentally suggest that the virus may become more widely distributed. The encephalitis outbreak in the western hemisphere caused by West Nile virus, a related flavivirus, highlights the potential for arboviruses to cause severe problems far from their source enzootic foci.

The vertebrate hosts of the virus were primarily monkeys in a so-called enzootic mosquito-monkey-mosquito cycle, with only occasional transmission to humans. Before the current pandemic began in 2007, Zika "rarely caused recognized 'spillover' infections in humans, even in highly enzootic areas". Infrequently, however, other arboviruses have become established as a human disease and spread in a mosquito–human–mosquito cycle, like the yellow fever virus and the dengue fever virus (both flaviviruses), and the chikungunya virus (a togavirus). Though the reason for the pandemic is unknown, dengue, a related arbovirus that infects the same species of mosquito vectors, is known in particular to be intensified by urbanization and globalization.

Clark Lake is the second largest lake in Door County, Wisconsin. Fish species enzootic to the lake include bluegill, brook trout, largemouth bass, northern pike, smallmouth bass and walleye. The nearest town is Jacksonport. Fish populations have been declining in the lake since 2013 and fishing now is extremely difficult.

Star Lake is a lake in Vilas County, Wisconsin, United States. The lake covers an area of and reaches a maximum depth of . The community of Star Lake, Wisconsin is located on the lake's northeast shore. Fish species enzootic to Star Lake include bluegill, largemouth bass, muskellunge, northern pike, smallmouth bass, and walleye.

Control of the disease is usually through elimination of the infection. This is achieved by culling infected horses and application of strict hygiene practices to prevent spread of the organism. Vaccination has been used on a limited scale in areas where enzootic lymphangitis is endemic, e.g. Iraq, but is not authorised for widespread use.

Red Cedar Lake is a lake in Barron and Washburn counties, Wisconsin, United States. The lake covers an area of and reaches a maximum depth of . The community of Mikana, Wisconsin is located on the lake's western shore. Fish species enzootic to Red Cedar Lake include bluegill, largemouth bass, northern pike, smallmouth bass, and walleye.

From 1910 to 1949, there were 112 confirmed cases of the disease, of which 109 were fatal. The Board of Health of the Territory of Hawaii, in combined efforts with the local sugar plantations, engaged in a vast rat extermination campaign. Despite these efforts, plague remained an enzootic disease in the region up until 1957.

Tahyna orthobunyavirus ("TAHV") is a viral pathogen of humans classified in the California encephalitis virus (CEV) serogroup of the Orthobunyavirus family in the order Bunyavirales, which is endemic to Europe, Asia, Africa and possibly China. TAHV is maintained in an enzootic life cycle involving several species of mosquito vectors, with hares, rabbits, hedgehogs, and rodents serving as amplifying hosts.

Gaffkaemia is enzootic in North America, and causes little harm to wild populations of H. americanus. In the European or common lobster, Homarus gammarus, however, it is far more destructive. European lobsters held in the same tanks as American lobsters can be killed within days. A number of other crustacean species can be infected with A. v. var.

In the hamsters and mice additional liver necrosis and renal necrosis, respectively, was detected. 4-IPO can also threaten newborn calves. If they become exposed to 4-IPO it increases their susceptibility to bovine parainfluenza virus 3. Parainfluenza itself does not have severe health effects but together with other infections it can lead to complex enzootic pneumonia.

The lesions are situated in the digestive tract. Quick post mortem examination will lead to the discovery of many haemorrhagic patches on the serous membranes, and intense pneumonia. A risk exists that it may conclude with enzootic pneumonia, inability to open the mouth, and problems with the oesophagus and different parts of the intestine. Erosions and inflammation are widespread on buccal mucosa.

Alticola argentatus is effected by the plague, a bacterial infection caused by Yersinia pestis. It is enzootic in wild rodent populations over large rural areas of Mongolia, and has the most active natural plague foci in the westernmost regions. The marmot flea Oropsylla silantiewi is considered the primary vector for the plague. Human cases of plague have been recorded in Mongolia since 1897.

