304 Sentences With "crystalline solid" | Random Sentence Generator

Meanwhile, one bartender is using DIY technology to master the crystalline solid that keeps our drinks cold.

It's a white crystalline solid that's highly toxic to fish, and moderately toxic to birds and honeybees.

InF3 is a white crystalline solid with mp 1170 °C. Its structure contains 6 coordinate indium.

InCl3 is a white crystalline solid mp 586 °C. It has the same structure as AlCl3.

2007, 882 ;Thallium(I) chloride :TlCl is a light sensitive, white crystalline solid, mp 430 °C. The crystal structure is the same as CsCl. ;Thallium(I) bromide :TlBr is a light sensitive, pale yellow crystalline solid, mp 460 °C. The crystal structure is the same as CsCl.

3-MeO-PCP hydrochloride is a white crystalline solid with a melting point of 204–205 °C.

Ammonium formate, NH4HCO2, is the ammonium salt of formic acid. It is a colorless, hygroscopic, crystalline solid.

It is a crystalline solid that is slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in ethanol and diethyl ether.

It is a yellowish-white crystalline solid that has a slight solubility in hot water, but high solubility in ethanol.

It too can be obtained by electrolysis of a saturated potassium carbonate solution at −20 °C. It is a light blue crystalline solid that decomposes at 141 °C, releasing oxygen and carbon dioxide, and decomposes slowly at lower temperatures. Rubidium peroxodicarbonate is a light blue crystalline solid that decomposes at . Its structure was published in 2003.

Ethyl lacceroate can be obtained as a crystalline solid (rhombic plates, mp 76 °C) by the action of HCl gas on lacceroic acid in boiling absolute alcohol.

Sodium propanoate or sodium propionate is the sodium salt of propionic acid which has the chemical formula Na(C2H5COO). This white crystalline solid is deliquescent in moist air.

Chemical Book. Accessed on 2009-07-05. Benzenehexol is a crystalline solid soluble in hot water, with a melting point above 310°. It can be prepared from inositol (cyclohexanehexol).

Octachlorpropane is a clear white crystalline solid at room temperature, with hexagonal crystal structure. It is easily deformed by mechanical stress, without losing its crystal structure—like a metal.

TCL is a white crystalline solid at room temperature, soluble in common organic solvents. Its melting point is 81.5-83 °C, its boiling point is 265 °C. It is corrosive.

Ammonium bisulfate, also known as ammonium hydrogen sulfate, is a white, crystalline solid with the formula (NH4)HSO4. It is the product of the half- neutralization of sulfuric acid by ammonia.

InBr3 is a pale yellow crystalline solid, m.p. 435 °C. It has the same structure as AlCl3. InBr3 is finding some use in organic synthesis as a water tolerant Lewis acid.

Cis-stilbene is a liquid at room temperature (melting point: ), while trans-stilbene is a crystalline solid which does not melt until around , illustrating the two isomers have significantly different physical properties.

Bispidine (3,7-diazabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane) is an organic compound that is classified as a bicyclic diamine. Although synthetic, it is related structurally to natural alkaloid sparteine. It is a white crystalline solid.

Lactamide is an amide derived from lactic acid. It is a white crystalline solid with a melting point of 73-76 °C. Lactamide can be prepared by the catalytic hydration of lactonitrile.

Tetrarhodium dodecacarbonyl is the chemical compound with the formula Rh4(CO)12. This dark-red crystalline solid is the smallest stable binary rhodium carbonyl. It is used as a catalyst in organic synthesis.

Neptunium(IV) oxide, or neptunium dioxide, is a radioactive, olive green cubic crystalline solid with the formula NpO2. It is a common product of plutonium fission, and emits both α- and γ-particles.

InBr is a red crystalline solid, mp 285 °C. It has the same structure as \beta-TlI, with an orthorhombic distorted rock salt structure. It can be prepared from indium metal and InBr3.

Mercury(II) bromide or mercuric bromide is the chemical compound composed of mercury and bromine with the formula HgBr2. This white crystalline solid is a laboratory reagent. Like mercury(II) chloride, it is extremely toxic.

When pure, parathion is a white crystalline solid. It is commonly distributed as a brown liquid that smells of rotting eggs or garlic. The insecticide is somewhat stable, although it darkens when exposed to sunlight.

Miglustat is an iminosugar, a synthetic analogue of D-glucose and a white to off-white crystalline solid that has a bitter taste.European Medicines Agency 1 April 2003 Scientific discussion related to approval of Zavesca.

Oxamide is the organic compound with the formula (CONH2)2. This white crystalline solid is soluble in ethanol, slightly soluble in water and insoluble in diethyl ether. Oxamide is the diamide derived from oxalic acid.

3-Nitrochlorobenzene is an organic compound with the formula C6H4ClNO2. It is a yellow crystalline solid that is important as a precursor to other compounds due to the two reactive sites present on the molecule.

MSM and the corresponding sulfoxide, dimethyl sulfoxide ((CH3)2SO, or DMSO), have different physical properties. MSM is a white crystalline solid at room temperature (m.p. = 109 °C) whereas DMSO is typically a liquid (m.p. = 19 °C).

Cyclopentadienyltungsten tricarbonyl dimer is the organotungsten compound with the formula Cp2W2(CO)6, where Cp is C5H5. A dark red crystalline solid, it is the subject of research, although it has no or few practical uses.

Ammonium sulfamate (or ammonium sulphamate) is a white crystalline solid, readily soluble in water. It is commonly used as a broad spectrum herbicide, with additional uses as a compost accelerator, flame retardant and in industrial processes.

Rhenium(IV) oxide or rhenium dioxide is the inorganic compound with the formula ReO2. This gray to black crystalline solid is a laboratory reagent that can be used as a catalyst. It adopts the rutile structure.

2,4-Dinitrotoluene (DNT) or dinitro is an organic compound with the formula C7H6N2O4. This pale yellow crystalline solid is well known as a precursor to trinitrotoluene (TNT) but is mainly produced as a precursor to toluene diisocyanate.

Suberic acid, also octanedioic acid, is a dicarboxylic acid, with formula C8H14O4. It is a colorless crystalline solid used in drug syntheses and plastics manufacture. Its name is derived from the Latin word suber which means cork.

Phosphorus pentoxide is a chemical compound with molecular formula P4O10 (with its common name derived from its empirical formula, P2O5). This white crystalline solid is the anhydride of phosphoric acid. It is a powerful desiccant and dehydrating agent.

Thioacetamide is an organosulfur compound with the formula C2H5NS. This white crystalline solid is soluble in water and serves as a source of sulfide ions in the synthesis of organic and inorganic compounds. It is a prototypical thioamide.

Chromyl fluoride is an inorganic compound with the formula CrO2F2. It is a violet-red colored crystalline solid that melts to an orange-red liquid.Gard, G. L. (1986) "Chromium Difluoride Dioxide (Chromyl Fluoride)," Inorg. Synth., 24, 67-69, .

Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) (sometimes called quatrotriphenylphosphine) is the chemical compound [Pd(P(C6H5)3)4], often abbreviated Pd(PPh3)4, or rarely PdP4. It is a bright yellow crystalline solid that becomes brown upon decomposition in air.

Tetraphenylcyclopentadienone is an organic compound with the formula (C6H5)4C4CO. It is a dark purple to black crystalline solid that is soluble in organic solvents. It is an easily made building block for many organic and organometallic compounds.

This compound is a yellow crystalline solid that is used in chemical laboratories as a weak reductant. The iron(II) core is easily oxidized to iron(III), yielding the monovalent cation decamethylferrocenium, and even to higher oxidation states.

Beryllium telluride (BeTe) is a chemical compound of beryllium and tellurium. It is a crystalline solid with the lattice constant of 0.5615 nm. It is a semiconductor with a large energy gap of around 3 eV. Toxicity is unknown.

Zinc nitrate is an inorganic chemical compound with the formula Zn(NO3)2 . This white, crystalline solid is highly deliquescent and is typically encountered as a hexahydrate Zn(NO3)2•6H2O. It is soluble in both water and alcohol.

Apigenin (4′,5,7-trihydroxyflavone), found in many plants, is a natural product belonging to the flavone class that is the aglycone of several naturally occurring glycosides. It is a yellow crystalline solid that has been used to dye wool.

Germanium(IV) iodide is an orange-red crystalline solid with melting point 144 °C and boiling point 440 °C (with decomposition). Its specific density is 4.32. It is soluble in non-polar solvents like carbon disulfide, chloroform or benzene.

1,1'-Carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) is an organic compound with the molecular formula (C3H3N2)2CO. It is a white crystalline solid. It is often used for the coupling of amino acids for peptide synthesis and as a reagent in organic synthesis.

Like a crystalline solid, but unlike a liquid, liquid crystals react to polarized light. Other types of liquid crystals are described in the main article on these states. Several types have technological importance, for example, in liquid crystal displays.

Cobalt(III) nitrate is a stable green crystalline solid,W. Levason and C. A. McAuliffe (1974): "Higher oxidation state chemistry of iron, cobalt, and nickel". Coordination Chemistry Reviews, volume 12, issue 2, pages 151-184. that sublimates at ambient temperature.

Cyclopentadienylchromium tricarbonyl dimer is the organochromium compound with the formula Cp2Cr2(CO)6, where Cp is C5H5. A dark green crystalline solid. It is the subject of research it exists in measureable equilibrium quantities with the monometallic radical CpCr(CO)3.

Lagochilin is a bitter diterpene that forms a grey crystalline solid. It is found in various plants from the genus Lagochilus, most notably Lagochilus inebrians, and is thought to be responsible for the sedative, hypotensive and hemostatic effects of this plant.

Every crystalline solid has a unique pattern of d-spacings (known as the powder pattern), which is a fingerprint for that solid. Solids with the same chemical composition but different phases can be identified by their pattern of d-spacings.

Cerium(III) oxalate (cerous oxalate) is the inorganic cerium salt of oxalic acid. It is a white crystalline solid with the chemical formula of Ce2(C2O4)3. It could be obtained by the reaction of oxalic acid with cerium(III) chloride.

Glaser J. (1979) Acta Chem. Scand. A33, 789. T605. ;Thallium(I) triiodide : is a black crystalline solid prepared from and in aqueous HI. It does not contain thallium(III), but has the same structure as CsI3 containing the linear I3− ion.

3,4-xylidine, also called 3,4-dimethylaniline, 3,4-xylylamine, or 3,4-dimethylphenylamine, is a crystalline solid with melting point 51 °C and boiling point 226 °C. It is used as a raw material for production of vitamin B2, dyes, pesticides, and other chemicals.

Interactions of Water in Ionic and Nonionic Hydrates: Proceedings of a Symposium in honour of the 65th birthday of W.A.P. Luck Marburg/FRG, 2.–3.4. 1987. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 1987 Heptahydrate is also known, in form of unstable green crystalline solid.

Ticlopidine's systemic name is 5-[(2-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4,5,6,7-tetrahydrothieno[3,2-c]pyridine. Its molecular weight is 263.786 g/mol. It is a white crystalline solid. It is soluble in water and methanol and somewhat soluble in methylene chloride, ethanol, and acetone.

InI is a deep red purple crystalline solid. It has the same structure as \beta-TlI. It can be made by direct combination of its constituent elements at high temperature. Alternatively it can be prepared from InI3 and indium metal in refluxing xylenes.

In chemistry, melem is a compound with formula ; specifically, 2,5,8-triamino- heptazine or 2,5,8-triamino-tri-s-triazine, whose molecule can be described as that of heptazine with the three hydrogen atoms replaced by amino groups. It is a white crystalline solid.

Sulfanilic acid (4-aminobenzenesulfonic acid) is an off-white crystalline solid which finds application in quantitative analysis of nitrate and nitrite ions. The solid acid exists as a zwitterion, and has an unusually high melting point."Sulphanilic acid". A Dictionary of Chemistry.

Mandelic acid is an aromatic alpha hydroxy acid with the molecular formula C6H5CH(OH)CO2H. It is a white crystalline solid that is soluble in water and polar organic solvents. It is a useful precursor to various drugs. The molecule is chiral.

Mercury selenide (HgSe) is a chemical compound of mercury and selenium. It is a grey-black crystalline solid semi-metal with a sphalerite structure. The lattice constant is 0.608 nm. Mercury selenide can also refer to the following chemical compounds: HgSe2 and HgSe8.

Its empirical formula is C23H21F7N4O3. Aprepitant is an off-white crystalline solid that has a molecular weight of around 534.53. It has a very limited solubility in water. It does have a reasonably high solubility in non-polar molecules such as oils.

Acetone oxime (acetoxime) is the organic compound with the formula (CH3)2CNOH. It is the simplest example of a ketoxime. It is a white crystalline solid that is soluble in water, ethanol, ether, chloroform, and ligroin. It is used as a reagent in organic synthesis.

Camphorsultam, also known as bornanesultam, is a crystalline solid primarily used as a chiral auxiliary in the synthesis of other chemicals with a specific desired stereoselectivity. Camphorsultam is commercially available in both enantiomers of its exo forms: (1R)-(+)-2,10-camphorsultam and (1S)-(−)-2,10-camphorsultam.

Niobium(V) chloride, also known as niobium pentachloride, is a yellow crystalline solid. It hydrolyzes in air, and samples are often contaminated with small amounts of NbOCl3. It is often used as a precursor to other compounds of niobium. NbCl5 may be purified by sublimation.

Tetramethrin is a potent synthetic insecticide in the pyrethroid family. It is a white crystalline solid with a melting point of 65-80 °C. The commercial product is a mixture of stereoisomers. It is commonly used as an insecticide, and affects the insect's nervous system.

2,5-Diaminotoluene is an organic compound with the formula C6H3(NH2)2CH3. It is one isomer of six with this formula. 2,5-Diaminotoluene is a colorless crystalline solid, although commercial samples are often colored owing to air oxidation. It is commonly used in hair coloring.

