A Nintendo engineer created the pocket-sized Game & Watch after being inspired while watching a bored commuter play with an electronic calculator on a train.
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And, in a case of what today might be called digital disruption, the invention of electronic calculator in the 1970s destroyed Faber-Castell's sideline making slide rules virtually overnight.
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Diehl wanted to break into the electronic calculator marketplace, but did not have the expertise itself. Frankel was contracted to develop a desktop electronic calculator for Diehl, and moved to West Germany to undertake the project. The project resulted in a calculator called the Diehl Combitron. The Combitron was a desktop printing electronic calculator that was also user programmable.
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The knowledge obtained was applied a few years later in the development of the successful Programma 101 electronic calculator.
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The spread of the computer rather than the simple electronic calculator put an end to the comptometer. Also, by the end of the 1970s, the slide rule had become obsolete.
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The abacus was an instrument used by Greeks and Romans for arithmetic calculations, preceding the slide-rule and the electronic calculator, and consisted of perforated pebbles sliding on iron bars.
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The main-belt asteroid 1625 The NORC was named by Paul Herget in honor of the electronic calculator which significantly facilitated the elaborate orbital calculations of minor planets at the time ().
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This marked the end of Elea computers. Even though the electronics division of Olivetti had been sold off, the knowledge gained was applied in the development of the successful Programma 101 electronic calculator.
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The ELKA 6521 ELKA () is a Bulgarian brand of electronic calculator, developed by the Central Institute for Computation Technologies(bg) and built at the Elektronika plant in Sofia. The name is a contraction of ЕЛектронен КАлкулатор, or "electronic calculator", and the word elka has, by extension, become the generic name for a calculator. The first model, the ELKA 6521, was introduced in 1965, shipped from 1966, and used germanium transistors and a nixie tube display. The ELKA Bulgarian electronic calculators, Clockwiser.
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Herbert Keppler, "Keppler's slr notebook: Canon's incredible A-1: applying electronic calculator technology to SLR cameras. Nikon automates the Nikon FM into the FE." pp 76–79. Modern Photography, Volume 42, Number 5; May 1978.
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The first truly pocket- sized electronic calculator was the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY", which was marketed early in 1971."The one-chip calculator is here, and it's only the beginning", Electronic Design, February 18, 1971, p34.
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The IBM 603 Electronic Multiplier was the first mass-produced commercial electronic calculating device; it used full-size vacuum tubes to perform multiplication and addition.IBM 603 The First Commercial Electronic Calculator IBM History, accessed September 21, 2020] (The earlier IBM 600 and IBM 602 used relay logic.) The IBM 603 was adapted as the arithmetic unit in the IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator. It was designed by James W. Bryce, and included circuits patented by A. Halsey Dickenson in 1937. The IBM 603 was developed in Endicott, New York, and announced on September 27, 1946.
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He was involved with their hifi products and their Sinclair C5 electric vehicle. In 1972, he helped Sinclair Radionics to launch its first electronic calculator, the Sinclair Executive. He set up Cambridge Processor Unit Ltd. (CPU) in December 1978.
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It was the first electronic calculator to use semiconductors, revolutionary for the time. In 1967, Nixdorf developed the Logatronic into the Nixdorf 820 in 1967, which was very successful. In 1968 Nixdorf bought Wanderer and renamed the company Nixdorf Computer AG.
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The Harvard Mark III, also known as ADEC (for Aiken Dahlgren Electronic Calculator) was an early computer that was partially electronic and partially electromechanical. It was built at Harvard University under the supervision of Howard Aiken for the US Navy.
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Verso of a Bell Punch tram ticket, circa 1970 The Bell Punch Company was a British company manufacturing a variety of business machines, most notably several generations of public transport ticket machines and the world's first desktop electronic calculator, the Sumlock ANITA.
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The Italian Programma 101, an early commercial programmable calculator produced by Olivetti in 1964 The first desktop programmable calculators were produced in the mid-1960s. They included the Mathatronics Mathatron (1964) and the Olivetti Programma 101 (late 1965) which were solid-state, desktop, printing, floating point, algebraic entry, programmable, stored-program electronic calculators.Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator, The Old Calculator Web MuseumMathatronics Mathatron 8-48M Mod II Electronic Calculator, The Old Calculator Web Museum Both could be programmed by the end user and print out their results. The Programma 101 saw much wider distribution and had the added feature of offline storage of programs via magnetic cards.
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Robert Rex Seeber Jr. (1910-1969),American Men of Science: A Biological Directory, The Physical and Biological Sciences, Supplement 4, edited by The Jaques Cattell Press, Eleventh Edition. R.R. Bowker Company. New York & London. 1968. p. 520. an inventor at IBM, co-invented the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC).
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Hewlett-Packard HP-22S (1989) The HP-22S is an electronic calculator from the Hewlett-Packard company which is algebraic and scientific. This calculator is comparable to the HP-32S. A solver was included instead of programming. It had the same constraints as the 32S, lacking enough RAM for serious use.