But there is a wide range of clinical manifestations, especially in enzootic areas. Among them, the Doukkala area of Morocco, where the epidemiology and symptomatology of the disease were minutely studied. N. EL HAJ, M. KACHANI, M. BOUSLIKHANE, H. OUHELLI, A.T. AHAMI, J. KATENDE et S.P. MORZARIA. Séro-épidémiologie de la theilériose à Theileria annulata et de la babésiose à Babesia bigemina au Maroc.

B. burgdorferi circulates between Ixodes ticks and a vertebrate host in an enzootic cycle. B. burgdorferi living in a tick can be passed to its offspring (Buhner, 2015). The spirochetes survive as the larvae molts into a nymph and persist in the nutrient-poor midgut as the nymph overwinters. Infected nymphs then transmit B. burgdorferi by feeding on another vertebrate to complete the cycle.

Humans can be infected with the virus and experience flu-like symptoms and occasionally oral blisters and lymphadenopathy in the neck. One well- studied vesicular stomatitis virus enzootic involving this fly is on Ossabaw Island off the coast of Georgia in the United States. The fly feeds on feral Ossabaw Island Hogs and spreads the virus widely, though clinical disease is rare.Clarke, G. R., et al. (1996).

Cutaneous anthrax is also called woolsorter's disease, as the spores can be transmitted in unwashed wool. More seriously, the organisms that can cause spontaneous enzootic abortion in sheep are easily transmitted to pregnant women. Also of concern are the prion disease scrapie and the virus that causes foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), as both can devastate flocks. The latter poses a slight risk to humans.

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae has been a topic of interest in the scientific community due to the economic impact of porcine enzootic pneumonia. Three separate strains (232, J & 7448) of this mycoplasma have had their genomes sequenced, making it the most sequenced mycoplasma. Research has been mainly focused on identifying adhesins with a final goal of developing an effective vaccine that prevents M. hyopneumoniae from attaching to lung cilia.

The sylvatic cycle, also enzootic or sylvatic transmission cycle, is a portion of the natural transmission cycle of a pathogen. Sylvatic refers to the occurrence of a subject in or affecting wild animals. The sylvatic cycle is the fraction of the pathogen population's lifespan spent cycling between wild animals and vectors. Humans are usually an incidental or dead-end host, infected by a vector.

Diagnosis is achieved most commonly by serologic testing of the blood for the presence of antibodies against the ehrlichia organism. Many veterinarians routinely test for the disease, especially in enzootic areas. During the acute phase of infection, the test can be falsely negative because the body will not have had time to make antibodies to the infection. As such, the test should be repeated.

Bovine coronavirus (BCV or BCoV) is a coronavirus which is a member of the species Betacoronavirus 1. The infecting virus is an enveloped, positive- sense, single-stranded RNA virus which enters its host cell by binding to the N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid recepter. Infection causes calf enteritis and contributes to the enzootic pneumonia complex in calves. It can also cause winter dysentery in adult cattle.

Lake Jefferson is a lake in Le Sueur County, Minnesota, United States. The lake covers an area of and is deep at its deepest point. Fish species enzootic to Lake Jefferson include bluegill, largemouth bass, northern pike, and walleye. While the Geographic Names Information System considers Lake Jefferson to be a single lake, it is sometimes referred to as two lakes, East Jefferson Lake and West Jefferson Lake.

On his return to Australia, Filmer commenced private practice in Katanning in Western Australia. In 1925, he joined the Department of Agriculture in Fremantle. Filmer worked on the problem of Denmark Disease or enzootic marasmus. During his period in Western Australia, Filmer, in collaboration with E. J. Underwood, achieved a major research success which was to prove of incalculable benefit to agriculture in New Zealand and throughout the world.

Ross River virus (RRV) is a small encapsulated single-strand RNA Alphavirus endemic to Australia, Papua New Guinea and other islands in the South Pacific. It is responsible for a type of mosquito-borne non-lethal but debilitating tropical disease known as Ross River fever, previously termed "epidemic polyarthritis". The virus is suspected to be enzootic in populations of various native Australian mammals, and has been found on occasion in horses.