Oxepane is a heterocyclic chemical compound with the formula C6H12O: a cycloheptane in which one methylene group is replaced by oxygen.. Oxepane can be polymerized by cationic initiators such as (C2H5)3OSbCl6 to form a crystalline solid with a melting point around 56–58 °C.

Cyanazine is the common name for 2-chloro-4-(1-cyano-1-methylethyl-amino)-6-ethylamine-1,3,5-triazine. The molecular formula for this compound is , molecular weight is 240.695 g/mol. Cyanazine is a white or colourless crystalline solid. The melting point is around 166.5-167.0 °C.

Polonium dibromide (also known as polonium(II) bromide) is a chemical compound with the formula PoBr2. This salt is a purple-brown crystalline solid at room temperature. It sublimes (decomposing slightly) at 110 °C/30 μ and decomposes when melted in nitrogen gas at 270–280 °C.

Oxalic acid is an organic compound with the formula C2H2O4. It is a white crystalline solid that forms a colorless solution in water. Its condensed formula is HOOCCOOH, reflecting its classification as the simplest dicarboxylic acid. Its acid strength is much greater than that of acetic acid.

Uranyl acetate (UO2(CH3COO)2·2H2O) is the acetate salt of uranium; it is a yellow-green crystalline solid made up of rhombic crystals and has a slight acetic odor. This compound is a nuclear fuel derivative, and its use and possession are sanctioned by international law.

Cobalt(II) chloride is an inorganic compound of cobalt and chlorine, with the formula . It is a sky blue crystalline solid. The compound forms several hydrates •n, for n = 1, 2, 6, and 9. Claims of the formation of tri- and tetrahydrates have not been confirmed.

Triphenylborane, often abbreviated to BPh3 where Ph is the phenyl group C6H5-, is a chemical compound with the formula B(C6H5)3. It is a white crystalline solid and is both air and moisture sensitive, slowly forming benzene and triphenylboroxine. It is soluble in aromatic solvents.

Germanium disulfide or Germanium(IV) sulfide is the inorganic compound with the formula GeS2. It is a white high-melting crystalline solid. The compound is a 3-dimensional polymer, in contrast to silicon disulfide, which is a one- dimensional polymer. The Ge-S distance is 2.19 Å.

Iridium(III) chloride is the inorganic compound with the formula IrCl3. The anhydrous compound is relatively rare, but the related hydrate is useful for preparing other iridium compounds. The anhydrous salt is a dark green crystalline solid. More commonly encountered is the trihydrate IrCl3(H2O)3.

Laurolactam is a water-insoluble, crystalline solid; in technical quality usually beige colored and in pure state (99.9% purity) white. It is soluble in many organic solvents, e. g. 1,4-dioxane, benzene or cyclohexane. The purification process is carried out conventionally by multistage distillation under reduced pressure.

Pentavalent ammonia is known as λ5-amine or, more commonly, ammonium hydride. This crystalline solid is only stable under high pressure and decomposes back into trivalent ammonia and hydrogen gas at normal conditions. This substance was once investigated as a possible solid rocket fuel in 1966.

Sodium phenoxide (sodium phenolate) is an organic compound with the formula NaOC6H5. It is a white crystalline solid. Its anion, phenoxide, also known as phenolate, is the conjugate base of phenol. It is used as a precursor to many other organic compounds, such as aryl ethers.

Glyoxal is an organic compound with the chemical formula OCHCHO. It is the smallest dialdehyde (a compound with two aldehyde groups). It is a crystalline solid, white at low temperatures and yellow near the melting point (15 °C). The liquid is yellow, and the vapor is green.

Phenol is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH. It is a white crystalline solid that is volatile. The molecule consists of a phenyl group (−C6H5) bonded to a hydroxy group (−OH). Mildly acidic, it requires careful handling because it can cause chemical burns.

Nitronium tetrafluoroborate is an inorganic compound with formula NO2BF4. It is a salt of nitronium cation and tetrafluoroborate anion. It is a colorless crystalline solid, which reacts with water to form the corrosive acids HF and HNO3. As such, it must be handled under water-free conditions.

The normal pressure "sodium arsenide" phase is adopted by many alkali metal pnictides. At 3.6 gigapascals, Na3As adopts the Li3Bi structure, which is another archetypal structure. Sodium arsenide is a crystalline solid used as a semiconductor and in photo optic applications. Its IUPAC name is disodioarsanylsodium.

Polonium tetrachloride (also known as polonium(IV) chloride) is a chemical compound with the formula PoCl4. The salt is a hygroscopic bright yellow crystalline solid at room temperature. Above 200 °C, it tends to decompose into polonium dichloride and excess chlorine, similar to selenium tetrachloride and tellurium tetrachloride.

Sesamol is a natural organic compound which is a component of sesame seeds and sesame oil. It is a white crystalline solid that is a derivative of phenol. It is sparingly soluble in water, but miscible with most oils. It can be produced by organic synthesis from heliotropine.

Thallium azide, TlN3, is a yellow-brown crystalline solid poorly soluble in water. Although it is not nearly as sensitive to shock or friction as lead azide, it can easily be detonated by a flame or spark. It can be stored safely dry in a closed non-metallic container.

Neptunium hexafluoride (NpF6) is the highest fluoride of neptunium, it is also one of seventeen known binary hexafluorides. It is an orange volatile crystalline solid. It is relatively hard to handle, being very corrosive, volatile and radioactive. Neptunium hexafluoride is stable in dry air but reacts vigorously with water.

Barium chlorate, Ba(ClO3)2, is a white crystalline solid, the barium salt of chloric acid. It is an irritant and toxic, as are all soluble barium compounds. It is sometimes used in pyrotechnics to produce a green color. It also finds use in the production of chloric acid.

Sulfur (symbol S) is an abundant multivalent nonmetal, one of chalcogens. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow crystalline solid when at room temperature. Chemically, sulfur can react as either an oxidant or a reducing agent.

Glycolic acid (hydroacetic acid or hydroxyacetic acid); chemical formula C2H4O3 (also written as HOCH2CO2H), is the smallest α-hydroxy acid (AHA). This colorless, odorless, and hygroscopic crystalline solid is highly soluble in water. It is used in various skin-care products. Glycolic acid is found in some sugar-crops.

It is a yellow, highly crystalline solid, poorly soluble in water but soluble in hot organic solvents. It is almost completely insoluble in ethanol near room temperature but 2.25 g will dissolve in 100 g of boiling ethanol. It is found in nature as the rare mineral hoelite.

Phenylsulfinic acid is an organosulfur compound with the formula C6H5SO2H. It is a colorless or white crystalline solid that is usually stored in the form of its sodium salt. In aqueous solution it is strongly acidic and is easily oxidized in air. Phenylsulfinic acid and its esters are chiral.

Bragg diffraction. Two beams with identical wavelength and phase approach a crystalline solid and are scattered off two different atoms within it. The lower beam traverses an extra length of 2dsinθ. Constructive interference occurs when this length is equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength of the radiation.

A crystalline solid: atomic resolution image of strontium titanate. Brighter atoms are strontium and darker ones are titanium. In a solid, constituent particles (ions, atoms, or molecules) are closely packed together. The forces between particles are so strong that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate.

Lactucin is a bitter substance that forms a white crystalline solid and belongs to the group of sesquiterpene lactones. It is found in some varieties of lettuce and is an ingredient of lactucarium. It has been shown to have analgesic and sedative properties. It has also shown some antimalarial effects.

Hymecromone (4-methylumbelliferone) is a drug used in bile therapy. It is used as choleretic and antispasmodic drugs and as a standard for the fluorometric determination of enzyme activity. Hymecromone is a crystalline solid with a melting point of 194–195 °C. It is soluble in methanol and glacial acetic acid.

Phlorizin is a white to yellow crystalline solid with a melting point of 106–109 °C. It is of sweet taste and contains four molecules of water in the crystal. Above 200 °C, it decomposes. It is poorly soluble in ether and cold water, but soluble in ethanol and hot water.

Chloro(cyclopentadienyl)bis(triphenylphosphine)ruthenium is the organoruthenium half-sandwich compound with formula RuCl(PPh3)2(C5H5). It as an air-stable orange crystalline solid that is used in a variety of organometallic synthetic and catalytic transformations. The compound has idealized Cs symmetry. It is soluble in chloroform, dichloromethane, and acetone.

InBr2 is a greenish white crystalline solid, which is formulated InIInIII Br4. It has the same structure as GaCl2. InBr2 is soluble in aromatic solvents and some compounds containing η6-arene In(I) complexes have been identified. (See hapticity for an explanation of the bonding in such arene-metal ion complexes).

Ammonium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is a white crystalline solid consisting of ions of ammonium and nitrate. It is highly soluble in water and hygroscopic as a solid, although it does not form hydrates. It is predominantly used in agriculture as a high-nitrogen fertilizer.

Xenon difluoride is a powerful fluorinating agent with the chemical formula , and one of the most stable xenon compounds. Like most covalent inorganic fluorides it is moisture-sensitive. It decomposes on contact with light or water vapor but is otherwise stable in storage. Xenon difluoride is a dense, white crystalline solid.

Germanium iodide is a chemical compound of germanium and iodine. Two such compounds exist: germanium(II) iodide GeI2 and germanium(IV) iodide GeI4. Germanium(II) iodide is a yellow crystalline solid which decomposes on melting. Its specific density is 5.37 and it can be sublimed at 240 °C in a vacuum.

Dibenz[a,h]anthracene is an organic compound with the chemical formula C22H14. It is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon made of five fused benzene rings. It is a fused five ringed, cyclopenta, PAHs compound which is common as a pollutant of smoke and oils. It is white to light yellow crystalline solid.

2-Nitrochlorobenzene is an organic compound with the formula ClC6H4NO2. It is one of three isomeric nitrochlorobenzenes.Gerald Booth, "Nitro Compounds, Aromatic" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, 2005. It is a yellow crystalline solid that is important as a precursor to other compounds due to its two functional groups.

Methyl phosphonic dichloride is an organophosphorus compound. It has a number of potential uses but is most notable as being a precursor to several chemical weapons agents. It is a white crystalline solid, with a low melting point. It hydrolyzes readily and must be handled with care as it is exceedingly toxic.

Coniferin is a glucoside of coniferyl alcohol. This white crystalline solid is a metabolite in conifers, serving as an intermediate in cell wall lignification, as well as having other biological roles. It can also be found in the water root extract of Angelica archangelica subsp. litoralis.Dihydrofurocoumarin glucosides from Angelica archangelica and Angelica silvestris.

Upon dissolving a salt in water, the cations and anions interact with the positive and negative dipoles of the water. The trade-off of these interactions vs those within the crystalline solid comprises the hydration energy. Hydration energy is correlated with ionic radius of cations and anions, as done by Wendell Latimer.

Tetraethylammonium chloride (TEAC) is a quaternary ammonium compound with the chemical formula (C2H5)4N+Cl−, sometimes written as Et4N+Cl−. In appearance, it is a hygroscopic, colorless, crystalline solid. It has been used as the source of tetraethylammonium ions in pharmacological and physiological studies, but is also used in organic chemical synthesis.

Glyceraldehyde (glyceral) is a triose monosaccharide with chemical formula C3H6O3. It is the simplest of all common aldoses. It is a sweet, colorless, crystalline solid that is an intermediate compound in carbohydrate metabolism. The word comes from combining glycerol and aldehyde, as glyceraldehyde is glycerol with one alcohol group oxidized to an aldehyde.

Butyramide is the amide of butyric acid. It has the molecular formula C3H7CONH2. It is a white solid that freely soluble in water and ethanol, but slightly soluble in diethyl ether. At room temperature, butyramide is a crystalline solid and in contrast to butyric acid, it is devoid of unpleasant, rancid smell.

Ethylene carbonate (sometimes abbreviated EC) is the organic compound with the formula (CH2O)2CO. It is classified as the carbonate ester of ethylene glycol and carbonic acid. At room temperature (25 °C) ethylene carbonate is a transparent crystalline solid, practically odorless and colorless, and somewhat soluble in water. In the liquid state (m.p.

Non-crystalline, solid electro-optical materials have generated interest because of their low cost of production. These organic, polymer-based materials are also known as organic EO material, plastic EO material, or polymer EO material. They consist of nonlinear optical chromophores in a polymer lattice. The nonlinear optical chromophores can produce Pockel's effect.

Indole-3-butyric acid (1H-indole-3-butanoic acid, IBA) is a white to light- yellow crystalline solid, with the molecular formula C12H13NO2. It melts at 125 °C in atmospheric pressure and decomposes before boiling. IBA is a plant hormone in the auxin family and is an ingredient in many commercial horticultural plant rooting products.

Guaiol or champacol is an organic compound, a sesquiterpenoid alcohol found in several plants, especially in the oil of guaiacum and cypress pine.The Merriam-Webster Dictionary. It is a crystalline solid that melts at 92 °C.Wolfram Alpha Guaiol Guaiol is one of many terpenes found in Cannabis and it has been associated with anxiolytic activity.

In its crystalline solid form, the core BODIPY is almost, but not entirely, planar and symmetrical; except for the two fluorine atoms, that lie on the perpendicular bisecting plane. Its bonding can be explained by assuming a formal negative charge on the boron atom, and a formal positive charge on one of the nitrogen atoms.

Diphosphorus tetraiodide is an orange crystalline solid with the formula P2I4. It has been used as a reducing agent in organic chemistry. It is a rare example of a compound with phosphorus in the +2 oxidation state, and can be classified as a subhalide of phosphorus. It is the most stable of the diphosphorus tetrahalides.

Eucaine (beta-eucaine) is a drug that was previously used as a local anesthetic. It was designed as an analog of cocaine and was one of the first synthetic chemical compounds to find general use as an anesthetic. It is a white, crystalline solid. Prior to World War I, Britain imported eucaine from Germany.