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Automatic electronic scoring was first conceived by Robert Reynolds, an electronic calculator expert. He worked with Brunswick Bowling technicians to develop it. It was realized in the late 1960s when a specialized computer was designed for the purpose of automatic scorekeeping for bowling. This increased the popularity of the sport.
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SRAM became an alternative to magnetic-core memory, but required six MOS transistors for each bit of data. Commercial use of SRAM began in 1965, when IBM introduced their SP95 SRAM chip for the System/360 Model 95. Toshiba introduced bipolar DRAM memory cells for its Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator in 1965.
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Toshiba introduced bipolar DRAM memory cells for its Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator in 1965.Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 Desktop Calculator While it offered improved performance over magnetic-core memory, bipolar DRAM could not compete with the lower price of the then dominant magnetic-core memory. MOS technology is the basis for modern DRAM.
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Mims (1986), 32–34. MITS had purchased components to build 200 Opticoms but only sold around 100 units. Roberts wanted to design a new electronic calculator kit but his partners wanted out. Bob Zaller had already left MITS and Forrest Mims was out of the Air Force and wanted to become a full-time writer.
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In 1945, Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His 1945 report "Proposed Electronic Calculator" was the first specification for such a device. John von Neumann at the University of Pennsylvania also circulated his First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC in 1945.
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The concept of a single-chip calculator was conceived by Sharp engineer Tadashi Sasaki in 1968. The first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator was the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY", the first single-chip calculator to be built, released in February 1971."The one-chip calculator is here, and it's only the beginning", Electronic Design, 18 February 1971, p.
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1960s Stroboscopic display:Stroboscopic display on the Soviet calculator "RASA" (video)Soviet made "RASA" electronic calculator with stroboscopic display In the 1960s RASA Calculator (Russian), a small motor spins a cylinder that has a number of transparent numerals. To display a numeral, the calculator briefly flashes a thyratron light behind the required number when it spins into position.
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Texas Instruments and other brands of 7400 series TTL and CMOS logic Texas Instruments Speak & Spell using a TMC0280 speech synthesizer TI-30 electronic calculator, 1976 The 7400 series of transistor-transistor logic chips, developed by Texas Instruments in the 1960s, popularized the use of integrated circuits in computer logic. The military-grade version of this was the 5400 series.
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He plays the piano, but is too shy to do so around other people. He is also married to Miss Willie, but does not remember that he is, due to the crash. Miss Willie works at the Cloisters in the hopes that one day her Jeffrey will remember her. Hannibal: (20s-40s) Hannibal, once a statistician, was fired and replaced by an electronic calculator.
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Bryce was the only IBM person mentioned. In 1946 Bryce designed the first commercial electronic multiplier using vacuum tubes, which IBM marketed as the IBM 603. He adapted the 603 to become the arithmetic logic unit in the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC). (Includes photo) However, he was too ill to attend the dedication of the SSEC in January 1948, and died in March 1949.
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Friden introduced the first fully transistorized desktop electronic calculator, the model EC-130 in June 1963, designed by Robert "Bob" Appleby Ragen. This machine had a 13-digit capacity and a 5-inch CRT display. It used a magnetostrictive delay line memory, to save money on expensive transistors. The EC-130 sold for $2,200 (), or about three times the price of comparable electromechanical calculators of the time.
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The ELKA 22 The Elka 22 was the second Bulgarian electronic calculator; it was released in 1966 and its serial production began in 1967 in the town of Silistra. Weighing 8.5 kilograms (18.7 pounds), the Elka 22 has 3 registers and operates with 12 decimal digits. Addition speed is 0.3 seconds per operation, and division speed is 0.5 seconds. Its power consumption is 35 watts.
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Faster, Faster - A Simple Description of a Giant Electronic Calculator, and the Problems it Solves. Written with Rebecca Jones, Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory, Columbia University, International Business Machines. McGraw-Hill, 1955- An account for the layman. Says multiplying 1,000 pairs of ten digit numbers would take a week by hand, and could be done by an "electronic supercalculator" (of the day!) in one second.
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Haack recognized early on the potential of computers for scientific and industrial research. As early as 1950 he established a working group on electronic calculating machines. He contacted Konrad Zuse with the aim that an electronic calculator would be acquired for the Technische Universität Berlin. The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft assumed that the existing computing machines at Darmstadt, Göttingen and Munich were sufficient for the time being.
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Retrieved on 2013-04-26. and electronic calculators produced by Texas Instruments.Texas Instruments Calculators (1972–79) – How rare are they?. Vcalc.net. Retrieved on 2013-04-26.Larry Gilbert (January 22, 2003) Longines Symphonette Electronic Calculator Version 1. Datamath (2001-12-05). Retrieved on 2013-04-26. Longines Symphonette was referenced in the lyrics of "Birdhouse in Your Soul", the 1989 single by US alternative rock band They Might Be Giants.