Betaretrovirus is a genus of the Retroviridae family. It has type B or type D morphology. The type B is common for a few exogenous, vertically transmitted and endogenous viruses of mice; some primate and sheep viruses are the type D. Examples are Mouse mammary tumor virus, enzootic nasal tumor virus (ENTV-1, ENTV-2), and simian retrovirus types 1, 2 and 3 (SRV-1, SRV-2, SRV-3).

In the swine industry, the presence of respiration problems must be closely monitored. There are multiple pathogens that can cause infection, however, enzootic pneumonia is one of the most common respiratory diseases in pigs caused by Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and other bacteria. This is an airborne disease that can be easily spread due to the proximity of the pigs in the herd. A common symptom of this is chronic coughing.

Bovine Adenovirus, also known as BAdV, is a member of the Adenoviridae family that causes disease in cattle. There are 10 serotypes recognised and the virus had a worldwide distribution—being particularly common in Africa and Central America. Infection usually results in disease of the gastrointestinal or respiratory tract. Infection may also cause ocular or generalised signs and may contribute to enzootic pneumonia, depending on the serotype of the virus.

Since human plague is rare in most parts of the world as of 2020, routine vaccination is not needed other than for those at particularly high risk of exposure, nor for people living in areas with enzootic plague, meaning it occurs at regular, predictable rates in populations and specific areas, such as the western United States. It is not even indicated for most travelers to countries with known recent reported cases, particularly if their travel is limited to urban areas with modern hotels. The CDC thus only recommends vaccination for: (1) all laboratory and field personnel who are working with Y. pestis organisms resistant to antimicrobials: (2) people engaged in aerosol experiments with Y. pestis; and (3) people engaged in field operations in areas with enzootic plague where preventing exposure is not possible (such as some disaster areas). A systematic review by the Cochrane Collaboration found no studies of sufficient quality to make any statement on the efficacy of the vaccine.

For example, B. burgdorferi sensu lato was previously thought to be hindered in its ability to be maintained in an enzootic cycle in California, because it was assumed the large lizard population would dilute the number of people affected by B. burgdorferi in local tick populations; this has since been brought into question, as some evidence has suggested lizards can become infected. Except for one study in Europe, much of the data implicating lizards is based on DNA detection of the spirochete and has not demonstrated that lizards are able to infect ticks feeding upon them. As some experiments suggest lizards are refractory to infection with Borrelia, it appears likely their involvement in the enzootic cycle is more complex and species-specific. While B. burgdorferi is most associated with ticks hosted by white-tailed deer and white-footed mice, Borrelia afzelii is most frequently detected in rodent- feeding vector ticks, and Borrelia garinii and Borrelia valaisiana appear to be associated with birds.

Prepuce of a dog affected by balanoposthitis In dogs, balanoposthitis is caused by a disruption in the integumentary system, such as a wound or intrusion of a foreign body. A dog with this condition behaves normally, with the exception of excessive licking at the prepuce, and a yellow green, pus- like discharge is usually present. In sheep (rams/wethers), ulcerative enzootic balanoposthitis is caused by the Corynebacterium renale group (C. renale, C. pilosum & C. cystidis).

The Nairobi sheep disease orthonairovirus (NSDV), also known as Ganjam virus is a species in the genus Orthonairovirus belonging to the Nairobi sheep disease serogroup. NSDV is enzootic, becoming epizootic when denser populations of susceptible animals are exposed to infection. NSDV's known hosts belong to the hard tick family Ixodidae, including Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, and Amblyomma variegatum, and afflict sheep and goats naturally. The virus is in the family Nairoviridae and order Bunyavirales.

With an unfavorable conservation status and the increasing amount of debris piling in the ocean every year, striped dolphin's population is decreasing. 37 dolphins stranded off the Spanish Mediterranean coast were suffering from dolphin morbillivirus (DMV). The causes of these stranding have been changing from epizootic to enzootic. Cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV) can be divided into six strains in cetaceans throughout the world, causing widespread mortality events in Europe, North America, and Australia.