Levulinic acid, or 4-oxopentanoic acid, is an organic compound with the formula CH3C(O)CH2CH2CO2H. It is classified as a keto acid. This white crystalline solid is soluble in water and polar organic solvents. It is derived from degradation of cellulose and is a potential precursor to biofuels,Biorefineries – Industrial Processes and Products.

Normal modes of vibration in a crystalline solid The primary physical mechanism for storing mechanical energy of motion in condensed matter is through heat, or thermal energy. Thermal energy manifests itself as energy of motion. Thus, heat is motion at the atomic and molecular levels. The primary mode of motion in crystalline substances is vibration.

Basic copper carbonate is a chemical compound, more properly called copper(II) carbonate hydroxide. It is an ionic compound (a salt) consisting of the ions copper(II) , carbonate , and hydroxide . The name most commonly refers to the compound with formula ()2. It is a green crystalline solid that occurs in nature as the mineral malachite.

There are several ways to approach the topic of premelting, the most figurative way might be thermodynamically. A more detailed or abstract view on what physics is important for premelting is given by the Lifshitz and the Landau theories. One always starts with looking at a crystalline solid phase (fig. 1: (1) solid) and another phase.

2,4,6-Trichlorophenol, also known as TCP, phenaclor, Dowicide 2S, Dowcide 2S, omal, is a chlorinated phenol that has been used as a fungicide, herbicide, insecticide, antiseptic, defoliant, and glue preservative. It is a clear to yellowish crystalline solid with a strong, phenolic odor. It decomposes on heating to produce toxic and corrosive fumes including hydrogen chloride and chlorine.

The mineral anorthoclase ((Na,K)AlSi3O8) is a crystalline solid solution in the alkali feldspar series, in which the sodium-aluminium silicate member exists in larger proportion. It typically consists of between 10 and 36 percent of KAlSi3O8 and between 64 and 90 percent of NaAlSi3O8.Deere, Howie and Zussman, Rock Forming Minerals, Vol. 4 Framework Silicates, Wiley, pp.

Gentiobiose is a disaccharide composed of two units of D-glucose joined with a β(1->6) linkage. It is a white crystalline solid that is soluble in water or hot methanol. Gentiobiose is incorporated into the chemical structure of crocin, the chemical compound that gives saffron its color. It is a product of the caramelization of glucose.

Barium sulfate (or sulphate) is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula BaSO4. It is a white crystalline solid that is odorless and insoluble in water. It occurs as the mineral baryte, which is the main commercial source of barium and materials prepared from it. The white opaque appearance and its high density are exploited in its main applications.

Thorium dioxide (ThO2), also called thorium(IV) oxide, is a crystalline solid, often white or yellow in color. Also known as thoria, it is produced mainly as a by-product of lanthanide and uranium production. Thorianite is the name of the mineralogical form of thorium dioxide. It is moderately rare and crystallizes in an isometric system.

The anhydrous product is a white, odorless, crystalline solid, hygroscopic and soluble in water (2.5 g/100 g at room temperature). The solutions are basic. Below 50 °C the much less soluble "potassium tetraoxalate" • forms and precipitates out of solution. ChemicalBook (2007) Potassium binoxalate Product Description The monohydrate KHC2O4·H2O starts losing the water at 100 °C.

Acetylenedicarboxylic acid or butynedioic acid is an organic compound (a dicarboxylic acid) with the formula C4H2O4 or . It is a crystalline solid that is soluble in diethyl ether. The removal of two protons yields the acetylenedicarboxylate dianion , which consists only of carbon and oxygen, making it an oxocarbon anion. Partial ionization yields the monovalent hydrogenacetylenedicarboxylate anion .

Sodium bromide is an inorganic compound with the formula NaBr. It is a high- melting white, crystalline solid that resembles sodium chloride. It is a widely used source of the bromide ion and has many applications.Michael J. Dagani, Henry J. Barda, Theodore J. Benya, David C. Sanders "Bromine Compounds" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2000.

DMPA is an odorless free flowing white crystalline solid and essentially non-toxic. DMPA has two different functional groups hydroxyl and carboxylic acid so the molecule can be used for a wide variety of syntheses. In addition to reaction with other chemicals, DMPA can also react with itself to produce esters via esterification as one example.

Potassium trispyrazolylborate, commonly abbreviated KTp, is the potassium salt of the trispyrazolylborate ligand. KTp is a white crystalline solid which is soluble in polar solvents, alcohols, and water. The synthesis of KTp involves potassium borohydride and pyrazole without a solvent. :KBH4 \+ 3 pzH -> KTp + 3 H2 Idealized structure of a Tp ligand bound to a metal center MLn.

CR is a pale yellow crystalline solid with a pepper-like odor. It is slightly soluble in water and does not degrade in it. CR is usually presented as a microparticulate solid, in the form of suspension in a propylene glycol-based liquid. Contrary to its common name, it is not a gas but a solid at room temperature.

Lead(II) iodide or lead iodide is a salt with the formula . At room temperature, it is a bright yellow odorless crystalline solid, that becomes orange and red when heated. It was formerly called plumbous iodide. The compound currently has a few specialized applications, such as the manufacture of solar cells and X-ray and gamma-ray detectors.

2-Naphthol, or β-naphthol, is a fluorescent colorless (or occasionally yellow) crystalline solid with the formula C10H7OH. It is an isomer of 1-naphthol, differing by the location of the hydroxyl group on the naphthalene ring. The naphthols are naphthalene homologues of phenol, but more reactive. Both isomers are soluble in simple alcohols, ethers, and chloroform.

Sodium ferrocyanide is the sodium salt of the coordination compound of formula [Fe(CN)6]4−. In its hydrous form, Na4Fe(CN)6 (sodium ferrocyanide decahydrate), it is sometimes known as yellow prussiate of soda. It is a yellow crystalline solid that is soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. The yellow color is the color of ferrocyanide anion.

Zinc chloride hydroxide monohydrate is a zinc hydroxy compound with chemical formula Zn5(OH)8Cl2·H2O. It is often referred to as tetrabasic zinc chloride (TBZC), basic zinc chloride, zinc hydroxychloride, or zinc oxychloride. It is a colorless crystalline solid insoluble in water. Its naturally occurring form, simonkolleite, has been shown to be a desirable nutritional supplement for animals.

Hexamethyltungsten is the chemical compound W(CH3)6 also written WMe6. Classified as a transition metal alkyl complex, hexamethyltungsten is an air- sensitive, red, crystalline solid at room temperature; however, it is extremely volatile and sublimes at −30 °C. Owing to its six methyl groups it is extremely soluble in petroleum, aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers, carbon disulfide, and carbon tetrachloride.

Potassium tetrachloridocuprate(II) is a salt with chemical formula , also written as ()2·[]2−. The compound is often found as the dihydrate ·2, which is a brilliant greenish blue crystalline solid. This form also occurs naturally as the rare mineral mitscherlichite. The compound is also called potassium tetrachlorocuprate(II), dipotassium tetrachlorocuprate, potassium copper(II) tetrachloride, potassium cupric chloride and other similar names.

At pH values between about 2.5 and 4.1, the carboxylic acid closer to the amine generally loses a proton, and the acid becomes the neutral zwitterion −OOC-CH()-()2-COOH. This is also the form of the compound in the crystalline solid state. The change in protonation state is gradual; the two forms are in equal concentrations at pH 2.10.

Polonium dioxide (also known as polonium(IV) oxide) is a chemical compound with the formula PoO2. It is one of three oxides of polonium, the other two being polonium monoxide (PoO) and polonium trioxide (PoO3). It is a pale yellow crystalline solid at room temperature. Under lowered pressure (such as a vacuum), it decomposes into elemental polonium and oxygen at 500 °C.

Cadmium tetrafluoroborate is an ionic, chemical compound with the formula Cd(BF4)2.Hazardous Substances Database. toxnet.nlm.nih.gov It is an ionic, crystalline solid, which is colorless and odorless. Cadmium tetrafluoroborate is most frequently used in the industrial production of high-strength steels, its purpose being to prevent hydrogen absorption, a source of post-production cracking of the metal, in the treated steels.

Sucrose octaacetate is a chemical compound with formula or , an eight-fold ester of sucrose and acetic acid. Its molecule can be described as that of sucrose with its eight hydroxyl groups – replaced by acetate groups –. It is a crystalline solid, colorless and odorless but intensely bitter. Sucrose octaacetate is used as an inert ingredient in pesticides and herbicides, as a bitter additive.

The crystalline solid adopts a fluorite structure. In the vapour phase the SrCl2 molecule is non-linear with a Cl-Sr-Cl angle of approximately 130°. This is an exception to VSEPR theory which would predict a linear structure. Ab initio calculations have been cited to propose that contributions from d orbitals in the shell below the valence shell are responsible.

Acetic oxalic anhydride is an unstable colorless crystalline solid, soluble in diethyl ether, that decomposes at about −3 °C into acetic anhydride (-(C=O)-)2O, carbon dioxide () and carbon monoxide (CO). It is hydrolyzed by water into acetic and oxalic acids. Acetic oxalic anhydride was conjectured to be an intermediate in the decomposition of anhydrous oxalic acid by acetic anhydride.

Selenous acid is analogous to sulfurous acid, but it is more readily isolated. Selenous acid is easily formed upon the addition of selenium dioxide to water. As a crystalline solid, the compound can be seen as pyramidal molecules that are interconnected with hydrogen bonds. In solution it is a diprotic acid:Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. .

Iron(III) chloride is the inorganic compound with the formula (). Also called ferric chloride, it is a common compound of iron in the +3 oxidation state. The anhydrous compound is a crystalline solid with a melting point of 307.6 °C. The color depends on the viewing angle: by reflected light the crystals appear dark green, but by transmitted light they appear purple-red.

Pulvinone, an organic compound belonging to the esters, lactones, alcohols and butenolides classes, is a yellow crystalline solid. Although the pulvinone is not a natural product, several naturally occurring hydroxylated derivatives are known. These hydroxylated pulvinones are produced by fungal species, such as the in Europe common Larch Bolete (Boletus elegans, also known as Suillus grevillei), or by moulds such as Aspergillus terreus.

Hydrofuramide is a condensation product of three molar equivalents of furfural with two molar equivalents of ammonia. Hydrofuramide is a crystalline solid with a melting point of 118-119 °C. The molecule may be described as a diimine with three pendant furanyl rings. Hydrofuramide is a versatile specialty chemical with applications in diverse areas, including rubber additives, pharmaceutical intermediates, preservatives and rodenticides.

2-Mercaptopyridine is an organosulfur compound with the formula HSC5H4N. This yellow crystalline solid is a derivative of pyridine. The compound and its derivatives serve primarily as acylating agents. A few of 2-mercaptopyridine’s other uses include serving as a protecting group for amines and imides as well as forming a selective reducing agent. 2-Mercaptopyridine oxidizes to 2,2’-dipyridyl disulfide.

Dicopper chloride trihydroxide Cu2(OH)3Cl is a green crystalline solid. It decomposes above 220 °C with elimination of hydrochloric acid to oxides of copper. It is largely stable in neutral media, but decomposes by warming in alkaline media, yielding oxides. It is virtually insoluble in water and organic solvents, soluble in mineral acids yielding the corresponding copper salts (eq.

The deep blue crystalline solid tends to hydrolyse and evolve (release) ammonia upon standing in air. It is fairly soluble in water. The brilliant dark blue-violet color of tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate solution is due to presence of [Cu(NH3)4]2+. Often, the dark blue-violet color is used as a positive test to verify the presence of Cu2+ in a solution.

Copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2, is an inorganic compound that forms a blue crystalline solid. Anhydrous copper nitrate forms deep blue-green crystals and sublimes in a vacuum at 150-200 °C. Copper nitrate also occurs as five different hydrates, the most common ones being the hemipentahydrate and trihydrate. These materials are more commonly encountered in commerce than in the laboratory.

Ball-and-stick model of the In2I6 molecule InI3 is a coloured crystalline solid, usually described as orange. Distinct yellow and a red forms are known. The red form undergoes a transition to the yellow at 57 °C. The structure of the red form has not been determined by X-ray crystallography, however spectroscopic evidence indicates that indium may be six coordinate.

Naphthalene is an organic compound with formula . It is the simplest polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, and is a white crystalline solid with a characteristic odor that is detectable at concentrations as low as 0.08 ppm by mass. As an aromatic hydrocarbon, naphthalene's structure consists of a fused pair of benzene rings. It is best known as the main ingredient of traditional mothballs.

For the case of electrons in crystalline solid, several approximations are carefully justified to treat the electrons as independent particles. Usual models are the free electron model and the nearly free electron model. In the appropriate systems, the electron degeneracy pressure can be calculated and can be shown that this pressure is an important contribution to the compressibility or bulk modulus of metals.

Cobalt(II) fluoride is a chemical compound with the formula (CoF2). It is a pink crystalline solid compound which is antiferromagnetic at low temperatures (TN=37.7 K)Ashcroft/Mermin: Solid State Physics (Tab. 33.2) The formula is given for both the red tetragonal crystal, (CoF2), and the tetrahydrate red orthogonal crystal, (CoF2·4H2O). CoF2 is used in oxygen-sensitive fields, namely metal production.

When TBZC is made by a crystallization process (Micronutrients TBZC), it excludes contaminating ions, providing a product with greater purity and fewer dust particles than occurs with precipitation. The result is a crystalline solid that is essentially insoluble in water, non-hygroscopic, un-reactive in most foods or feedstuffs, and yet highly bioavailable.Edwards, H. M., III., and D. H. Baker. 2000.

Pagodane is an organic compound with formula whose carbon skeleton was said to resemble a pagoda, hence the name. It is a polycyclic hydrocarbon whose molecule has the D2h point symmetry group. The compound is a highly crystalline solid that melts at 243 °C, is barely soluble in most organic solvents and moderately soluble in benzene and chloroform. It sublimes at low pressure.