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In keeping with Caravaggio's use of contemporary dress for his Biblical figures, Jarman intentionally includes several anachronisms in the film that do not fit with Caravaggio's life in the 16th century. In one scene, Caravaggio is in a bar lit with electric lights. Another character is seen using an electronic calculator. Car horns are heard honking outside Caravaggio's studio and in one scene Caravaggio is seen leaning on a green truck.
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MCM Model 70 microcomputer 1974 APL keyboard The original design resembled a desktop electronic calculator. Kutt's notes of the era showed his intent to use the cover and display from an extant calculator with a modified power supply, to include a small keyboard with 32 keys, and a display made of either 13 or 15 segmented LEDs. Kutt also created a company, Micro Computer Machines, which would later manufacture the devices.
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A correct version of the argument would be: :1 + 2 = 3, 3 + 3 = 6, 6 + 4 = 10, 10 + 5 = 15. This difficulty results from subtly different uses of the sign in education. In early, arithmetic-focused grades, the equals sign may be operational; like the equals button on an electronic calculator, it demands the result of a calculation. Starting in algebra courses, the sign takes on a relational meaning of equality between two calculations.
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The mechanical versions were made faster and more reliable, then a line of electro-mechanical models was added in the 1930s. It was the first mechanical calculator to receive an all-electronic calculator engine in 1961, with the ANITA Mark VII model released by Sumlock Comptometer. This created the link between the mechanical calculator industries and the electronic. Although the comptometer was primarily an adding machine, it could also do subtractions, multiplication and division.
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A massive machine built to Eckert's specifications was built and installed behind glass at IBM's headquarters on Madison Avenue in January 1948. Known as the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator, it was used as a calculating device with some success, but served even better as a recruiting tool. Eckert published a description of the SSEC in November 1948. As an employee of IBM, Eckert directed one of the first industrial research laboratories in the country.
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The result was the DASK, a vacuum tube-based machine that completed construction in 1956 and went into full operation in February 1957. DASK was followed in 1961 by the fully transistorized GIER, used for similar tasks. GIER is an acronym for "Geodætisk Instituts Elektroniske Regnemaskine" (Institute of Geodetics Electronic Calculator) and was introduced there on September 14, 1961. GIER proved to be a useful machine, and went on to be used at many Danish universities.
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Various desktop mechanical calculators used in the office from 1851 onwards. Each one has a different user interface. This picture shows clockwise from top left: An Arithmometer, a Comptometer, a Dalton adding machine, a Sundstrand and an Odhner Arithmometer A mechanical calculator, or calculating machine, is a mechanical device used to perform the basic operations of arithmetic automatically. Most mechanical calculators were comparable in size to small desktop computers and have been rendered obsolete by the advent of the electronic calculator.
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With money saved up from a dish-washing job and some additional allowance from his father, Iwata purchased an HP-65, the first programmable calculator, in 1974. After entering Hokkaido Sapporo South High School in April 1975, he began developing his own games during his junior year. The several simple number games Iwata produced, such as Volleyball and Missile Attack, made use of an electronic calculator he shared with his schoolmates. He obtained his first computer, a Commodore PET, in 1978.
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In the position shown, the counting wheel meshes with three of the nine teeth of the Leibniz wheel. Mechanical calculator Brunsviga 15 with removed shrouds. A Leibniz wheel or stepped drum is a cylinder with a set of teeth of incremental lengths which, when coupled to a counting wheel, can be used in the calculating engine of a class of mechanical calculators. Invented by Leibniz in 1673, it was used for three centuries until the advent of the electronic calculator in the mid-1970s.
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Ernst Martin p. 133 (1925) Electric motors were used on some mechanical calculators from 1901.Ernst Martin p. 23 (1925) In 1961, a comptometer type machine, the Anita mk7 from Sumlock comptometer Ltd., became the first desktop mechanical calculator to receive an all electronic calculator engine, creating the link in between these two industries and marking the beginning of its decline. The production of mechanical calculators came to a stop in the middle of the 1970s closing an industry that had lasted for 120 years.
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Design of the von Neumann architecture, 1947 The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer had been proposed by Alan Turing in his 1936 paper. In 1945 Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and began his work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His 1945 report ‘Proposed Electronic Calculator’ was the first specification for such a device. Meanwhile, John von Neumann at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, circulated his First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC in 1945.
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The Domus Galilaeana can not be considered a real museum. Throughout its history it has retained various scientific instruments on behalf of other institutions. It housed the instruments of Enrico Fermi, now in Rome, and equipment belonging to Antonio Pacinotti, now in the Museo degli Strumenti per il Calcolo di Pisa, including the "Macchinetta", the first model of an electric motor generator. Domus has also saved from destruction the CEP, Pisana Electronic Calculator, which forms part of the Museo degli Strumenti per il Calcolo collection.