Porcine parvovirus is ubiquitous among swine throughout the world. In major swine- producing areas such as the midwestern United States, infection is enzootic in most herds, and with few exceptions sows are immune. In addition, a large proportion of gilts are naturally infected with PPV before they conceive, and as a result they develop an active immunity that probably persists throughout life. Collectively, the seroepidemiological data indicate that exposure to PPV is common.

Once infection is started, the virus spreads rapidly among fully susceptible swine. Just how effective these procedures are in increasing the incidence of natural infection is unknown. For whatever reasons, infection is common, and probably well over one-half of all gilts in areas where PPV is enzootic are infected before they are bred for the first time. The use of vaccine is the only way to ensure that gilts develop active immunity before conception.

Mycoplasma hyorhinis is a member of the Mycoplasmatales family. This bacterium is often found as a commensal in the respiratory tract of pigs, and rarely in the skin of humans. It is thought to facilitate and exacerbate the development of diseases such as porcine enzootic pneumonia and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS). Rarely, it may cause mycoplasma arthritis, mycoplasmal polyserositis or mycoplasma septicaemia in piglets without the involvement of other bacteria.

A study in France reported antibodies to SeV in 17% of mouse colonies examined. Epizootic infections of mice are usually associated with a high mortality rate, while enzootic disease patterns suggest that the virus is latent and can be cleared over the course of a year. Sub-lethal exposure to SeV can promote long-lasting immunity to further lethal doses of SeV. The virus is immunosuppressive and may predispose to secondary bacterial infections.

101 Ferry Road, Edinburgh The grave of John Russell Greig, Warriston Cemetery Prof John McDougal Russell Greig CBE FRSE (September 1889-1 May 1963) was a Scottish veterinarian who was Director of the Moredun Research Institute from 1930 to 1954. He is noted for the development of several important animal vaccines: Enzootic abortion in ewes; Braxy and Louping ill. His work on milk effectively created "clean milk" for the first time in Britain.

Colonies of Streptococcus equi on a blood agar plate Strangles (equine distemper) is a contagious upper respiratory tract infection of horses and other equines caused by a Gram-positive bacterium, Streptococcus equi. As a result, the lymph nodes swell, compressing the pharynx, larynx, and trachea, and can cause airway obstruction leading to death, hence the name strangles. Strangles is enzootic in domesticated horses worldwide. The contagious nature of the infection has at times led to limitations on sporting events.

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is a retrovirus which causes enzootic bovine leukosis in cattle. It is closely related to the human T‑lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-I). BLV may integrate into the genomic DNA of B‑lymphocytes as a DNA intermediate (the provirus), or exist as unintegrated circular or linear forms. Besides structural and enzymatic genes required for virion production, BLV contains an oncogene coding for a protein called Tax and expresses microRNAs of unknown function.

Conjunctival prolapse is a sign of bovine leukosis In general, BLV causes only a benign mononucleosis-like disease in cattle. Only some animals later develop a B-cell leukemia called enzootic bovine leukosis. Under natural conditions the disease is transmitted mainly by milk to the calf. The variety of organs where white blood cells occur explains the many symptoms: enlargement of superficial lymph nodes, a digestive form, a cardiac form, a nervous form, a respiratory form, and others.

To successfully grow the bacterium, an environment of 5–10% carbon dioxide is required, and the medium should demonstrate an acid colour shift. This bacterium is a concern in the livestock industry as it causes a significant reduction in the growing weight of pigs. Losses in the U.S. have been previously estimated at 200 million to 1 billion dollars per annum. Porcine enzootic pneumonia is endemic worldwide and M. hyopneumoniae is present in almost every pig herd.

"CDC H5N1 Outbreaks and Enzootic Influenza by Robert G. Webster et al. Dr. Robert Webster explains: "If you use a good vaccine you can prevent the transmission within poultry and to humans. But if they have been using vaccines now [in China] for several years, why is there so much bird flu? There is bad vaccine that stops the disease in the bird but the bird goes on pooping out virus and maintaining it and changing it.