Decamethyldizincocene is an organozinc compound with the formula [Zn2(η5–C5Me5)2]. It is the first and an unusual example of a compound with a Zn-Zn bond. Decamethyldizincocene is a colorless crystalline solid that burns spontaneously in the presence of oxygen and reacts with water. It is stable at room temperature and especially soluble in diethyl ether, benzene, pentane, or tetrahydrofuran.

Quinazoline is an organic compound with the formula C8H6N2. It is an aromatic heterocycle with a bicyclic structure consisting of two fused six-membered aromatic rings, a benzene ring and a pyrimidine ring. It is a light yellow crystalline solid that is soluble in water. Also known as 1,3-diazanaphthalene, quinazoline received its name from being an aza derivative of quinoline.

Manganese(II) fluoride is the chemical compound composed of manganese and fluoride with the formula MnF2. It is a light pink crystalline solid, the light pink color being characteristic for manganese(II) compounds. It is made by treating manganese and diverse compounds of manganese(II) in hydrofluoric acid. It is used in the manufacture of special kinds of glass and lasers.

2,4-Dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP or simply DNP) is an organic compound with the formula HOC6H3(NO2)2. It is a yellow, crystalline solid that has a sweet, musty odor. It sublimes, is volatile with steam, and is soluble in most organic solvents as well as aqueous alkaline solutions. When in a dry form, it is a high explosive and has an instantaneous explosion hazard.

Permanganate is used in groundwater remediation in the form of potassium permanganate () and sodium permanganate (). Both compounds have the same oxidizing capabilities and limitations and react similarly to contaminants. The biggest difference between the two chemicals is that potassium permanganate is less soluble than sodium permanganate. Potassium permanganate is a crystalline solid that is typically dissolved in water before application to the contaminated site.

Model of closely packed atoms within a crystalline solid. The atoms, molecules or ions that make up solids may be arranged in an orderly repeating pattern, or irregularly. Materials whose constituents are arranged in a regular pattern are known as crystals. In some cases, the regular ordering can continue unbroken over a large scale, for example diamonds, where each diamond is a single crystal.

On page 174, Dubrunfaut relates the discovery and properties of fructose.Fruton, J.S. Molecules of Life 1972, Wiley-Interscience The name "fructose" was coined in 1857 by the English chemist William Allen Miller. Pure, dry fructose is a sweet, white, odorless, crystalline solid, and is the most water-soluble of all the sugars. Fructose is found in honey, tree and vine fruits, flowers, berries, and most root vegetables.

Mercury(II) chloride or mercuric chloride (historically "corrosive sublimate") is the chemical compound of mercury and chlorine with the formula HgCl2. It is white crystalline solid and is a laboratory reagent and a molecular compound that is very toxic to humans. Once used as a treatment for syphilis, it is no longer used for medicinal purposes because of mercury toxicity and the availability of superior treatments.

This transition from amorphous solid to crystalline solid is an exothermic process, and results in a peak in the DSC signal. As the temperature increases the sample eventually reaches its melting temperature (Tm). The melting process results in an endothermic peak in the DSC curve. The ability to determine transition temperatures and enthalpies makes DSC a valuable tool in producing phase diagrams for various chemical systems.

Trinitromethane forms a series of bright yellow ionic salts. Many of these salts tend to be unstable and can be easily detonated by heat or impact. The potassium salt of nitroform, KC(NO2)3 is a lemon yellow crystalline solid that decomposes slowly at room temperatures and explodes above 95 °C. The ammonium salt is somewhat more stable, and deflagrates or explodes above 200 °C.

When X-rays are directed at solids they scatter in predictable patterns based on the internal structure of the solid. A crystalline solid consists of regularly spaced atoms (electrons) that can be described by imaginary planes. The distance between these planes is called the d-spacing. The intensity of the d-space pattern is directly proportional to the number of electrons (atoms) in the imaginary planes.

Spraying carbaryl on pine trees Carbaryl (1-naphthyl methylcarbamate) is a chemical in the carbamate family used chiefly as an insecticide. It is a white crystalline solid commonly sold under the brand name Sevin, a trademark of the Bayer Company. Union Carbide discovered carbaryl and introduced it commercially in 1958. Bayer purchased Aventis CropScience in 2002, a company that included Union Carbide pesticide operations.

Silver chloride is a chemical compound with the chemical formula AgCl. This white crystalline solid is well known for its low solubility in water (this behavior being reminiscent of the chlorides of Tl+ and Pb2+). Upon illumination or heating, silver chloride converts to silver (and chlorine), which is signaled by grey to black or purplish coloration to some samples. AgCl occurs naturally as a mineral chlorargyrite.

Kaempferol (3,4′,5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone) is a natural flavonol, a type of flavonoid, found in a variety of plants and plant-derived foods including kale, beans, tea, spinach and broccoli. Kaempferol is a yellow crystalline solid with a melting point of . It is slightly soluble in water and highly soluble in hot ethanol, ethers, and DMSO. Kaempferol is named for 17th-century German naturalist Engelbert Kaempfer.

Calcium chloride is an inorganic compound, a salt with the chemical formula CaCl2. It is a white coloured crystalline solid at room temperature, and it is highly soluble in water. It can be created by neutralising hydrochloric acid with calcium hydroxide. Calcium chloride is commonly encountered as a hydrated solid with generic formula CaCl2(H2O)x, where x = 0, 1, 2, 4, and 6.

Xylitol is a chemical compound with the formula , or HO(CH2)(CHOH)3(CH2)OH; specifically, one particular stereoisomer with that structural formula. It is a colorless or white crystalline solid that is soluble in water. It can be classified as a polyalcohol and a sugar alcohol, specifically an alditol. The name derives from , xyl[on], "wood", with the suffix -itol used to denote sugar alcohols.

Uranium hexachloride (UCl6) is an inorganic chemical compound of uranium in the +6 oxidation state. UCl6 is a metal halide composed of uranium and chlorine. It is a multi-luminescent dark green crystalline solid with a vapor pressure between 1-3 mmHg at 373.15 K. UCl6 is stable in a vacuum, dry air, nitrogen and helium at room temperature. It is soluble in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4).

The croconate violet anion is the conjugate base of the acid croconic acid violet , also obtained by Fatiadi in 1978 by treating the potassium salt with hydrochloric acid. It is an orange crystalline solid that melts at 260–270 °C and dissolves in water to give violet skin-staining solutions. It strongly acidic (pKa1 = 0.32 ± 0.02, pKa2 = 1.02 ± 0.02). From this acid other alkali metal salts can be prepared.

DDAIP is a pharmaceutical ingredient added to topical products to increase penetration through the skin. Chemically, DDAIP is an ester of N,N-dimethylalanine and dodecanol. DDAIP is typically formulated as its hydrochloride salt (DDAIP.HCl). This salt is a white crystalline solid with a melting range of 88-93 °C and is an amphiphilic molecule with a pKa of 4.87 that is soluble in water up to about 40% w/v.

Glycine is integral to the formation of alpha-helices in secondary protein structure due to its compact form. For the same reason, it is the most abundant amino acid in collagen triple-helices. Glycine is also an inhibitory neurotransmitter - interference with its release within the spinal cord (such as during a Clostridium tetani infection) can cause spastic paralysis due to uninhibited muscle contraction. Glycine is a colorless, sweet-tasting crystalline solid.

The formula is often improperly written as , reflecting an older incorrect understanding of the anion's molecular structure. The name may refer to any of a number of closely related boron-containing mineral or chemical compounds that differ in their water of crystallization content. The most commonly encountered one is the octahydrate or (or , the "decahydrate", in the older notation). It is a colorless crystalline solid that dissolves in water.

Normal modes of atomic vibration in a crystalline solid. Because solids have thermal energy, their atoms vibrate about fixed mean positions within the ordered (or disordered) lattice. The spectrum of lattice vibrations in a crystalline or glassy network provides the foundation for the kinetic theory of solids. This motion occurs at the atomic level, and thus cannot be observed or detected without highly specialized equipment, such as that used in spectroscopy.

Normally, when a metallic material cools, the individual atoms solidify in strong, repeating patterns to form a crystalline solid. However, in melt spinning, the melt is quenched (cooled) so rapidly that the atoms don't have time to form these ordered structures before they completely solidify. Instead the atoms are solidified in positions resembling their liquid state. This physical structure gives rise to the magnetic and electric properties of amorphous metals.

Caesium carbonate or cesium carbonate is a white crystalline solid compound. Caesium carbonate has a high solubility in polar solvents such as water, alcohol and DMF. Its solubility is higher in organic solvents compared to other carbonates like potassium and sodium carbonates, although it remains quite insoluble in other organic solvents such as toluene, p-xylene, and chlorobenzene. This compound is used in organic synthesis as a base.

Sodium tetraphenylborate is the organic compound with the formula NaB(C6H5)4. It is a salt, wherein the anion consists of four phenyl rings bonded to boron. This white crystalline solid is used to prepare other tetraphenylborate salts, which are often highly soluble in organic solvents. The compound is used in inorganic and organometallic chemistry as a precipitating agent for potassium, ammonium, rubidium, and cesium ions, and some organic nitrogen compounds.

Itaconic anhydride is a colourless, crystalline solid which dissolves in many polar organic solvents and hydrolyzes with water forming itaconic acid. The substance is recommended to be stored in a dry and inert atmosphere. At temperatures above its melting point, itaconic anhydride is converted to citraconic anhydride. Even at significantly lower temperatures, such as in boiling chloroform, this isomerization can take place in the presence of tertiary amines.

Once 8 with the bipyridyl structure had been obtained, the synthesis of orellanine could be conducted. The bipyridyl product from number 8 is then dealkylated with hydrobromic acid to give orelline, which was found to be a yellow crystalline solid (10). Orelline is then oxidized with hydrogen peroxide using heat to obtain the desired product, orellanine (11). This scheme describes the total synthesis of orellanine done by Tiecco, M., et al.

9) Seeding is introduced during crystallization. The production is operated continuously under well-defined conditions (pH, feeding rate, concentrations, temperature, etc.). Product with good particle size is produced and can be easily separated from background salt and other impurities in the mother liquor. After simple rinse with water and drying, pure, free-flowing, non-dusty green crystalline solid with typical particle size of 30 ~ 100 micron is obtained.

Tellurium tetrafluoride, TeF4, is a stable, white, hygroscopic crystalline solid and is one of two fluorides of tellurium. The other binary fluoride is tellurium hexafluoride.Inorganic Chemistry,Egon Wiberg, Arnold Frederick Holleman Elsevier 2001 The widely reported Te2F10 has been shown to be F5TeOTeF5 There are other tellurium compounds that contain fluorine, but only the two mentioned contain solely tellurium and fluorine. Tellurium difluoride, TeF2, and ditellurium fluoride, Te2F are not known.

Perchloric acid, a superacid, is one of the strongest Brønsted–Lowry acids. That its pKa is lower than −9 is evidenced by the fact that its monohydrate contains discrete hydronium ions and can be isolated as a stable, crystalline solid, formulated as [H3O+][]. The most recent estimate of its aqueous pKa is . It provides strong acidity with minimal interference because perchlorate is weakly nucleophilic (explaining the high acidity of HClO4).

It condenses at −34.04 °C to an amber-coloured liquid and freezes at −101.5 °C into a yellow crystalline solid. The solid form (density 1.9 g/cm−3) has an orthorhombic crystalline structure and is soft and easily crushed. Chlorine is an insulator in all of its forms. It has a high ionisation energy (1251.2 kJ/mol), high electron affinity (349 kJ/mol; higher than fluorine), and high electronegativity (3.16).

Chromium(III) fluoride is the name for the inorganic compounds with the chemical formula CrF3 as well as several related hydrates. The compound CrF3 is a green crystalline solid that is insoluble in common solvents, but the coloured hydrates [Cr(H2O)6]F3 and [Cr(H2O)6]F3•3H2O are soluble in water. The trihydrate is green, and the hexahydrate is violet. The anhydrous form sublimes at 1100–1200 °C.

It is different from retrosynthesis of organic compounds, because the structural integrity and rigidity of the building blocks in reticular synthesis remain unaltered throughout the construction process—an important aspect that could help to fully realize the benefits of design in crystalline solid-state frameworks. Similarly, reticular synthesis should be distinguished from supramolecular assembly, because in the former, building blocks are linked by strong bonds throughout the crystal.

Zearalenone is a white crystalline solid. It exhibits blue-green fluorescence when excited by long wavelength ultraviolet (UV) light (360 nm) and a more intense green fluorescence when excited with short wavelength UV light (260 nm). In methanol, UV absorption maxima occur at 236 (e = 29,700), 274 (e = 13,909) and 316 nm (e = 6,020). Maximum fluorescence in ethanol occurs with irradiation at 314 nm and with emission at 450 nm.

Cinnamyl alcohol or styron is an organic compound that is found in esterified form in storax, Balsam of Peru, and cinnamon leaves. It forms a white crystalline solid when pure, or a yellow oil when even slightly impure. It can be produced by the hydrolysis of storax. Cinnamyl alcohol has a distinctive odour described as "sweet, balsam, hyacinth, spicy, green, powdery, cinnamic" and is used in perfumery and as a deodorant.

18-Crown-6 is an organic compound with the formula [C2H4O]6 and the IUPAC name of 1,4,7,10,13,16-hexaoxacyclooctadecane. It is a white, hygroscopic crystalline solid with a low melting point. Like other crown ethers, 18-crown-6 functions as a ligand for some metal cations with a particular affinity for potassium cations (binding constant in methanol: 106 M−1). The point group of 18-crown-6 is S6.

In solid uranium(III) chloride each uranium atom has nine chlorine atoms as near neighbours, at approximately the same distance, in a tricapped trigonal prismatic configuration.Wells A.F. (1984) Structural Inorganic Chemistry 5th edition Oxford Science Publications Uranium(III) chloride is a green crystalline solid at room temperature. UCl3 melts at 837 °C and boils at 1657 °C. Uranium(III) chloride has a density of 5500 kg/m3 or 5.500 g/cm3.