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A single-chip microprocessor was conceived in 1969 by Marcian Hoff. His concept was part of an order by Japanese company Busicom for a desktop programmable electronic calculator, which Hoff wanted to build as cheaply as possible. The first realization of the single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, a 4-bit processor released on a single MOS LSI chip in 1971. It was developed by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS technology, along with Intel engineers Hoff and Stan Mazor, and Busicom engineer Masatoshi Shima.
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Electronic calculator, given out during the Novell BrainShare computer conference for 1995 Promotional merchandise is used globally to promote brands, products, and corporate identity. They are also used as giveaways at events, such as exhibitions and product launches. Promotional products can be used for non-profit organizations to promote their cause, as well as promote certain events that they hold, such as walks or any other event that raises money for a cause. Almost anything can be branded with a company's name or logo and used for promotion.
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Data was stored in the tiny capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away. Toshiba's Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator, which was introduced in 1965,Toscal BC-1411 calculator , Science Museum, London used a form of capacitive bipolar DRAM, storing 180-bit data on discrete memory cells, consisting of germanium bipolar transistors and capacitors. While it offered improved performance over magnetic-core memory, bipolar DRAM could not compete with the lower price of the then dominant magnetic-core memory.
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The first step was to offer a calculator that could be programmed on punch cards in addition to a manual plugboard. This was the Card-Programmed Electronic Calculator, announced in May 1949. It was essentially a commercialized version of experiments done by Wallace John Eckert and customers at Northrop Corporation, but became a very popular product, shipping several thousand units in various models. Based on this demand, Hurd advised new company president Tom Watson, Jr. to build the first IBM commercial stored program computer, first called the Defense Calculator.
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Henry Edward "Ed" Roberts (September 13, 1941 – April 1, 2010) was an American engineer, entrepreneur and medical doctor who invented the first commercially successful personal computer in 1974. The article gives his date of birth as September 13, 1941. He is most often known as "the father of the personal computer." He founded Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) in 1970 to sell electronics kits to model rocketry hobbyists, but the first successful product was an electronic calculator kit that was featured on the cover of the November 1971 issue of Popular Electronics.
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This system has been subsequently adopted by most NYSE-affiliated brokers till the 1960s. In 1956, a solution called Teleregister, came to the market; this electro-mechanical board existed in two versions, of the top 50 or top 200 securities listed on the NYSE; but one had to be interested in those equities, and not in other ones... During the 1960s, the trader's workstation was remarkable for the overcrowding of telephones. The trader juggled with handsets to discuss with several brokers simultaneously. The electromechanical, then electronic, calculator enabled him or her to perform basic computations.
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Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) was an American electronics company founded in Albuquerque, New Mexico that began manufacturing electronic calculators in 1971 and personal computers in 1975. Ed Roberts and Forrest Mims founded MITS in December 1969 to produce miniaturized telemetry modules for model rockets such as a roll rate sensor.The editor describes the first MITS modules with photo of the units. In 1971, Roberts redirected the company into the electronic calculator market and the MITS 816 desktop calculator kit was featured on the November 1971 cover of Popular Electronics.
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This was the first mass-produced electronic calculator to be battery-powered. It replaced the QT-8D's integrated power supply with a rechargeable battery pack, but it was otherwise nearly identical to the QT-8D. The four ICs of the QT-8D and QT-8B were also used as the basis of the Sharp EL-8, one of the first mass-produced hand-held electronic calculators, introduced in 1971. Sharp also built OEM versions of the QT-8D for the Swedish office machine company Facit and its subsidiary Addo, which sold them as the Facit 1115 and the Addo-X 9354.
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After moving to New York City he trained initially as a radio technician and became interested in mathematics. He graduated from Columbia University with a bachelor's degree in 1949 and a master's degree in 1950, both in mathematics, and joined IBM in 1950. During his first three years, he worked on the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC); his first major project was to write a program to calculate positions of the Moon. In 1953 Backus developed the language Speedcoding, the first high-level language created for an IBM computer, to aid in software development for the IBM 701 computer.
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They replaced the latch with two transistors and two resistors, a configuration that became known as the Farber-Schlig cell. That year they submitted an invention closure, but it was initially rejected. In 1965, Benjamin Agusta and his team at IBM created a 16-bit silicon memory chip based on the Farber-Schlig cell, with 80 transistors, 64 resistors, and 4 diodes. The Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 electronic calculator, which was introduced in November 1965,Toscal BC-1411 calculator , Science Museum, London used a form of capacitive DRAM (180 bit) built from discrete bipolar memory cells.
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The Bulgarian ELKA 22 from 1967 There followed a series of electronic calculator models from these and other manufacturers, including Canon, Mathatronics, Olivetti, SCM (Smith-Corona-Marchant), Sony, Toshiba, and Wang. The early calculators used hundreds of germanium transistors, which were cheaper than silicon transistors, on multiple circuit boards. Display types used were CRT, cold-cathode Nixie tubes, and filament lamps. Memory technology was usually based on the delay line memory or the magnetic core memory, though the Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 appears to have used an early form of dynamic RAM built from discrete components.