In the normal rural or enzootic transmission cycle, the virus alternates between the bird reservoir and the mosquito vector. It can also be transmitted between birds via direct contact, by eating an infected bird carcass or by drinking infected water. Vertical transmission between female and offspring is possible in mosquitoes, and might potentially be important in overwintering. In the urban or spillover cycle, infected mosquitoes that have fed on infected birds transmit the virus to humans.

Vertical transmission, the transmission of a viral or bacterial disease from the female of the species to her offspring, has been observed in various West Nile virus studies, amongst different species of mosquitoes in both the laboratory and in nature. Mosquito progeny infected vertically in autumn may potentially serve as a mechanism for WNV to overwinter and initiate enzootic horizontal transmission the following spring, although it likely plays little role in transmission in the summer and fall.

Cattle that consume bracken ferns develop acute bracken poisoning and chronic bovine enzootic haematuria (BEH). The main feature of acute bracken poisoning in cattle is the depression of bone marrow activity, which gives rise to severe leucopenia (particularly of the granulocytes), thrombocytopenia, and acute haemorrhagic crisis. However, most of the researchers believe ptaquiloside is not the direct causing agent of the acute bracken fern poisoning. The main feature of haematuria is urinary bladder tumors and haematuria in cattle after prolonged exposure to bracken.

Culex nigripalpus is a principle disease vector in Florida – the primary enzootic vector to wild birds and the primary epidemic vector to humans of the Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) virus. It has been experimentally demonstrated to be capable of transmitting West Nile virus (WNV). Its habit of feeding on both birds and humans gives it significant potential for transmission of zoonotic infections from birds to humans. It is also a vector of transmission of Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE), dog heartworm, and Avian malaria.

Porcine enzootic pneumonia, also known as mycoplasmal pneumonia, is a chronic respiratory disease of pigs caused by Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. It is part of the Porcine Respiratory Disease Complex along with Swine Influenza, PRRS and Porcine circovirus 2, and even though on its own it is quite a mild disease, it predisposes to secondary infections with organisms such as Pasteurella multocida. Clinical signs are most commonly seen in pigs over 8 weeks of age, and the disease occurs worldwide. Transmission is horizontal and vertical from sows.

Due to the close relation of nonhuman primates (NHP) and humans, disease transmission between NHP and humans is relatively common and can become a major public health concern. Diseases such as HIV and human adenoviruses have been associated with NHP interactions. In places where contact between humans and NHPs is frequent, precautions are often taken to prevent disease transmission. Simian foamy viruses (SFV) is an enzootic retrovirus that has high rates of cross-species transmission and has been known to affect humans bitten by infected NHPs.

Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 (A/H5N1) is a subtype of the influenza A virus which can cause illness in humans and many other animal species. A bird- adapted strain of H5N1, called HPAI A(H5N1) for highly pathogenic avian influenza virus of type A of subtype H5N1, is the highly pathogenic causative agent of H5N1 flu, commonly known as avian influenza ("bird flu"). It is enzootic (maintained in the population) in many bird populations, especially in Southeast Asia. One strain of HPAI A(H5N1) is spreading globally after first appearing in Asia.

Contact with farm animals can lead to disease in farmers or others that come into contact with infected farm animals. Glanders primarily affects those who work closely with horses and donkeys. Close contact with cattle can lead to cutaneous anthrax infection, whereas inhalation anthrax infection is more common for workers in slaughterhouses, tanneries and wool mills. Close contact with sheep who have recently given birth can lead to clamydiosis, or enzootic abortion, in pregnant women, as well as an increased risk of Q fever, toxoplasmosis, and listeriosis in pregnant or the otherwise immunocompromised.