Tin(II) chloride, also known as stannous chloride, is a white crystalline solid with the formula 2. It forms a stable dihydrate, but aqueous solutions tend to undergo hydrolysis, particularly if hot. SnCl2 is widely used as a reducing agent (in acid solution), and in electrolytic baths for tin-plating. Tin(II) chloride should not be confused with the other chloride of tin; tin(IV) chloride or stannic chloride (SnCl4).

D-Galactose, for comparison Migalastat is used in form of the hydrochloride, which is a white crystalline solid and is soluble in water. The molecule has four asymmetric carbon atoms with the same stereochemistry as the sugar D-galactose, but is missing the first hydroxyl group. It has a nitrogen atom in the ring instead of an oxygen, which makes it an iminosugar. The structure is formally derived from nojirimycin.

Chelation of heavy metals by 15-MC-5 complexes could be utilized in lanthanide separation or heavy metal sequestration. Metallacrown container molecules constructed from the 15-MC-5 structure type have been shown to selectively encapsulate carboxylate anions in hydrophobic cavities. A crystalline solid displaying second-harmonic generation was generated by including a nonlinear optical chromophore in a chiral metallacrown compartment. Metallacrowns have also been utilized in the construction of microporous.

Cyclooctadecanonaene or [18]annulene is an organic compound with chemical formula . It belongs to the class of highly conjugated compounds known as annulenes and is aromatic. The usual isomer that [18]annulene refers to is the most stable one, containing six interior hydrogens and twelve exterior ones, with the nine formal double bonds in the cis,trans,trans,cis,trans,trans,cis,trans,trans configuration. It is reported to be a red-brown crystalline solid.

The sodium salt of dantrolene (shown) is an orange crystalline solid. Dantrolene sodium, sold under the brand name Dantrium among others, is a postsynaptic muscle relaxant that lessens excitation-contraction coupling in muscle cells. It achieves this by inhibiting Ca2+ ions release from sarcoplasmic reticulum stores by antagonizing ryanodine receptors. It is the primary drug used for the treatment and prevention of malignant hyperthermia, a rare, life-threatening disorder triggered by general anesthesia.

S2(g) is a non-physical state below about 882 K and NiO(g) is a non-physical state at all temperatures. Molar heat capacity of four substances in their designated states at 1 atm pressure. CaO(c) and Rh(c) are in their normal standard state of crystalline solid at all temperatures. S2(g) is a non- physical state below about 882 K and NiO(g) is a non-physical state at all temperatures.

However the technique can be used also in condensed matter (liquids and solids). In liquid phase, the carbocation is initially formed in the same solvation state as the parent molecule, and some reactions may happen before the solvent shells around it have time to rearrange. In a crystalline solid, the cation is formed in the same crystalline site; and the nature, position, and orientation of the other reagent(s) are strictly constrained.

Multiphase flows are not restricted to only three phases. An example of a four phase flow system would be that of direct- contact freeze crystallization in which, for example, butane liquid is injected into solution from which the crystals are to be formed, and freezing occurs as a result of the evaporation of the liquid butane. In this case, the four phases are, respectively, butane liquid, butane vapor, solute phase and crystalline (solid) phase.

Although the main functional ingredients of a lollipop are quite simple, the actual process of making this product is where things start to get complicated. It has already been stated that a glassy amorphous structure is a non-crystalline solid. However, the formation and physical state of this glass has a lot of chemistry and physics behind it. The first step in making lollipops after mixing the main ingredients is the heating process.

Dicopper chloride trihydroxide is the chemical compound with the formula Cu2(OH)3Cl. It is often referred to as tribasic copper chloride (TBCC), copper trihydroxyl chloride or copper hydroxychloride. It is a greenish crystalline solid encountered in mineral deposits, metal corrosion products, industrial products, art and archeological objects, and some living systems. It was originally manufactured on an industrial scale as a precipitated material used as either a chemical intermediate or a fungicide.

Copper(II) acetate, also referred to as cupric acetate, is the chemical compound with the formula Cu(OAc)2 where AcO− is acetate (). The hydrated derivative, which contains one molecule of water for each Cu atom, is available commercially. Anhydrous Cu(OAc)2 is a dark green crystalline solid, whereas Cu2(OAc)4(H2O)2 is more bluish-green. Since ancient times, copper acetates of some form have been used as fungicides and green pigments.

Chlorine is a strong oxidising agent (Cl2 \+ 2e → 2HCl = 1.36 V at pH 0). Metal chlorides are largely ionic in nature. The common oxide of chlorine (Cl2O7) is strongly acidic. Liquid bromine Bromine is a deep brown diatomic liquid that is quite reactive, and has a liquid density of 3.1028 g/cm3. It boils at 58.8 °C and solidifies at −7.3 °C to an orange crystalline solid (density 4.05 g/cm−3).

Lead selenide (PbSe), or lead(II) selenide, a selenide of lead, is a semiconductor material. It forms cubic crystals of the NaCl structure; it has a direct bandgap of 0.27 eV at room temperature. (Note that incorrectly identifies PbSe and other IV–VI semiconductors as indirect gap materials.) It is a grey crystalline solid material. It is used for manufacture of infrared detectors for thermal imaging, operating at wavelengths between 1.5–5.2 μm.

Cerotic acid, or hexacosanoic acid, is a 26-carbon long-chain saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)24COOH. It is most commonly found in beeswax and carnauba wax, and is a white crystalline solid. Cerotic acid is also a type of very long chain fatty acid that is often associated with the disease adrenoleukodystrophy, which involves the excessive saturation of unmetabolized fatty acid chains, including cerotic acid, in the peroxisome.

Curium(III) oxide is a compound composed of curium and oxygen with the chemical formula . It is a crystalline solid with a unit cell that contains two curium atoms and three oxygen atoms. The simplest synthesis equation involves the reaction of curium(III) metal with O2−: 2 Cm3+ \+ 3 O2− \---> Cm2O3.8\. N.A. (2010). “Study of oxychloride compound formation in chloride melt by spectroscopic methods.” Radiochemical Division/Research Institute of Atomic Reactors. pp. 1-17.

A layer of solid xenon floating on top of liquid xenon inside a high voltage apparatus. Liquid (featureless) and crystalline solid Xe nanoparticles produced by implanting Xe+ ions into aluminium at room temperature. Xenon has atomic number 54; that is, its nucleus contains 54 protons. At standard temperature and pressure, pure xenon gas has a density of 5.761 kg/m3, about 4.5 times the density of the Earth's atmosphere at sea level, 1.217 kg/m3.

A Van Hove singularity is a singularity (non-smooth point) in the density of states (DOS) of a crystalline solid. The wavevectors at which Van Hove singularities occur are often referred to as critical points of the Brillouin zone. For three-dimensional crystals, they take the form of kinks (where the density of states is not differentiable). The most common application of the Van Hove singularity concept comes in the analysis of optical absorption spectra.

In chemistry, a topotactic transition involves a structural change to a crystalline solid, which may include loss or gain of material, so that the final lattice is related to that of the original material by one or more crystallographically equivalent, orientational relationships. An example is a transition in which the relative structure of the anionic array is unaltered but the cations reorganize as in: β- ⇒ γ- An alternate example is the oxidation of magnetite to maghemite.

The closure turns the carboxyl carbon into a chiral center, which may have any of two configurations, depending on the position of the new hydroxyl. Therefore, each hexose in linear form can produce two distinct closed forms, identified by prefixes "α" and "β". It has been known since 1926 that hexoses in the crystalline solid state assume the cyclic form. The "α" and "β" forms, which are not enantiomers, will usually crystallize separately as distinct species.

Mangostin is a natural xanthonoid, a type of organic compound isolated from various parts of the mangosteen tree (Garcinia mangostana). It is a yellow crystalline solid with a xanthone core structure. Mangostin and a variety of other xanthonoids from mangosteen have been investigated for biological properties including antioxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. In animal studies, mangostin has been found to be a central nervous system depressant which causes sedation, decreased motor activity, and ptosis.

HCB is a white crystalline solid that has negligible solubility in water (0.00000002 M) but sparingly soluble in organic solvents. It is most soluble in halogenated solvents like chloroform (approx 0.03 M), less soluble in esters and hydrocarbons (approx 0.020 M), and even less soluble in short chain alcohols (0.002-0.006 M). Its vapour pressure is 1.09×10−5 mmHg (1.45 mPa) at 20 °C. Its flash point is 242 °C and it sublimes at 322 °C.

Pure adamantane is a colorless, crystalline solid with a characteristic camphor smell. It is practically insoluble in water, but readily soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. Adamantane has an unusually high melting point for a hydrocarbon. At 270 °C, its melting point is much higher than other hydrocarbons with the same molecular weight, such as camphene (45 °C), limonene (−74 °C), ocimene (50 °C), terpinene (60 °C) or twistane (164 °C), or than a linear C10H22 hydrocarbon decane (−28 °C).

These solids are known as amorphous solids; examples include polystyrene and glass. Whether a solid is crystalline or amorphous depends on the material involved, and the conditions in which it was formed. Solids that are formed by slow cooling will tend to be crystalline, while solids that are frozen rapidly are more likely to be amorphous. Likewise, the specific crystal structure adopted by a crystalline solid depends on the material involved and on how it was formed.

A novel feature of this compound is its unreactivity towards water and the fact that it reacts with mineral acids at a significant rate only at elevated temperatures, whereas the corresponding organocadmium and organozinc compounds hydrolyze rapidly. The difference reflects the low affinity of Hg(II) for oxygen ligands. The compound reacts with mercuric chloride to give the mixed chloro-methyl compound: : (CH3)2Hg + HgCl2 → 2 CH3HgCl Whereas dimethylmercury is a volatile liquid, methylmercury chloride is a crystalline solid.

2-Nitrodiphenylamine, also called NDPA, 2-NDPA, 2NO2DPA, Sudan Yellow 1339, C.I. 10335, CI 10335, phenyl 2-nitrophenylamine, 2-nitro-N-phenylaniline, or N-phenyl-o-nitroaniline, is an organic chemical, a nitrated aromatic amine, a derivate of diphenylamine. Its chemical formula is C12H10N2O2, or C6H5NHC6H4NO2. It is a red crystalline solid, usually in form of flakes or powder, with melting point of 74-76 °C and boiling point of 346 °C. It is polar but hydrophobic.

Antimony telluride is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Sb2Te3. As is true of other pnictogen chalcogenide layered materials, it is a grey crystalline solid with layered structure. Layers consist of two atomic sheets of antimony and three atomic sheets of tellurium and are held together by weak van der Waals forces. Sb2Te3 is a narrow-gap semiconductor with a band gap 0.21 eV; it is also a topological insulator, and thus exhibits thickness- dependent physical properties.

EA-4056's CAS is 110913-96-7, mass 732.6 g/mol, melting point 100–105 °C, and it is soluble in water and alcohols. It is a crystalline solid. EA-4056 evaporates slowly in to the air; thus it can be classified as being extremely persistent in the environment if any possible effects of external factors like sun light and water (air humidity) upon it are neglected. Various other salts than just bromine salts have been reported.

A crystalline solid has been traditionally viewed as a static entity where the movements of its atomic components are limited to its vibrational equilibrium. As seen by the transformation of graphite to diamond, solid to solid transformation can occur under physical or chemical pressure. It has been recently proposed that the transformation from one crystal arrangement to another occurs in a cooperative manner. Most of these studies have been focused in studying an organic or metal-organic framework.

Mercury(II) hydride (systematically named mercurane(2) and dihydridomercury) is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula (also written as ). It is both thermodynamically and kinetically unstable at ambient temperature, and as such, little is known about its bulk properties. However, it known as a white, crystalline solid, which is kinetically stable at temperatures below , which was synthesised for the first time in 1951. Mercury(II) hydride is the second simplest mercury hydride (after mercury(I) hydride).

When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all others to result in only one single domain, the material is magnetically saturated. When a magnetized ferromagnetic material is heated to the Curie point temperature, the molecules are agitated to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization, and the magnetic properties they cause cease. When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can freeze into a crystalline solid.

Quasi-crystals are supramolecular aggregates exhibiting both crystalline (solid) properties as well as amorphous, liquid-like properties. Self- organized structures termed "quasi-crystals" were originally described in 1978 by the Israeli scientist Valeri A. Krongauz of the Weizmann Institute of Science, in the Nature paper, Quasi-crystals from irradiated photochromic dyes in an applied electric field. Scheme 1. Formation of merocyanine dipoles upon irradiation In his 1978 paper Krongauz coined the term “Quasi-Crystals” for the new self-organized colloidal particles .

Ruthenium hexafluoride is a dark brown crystalline solid that melts at 54 °C. The solid structure measured at −140 °C is orthorhombic space group Pnma. Lattice parameters are a = 9.313 Å, b = 8.484 Å, and c = 4.910 Å. There are four formula units (in this case, discrete molecules) per unit cell, giving a density of 3.68 g·cm−3. The RuF6 molecule itself (the form important for the liquid or gas phase) has octahedral molecular geometry, which has point group (Oh).

Zingerone, also called vanillylacetone, is thought by some to be a key component of the pungency of ginger, but imparts the "sweet" flavor of cooked ginger. Zingerone is a crystalline solid that is sparingly soluble in water and soluble in ether. When synthesized and tasted does not have any pungency, suggesting it is more likely that zingerone is a decomposition product of, rather than the direct source of, the pungency of ginger.Steffen Arctander, Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin, pg.

Potassium permanganate is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula KMnO4 and composed of K+ and . It is a purplish-black crystalline solid, that dissolves in water to give intensely pink or purple solutions. Potassium permanganate is widely used in chemical industry and laboratories as a strong oxidizing agent, and also as a medication for dermatitis, for cleaning wounds, and general disinfection. It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system.