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The contestant in control chooses six of 24 shuffled face-down number tiles, arranged into two groups: 20 "small numbers" (two each of 1 through 10), and four "large numbers" of 25, 50, 75 and 100. Some special episodes replace the large numbers with 12, 37, 62 and 87. The contestant decides how many large numbers are to be used, from none to all four, after which the six tiles are randomly drawn and placed on the board. A random three-digit target number is then generated by an electronic machine, known as "CECIL" (which stands for Countdown's Electronic Calculator In Leeds).
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In April 1966, Curry joined Sinclair Radionics, a company founded by Clive Sinclair in 1961. Curry was to play an important role in getting Sinclair interested in both calculators and computers in his thirteen years with the company. Curry was at first involved with Sinclair's hifi products, which included amplifiers and speakers, and he also worked on Sinclair's electric vehicle, a project that would turn into the C5 some years later. In 1972, Sinclair Radionics launched its first electronic calculator, the Executive, which was considerably smaller than its competitors since it used hearing-aid-sized batteries.
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The project was managed by John R. Womersley, superintendent of the Mathematics Division of the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). The use of the word Engine was in homage to Charles Babbage and his Difference Engine and Analytical Engine. Turing's technical design Proposed Electronic Calculator was the product of his theoretical work in 1936 "On Computable Numbers" (and ) and his wartime experience at Bletchley Park where the Colossus computers had been successful in breaking German military codes. In his 1936 paper, Turing described his idea as a "universal computing machine", but it is now known as the Universal Turing machine.
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Electronic calculator prototype, made by Thomas E. Osborne for Hewlett-Packard, 1964, in the National Museum of American History The unit was descended from a prototype produced by engineer Thomas "Tom" E. Osborne, who joined the company when HP decided to adopt the project."How the Model 9100A Was Developed", Bernard M. Oliver, September 1968, Hewlett-Packard Journal]1994 letter from Tom Osborne to Barney Oliver, hp9825.com An engineering triumph at the time, the logic circuit was produced without any integrated circuits, the assembly of the CPU having been entirely executed in discrete components. With CRT readout, magnetic card storage, and printer, the price was around $5,000 ($ today).
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Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow random access for read operations, but either do not allow write operations or have other kinds of limitations on them. These include most types of ROM and a type of flash memory called NOR-Flash. The two main types of volatile random-access semiconductor memory are static random-access memory (SRAM) and dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). Commercial uses of semiconductor RAM date back to 1965, when IBM introduced the SP95 SRAM chip for their System/360 Model 95 computer, and Toshiba used DRAM memory cells for its Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator, both based on bipolar transistors.
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Anita Calculators Nigel Tout The first half of the twentieth century saw the company expand into different markets, including in cinema and theatre ticketing, horse race totalisator ticket machines, taximeters and mechanical calculators.Bell Punch Co , Graces Guide - The Best of British Engineering 1750-1960's In the Second World War the company developed and manufactured a variety of military equipment, including mechanical aircraft navigation computers and naval gunnery sighting and ranging devices. In 1958 it began development of a desktop electronic calculator, which came to market as the Sumlock ANITA in 1961. The calculator division was established as Sumlock Anita Electronics Ltd in 1966.
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Aiken published a press release announcing the Mark I listing himself as the sole “inventor”. James W. Bryce was the only IBM person mentioned, even though several IBM engineers including Clair Lake and Frank Hamilton had helped to build various elements. IBM chairman Thomas J. Watson was enraged, and only reluctantly attended the dedication ceremony on August 7, 1944. Aiken, in turn, decided to build further machines without IBM’s help, and the ASCC came to be generally known as the "Harvard Mark I". IBM went on to build its Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) to both test new technology and provide more publicity for the company's own efforts.
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The paper was read by dozens of von Neumann's colleagues in America and Europe, and influenced the next round of computer designs. Jack Copeland considers that it is "historically inappropriate, to refer to electronic stored-program digital computers as 'von Neumann machines'". His Los Alamos colleague Stan Frankel said of von Neumann's regard for Turing's ideas: At the time that the "First Draft" report was circulated, Turing was producing a report entitled Proposed Electronic Calculator. It described in engineering and programming detail, his idea of a machine he called the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE). He presented this to the Executive Committee of the British National Physical Laboratory on February 19, 1946.
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Florence dotes on a doll as if it were her 5-year-old living son (who had died at infancy). Hannibal (a statistician who lost his reason after being replaced by an electronic calculator and not finding work again) believes himself to be a concert violinist, even though he cannot play the violin. Mrs. Paddy, who had been told by her husband to "shut up" years before, rarely speaks except to shout out protracted lists of things she hates (including electricity, which she has given up for Lent) She believes herself to be a great artist, though her painting style is simplistic. Soon, Mrs.
