" Often, he says, "the worst interpretation" is given full attention while potentially disconfirming evidence "is neglected.
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It is only when there is disconfirming evidence — evidence that runs contrary to what one knows — that the best model emerge.
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Rigid in party loyalty, yet limber in mind, Republicans and Democrats can deftly vault past disconfirming information to land in vastly different economic realities.
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The search for disconfirming evidence, however, can sometimes be short-circuited, especially when we feel close to the person making an argument we disagree with.
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These behaviors may increase the amount of persecutory delusions the person experiences because the safety behaviors prevent the affected person from disconfirming the threatening beliefs.
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The result of this process results in a bias towards maintaining existing affect, even in the face of other, disconfirming information. This theory of motivated reasoning is fully developed and tested in Lodge and Taber's The Rationalizing Voter (2013). David Redlawsk (2002) found that the timing of when disconfirming information was introduced played a role in determining bias. When subjects encountered incongruity during an information search, the automatic assimilation and update process was interrupted.
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Without a feeling of discomfort, people are not motivated to change. Similarly, it is the feeling of discomfort which motivates people to perform selective exposure (i.e., avoiding disconfirming information) as a dissonance-reduction strategy.
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For example, confirmation bias produces systematic errors in scientific research based on inductive reasoning (the gradual accumulation of supportive evidence). Similarly, a police detective may identify a suspect early in an investigation, but then may only seek confirming rather than disconfirming evidence.
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He posits that it is the juxtaposition of the client's expectations, based upon negative memories "locked-in" by durable synapses, and the disconfirming present moment experience that re-consolidates memory, leading to neuroplastic change. Ecker suggests that AEDP therapists could enhance the effects of healing change by making this juxtaposition explicit.
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Group cognitive behavioral therapy for delusions: helping patients improve reality testing. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 36, 9-17. Reality testing can be used in this way to help facilitate corrective emotional experiences by disconfirming and altering previously held negative or unrealistic expectations in favor of more adaptive functions.Alexander, F. G. (1980).
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Sometimes included in his documentation were medical records like autopsy photographs.Cadoret, Remi. Book Review: European Cases of the Reincarnation Type The American Journal of Psychiatry, April 2005. Expecting controversy and skepticism, Stevenson also searched for disconfirming evidence and alternative explanations for the reports, but, as the Washington Post reported, in scores of cases he concluded that no normal explanation sufficed.
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Neuroimaging studies have provided evidence for links between brain damage and memory errors. Brain areas implicated include the frontal lobe and medial-temporal regions of the brain. Such damage may result in significant confabulations and source confusion. The prefrontal cortex is in charge of making heuristic judgments and systematic judgments, which involve analyzing the qualities of memories and the retrieval and evaluation of supporting or disconfirming information.
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They found that people were more likely to look for information that would be "useful for inferring a cause" following disconfirmation and less likely to do so following a confirmation of their expectancy. Though people are more likely to engage in causal processing when there is a discrepancy between belief and outcome, there is a strong bias towards expectancy confirmation. Similarly, disconfirming behavior can be discredited in many ways, including but not limited to selective attention to confirmatory evidence and biased labeling.
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Stage 2 peer review confirms that the actual research methods are consistent with the preregistered protocol and that quality thresholds are met (e.g., manipulation checks confirm the validity of the experimental manipulation). Studies that pass Stage 2 peer review are then published regardless of whether the results are confirming or disconfirming, significant or nonsignificant. Hence, both preregistration and registered reports involve creating a time-stamped non-modifiable public record of the study and analysis plan before the data is collected.
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Such interaction between ingroup and outgroup meta-prejudice can strengthen prejudice and stereotypes in an individual. Furthermore, ingroup members may attempt to modify the perceived stereotype held by the outgroup about the ingroup (i.e. meta-stereotype) to their advantage by confirming the positive traits and disconfirming the negative ones. For example, a group of undergraduate Belgian students (ingroup) were more likely to confirm self-identified meta-stereotypical traits about the Belgian population in front of a French audience (outgroup) when the trait was positive and disconfirm it when it was negative.
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It is believed that the therapeutic relationship may be transformative when the patient feels safe in the relationship, and perceives the therapist's attitudes toward them as disconfirming a pathogenic belief. Treatment by attitude may be planned according to the therapist's understanding of the patient's history and psychology, or happen spontaneously and outside the conscious awareness of either participant. The concept of treatment by attitudes can be likened to the concept of the corrective emotional experience described by Alexander and French in 1946, but there are some differences. In CMT, the therapeutic work is viewed more as a collaborative effort.
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The concept of coaching is unique to CMT, and refers to patient behaviors and communications designed to attune the therapist to the patient's conscious and unconscious goals, and how best to address the patient's issues. Through coaching the therapist, the patient informs and guides the therapist in how to most efficiently support them in carrying out their plan for treatment. Coaching behaviors are thought to be most prevalent at the beginning of therapy, as well as before, during and after presenting important tests to the therapist. Also, coaching may be used to alter the therapeutic relationship, for example when patients want to change their strategy for disconfirming pathogenic beliefs.
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Schulz, C. (1968). Peanuts. Boulder, CO: The Boulder Daily Camera, May 17, 1968. In this example, Charlie provides a simplified illustration of the self- concept as a summary formulation of one's status (“nothing” existing in a world composed of "somethings" and "nothings"), and illustrates, according to SDT, how what is fundamental about self-concepts is not that they are informational summaries of myriad facts about oneself, but that they are self- assigned statuses that place persons somewhere in the scheme of things and carry eligibilities with them. A well-documented fact about self-concepts is that they are resistant to change, even in the face of what would seem to be disconfirming facts that are recognized by the person.
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Dick Heuer spent years in the CIA Directorate of Operations (DO) as well as the DI, and worked on methodology of analysis both in his later years and after retirement. Some of his key conclusions, coming from both experience and an academic background in philosophy, include: #The mind is poorly "wired" to deal effectively with both inherent uncertainty (the natural fog surrounding complex, indeterminate intelligence issues) and induced uncertainty (the man-made fog fabricated by denial and deception operations). #Even increased awareness of cognitive and other "unmotivated" biases, such as the tendency to see information confirming an already-held judgment more vividly than one sees "disconfirming" information, does little by itself to help analysts deal effectively with uncertainty. #Tools and techniques that gear the analyst's mind to apply higher levels of critical thinking can substantially improve analysis on complex issues on which information is incomplete, ambiguous, and often deliberately distorted.
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