The strains of HEV that exist today may have arisen from a shared ancestor virus 536 to 1344 years ago. Another analysis has dated the origin of Hepatitis E to ~6000 years ago, with a suggestion that this was associated with domestication of pigs. At some point, two clades may have diverged — an anthropotropic form and an enzootic form — which subsequently evolved into genotypes 1 and 2 and genotypes 3 and 4, respectively. Whereas genotype 2 remains less commonly detected than other genotypes, genetic evolutionary analyses suggest that genotypes 1, 3, and 4 have spread substantially during the past 100 years.

M. hyopneumoniae attaches to the cilia of epithelial cells in the lungs of swine, causing the cilia to stop beating (ciliostasis), clumping and loss of cilia, eventually leading to epithelial cell death; which is the source of the lesions found in the lungs of pigs with porcine enzootic pneumonia. This damage impedes normal ciliary clearance and often secondary infections develop. On a cellular level, mononuclear infiltration of peribronchiolar and perivascular areas occurs. The immune response to M. hyopneumoniae in pigs is slow and ineffective; it is also believed to cause much of the damage that is seen in pigs with the disease.

The strains of HEV that exist today may have arisen from a shared ancestor virus 536 to 1344 years ago. Another analysis has dated the origin of Hepatitis E to ~6000 years ago, with a suggestion that this was associated with domestication of pigs. At some point, two clades may have diverged — an anthropotropic form and an enzootic form — which subsequently evolved into genotypes 1 and 2 and genotypes 3 and 4, respectively. Whereas genotype 2 remains less commonly detected than other genotypes, genetic evolutionary analyses suggest that genotypes 1, 3, and 4 have spread substantially during the past 100 years.

Management strategies for the disease have included raising more resistant species such as the Western blue shrimp (Penaeus stylirostris) and stocking of specific pathogen free (SPF) or specific pathogen resistant (SPR) shrimp. Relatively simple laboratory challenges can be used to predict the performance of selected stocks in farms where TSV is enzootic. The resistant shrimp lines currently raised have reached nearly complete resistance to some TSV variants and further improvement due to breeding for TSV-resistance is expected be minor for these variants. Significant improvements in TSV survival were made through selective breeding despite low to moderate heritability for this trait.

In Canada and the Northeastern United States Ixodes cookei is the predominant species, while Ix. scapularis is a significant vector in Minnesota and Wisconsin. POWV is transmitted when an infected tick bites a mammal; in humans the tick is typically Ix. scapularis. In North America, the lineages of the POWV are maintained in three main enzootic cycles involving three different tick species and their respective small to medium-sized woodland mammals. POWV may infect Ix. cookei and woodchucks, or it may infect Ix. marxi and squirrels, and it can cycle between Ix. scapularis and white-footed mice.

Lymph node enlargement in six-months-old calves in asymptomatic infestation Lymph node enlargement and even hyperthermia can occur asymptomatically in enzootic area, during the disease season. Clinical signs, including lymph node enlargement, anaemia, hyperthermia and history of tick infestation can lead to a suspicion of theileriosis Definitive diagnosis relies on the observation of the pirolplasm stages of the organism in the erythrocytes in blood smears stained with Romanowsky stains. Lymph node aspirates can also be examined for the presence of 'Kock's Blue Bodies' which are schizont stages in lymphocytes. Necropsy reveals 'punched out ulcers' in the abomasum and greyish raised 'infarcts' on kidneys.

Porcine parvovirus (PPV), a virus in the species Ungulate protoparvovirus 1 of genus Protoparvovirus in the virus family Parvoviridae, causes reproductive failure of swine characterized by embryonic and fetal infection and death, usually in the absence of outward maternal clinical signs. The disease develops mainly when seronegative dams are exposed oronasally to the virus anytime during about the first half of gestation, and conceptuses are subsequently infected transplacentally before they become immunocompetent. There is no definitive evidence that infection of swine other than during gestation is of any clinical or economic significance. The virus is ubiquitous among swine throughout the world and is enzootic in most herds that have been tested.