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In USSR, the first electronic calculator "Vega", which was produced from 1964, contains 20 decimal digits with seven-segment electroluminescent display. In a simple LED package, typically all of the cathodes (negative terminals) or all of the anodes (positive terminals) of the segment LEDs are connected and brought out to a common pin; this is referred to as a "common cathode" or "common anode" device. Hence a 7 segment plus decimal point package will only require nine pins, though commercial products typically contain more pins, and/or spaces where pins would go, in order to match standard IC sockets. Integrated displays also exist, with single or multiple digits.
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It was a great success, and Friden became the chief designer until he left in 1934 to found his own company. In 1958 the company was acquired by the Smith Corona typewriter company in a diversification move that proved unsound; the company, which was now known as SCM, tried to stay competitive by introducing the SCM Cogito 240SR electronic calculator (designed by Manhattan Project veteran Stan Frankel) in 1965. Within a few years a tidal wave of cheaper electronic calculators had devastated their business, and by the mid-1980s, SCM's typewriter business, too, had been ruined by the advent of inexpensive personal computers used as word processors.
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One of the earliest results was the System Darmstadt slide rule, which was widely used in mechanical engineering. Another development was an electromechanical integration system. After the Second World War, the institute concentrated increasingly on the development of electronic computer systems. Due to the reputation that TH Darmstadt had at that time in automatic computation research, the first congress on the subject of computer science (electronic calculators and information processing) held in German-speaking countries with international participation took place at TH Darmstadt in October 1955. The Darmstadt Electronic Calculator (DERA), which was completed in 1959, was created with the help of the German Research Foundation (DFG).
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Piloty was born on 6 June 1924 as the son of Hans Piloty. After studying electrical engineering, he received his doctorate in microwave technology from the Technical University of Munich (TU Munich). Inspired by a study visit to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he visited the Whirlwind I, the Program-Controlled Electronic Calculator Munich (PERM) was created by his initiative and under his technical direction from 1949 at the TU Munich. The PERM project under the overall direction of his father Hans Piloty and his mathematician colleague Robert Sauer established the necessary hardware and software basis for many further research projects in the then emerging field of computer science.
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Casio fx-115ES—A modern scientific calculator from Casio with a dot matrix "Natural Textbook" LCD solar-powered scientific calculator from the 1980s using a single-line LCD A scientific calculator is a type of electronic calculator, usually but not always handheld, designed to calculate problems in science, engineering, and mathematics. They have completely replaced slide rules in traditional applications, and are widely used in both education and professional settings. In certain contexts such as higher education, scientific calculators have been superseded by graphing calculators, which offer a superset of scientific calculator functionality along with the ability to graph input data and write and store programs for the device. There is also some overlap with the financial calculator market.
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Glass platters had several advantages, such as greater shock resistance, compared to aluminium platter.Toshiba MK1122FC, Information Processing Society of Japan ;Random-access memory (RAM) The Toshiba Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator, which debuted in 1965,Toscal BC-1411 calculator, Science Museum, LondonToshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 Desktop Calculator introduced an early form of dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) built from discrete components. By 1986, NEC and AMD were manufacturing 32 KB VRAM (Video RAM) chips, compared to Texas Instruments which were manufacturing 8 KB VRAM chips at the time.Advances in Computer Graphics II, page 172, Springer Science+Business Media ;Optical discs The compact disc (CD) format was developed by Sony and Philips in 1979, and commercially released in 1982.
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He taught and later served as a technical research head under Alston Scott Householder. At Oak Ridge he supervised the installation of an IBM 602 calculating punched card machine to automate the tracking of material in the facility, and saw the potential for automating the massive amounts of computation needed for nuclear Physics research. In February 1948 he was invited to the dedication of the IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC), a custom-built machine in New York City. He asked if the SSEC could be used for calculations being done at Oak Ridge for the NEPA project to power an airplane with a nuclear reactor, but the demands for the SSEC produced a backlog.
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In 1946 Desch filed an application for a patent on an electronic calculator designed by him and Bob Mumma, as part of an application initiated in March 1940. This brought about three interferences filed in the US Patent Office between their application and one by Arthur Dickinson of IBM. Eventually these were settled in favor of Desch, in part because he proved Dickinson's design unworkable, and gave Desch and Mumma the first patent on the modern digital computer. His career after this point was noteworthy, and he was especially proud in later years of his work with Bob Mumma in the development of the NCR 304, the first completely solid state computer.
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Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak originally designed the Apple I computer while working at HP and offered it to them under their right of first refusal to his work; they did not take it up as the company wanted to stay in scientific, business, and industrial markets. Wozniak said that HP "turned him down five times", but that his loyalty to HP made him hesitant to start Apple with Steve Jobs. The company earned global respect for a variety of products. They introduced the world's first handheld scientific electronic calculator in 1972 (the HP-35), the first handheld programmable in 1974 (the HP-65), the first alphanumeric, programmable, expandable in 1979 (the HP-41C), and the first symbolic and graphing calculator, the HP-28C.
