810 Sentences With "cosmic ray" | Random Sentence Generator

Those include a supercomputer from Hewlett Packard Enterprises, as well as an experiment to measure cosmic ray particles in space, called Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass, or ISS-CREAM (as NASA calls it).

Your phone can be turned into a cosmic ray detector.

The Cosmic Ray Research Station, on Mount Aragats in Armenia.

At that point, they were trying to make an Android-based cosmic ray detector and were inspired by the ERGO project in the US, which works with schoolchildren to make a distributed cosmic ray observatory.

Artefacts are removed, such as satellite, cosmic ray, and airplane trails.

The cosmic-ray detector was designed to help scientists study antimatter.

They can also determine the "cosmic ray exposure ages" of the rocks.

In either case, this type of cosmic ray had never been observed before.

The room has only been probed indirectly, with the help of cosmic ray muons.

Papers Discovery of a big void in Khufu's Pyramid by observation of cosmic-ray muons.

Using cosmic ray muons, scientists are able to study the entire storm at one time.

In October, the probe measured the telltale sign of more cosmic ray particles striking its instruments.

Later, researchers would learn that cosmic-ray neutrons can slam into processor parts, corrupting their data.

The particles detected come from showers formed when an initial cosmic ray hits the Earth's atmosphere.

Recently, Voyager engineers decided to shut down the heater that warms its Cosmic Ray Subsystem (CRS).

Mountaintop aeries like the Aragats Cosmic Ray Research Station receded in the quest for ultimate knowledge.

Some of those particles may fly in Earth&aposs direction, showing up here as cosmic-ray detections.

They're ideal for detecting atmospheric neutrinos—those created by cosmic ray collisions in the Earth's upper atmosphere.

So, from the gamma ray telescope's perspective, the moon becomes a nifty detector for cosmic ray particles.

In addition to being created in cosmic ray collisions, muons can also be made in particle accelerators.

So, that high-intensity light smacks and swats at the traveling cosmic ray, slowing and eventually stopping it.

They've grown cotton, repaired a cosmic-ray detector on the station's exterior, and tested remote robotics in space.

Some of the repair work focused on the space station's Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a cosmic-ray detector.

The first ANITA mission detected two "upward-pointing cosmic ray-like events" during its month-long sojourn above Antarctica.

We also looked for a known marker of cosmic ray effects, a kind of fingerprint, in Neptune's cloud data.

With CREDO, Homola hopes to create a worldwide cosmic ray observatory, combining observations from smartphones and the top particle detectors.

I didn't detect any particles suggestive of a cosmic ray, but I only ran the app for about five minutes.

XMASS-I under construction in JapanPhoto: (C) Kamioka Observatory, ICRR(Institute for Cosmic Ray Research), The University of Tokyo (Interactions.

Astronomers figured out that "cosmic-ray albedo neutron decay," or CRAND, was the proton source quickly after the belt's discovery.

It's trying to trace the path a very special type of cosmic ray — called a neutrino — makes through the observatory.

Others have suggested turning people, or more specifically their cell phones, into individual units of a worldwide cosmic-ray receiver.[arXiv]

Even if you do everything right, a cosmic ray might come along and flip a bit, sabotaging the whole secure protocol.

A second mission ANITA mission in 2009 as well as a third mission in 2014 detected another strange upward-pointing cosmic ray.

"Galactic cosmic ray exposure can devastate a cell's nucleus and cause mutations that can result in cancers," Cucinotta explained in a statement.

Daniel Whiteson is a physicist at the University of California Irvine who has been working on a crowd-sourced cosmic ray project.

Launching their instruments in balloons and carrying them to mountaintops, they brought back snapshots of cosmic ray particles that made no sense.

Made from beryllium, an element produced from cosmic ray interactions, these earbuds are quite literally made from the same stuff as stars.

He later entered graduate school at the University of California, Berkeley, to study cosmic ray particles and earned his doctorate in 1950.

Cosmic ray origins have remained a mystery because they don't travel in straight lines; they're bent by the magnetic fields permeating the intervening space.

His team now plans to use other instruments to search for rarer, heavier cosmic ray isotopes, which might shed more light on the matter.

At the ludicrous speeds of an ultra-high-energy cosmic ray, cruising through the cosmos is more like trying to plow through a blizzard.

The module contains a scintillator—a block of plastic treated with a special chemical that produces light when a cosmic ray muon passes through.

"We can encode how much energy was brought by the cosmic ray into the plastic slab by counting the number of photons," explained Devine.

Then, they adjusted the camera, sampled the cosmic ray detector, white balanced it to the ultraviolet, calibrated the infrared spectrometer, and rewired the radiometer.

There's evidence that Voyager 1 also encountered one of these cosmic ray boundary layers, but interestingly, it was located on the inside of the heliopause.

Mathusla's is a box 2.5 meters square and about 5.5 meters tall, cobbled together in part from materials scrounged from a cosmic-ray experiment in Tibet.

Based on the meteorite's cosmic-ray exposure age, the team found that it broke off its parent body around the same time as the L chondrites.

