The correct way to evaluate the success of anti-poverty programmes is counterfactually.
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But if she's elected in January, the way her opponent would, counterfactually, have governed won't be relevant to the way she governs.
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Even if we assume counterfactually that the repudiation of free trade would bring some jobs back to America, the result would still be disastrous for the United States and the world.
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In telling this tale, Mr. Joseph posits counterfactually that Babel's judge and executioner was his friend Yezhov (Zach Grenier), whom he met, in another fictional touch, near a battlefield on those Polish excursions.
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Close calls feature in the second season of "The Man in the High Castle," in which a counterfactually victorious Hitler dies and is succeeded briefly by an even more psychotic Nazi bent on starting total nuclear war with Japan.
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In one segment, they solicit audience members' deep irritations and riff on them—daylight-saving time, mayonnaise, and boys, when I was there—and in another an audience member tells a story of regret and the ensemble acts (and raps) it out straightforwardly, and then reinvents the story counterfactually to "correct" it.
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The output (fail or otherwise) is itself defined by a single bit. Thus the Mirror Array itself is an n-squared bit in, 1 bit out digital computer which calculates mazes and can be run counterfactually. Although the overall device is clearly a quantum computer, the part which is counterfactually tested is semi classical.
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In this instance, causation can be considered as something which is counterfactually dependent, i.e. the way RCTs differ from observational studies is that they have a comparison group in which the intervention of interest is not given.
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Matei Călinescu, "Recitind Jurnalul portughez", in Observator Cultural, Nr. 338, September 2006 Responding to condemnation of his actions from his place of exile in Francoist Spain, the Guard leader Horia Sima claimed to have played no part in the killing. Sima stated that he did not regret the act, noting that Iorga the scholar had had a long enough career,Ornea (1995), pp. 339–341 and arguing, counterfactually, that the revenge was saluted by most Romanians.Veiga, pp.
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It assumed, counterfactually, the inequality of two equal roots > in order to determine, by Viete's theory of equations, a relation between > those roots and one of the coefficients of the polynomial, a relation that > was fully general. This relation then led to an extreme-value solution when > Fermat removed his counterfactual assumption and set the roots equal. > Borrowing a term from Diophantus, Fermat called this counterfactual equality > 'adequality'. (Mahoney uses the symbol \scriptstyle\approx.) On p. 164, end of footnote 46, Mahoney notes that one of the meanings of adequality is approximate equality or equality in the limiting case.
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In the case of Olympic Medalists, counterfactual thinking explains why bronze medalists are often more satisfied with the outcome than silver medalists. The counterfactual thoughts for silver medalists tend to focus on how close they are to the gold medal, upward counterfactually thinking about the event, whereas bronze medalists tend to counterfactual think about how they could have not received a medal at all, displaying downward counterfactual thinking. Another example is the satisfaction of college students with their grades. Medvec and Savitsky studied satisfaction of college students based on whether their grade just missed the cut off versus if they had just made the cutoff for a category.
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The book has sparked years of ongoing and intense debate and controversy on questions pertaining to society, culture, and science. It is a key text in the nature versus nurture debate, as well as in discussions on issues relating to family, adolescence, gender, social norms, and attitudes. In the 1980s, Derek Freeman contested many of Mead's claims, and argued that she was hoaxed into counterfactually believing that Samoan culture had more relaxed sexual norms than Western culture. However, the anthropology community on the whole has rejected Freeman's claims, concluding that Freeman cherry-picked his data, and misrepresented both Mead's research and the interviews that he conducted.
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As conventionally conceived by philosophers of science, scientific explanation of a phenomenon was simply epistemic (concerning knowledge), and centered on the phenomenon's counterfactualIndicating a hypothetical alteration of factual circumstances, the concept counterfactual points to the hypothetical alteration's expected or conjectured effect on outcomes. For instance, increasing an object's mass is expected to increase the object's impact force—that is understood counterfactually—but this relation does not itself reveal that greater mass causes greater force. derivability from initial conditions plus natural laws (Hempel's covering law model).Kenneth F Schaffner, ch 8 "Philosophy of medicine", pp 310–45, in Merrilee H Salmon, ed, Introduction to the Philosophy of Science (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1992/1999), p 338.
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Drăgușanu, p.101 Of the leaders, only Nicolae Bălcescu was appreciated for combating feudalism and siding with Tsarist Russia; at the other end, Avram Iancu was chided for collaborating with the Austrian Empire.Drăgușanu, p.108-9; Pleșa, p.169 Roller's views of Bălcescu were almost entirely positive, and developed into a communist personality cult: counterfactually, Roller described Bălcescu's left-liberalism as a highly advanced form of utopian socialism and proto-Marxism.Drăgușanu, p.103, 108-12; Cristian Ilie, "Anticomunistul Nicolae Bălcescu", Magazin Istoric, July 2010, p.38-40 The 1859 union of the principalities only benefited the bourgeoisie by expanding the market for their products, and favored their class only, rather than the masses and the nation as a whole.