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The Curta was popular among contestants in sports car rallies during the 1960s, 1970s and into the 1980s. Even after the introduction of the electronic calculator for other purposes, they were used in time-speed-distance (TSD) rallies to aid in computation of times to checkpoints, distances off-course and so on, since the early electronic calculators did not fare well with the bounces and jolts of rally racing. The Curta was also favored by commercial and general-aviation pilots before the advent of electronic calculators because of its precision and the user's ability to confirm the accuracy of his or her manipulations via the revolution counter. Because calculations such as weight and balance are critical for safe flight, precise results free of pilot error are essential.
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HP-12C financial calculator including functions to calculate depreciation and net present value. A financial calculator or business calculator is an electronic calculator that performs financial functions commonly needed in business and commerce communities (simple interest, compound interest, cash flow, amortization, conversion, cost/sell/margin, etc.). It has standalone keys for many financial calculations and functions, making such calculations more direct than on standard calculators.. It may be user programmable, allowing the user to add functions that the manufacturer has not provided by default.. Examples of financial calculators are the HP 12C, HP-10B and the TI BA II.. A wide number of graphing calculators, like the Casio FX-9860GII, the Texas Instruments TI-89 Titanium, and the Hewlett Packard HP-48GII include complex financial calculations.
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These simple video games were variations on the theme of the calculator watch, and the patent covering the Game Watch line is in fact classified as an "electronic calculator watch structure." The company's first game watch was called Space Attacker.Crecente, Brian Cigarettes, Space Invaders and the birth of the game watch Becoming the first electronics manufacturer in the United States to produce game-watches, Nelsonic earned a large share in this specialized market and was able to earn the attention of large video game companies at events such as the Consumer Electronics Show. Having caught the popular attention and with goodwill at a high-point, Nelsonic was able to obtain licensing from several big-name video game companies such as Sega, Nintendo,Licensing from Nintendo was obtained in 1985.
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Mechanical calculators continued to be sold, though in rapidly decreasing numbers, into the early 1970s, with many of the manufacturers closing down or being taken over. Comptometer type calculators were often retained for much longer to be used for adding and listing duties, especially in accounting, since a trained and skilled operator could enter all the digits of a number in one movement of the hands on a comptometer quicker than was possible serially with a 10-key electronic calculator. In fact, it was quicker to enter larger digits in two strokes using only the lower-numbered keys; for instance, a 9 would be entered as 4 followed by 5. Some key-driven calculators had keys for every column, but only 1 through 5; they were correspondingly compact.
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Turing's report on the ACE was written in late 1945 and included detailed logical circuit diagrams and a cost estimate of £11,200. He felt that speed and size of memory were crucial and he proposed a high-speed memory of what would today be called 25 kilobytes, accessed at a speed of 1 MHz; he remarked that for the purposes required "the memory needs to be very large indeed by comparison with standards which prevail in most valve and relay work, and [so] it is necessary to look for some more economical form of storage", and that memory "appears to be the main limitation in the design of a calculator, i.e. if the storage problem can be solved all the rest is comparatively straightforward".Proposed electronic calculator, Turing, 1945.
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Some of Turing's cryptanalysis work, such as on the Bombe, was done through this model of a computing machine searching through possibilities for a solution. He continued to discuss the idea with his colleagues throughout the war, such as with economic statistician D. G. Champernowne in 1944, and by 1945 he was convinced that a machine capable of performing general computations would be theoretically capable of replicating anything a human brain could do, including playing chess. After World War II, Turing worked at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), where he designed the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE), among the first designs for a stored-program computer. In 1946, Turing wrote a report for the NPL entitled "Proposed Electronic Calculator" that described several projects that he planned to use the ACE for; one of these was a program to play chess.
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The Stock Exchange add-on was later redesigned and re-released in 1992 under license by Chessex, this time including a larger number of new Chance and Community Chest cards. This version included ten new Chance cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and five other related cards) and eleven new Community Chest cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and six other related cards; the regular Community Chest card "From sale of stock you get $45" is removed from play when using these cards). Many of the original rules applied to this new version (in fact, one optional play choice allows for playing in the original form by only adding the "Advance to Stock Exchange" cards to each deck). A Monopoly Stock Exchange Edition was released in 2001 (although not in the U.S.), this time adding an electronic calculator-like device to keep track of the complex stock figures.
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100 microsecond delay line store Delay line memory was far less expensive and far more reliable per bit than flip-flops made from tubes, and yet far faster than a latching relay. It was used right into the late 1960s, notably on commercial machines like the LEO I, Highgate Wood Telephone Exchange, various Ferranti machines, and the IBM 2848 Display Control. Delay line memory was also used for video memory in early terminals, where one delay line would typically store 4 lines of characters. (4 lines x 40 characters per line x 6 bits per character= 960 bits in one delay line) They were also used very successfully in several models of early desktop electronic calculator, including the Friden EC-130 (1964) and EC-132, the Olivetti Programma 101 desktop programmable calculator introduced in 1965, and the Litton Monroe Epic 2000 and 3000 programmable calculators of 1967.