This process enables scientists to provide age estimates for the grains, as the older samples show longer cosmic ray exposure and thus higher neon isotope levels.

It might sound complicated, but it's easy to use—plug it in, turn it on, and it'll flash a light every time a cosmic ray is detected.

The highest-energy cosmic ray particle ever recorded, called the "Oh-My-God" particle, was two million (!) times more energetic than the protons propelled at the LHC.

EXPERTS EXCITED BY FIND IN EGYPT Cosmic ray imaging records the behavior of subatomic particles called muons that penetrate the rock similar to X-rays, only much deeper.

But spare a thought for the Aragats Cosmic Ray Research Station, above, a mountaintop research station in Armenia that tracks exploding stars and the cosmic weather they produce.

"After collapse, we finished smaller detectors," said Ashot Chilingaryan, director of the A.I. Alikhanyan National Science Laboratory and head of its Cosmic Ray Division, which runs the Aragats station.

That means that perhaps galaxies themselves are unevenly distributed, as evidenced by the uneven distribution of the energy from the most distant light in the universe, the cosmic ray background.

The facility is home to 1,600 cosmic ray detectors that span an area of 1,200 square miles, all looking for traces of these particles when they mingle with our atmosphere.

He recognized that this is a farfetched idea, but wanted potential users to know that there are benefits to a vast, global cosmic ray database aside from just high-energy physics.

However, in his talk today, Bhuva brought up a past analysis which found that one such cosmic ray event could have caused 4096 incorrect votes in a 2003 local Belgian election.

SCIENCE TIMES An article on Tuesday about the historical data stored in tree rings misstated when a cosmic ray event described as the strongest found in the tree ring record happened.

If successful, it will serve as a proof of principle for future space-based ultrahigh-energy cosmic-ray experiments, such as her proposed satellite detector, Poemma (Probe of Extreme Multi-Messenger Astrophysics).

Supernovas could also generate an excess of cosmic rays that could seed cloud formation, leading to a "cosmic-ray winter," Henrik Svensmark of the Technical University of Denmark wrote in an email.

You can make all manner of things out of a Raspberry Pi but it might take a career at CERN to come up with the idea of a DIY cosmic ray detector.

The first five scheduled spacewalks will upgrade the space station's power systems and the last five, planned for November and December, will repair the alpha magnetic spectrometer, which analyzes cosmic ray events.

The meteorites were analyzed to determine their chemical composition, and their level of cosmic ray exposure was measured to confirm their outer-space origins and pin down when they arrived on Earth.

When a cosmic ray passes through, it creates a flash of blue light like the light equivalent of a sonic boom, since the speed of light is slower in water than in air.

"There appear to be cosmic ray boundary layers on both sides of the heliopause, with the outer one only being evident at the position of Voyager 2," Stone's team said in the study.

Aside from the beeping, Voyager I originally hosted a camera, a cosmic ray detector, ultraviolet and infrared spectrometers, a photopolarimeter, a radiometer and a golden record, which was not really made of gold.

So, to reconstruct the source of a cosmic ray, you also need models for the strength and directions of our galaxy&aposs magnetic field — something we don&apost exactly have a full handle on.

When a series of cosmic-ray bursts from the far reaches of the solar system, known as "the Surge," starts passing over Earth, flummoxing all our circuitry, he agrees to lead an exploratory mission.

In October 2012, magnetic field and cosmic ray measurements indicated that Voyager 1 had reached the edge of the magnetic bubble that the sun extends like an umbrella over the planets, blocking outside radiation.

The team plans to continue extracting and dating the stardust, plus they will now be able to incorporate cosmic ray data obtained by Voyager 2, which followed its twin to interstellar space in 2018.

Today's delivery of tasty treats should not be confused with The Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass (CREAM) experiment—or ISS CREAM—an iteration of which will also be ferried up into Low Earth Orbit today.

There are a number of things you might be able to do with a worldwide cosmic ray detector, but one of CREDO's main goals is to spot the highest-energy light particles in the universe.

We plan to have two telescopes free-flying and communicating with each other, and by recording cosmic-ray events with both of the them we should be able to also reproduce the direction and composition very precisely.

"Recent research from the CLOUD experiment as a whole stands in contrast to Svensmark's results, and found that, given the present day atmosphere and all of its particles, "cosmic ray intensity cannot meaningfully affect climate via nucleation.

"Exploring Mars will require missions of 900 days or longer and includes more than one year in deep space where exposures to all energies of galactic cosmic ray heavy ions are unavoidable," Cucinotta said in a statement.

Each contains 12 metric tons of pure water that flashes a tiny amount in response to a hit from a cosmic ray, and special signal-boosting tubes that turn the flash into a signal read by a computer.

The team also revealed a new image created by Dawn's Gamma Ray and Neutron Detector (GRaND), which uses neutrons and gamma rays generated by cosmic ray interactions with the surface of the planet to indicate its chemical makeup.