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Some critics believe that both human-level AI and superintelligence are unlikely, and that therefore friendly AI is unlikely. Writing in The Guardian, Alan Winfield compares human-level artificial intelligence with faster-than-light travel in terms of difficulty, and states that while we need to be "cautious and prepared" given the stakes involved, we "don't need to be obsessing" about the risks of superintelligence. Boyles and Joaquin, on the other hand, argue that Luke Muehlhauser and Nick Bostrom’s proposal to create friendly AIs appear to be bleak. This is because Muehlhauser and Bostrom seem to hold the idea that intelligent machines could be programmed to think counterfactually about the moral values that humans beings would have had.
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In physics, interaction-free measurement is a type of measurement in quantum mechanics that detects the position, presence, or state of an object without an interaction occurring between it and the measuring device. Examples include the Renninger negative-result experiment, the Elitzur–Vaidman bomb-testing problem, and certain double-cavity optical systems, such as Hardy's paradox. In Quantum Computation such measurements are referred to as Counterfactual Quantum Computation, an idea introduced by physicists Graeme Mitchinson and Richard Jozsa. Examples include Keith Bowden's Counterfactual Mirror ArrayBowden, Keith G, "Classical Computation can be Counterfactual", in Aspects I, Proc ANPA19, Cambridge 1997 (published May 1999), describing a digital computer that could be counterfactually interrogated to calculate whether a light beam would fail to pass through a maze.
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James Chase argues that the second argument is correct because it does correspond to the way to align two situations (one in which we gain, the other in which we lose), which is preferably indicated by the problem description. Also Bernard Katz and Doris Olin argue this point of view. In the second argument, we consider the amounts of money in the two envelopes as being fixed; what varies is which one is first given to the player. Because that was an arbitrary and physical choice, the counterfactual world in which the player, counterfactually, got the other envelope to the one he was actually (factually) given is a highly meaningful counterfactual world and hence the comparison between gains and losses in the two worlds is meaningful.
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In 1997, after discussions with Abner Shimony and Richard Jozsa, and inspired by the idea of the (1993) Elitzur-Vaidman Bomb Tester, Keith Bowden published a paper describing a digital computer that could be counterfactually interrogated to calculate whether a photon would fail to pass through a maze of mirrors. This so-called Mirror-Array replaces the tentative Bomb in Elitzur and Vaidman's device (actually a Mach–Zehnder interferometer). One time in four a photon will exit the device in such a way as to indicate that the maze is not navigable, even though the photon never passed through the Mirror Array. The Mirror Array itself is set up in such a way that it is defined by an n by n matrix of bits.
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In simple terms, the investor returns on equities have been on average so much higher than returns on U.S. Treasury Bonds, that it is hard to explain why investors buy bonds, even after allowing for a reasonable amount of risk aversion. In 1982, Robert J. Shiller published the first calculation that showed that either a large risk aversion coefficient or counterfactually large consumption variability was required to explain the means and variances of asset returns."Consumption, Asset Markets, and Macroeconomic Fluctuations," Carnegie Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy 17 203-238 Azeredo (2014) shows, however, that increasing the risk aversion level may produce a negative equity premium in an Arrow-Debreu economy constructed to mimic the persistence in U.S. consumption growth observed in the data since 1929.
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Physicists Graeme Mitchison and Richard Jozsa introduced the notion of counterfactual computing as an application of quantum computing, founded on the concepts of counterfactual definiteness, on a re-interpretation of the Elitzur–Vaidman bomb tester thought experiment, and making theoretical use of the phenomenon of interaction-free measurement. As an example of this idea, in 1997, after seeing a talk on Counterfactual Computation by Richard Jozsa at the Isaac Newton Institute, Keith Bowden (based in the Theoretical Physics Research Unit at Birkbeck College, University of London) published a paper Bowden, Keith G, "Classical Computation can be Counterfactual", in Aspects I, Proc ANPA19, Cambridge 1997 (published May 1999), describing a digital computer that could be counterfactually interrogated to calculate whether a light beam would fail to pass through a maze. (Revised version of "Classical Computation can be Counterfactual") More recently the idea of counterfactual quantum communication has been proposed and demonstrated. Liu Y, et al.
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1071-1078; Byrne, R.M.J., "Mental Models and Counterfactual Thoughts About What Might Have Been", Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Vol.6, No.10, (October 2002), pp.426-431; Thompson, V.A. & Byrne, R.M.J., "Reasoning Counterfactually: Making Inferences About Things That Didn't Happen", Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Vol.28, No.6, (November 2002), pp.1154-1170, etc. history,Greenberg, M. (ed.), The Way It Wasn't: Great Science Fiction Stories of Alternate History, Citadel Twilight, (New York), 1996; Dozois, G. & Schmidt, W. (eds.), Roads Not Taken: Tales of Alternative History, The Ballantine Publishing Group, (New York), 1998; Sylvan, D. & Majeski, S., "A Methodology for the Study of Historical Counterfactuals", International Studies Quarterly, Vol.42, No.1, (March 1998), pp.79-108; Ferguson, N., (ed.), Virtual History: Alternatives and Counterfactuals, Basic Books, (New York), 1999; Cowley, R. (ed.), What If?: The World's Foremost Military Historians Imagine What Might have Been, Berkley Books, (New York), 2000; Cowley, R. (ed.), What If? 2: Eminent Historians Imagine What Might have Been, G.P. Putnam's Sons, (New York), 2001, etc. political science,Fearon, J.D., "Counterfactuals and Hypothesis Testing in Political Science", World Politics, Vol.
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