The CDC lists the following areas as active foci of human epidemic typhus: Andean regions of South America, some parts of Africa; on the other hand, the CDC only recognizes an active enzootic cycle in the United States involving flying squirrels (CDC). Though epidemic typhus is commonly thought to be restricted to areas of the developing world, serological examination of homeless persons in Houston found evidence for exposure to the bacterial pathogens that cause epidemic typhus and murine typhus. A study involving 930 homeless people in Marseilles, France found high rates of seroprevalence to R. prowazekii and a high prevalence of louse-borne infections in the homeless. Typhus has been increasingly discovered in homeless populations in developed nations.

Journal archive In the late 1910s, American bacteriologist Alice C. Evans was studying the Bang bacillus and gradually realized that it was virtually indistinguishable from the Bruce coccus. The short-rod versus oblong-round morphologic borderline explained the leveling of the erstwhile bacillus/coccus distinction (that is, these "two" pathogens were not a coccus versus a bacillus but rather were one coccobacillus). The Bang bacillus was already known to be enzootic in American dairy cattle, which showed itself in the regularity with which herds experienced contagious abortion. Having made the discovery that the bacteria were certainly nearly identical and perhaps totally so, Evans then wondered why Malta fever was not widely diagnosed or reported in the United States.

Panstrogylus geniculatus is a blood-sucking sylvatic insect noted as a putative vector of minor importance in the transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi to humans; this is a parasite, which causes Chagas disease. The insect is described as sylvatic; subsisting primarily in humid forests, and is also known to inhabit vertebrate nesting places such as those of the armadillo (dasypus novemcinctus or dasypus), and is also involved in enzootic transmission of T. cruzi to those species. It has wide distribution throughout 16 Latin American countries. There have been few scientific studies of this particular species because of the low number of collected specimens and difficulties in rearing and maintaining populations in the laboratory.

Vaccines, diagnostics and treatment strategies followed. Today, many of the veterinary medicines and vaccines that are routinely used on farms have been researched, developed or tested at Moredun. This research is vital – 17% of the value of the UK sheep industry is lost each year due to infectious diseases. Subclinical infections of gut parasites are estimated to cost the UK sheep industry over £84 million a year in lost production. Enzootic abortion in ewes is thought to cost the UK sheep industry £15 million a year and Johne’s disease costs the UK cattle industry £13 million a year. Ninety years on, and still governed by farmers, Moredun’s mission to improve animal health and welfare remains strong and Moredun continues to apply cutting edge science and technology to help protect both livestock and people, today and tomorrow.

Early in his career du Toit was recognised for his exceptional scientific talent. Whereas Theiler had dominated research projects at Onderstepoort, du Toit had the gift of being able to delegate research to inspired workers. His friendly nature and his brilliance as a speaker led to his inclusion on many boards and committees and did much to improve the role of science in South African and international affairs.A History of Scientific Endeavour in South Africa – AC Brown (1977) From 1908 until the 1950s, after which many enzootic and epizootic diseases had been exterminated or controlled, Onderstepoort revealed the etiology and provenance of diseases such as lamsiekte, geeldikkop (a photodynamic disease of southern African sheep, caused by the ingestion of certain plants and a consequent sensitisation to light, causing intense jaundice and facial edema) and African horsesickness, and produced vaccines, some of which were globally adopted.

The government had already paid substantial compensation to farmers because of the foot and mouth outbreak in 2001 followed by the bluetongue outbreak in 2007, against the background of EC Directives 77/391 and 78/52 on eradication of tuberculosis, brucellosis or enzootic bovine leucosis. In the 2001 foot and mouth outbreak, a total of £1.4 billion in compensation was paid. The Cattle Compensation (England) Order 2006 (SI2006/168) was overturned when the High Court decided the Order was unlawful; in the test case, farmers had been receiving compensation payments of around £1,000 on animals valued at over £3,000, but in extreme cases the discrepancy between animal value and compensation paid was over one thousand percent. This case was itself overturned on appeal in 2009.R (Partridge Farms Ltd) v SSEFRA [2008] EWHC 1645 (Admin); R (Partridge Farms Ltd) v SSEFRA [2009] EWCA Civ 284.