Pirkle's alcohol is an off-white, crystalline solid that is stable at room temperature when protected from light and oxygen. This chiral molecule is typically used, in nonracemic form, as a chiral shift reagent in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, in order to simultaneously determine absolute configuration and enantiomeric purity of other chiral molecules. The molecule is named after William H. Pirkle, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Illinois whose group reported its synthesis and its application as a chiral shift reagent.

Coumarin () or 2H-chromen-2-one is an aromatic organic chemical compound with formula . Its molecule can be described as a benzene molecule with two adjacent hydrogen atoms replaced by a lactone-like chain , forming a second six-membered heterocycle that shares two carbons with the benzene ring. It can be placed in the benzopyrone chemical class and considered as a lactone. Coumarin is a colorless crystalline solid with a sweet odor resembling the scent of vanilla and a bitter taste.

Animation of continuously varying superpositions between the p_1 and the p_x orbitals. An atom that is embedded in a crystalline solid feels multiple preferred axes, but often no preferred direction. Instead of building atomic orbitals out of the product of radial functions and a single spherical harmonic, linear combinations of spherical harmonics are typically used, designed so that the imaginary part of the spherical harmonics cancel out. These real orbitals are the building blocks most commonly shown in orbital visualizations.

In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous (from the Greek a, without, morphé, shape, form) or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal. In some older books, the term has been used synonymously with glass. Nowadays, "glassy solid" or "amorphous solid" is considered to be the overarching concept, and glass the more special case: Glass is an amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition.J. Zarzycki: Les verres et l'état vitreux.

Purpurin is a crystalline solid, that forms orange needles melting at ,CRC Handbook of Chemistry & Physics, 90th Ed. but becomes red when dissolved in ethanol, and yellow when dissolved with alkalis in boiling water. It is insoluble in hexane but soluble in chloroform, and can be obtained from chloroform as reddish needles. Unlike alizarin, purpurin is dissolved by boiling in a solution of aluminum sulfate, from which it can be precipitated by acid. This procedure can be used to separate the two dyes.

2,2,2-Tribromoethanol, often called just tribromoethanol, is a chemical compound with formula . Its molecule can be described as that of ethanol, with the three hydrogen atoms in position 2 (on the methyl group) replaced by bromine. It is a white crystalline solid, soluble in water and other solvents, that absorbs strongly in the UV below 290 nm. Tribromoethanol is used in medicine and biology as an anesthetic, and has been available commercially for that purpose by the trade name Avertin.

Triphenylarsine is the chemical compound with the formula As(C6H5)3. This organoarsenic compound, often abbreviated AsPh3, is a colorless crystalline solid that is used as a ligand and a reagent in coordination chemistry and organic synthesis. The molecule is pyramidal with As-C distances of 1.942–1.956 Å and C-As-C angles of 99.6–100.5°.Mazhar-ul-Haque, Hasan A. Tayim, Jamil Ahmed, and William Horne "Crystal and molecular structure of triphenylarsine" Journal of Chemical Crystallography Volume 15, Number 6 / 1985.

Thallium(I) iodide has the CsCl crystal structure The monohalides all contain thallium with oxidation state +1. Parallels can be drawn between the thallium(I) halides and their corresponding silver salts, for example thallium(I) chloride and bromide are light sensitive and thallium(I) fluoride is more soluble in water than the chloride and bromide. ;Thallium(I) fluoride :TlF is a white crystalline solid, with a mp of 322 °C. It is readily soluble in water unlike the other halides.

Luminol (C8H7N3O2) is a chemical that exhibits chemiluminescence, with a blue glow, when mixed with an appropriate oxidizing agent. Luminol is a white-to- pale-yellow crystalline solid that is soluble in most polar organic solvents, but insoluble in water. Forensic investigators use luminol to detect trace amounts of blood at crime scenes, as it reacts with the iron in hemoglobin. Biologists use it in cellular assays to detect copper, iron, cyanides, as well as specific proteins via western blotting.

Magnesium sulfate (Magnesium sulphate in British English) is a chemical compound, a salt with the formula , consisting of magnesium cations (20.19% by mass) and sulfate anions . It is a white crystalline solid, soluble in water but not in ethanol. Magnesium sulfate is usually encountered in the form of a hydrate , for various values of n between 1 and 11. The most common is the heptahydrate , known as Epsom salt, which is a household chemical with many traditional uses, including bath salts.

It has been used since antiquity as a pigment, and it is still used as such in artist paints, sometimes called verditer, green bice, or mountain green. Sometimes the name is used for ()2()2, a blue crystalline solid also known as the mineral azurite. It too has been used as pigment, sometimes under the name mountain blue or blue verditer. Both malachite and azurite can be found in the verdigris patina that is found on weathered brass, bronze, and copper.

The synthesis of hexacene has also been reported to yield a crystalline solid from a monoketone precursor, by solid state synthesis at 180 °C. The solid was reported stable in the dark for up to a month, stability attributed to its "herringbone" crystalline packing that prevented dimerization. In December 2016, the groups of Diego Peña and Francesca Moresco reported synthesis of hexacene in-situ, via deoxygenation of an air-stable precursor, and used scanning tunneling microscopy to produce orbital resonance images of a single hexacene molecule.

Osmium hexafluoride is a yellow crystalline solid that melts at 33.4 °C and boils at 47.5 °C. The solid structure measured at −140 °C is orthorhombic space group Pnma. Lattice parameters are a = 9.387 Å, b = 8.543 Å, and c = 4.944 Å. There are four formula units (in this case, discrete molecules) per unit cell, giving a density of 5.09 g·cm−3. The OsF6 molecule itself (the form important for the liquid or gas phase) has octahedral molecular geometry, which has point group (Oh).

In precipitation models, nucleation is generally a prelude to models of the crystal growth process. Sometimes precipitation is rate-limited by the nucleation process. An example would be when someone takes a cup of superheated water from a microwave and, when jiggling it with a spoon or against the wall of the cup, heterogeneous nucleation occurs and most of water particles convert into steam. If the change in phase forms a crystalline solid in a liquid matrix, the atoms might then form a dendrite.

Ferrovanadium (FeV) is an alloy formed by combining iron and vanadium with a vanadium content range of 35–85%. The production of this alloy results in a grayish silver crystalline solid that can be crushed into a powder called "ferrovanadium dust".Hathaway, G. J.; Proctor, N. H. Proctor and Hughes chemical hazards of the workplace; Wiley-Interscience: Hoboken, 2004. Ferrovanadium is a universal hardener, strengthener and anti-corrosive additive for steels like high-strength low-alloy steel, tool steels, as well as other ferrous-based products.

A diazaquinone is a chemical compound that has an heterocyclic aromatic core including two consecutive doubly-bonded nitrogen atoms , with the two carbon units adjacent to the nitrogens replaced by carbonyl (ketone) groups . These carbon and nitrogen atoms then comprise a diacyl diimide unit, . Two canonical examples are 3,6-pyridazinedione (a quinone of pyridine), emerald-green; and 1,4-phthalazinedione (a quinone of phthalazine) a green crystalline solid (both soluble in acetone and stable at -77 °C). The name was proposed by Thomas J. Kealy in 1962.

Below the transition temperature range, the glassy structure does not relax in accordance with the cooling rate used. The expansion coefficient for the glassy state is roughly equivalent to that of the crystalline solid. If slower cooling rates are used, the increased time for structural relaxation (or intermolecular rearrangement) to occur may result in a higher density glass product. Similarly, by annealing (and thus allowing for slow structural relaxation) the glass structure in time approaches an equilibrium density corresponding to the supercooled liquid at this same temperature.

If the solute is a crystalline solid, the argument is much the same. A crystal has no spatial uncertainty at all, except for crystallographic defects, and a (perfect) crystal allows us to localize the molecules using the crystal symmetry group. The fact that volumes do not add when dissolving a solid in a liquid is not important for condensed phases. If the solute is not crystalline, we can still use a spatial lattice, as good an approximation for an amorphous solid as it is for a liquid.

1,3-Diphenylisobenzofuran is a yellow, light- and air-sensitive, crystalline solid that is soluble in many organic solvents with a maximum absorption around 420 nm (in solution), which generates intense fluorescence. Fluorescence measurements can be performed in DMF and DMSO because of the stability of 1,3-DPBF, in these solvents. In CHCl3 and CCl4, the dissolved 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran is rapidly photolyzed by attack of CHCl2 and CCl3 radicals, even in the absence of oxygen. [24 ] With ethanol, 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran forms an orange-yellow, fluorescent solution.

Potassium perchlorate is the inorganic salt with the chemical formula KClO4. Like other perchlorates, this salt is a strong oxidizer although it usually reacts very slowly with organic substances. This, usually obtained as a colorless, crystalline solid, is a common oxidizer used in fireworks, ammunition percussion caps, explosive primers, and is used variously in propellants, flash compositions, stars, and sparklers. It has been used as a solid rocket propellant, although in that application it has mostly been replaced by the higher performance ammonium perchlorate.

Pure sodium hydroxide is a colorless crystalline solid that melts at without decomposition, and with a boiling point of . It is highly soluble in water, with a lower solubility in polar solvents such as ethanol and methanol. NaOH is insoluble in ether and other non-polar solvents. Similar to the hydration of sulfuric acid, dissolution of solid sodium hydroxide in water is a highly exothermic reaction where a large amount of heat is liberated, posing a threat to safety through the possibility of splashing.

The binding of transition metal cations results in multiple hydrogen-bonded interactions from both equatorial and axial aqua ligands, such that highly crystalline solid-state supramolecular polymers can be isolated. Metal salts isolated in this form include Co(ClO4)2, Ni(ClO4)2, Cu(ClO4)2, and Zn(ClO4)2. Seven coordinate species are most common for transition metal ions complexes of 15-crown-5, with the crown ether occupying the equatorial plane, along with 2 axial aqua ligands. The structure of the complex .

Iridium hexafluoride is a yellow crystalline solid that melts at 44 °C and boils at 53.6 °C. The solid structure measured at −140 °C is orthorhombic space group Pnma. Lattice parameters are a = 9.411 Å, b = 8.547 Å, and c = 4.952 Å. There are four formula units (in this case, discrete molecules) per unit cell, giving a density of 5.11 g·cm−3. The IrF6 molecule itself (the form important for the liquid or gas phase) has octahedral molecular geometry, which has point group (Oh).

In industrial use, 2-furoic acid is a preservative, acting as a bactericide and fungicide. It is also considered an acceptable flavoring ingredient and achieved a generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status in 1995 by the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA). 2-Furoic acid is characterized as a white to off-white crystalline solid and has a distinct odor described in the Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives as sweet, oily, herbaceous, and earthy. 2-Furoic acid is often used as a starting material for the production of furoate esters.

4-Hydroxybenzoic acid, also known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA), is a monohydroxybenzoic acid, a phenolic derivative of benzoic acid. It is a white crystalline solid that is slightly soluble in water and chloroform but more soluble in polar organic solvents such as alcohols and acetone. 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid is primarily known as the basis for the preparation of its esters, known as parabens, which are used as preservatives in cosmetics and some ophthalmic solutions. It is isomeric with 2-hydroxybenzoic acid, known as salicylic acid, a precursor to aspirin, and with 3-hydroxybenzoic acid.

Plutonium hexafluoride is the highest fluoride of plutonium, and is of interest for laser enrichment of plutonium, in particular for the production of pure plutonium-239 from irradiated uranium. This pure plutonium is needed to avoid premature ignition of low-mass nuclear weapon designs by neutrons produced by spontaneous fission of plutonium-240. It is a red-brown volatile crystalline solid; the heat of sublimation is 12.1 kcal/mol and the heat of vaporization 7.4 kcal/mol. It is relatively hard to handle, being very corrosive and prone to auto-radiolysis.

Hydrogen peroxide - urea (also called Hyperol, artizone, urea hydrogen peroxide, and UHP) is a solid composed of equal amounts of hydrogen peroxide and urea. This compound is a white crystalline solid which dissolves in water to give free hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide - urea contains solid and water-free hydrogen peroxide, which offers a higher stability and better controllability than liquid hydrogen peroxide when used as an oxidizing agent. Often called carbamide peroxide in the dental office, it is used as a source of hydrogen peroxide for bleaching, disinfection, and oxidation.

However, specific diagnostic impurities are not very reliable in practice, and it is generally preferable for forensic technicians to evaluate a larger profile of trace compounds. A common adulterant is dimethyl sulfone, a solvent and cosmetic base without known effect on the nervous system; other adulterants include dimethylamphetamine HCl, ephedrine HCl, sodium thiosulfate, sodium chloride, sodium glutamate, and a mixture of caffeine with sodium benzoate. In the United States, illicit methamphetamine comes in a variety of forms with prices varying widely over time. Most commonly, it is found as a colorless crystalline solid.

McCoy and William C. Moore attempted to use electrolysis to produce a metallic species from tetramethylammonium salts. Extending the work of Thomas Johann Seebeck (1770-1831) to organic quaternary amines, instead of simple ammonium salts, they reported what was believed to be the first organic metal. Electrolysis produced of a crystalline solid with a metallic luster which displayed electrical conductivity similar to that of metals. It was believed to be a mercury amalgam with the general formula HgN(CH3)4 until 1986, when Allen J. Bard proposed a more compelling explanation for the results.

Beryllium sulfate normally encountered as the tetrahydrate, [Be(H2O)4]SO4 is a white crystalline solid. It was first isolated in 1815 by Jons Jakob Berzelius.. Beryllium sulfate may be prepared by treating an aqueous solution of any beryllium salt with sulfuric acid, followed by evaporation of the solution and crystallization. The hydrated product may be converted to anhydrous salt by heating at 400 °C.. The tetrahydrate contains a tetrahedral Be(OH2)42+ unit and sulfate anions. The small size of the Be2+ cation determines the number of water molecules that can be coordinated.