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Because it was the first mass-marketed and the first widely copied calculator, its design marks the starting point of the mechanical calculator industry, which evolved into the electronic calculator industry and which, through the accidental design of the first microprocessor to be commercialized, the Intel 4004, for one of Busicom's calculators in 1971, led to the first commercially available personal computer, the Altair in 1975. Its user interface was used throughout during the 120 years that the mechanical calculator industry lasted. First with its clones and then with the Odhner arithmometer and its clones, which was a redesign of the arithmometerTrogemann G.: Computing in Russia, page 41, GWV-Vieweg, 2001, with a pinwheel system but with exactly the same user interface. Over the years, the term arithmometer or parts of it have been used on many different machines like Odhner's arithmometer, the Arithmaurel or the Comptometer, and on some portable pocket calculating machines of the 1940s.
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The price war with Texas Instruments was seen as a personal battle for Commodore president Jack Tramiel. Commodore dropped the C64's list price by $200 within two months after its release. In June 1983 the company lowered the price to $300, and some stores sold the computer for $199. At one point, the company was selling as many C64s as all computers sold by the rest of the industry combined. Meanwhile, the TI lost money by selling the 99/4A for $99. TI's subsequent demise in the home computer industry in October 1983 was seen as revenge for TI's tactics in the electronic calculator market in the mid-1970s, when Commodore was almost bankrupted by TI. All four machines had similar memory configurations which were standard in 1982–83: 48 KB for the Apple II+ (upgraded within months of C64's release to 64 KB with the Apple IIe) and 48 KB for the Atari 800. At upwards of $1,200, the Apple II was about twice as expensive, while the Atari 800 cost $899.
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Turing was sought by Womersley to work in the NPL on the ACE project; he accepted and began work on 1 October 1945 and by the end of the year he completed his outline of his 'Proposed electronic calculator', which was the first reasonably complete design of a stored- program computer and, apart from being on a much larger scale than the final working machine, anticipated the final realisation in most important respects.Origins and development of the ACE project, B. J. Copeland, in Copeland (2005). However, because of the strict and long-lasting secrecy around the Bletchley Park work, he was prohibited (because of the Official Secrets Act) from explaining that he knew that his ideas could be implemented in an electronic device. The better-known EDVAC design presented in the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC (dated 30 June 1945), by John von Neumann, who knew of Turing's theoretical work, received much publicity, despite its incomplete nature and questionable lack of attribution of the sources of some of the ideas.
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They were all located in Mesa, Arizona. By the time the project was finished, Bennett had 17 chip designers and layout people working on five chips. LaVell had 15 to 20 system engineers and there was another applications engineering group of similar size.Motorola 6800 Oral History (2008) Tom Bennett had a background in industrial controls and had worked for Victor Comptometer in the 1960s designing the first electronic calculator to use MOS ICs, the Victor 3900. In May 1969 Ted Hoff showed Bennett early diagrams of the Intel 4004 to see if it would meet their calculator needs. Bennett joined Motorola in 1971 to design calculator ICs. He was soon assigned as the chief architect of the microprocessor project that produced the 6800.Bennett, Thomas H., "Split low order internal address bus for microprocessor", US Patent 3962682, issued June 8, 1976. Bennett is listed as an inventor on 18 M6800 family patents. Others have taken credit for designing the 6800. In September 1975 Robert H. Cushman, EDN magazine's microprocessor editor, interviewed Chuck Peddle about MOS Technology's new 6502 microprocessor. Cushman then asked "Tom Bennett, master architect of the 6800", to comment about this new competitor. After the 6800 project Bennett worked on automotive applications and Motorola became a major supplier of microprocessors used in automobiles.
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Intel 1103, a 1970 metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) chip. The invention of the MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, enabled the practical use of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors as memory cell storage elements, a function previously served by magnetic cores. The first modern memory cells were introduced in 1964, when John Schmidt designed the first 64-bit p-channel MOS (PMOS) static random-access memory (SRAM). SRAM typically has six- transistor cells, whereas DRAM (dynamic random-access memory) typically has single-transistor cells. In 1965, Toshiba's Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator used a form of capacitive bipolar DRAM, storing 180-bit data on discrete memory cells, consisting of germanium bipolar transistors and capacitors.Toshiba "Toscal" BC-1411 Desktop Calculator MOS technology is the basis for modern DRAM. In 1966, Dr. Robert H. Dennard at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center was working on MOS memory. While examining the characteristics of MOS technology, he found it was capable of building capacitors, and that storing a charge or no charge on the MOS capacitor could represent the 1 and 0 of a bit, while the MOS transistor could control writing the charge to the capacitor.
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