The first step entails conversion to the hexafluorovanadate(III) salt using ammonium bifluoride: :V2O3 \+ 6 (NH4)HF2 → 2 (NH4)3VF6 \+ 3 H2O In the second step, the hexafluorovanadate is thermally decomposed. :(NH4)3VF6 → 3 NH3 \+ 3 HF + VF3 The thermal decomposition of ammonium salts is a relatively common method for the preparation of inorganic solids. VF3 can also be prepared by treatment of V2O3 with HF. VF3 is a crystalline solid with 6 coordinate vanadium atoms with bridging fluorine atoms. The magnetic moment indicates the presence of two unpaired electrons.

Solid fat index (SFI) is a measure of the percentage of fat in crystalline (solid) phase to total fat (the remainder being in liquid phase) across a temperature gradient. The SFI of a fat is measured using a dilatometer that measures the expansion of a fat as it is heated; density measurements are taken at a series of standardized temperature check points. The resulting SFI/temperature curve is related to melting qualities and flavor. For example, butter has a sharp SFI curve, indicating that it melts quickly and that it releases flavor quickly.

Fluorapatite, often with the alternate spelling of fluoroapatite, is a phosphate mineral with the formula Ca5(PO4)3F (calcium fluorophosphate). Fluorapatite is a hard crystalline solid. Although samples can have various color (green, brown, blue, yellow, violet, or colorless), the pure mineral is colorless, as expected for a material lacking transition metals. Along with hydroxylapatite, it can be a component of tooth enamel, but for industrial use both minerals are mined in the form of phosphate rock, whose usual mineral composition is primarily fluorapatite but often with significant amounts of the other.

The principal differences between the behavior of glass and crystalline ceramic laser host materials are associated with the greater variation in the local environment of lasing ions in amorphous solids. This leads to a broadening of the fluorescent levels in glasses. For example, the width of the Nd3+ emission in YAG is ~ 10 angstroms as compared to ~ 300 angstroms in typical oxide glasses. The broadened fluorescent lines in glasses make it more difficult to obtain continuous wave laser operation (CW), relative to the same lasing ions in crystalline solid laser hosts.

EA-3990's CAS is 110913-95-6, mass 718.7 g/mol, melting point 190–191 °C, density 1.33 g/cm3, vapor pressure is negligible, and it is soluble in alcohols, acetic acid and chloroform. It is a white, odorless crystalline solid. EA-3990 evaporates slowly in to the air; thus it can be classified as being extremely persistent in the environment if any possible effects of external factors like sun light and water (air humidity) upon it are neglected. Various other salts than just bromine salts have been reported.

In addition to its use in the H&E; stain, haematoxylin is also a component of the Papanicolaou stain (or PAP stain) which is widely used in the study of cytology specimens. Although the stain is commonly called haematoxylin, the active colourant is the oxidized form haematein, which forms strongly coloured complexes with certain metal ions (commonly Fe(III) and Al(III) salts). In its pure form, haematoxylin is a colourless and crystalline solid, although commercial samples are typically light to dark-brown based on the level of impurities present.

The MSGF method is an extended version of the LSGF method and has been applied to many nanomaterials and 2D materials At the atomistic scales, a crystal or a crystalline solid is represented by a collection of interacting atoms located at discrete sites on a geometric lattice. A perfect crystal consists of a regular and periodic geometric lattice. The perfect lattice has translation symmetry, which means that all the unit cells are identical. In a perfect periodic lattice, which is assumed to be infinite, all atoms are identical.

Wallace Carothers at DuPont patented nylon 66 using amides. In the case of nylons that involve reaction of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid, it is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to chain termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons (u). To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid "nylon salt" can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1:1 ratio of the acid and the base to neutralize each other. The salt is crystallized to purify it and obtain the desired precise stoichiometry.

Phase transitions often involve a symmetry breaking process. For instance, the cooling of a fluid into a crystalline solid breaks continuous translation symmetry: each point in the fluid has the same properties, but each point in a crystal does not have the same properties (unless the points are chosen from the lattice points of the crystal lattice). Typically, the high-temperature phase contains more symmetries than the low-temperature phase due to spontaneous symmetry breaking, with the exception of certain accidental symmetries (e.g. the formation of heavy virtual particles, which only occurs at low temperatures).

The thallium trihalides are less stable than their corresponding aluminium, gallium and indium counterparts and chemically quite distinct. The triiodide does not contain thallium with oxidation state +3 but is a thallium(I) compound and contains the linear triiodide (I3−) ion. ;Thallium(III) fluoride :TlF3 is a white crystalline solid , mp 550 °C. The crystal structure is the same as YF3 and . In this the thallium atom is 9 coordinate,(tricapped trigonal prismatic). It can be synthesised by fluoridation of the oxide, Tl2O3, with F2, BrF3 or SF4 at 300 °C.

In chemistry, 3,3,4,4-tetramethyltetrahydrofuran-2,5-dione is a heterocyclic compound with the formula , or (CH3)2(COC2COO)(CH3)2. It is a white crystalline solid with a pungent camphoraceous odor. The compound is also called 3,3,4,4-tetramethyloxolane-2,5-dione (its IUPAC name) or 3,3,4,4-tetramethylsuccinic anhydride, namely the anhydride of 2,2,3,3-tetramethylsuccinic acid, and sometimes abbreviated as TMSA.Subat Turdi, Peisheng Xu, Qun Li, Youqing Shen, Parhat Kerram, and Jun Ren (2008), Amidization of Doxorubicin Alleviates Doxorubicin-Induced Contractile Dysfunction and Reduced Survival in Murine Cardiomyocytes. Toxicology Letters volume 178, issue 3, pages 197–201.

Crystal growth is a major stage of a crystallization process, and consists in the addition of new atoms, ions, or polymer strings into the characteristic arrangement of the crystalline lattice. The growth typically follows an initial stage of either homogeneous or heterogeneous (surface catalyzed) nucleation, unless a "seed" crystal, purposely added to start the growth, was already present. The action of crystal growth yields a crystalline solid whose atoms or molecules are close packed, with fixed positions in space relative to each other. The crystalline state of matter is characterized by a distinct structural rigidity and very high resistance to deformation (i.e.

The solid state structure of this adduct has been determined by neutron diffraction. Hydrogen peroxide-urea is a readily water-soluble, odorless, crystalline solid, which is available as white powder or colorless needles or platelets. Upon dissolving in various solvents, the 1:1 complex dissociates back to urea and hydrogen peroxide. So just like hydrogen peroxide, the (erroneously) so- called adduct is an oxidizer but the release at room temperature in the presence of catalysts proceeds in a controlled manner, thus the compound is suitable as a safe substitute for the unstable aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide.

Momordicin I, or 3,7,23-trihydroxycucurbitan-5,24-dien-19-al, is a chemical compound found in the leaves of the bitter melon vine (Momordica charantia), possibly responsible for its reputed medicinal properties. The compound was isolated and characterized in 1984 by M. Yasuda and others M. Yasuda, M. Iwamoto, H. Okabe, and T. Yamauchi (1984), A New Cucurbitane Triterpenoid From Momordica charantia, Chem. Pharm. Bull. volume 32, issue 6, pages 2044-2049 It is a white crystalline solid with formula , that melts at 125–128 °C.N. M. Puspawati (2008), Isolation and Identification of Momordicin I from leaves extract of Momordica charantia L. .

Most liquids freeze by crystallization, formation of crystalline solid from the uniform liquid. This is a first-order thermodynamic phase transition, which means that as long as solid and liquid coexist, the temperature of the whole system remains very nearly equal to the melting point due to slow removal of heat when in contact with air, which is a poor heat conductor. Because of the latent heat of fusion, the freezing is greatly slowed and the temperature will not drop any more once the freezing starts but will continue dropping once it finishes. Crystallization consists of two major events, nucleation and crystal growth.

Cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer is an organometallic compound with the formula [(η5-C5H5)Fe(CO)2]2, often abbreviated to Cp2Fe2(CO)4, [CpFe(CO)2]2 or even Fp2, with the colloquial name "fip dimer". It is a dark reddish-purple crystalline solid, which is readily soluble in moderately polar organic solvents such as chloroform and pyridine, but less soluble in carbon tetrachloride and carbon disulfide. Cp2Fe2(CO)4 is insoluble in but stable toward water. Cp2Fe2(CO)4 is reasonably stable to storage under air and serves as a convenient starting material for accessing other Fp (CpFe(CO)2) derivatives (described below).

However, using chlorine or bromine as the oxidising agent also produces hydrochloric or hydrobromic acid as a side-product, which needs to be removed from the solution since they can reduce the selenic acid to selenous acid. Another method of preparing selenic acid is by the oxidation of elemental selenium in a water suspension by chlorine: :Se + 4 + 3 → + 6 HCl To obtain the anhydrous acid as a crystalline solid, the resulting solution is evaporated at temperatures below in a vacuum.Seppelt, K. “Selenoyl difluoride” Inorganic Syntheses, 1980, volume XX, pp. 36-38. . The report describes the synthesis of selenic acid.

Here, the electrons are modelled as a Fermi gas, a gas of particles which obey the quantum mechanical Fermi–Dirac statistics. The free electron model gave improved predictions for the heat capacity of metals, however, it was unable to explain the existence of insulators. The nearly free electron model is a modification of the free electron model which includes a weak periodic perturbation meant to model the interaction between the conduction electrons and the ions in a crystalline solid. By introducing the idea of electronic bands, the theory explains the existence of conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

Xenon tetroxide is a chemical compound of xenon and oxygen with molecular formula XeO4, remarkable for being a relatively stable compound of a noble gas. It is a yellow crystalline solid that is stable below −35.9 °C; above that temperature it is very prone to exploding and decomposing into elemental xenon and oxygen (O2). All eight valence electrons of xenon are involved in the bonds with the oxygen, and the oxidation state of the xenon atom is +8. Oxygen is the only element that can bring xenon up to its highest oxidation state; even fluorine can only give XeF6 (+6).

The atoms in a nanoparticle may be arranged in a alt=Top, schematic of a crystalline solid showing circular particles in a regular hexagonal lattice. Bottom, schematic of an amorphous solid showing circular particles in a disordered arrangement. Bulk chemical composition refers to the atomic elements of which a nanoparticle is composed, and can be measured in ensemble or single-particle elemental analysis methods. Ensemble techniques include atomic absorption spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy or inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, neutron activation analysis, X-ray diffraction, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence, and thermogravimetric analysis.

Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) is a powerful technique used in condensed matter physics to probe the structure of the electrons in a material, usually a crystalline solid. The technique is best suited for use in one- or two-dimensional materials. It is based on the photoelectric effect, in which an incoming photon of sufficient frequency dislodges an electron from the surface of a material. By directly measuring the kinetic energy and momentum distributions of the emitted photoelectrons, the technique can be used to map the electronic band structure, provide elemental information, and map Fermi surfaces.

The Cauchy–Born rule or Cauchy-Born approximation is a basic hypothesis used in the mathematical formulation of solid mechanics which relates the movement of atoms in a crystal to the overall deformation of the bulk solid. It states that in a crystalline solid subject to a small strain, the positions of the atoms within the crystal lattice follow the overall strain of the medium. The currently accepted form is Max Born's refinement of Cauchy's original hypothesis which was used to derive the equations satisfied by the Cauchy stress tensor. The approximation generally holds for face-centered and body- centered cubic crystal systems.

Figure 1: The optical circuit symbol for an isolator Faraday effect The main component of the optical isolator is the Faraday rotator. The magnetic field, B, applied to the Faraday rotator causes a rotation in the polarization of the light due to the Faraday effect. The angle of rotation, \beta, is given by, :\beta= u B d\,, where, u is the Verdet constant of the material (amorphous or crystalline solid, or liquid, or crystalline liquid, or vaprous, or gaseous) of which the rotator is made, and d is the length of the rotator. This is shown in Figure 2.

A crystal of amethyst quartz Microscopically, a single crystal has atoms in a near-perfect periodic arrangement; a polycrystal is composed of many microscopic crystals (called "crystallites" or "grains"); and an amorphous solid (such as glass) has no periodic arrangement even microscopically. A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristic orientations. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography.

Metallic bonding is mostly non-polar, because even in alloys there is little difference among the electronegativities of the atoms participating in the bonding interaction (and, in pure elemental metals, none at all). Thus, metallic bonding is an extremely delocalized communal form of covalent bonding. In a sense, metallic bonding is not a 'new' type of bonding at all, therefore, and it describes the bonding only as present in a chunk of condensed matter, be it crystalline solid, liquid, or even glass. Metallic vapors by contrast are often atomic (Hg) or at times contain molecules like Na2 held together by a more conventional covalent bond.

DMol3 is a commercial (and academic) software package which uses density functional theory with a numerical radial function basis set to calculate the electronic properties of molecules, clusters, surfaces and crystalline solid materials from first principles. DMol3 can either use gas phase boundary conditions or 3d periodic boundary conditions for solids or simulations of lower-dimensional periodicity. It has also pioneered the use of the conductor- like screening model COSMO Solvation Model for quantum simulations of solvated molecules and recently of wetted surfaces. DMol3 permits geometry optimisation and saddle point search with and without geometry constraints, as well as calculation of a variety of derived properties of the electronic configuration.

Samples of halogenated BODIPY dyes in ambient lighting and fluorescing under UV BODIPY is the technical common name of a chemical compound with formula , whose molecule consists of a boron difluoride group joined to a dipyrromethene group ; specifically, the compound 4,4-difluoro-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene in the IUPAC nomenclature. The common name is an abbreviation for "boron- dipyrromethene". It is a red crystalline solid, stable at ambient temperature, soluble in methanol. The compound itself was isolated only in 2009, but many derivatives—formally obtained by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms by other functional groups—have been known since 1968, and comprise the important class of BODIPY dyes.

General structure of an amine oxide An amine oxide, also known as amine-N- oxide and N-oxide, is a chemical compound that contains the functional group R3N+−O−, an N−O coordinate covalent bond with three additional hydrogen and/or hydrocarbon side chains attached to N. Sometimes it is written as R3N→O or, wrongly, as R3N=O. In the strict sense, the term amine oxide applies only to oxides of tertiary amines. Sometimes it is also used for the analogous derivatives of primary and secondary amines. Examples of amine oxides include pyridine-N-oxide, a water-soluble crystalline solid with melting point 62–67 °C, and N-methylmorpholine N-oxide, which is an oxidant.

Energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) are commonly used techniques to both qualitatively and quantitatively probe the composition of samples in the TEM. A primary challenge in the quantitative accuracy of both techniques is the phenomenon of channelling. Put simply, in a crystalline solid, the probability of interaction between an electron and ion in the lattice depends strongly on the momentum (direction and velocity) of the electron. When probing a sample under diffraction conditions near a zone axis, as is often the case in EDS and EELS applications, channelling can have a large impact on the effective interaction of the incident electrons with specific ions in the crystal structure.

Strong bases attack aluminium. Sodium hydroxide reacts with aluminium and water to release hydrogen gas. The aluminium takes the oxygen atom from sodium hydroxide, which in turn takes the oxygen atom from the water, and releases the two hydrogen atoms, The reaction thus produces hydrogen gas and sodium aluminate. In this reaction, sodium hydroxide acts as an agent to make the solution alkaline, which aluminium can dissolve in. 2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O -> 2NaAlO2 + 3H Sodium aluminate is an inorganic chemical that is used as an effective source of aluminium hydroxide for many industrial and technical applications. Pure sodium aluminate (anhydrous) is a white crystalline solid having a formula variously given as NaAlO2, NaAl(OH)4(hydrated), Na2O.

The conversion of acetone to a polyketal (PKA) would be analogous to the formation of paraformaldehyde from formol, and of trithioacetone from thioacetone. In 1960, Kargin, Kabanov and others observed that the thermodynamics of this process is unfavourable for liquid acetone, so that it (unlike thioacetone and formol) is not expected to polymerise spontaneously, even with catalysts. However, they observed that the thermodynamics became favourable for crystalline solid acetone at the melting point (−96 °C). They claimed to have obtained such a polymer (a white elastic solid, soluble in acetone, stable for several hours at room temperature) by depositing vapor of acetone, with some magnesium as a catalyst, onto a very cold surface.

Bragg diffraction occurs when radiation, with a wavelength comparable to atomic spacings, is scattered in a specular fashion by the atoms of a crystalline system, and undergoes constructive interference. For a crystalline solid, the waves are scattered from lattice planes separated by the interplanar distance d. When the scattered waves interfere constructively, they remain in phase since the difference between the path lengths of the two waves is equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength. The path difference between two waves undergoing interference is given by 2dsinθ, where θ is the glancing angle (see figure on the right, and note that this differs from the convention in Snell's law where θ is measured from the surface normal).

The Bose-Hubbard model gives a description of the physics of interacting spinless bosons on a lattice. It is closely related to the Hubbard model which originated in solid-state physics as an approximate description of superconducting systems and the motion of electrons between the atoms of a crystalline solid. The model was first introduced by Gersch and Knollman in 1963 in the context of granular superconductors. (The term 'Bose' in its name refers to the fact that the particles in the system are bosonic.) The model rose to prominence in the 1980s after it was found to capture the essence of the superfluid-insulator transition in a way that was much more mathematically tractable than fermionic metal-insulator models.

The IUPAC name of venlafaxine is 1-[2-(dimethylamino)-1-(4 methoxyphenyl)ethyl]cyclohexanol, though it is sometimes referred to as (±)-1-[a-[a-(dimethylamino)methyl]-p-methoxybenzyl]cyclohexanol. It consists of two enantiomers present in equal quantities (termed a racemic mixture), both of which have the empirical formula of C17H27NO2. It is usually sold as a mixture of the respective hydrochloride salts, (R/S)-1-[2-(dimethylamino)-1-(4 methoxyphenyl)ethyl]cyclohexanol hydrochloride, C17H28ClNO2, which is a white to off-white crystalline solid. Venlafaxine is structurally and pharmacologically related to the atypical opioid analgesic tramadol, and more distantly to the newly released opioid tapentadol, but not to any of the conventional antidepressant drugs, including tricyclic antidepressants, SSRIs, MAOIs, or RIMAs.

Different degrees of ordered structures: a monocrystalline crystal, polycrystalline structure, and amorphous or non- crystalline solid Crystallite size in monodisperse microstructures is usually approximated from X-ray diffraction patterns and grain size by other experimental techniques like transmission electron microscopy. Solid objects large enough to see and handle are rarely composed of a single crystal, except for a few cases (gems, silicon single crystals for the electronics industry, certain types of fiber, single crystals of a nickel-based superalloy for turbojet engines, and some ice crystals which can exceed 0.5 meters in diameter). Most materials are polycrystalline, made of a large number crystallites held together by thin layers of amorphous solid. The crystallite size can vary from a few nanometers to several millimeters.

The common form of iron is the “α” form, with body centred cubic (BCC) crystalline structure; in the absence of reactive chemicals, at ambient temperature and 13 GPa of pressure it converts to the “ε” form, with hexagonal close packing (HCP) structure. In an atmosphere of hydrogen at ambient temperature, α-Fe retains its structure up to 3.5 GPa (35,000 atmospheres), with only small amounts of hydrogen diffusing into it forming a solid interstitial solution. Starting at about 3.5 GPa of pressure, hydrogen rapidly diffuses into metallic iron (with diffusion length of about 500 mm per 10 s at 5 GPa) to form a crystalline solid with formula close to FeH. This reaction, in which the iron expands significantly, was first inferred from the unexpected deformation of steel gaskets in diamond anvil cell experiments.

Synthetic polyynes of the form , with n about 8 or more, often have a smoothly curved or helical backbone in the crystalline solid state, presumably due to crystal packing effects. For example, when the cap R is triisopropylsilyl and n is 8, X-ray crystallography of the substance (a crystalline orange/yellow solid) shows the backbone bent by about 25–30 degrees in a broad arch, so that each C−C≡C angle deviates by 3.1 degrees from a straight line. This geometry affords a denser packing, with the bulky cap of an adjacent molecule nested into the concave side of the backbone. As a result, the distance between backbones of neighboring molecules is reduced to about 0.35 to 0.5 nm, near the range at which one expects spontaneous cross-linking.

The science of freezing water depends on multiple factors, including how water droplets freeze, how much water is in the atmosphere, if water is in a liquid or crystal state, at what temperature it freezes, and whether it crystallizes from within or from the surface. The freezing of nanoscale water or silicon liquid drops is initiated at a number of different distances from the centre of the droplet, providing new insights on a long-standing dispute in the field of material and chemical physics. When water is in a conventional freezer, a dynamic phase transition is triggered. The resulting ice depends on how quickly the system is cooled: If the water is cooled below its freezing point slowly, an ice crystal will result, rather than the poly-crystalline solid that flash freezing produces.

In a Mad Max style future, Jake McQueen is the ultimate smuggler, smuggling in Mexicans for money to survive, only for his smuggling to come to a halt when he is busted by his brother while getting his truck repaired. However, what he does not know is that he is under observation by Jared, the crippled head of Chrysalis Corporation, who sends one of his most valued employees, Hannah Tyree, to bring him in to work for them as part of their video games division. Jake initially is skeptical about the idea of working with Hannah, and is scared away when she admits that she accidentally downloaded herself onto PRISM, a crystalline solid-state memory unit for her computer, once, due to an unexpected side-effect. Jake is then hunted down after Jared has his data, and eventually finds his way back home, only to find his father near death.

Elemental iodine hence forms diatomic molecules with chemical formula I2, where two iodine atoms share a pair of electrons in order to each achieve a stable octet for themselves; at high temperatures, these diatomic molecules reversibly dissociate a pair of iodine atoms. Similarly, the iodide anion, I−, is the strongest reducing agent among the stable halogens, being the most easily oxidised back to diatomic I2.Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 800–4 (Astatine goes further, being indeed unstable as At− and readily oxidised to At0 or At+, although the existence of At2 is not settled.) The halogens darken in colour as the group is descended: fluorine is a very pale yellow gas, chlorine is greenish-yellow, and bromine is a reddish-brown volatile liquid. Iodine conforms to the prevailing trend, being a shiny black crystalline solid that melts at 114 °C and boils at 183 °C to form a violet gas.

It is important to distinguish between studies concerning synephrine as a single chemical entity (synephrine can exist in the form of either of two stereoisomers, d- and l-synephrine, which are chemically and pharmacologically distinct), and synephrine which is mixed with other drugs and/or botanical extracts in a "Supplement", as well as synephrine which is present as only one chemical component in a naturally-occurring mixture of phytochemicals such as the rind or fruit of a bitter orange. Mixtures containing synephrine as only one of their chemical components (regardless of whether these are of synthetic or natural origin) should not be assumed to produce exactly the same biological effects as synephrine alone. In physical appearance, synephrine is a colorless, crystalline solid and is water-soluble. Its molecular structure is based on a phenethylamine skeleton, and is related to those of many other drugs, and to the major neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine.

A colloidal crystal is a highly ordered array of particles that forms over a long range (from a few millimeters to one centimeter in length); colloidal crystals have appearance and properties roughly analogous to their atomic or molecular counterparts. It has been known for many years that, due to repulsive Coulombic interactions, electrically charged macromolecules in an aqueous environment can exhibit long-range crystal-like correlations, with interparticle separation distances often being considerably greater than the individual particle diameter. Periodic arrays of spherical particles give rise to interstitial voids (the spaces between the particles), which act as a natural diffraction grating for visible light waves, when the interstitial spacing is of the same order of magnitude as the incident lightwave. In these cases in nature, brilliant iridescence (or play of colours) is attributed to the diffraction and constructive interference of visible lightwaves according to Bragg's law, in a matter analogous to the scattering of X-rays in crystalline solid.

The chart below shows these differences for various colours:- Graph showing the effects of haze compensation Both ISO 13803 and ASTM E430 method B require a separate measurement of luminous reflectance, Y, to calculate compensated haze. The tri-stimulus value Y gives a measure of the lightness of the material as defined in ISO 7724-2 requiring a 45°/0° geometry to be used with standard illuminant C and 2° observer (although it is mentioned that slightly different conditions will not result in significant errors). Luminous reflectance measurements, Y, are required on both the sample material and a reference white; ISO 13803 details the use of a BaSO4 standard - Barium sulphate, a white crystalline solid having a white opaque appearance and high density as this material is a good substitute for a perfectly reflecting diffusor as defined under ISO 7724-2. Compensated haze can then be calculated as - H Comp = H Linear – Y Sample / Y BaSO4 Using the ISO / ASTM method therefore to measure luminous reflectance produces a reliable measurement of Y for non-metallic surfaces as the diffuse component is lambertian, i.e.

The very broad definition adopted by the International Union of Crystallography, IUCR, states that the coordination number of an atom in a crystalline solid depends on the chemical bonding model and the way in which the coordination number is calculated. Some metals have irregular structures. For example, zinc has a distorted hexagonal close packed structure. Regular hexagonal close packing of spheres would predict that each atom has 12 nearest neighbours and a triangular orthobicupola (also called an anticuboctahedron or twinned cuboctahedron) coordination polyhedron. In zinc there are only 6 nearest neighbours at 266 pm in the same close packed plane with six other, next-nearest neighbours, equidistant, three in each of the close packed planes above and below at 291 pm. It is considered to be reasonable to describe the coordination number as 12 rather than 6. Similar considerations can be applied to the regular body centred cube structure where in addition to the 8 nearest neighbors there 6 more, approximately 15% more distant, and in this case the coordination number is often considered to be 14.

Boric acid is soluble in boiling water. When heated above 170 °C, it dehydrates, forming metaboric acid (HBO2): : H3BO3 → HBO2 \+ Metaboric acid is a white, cubic crystalline solid and is only slightly soluble in water. Metaboric acid melts at about 236 °C, and when heated above about 300 °C further dehydrates, forming tetraboric acid, also called pyroboric acid (H2B4O7): : 4 HBO2 → H2B4O7 \+ The term boric acid may sometimes refer to any of these compounds. Further heating (to about 330 °C) leads to boron trioxide. : H2B4O7 → 2 B2O3 \+ There are conflicting interpretations for the origin of the acidity of aqueous boric acid solutions. Raman spectroscopy of strongly alkaline solutions has shown the presence of B(OH) ion, leading some to conclude that the acidity is exclusively due to the abstraction of OH− from water: :B(OH)3 \+ B(OH) + (K = 7.3×10−10; pK = 9.14) or more properly expressed in the aqueous solution: :B(OH)3 \+ 2 B(OH) + This may be characterized as Lewis acidity of boron toward OH−, rather than as Brønsted acidity.

Uranium tetrafluoride (UF4) is a green crystalline solid compound of uranium with an insignificant vapor pressure and very slight solubility in water. Uranium in its tetravalent (uranous) state is very important in different technological processes. In the uranium refining industry it is known as green salt. UF4 is prepared from UO2 in a fluidized bed by reaction with HF. The UO2 is derived from mining operations, around 60.000 tonnes per year are prepared in this way. UF4 is an intermediate between UO2 and UF6. In the UF4 from mining, there ares till significant impurities left. Further conversion of the UF4 to UF6 is a highly effective method to isolate very pure Uranium, as UF6 has a low boiling point and can therefore be distilled, getting rid of impurities. UF6 can also be enriched in ultracentrifuges or by diffusion. As a means of preparing Uranium for long term storage or possible use many decades from now, uranium hexafluoride (UF6) that is depleted in U235, or refined from spent nuclear fuel can be converted back into either uranium oxides (U3O8 , UO2), or uranium metal.