One detector—one pixel—can tell you if it's detected a cosmic ray; but start grouping detectors and you can gather information such as where cosmic rays might be coming from, based on which ones pick up signals.

Analysis indicated an error caused by a cosmic ray striking a rover microchip and the issue was resolved successfully, according to the article, adding that the incident was a reminder that the space environment is complex and variable.

"In the cosmic ray world, the big dream is to point," she said during an interview at a January meeting of the American Physical Society in Washington, DC. She sees the current balloon flight as a necessary next step.

The highest-energy cosmic ray particle ever recorded, called the "Oh-My-God" particle, was some 2 million times more energetic than the most souped-up proton propelled by the Large Hadron Collider, the world's most powerful particle accelerator.

Even if a more refined study results in a different numerical value for the electrical potential inside the storm, it is quite likely that the approach of using cosmic ray muons to study thunderstorms will continue to be developed.

Even more tantalizing is the data from a decade of continuous observations at IceCube, which has registered far more neutrino events than all the ANITA observations combined and thus may have several upward-pointing cosmic ray events hidden among the data.

He spent a total of 22 hours outside, driving around in the lunar rover, collecting samples, conducting tests, and caring for the five mice that had been sent along with the landing crew as part of the BIOCORE cosmic ray experiment.

Because this study relied on a small number of astronauts and did not consider such risk factors, "it is not possible to determine whether cosmic ray radiation affected the Apollo astronauts," Tabatha Thompson, a representative for NASA, wrote in an email.

"We could use the cosmic ray data that was measured by Voyager to determine what type of cosmic rays, and how many cosmic rays of each energy, the grains were exposed to more than 4.6 billion years ago," Heck explained.

Voyager's science team will also study data collected by three other on-board instruments — the cosmic ray subsystem, the low energy charged particle instrument, and the magnetometer — all built to give a clearer picture of the environment Voyager 2 is traveling through.

The researchers call this threshold a "cosmic ray boundary layer" because it signals where the probe experienced a shift in the gradient of cosmic rays from the great beyond and the lower-energy particles typical of the familiar environment around our Sun.

The sun and other stars emit radiation called Galactic Cosmic Rays, or G.C.R.s, that react in the atmosphere with nitrogen and change the levels of carbon 14, which is taken up by every living thing and becomes a tracer for cosmic ray levels.

"We know the blast waves of exploded stars can accelerate cosmic ray particles to speeds comparable to that of light, an incredible energy boost," lead author Kenji Hamaguchi, an astrophysicist at NASA&aposs Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, said in a statement from NASA .

Cosmic Ray Mystery Finally Cracked Thanks to Supermassive Black Hole Beaming Energy Straight at EarthIllustration: DESY, Science Communication LabEvery so often, protons and even entire atomic nuclei strike the Earth with extremely high energies—much higher than what scientists can produce in their most powerful physics experiments.

As Fox and his colleagues argue, to produce these trajectories using the Standard Model would require neutrino fluxes, or the number of neutrinos hitting a certain area in a certain amount of time, "well in excess" of those that have been cataloged by various cosmic ray observatories.

When a supernova explodes, the blast wave creates high-energy particles that scatter in every direction; scientists believe there is a minute chance that one of the errant particles, known as a cosmic ray, can hit a computer chip on Earth, flipping a 20153 to a 1.

An event in 774-775, first found in Japanese cedar trees and since found globally, is the strongest cosmic ray event in the tree ring record, a magnitude larger than the Carrington event, a solar storm in 1859, and apparently noted by people alive at the time.

"I predict there will be a flurry of papers now that this result has been confirmed where people try to correlate where the rays are coming from," says Thomas Gaisser, a physics professor and cosmic ray researcher at the University of Delaware, who was not involved with the study.

An international team of researchers used cosmic-ray imaging to find a 30-meter (98.4 foot) "void" within the Great Pyramid, which is also known as Khufu&aposs Pyramid for its builder, a 4th Dynasty pharaoh who reigned from 2509 to 2483 B.C. TOMB OF KING TUT'S WIFE DISCOVERED?

"In a first cut at the most probable cases, combining photon and cosmic ray effects, we find that a supernova at 100 [parsecs] can have only a small effect on terrestrial organisms from visible light and that chemical changes such as ozone depletion are weak," the current paper explains.

"What we've found is not only the first evidence of a neutrino source, but also evidence that this galaxy is a cosmic ray accelerator," Gary Hill, a study co-author, associate professor at the University of Adelaide's School of Physical Sciences and member of the IceCube collaboration, said in a statement.

Now, using a technique from the field of particle physics, an international team of researchers has harnessed cosmic-ray collisions to peek inside and uncover a hidden "void" within the pyramid's stones that is roughly 100 feet long, similar to the Statue of Liberty from her heel to her head.

K. Munakata et al, "Solar modulation of galactic cosmic-ray anisotropy", Proceedings of ICRC 2001K. Munakata et al, "Galactic anisotropy of ~10TeV cosmic-ray intensity observed by the Tibet air shower array", 28th International Cosmic Ray Conference (2003).

These very high energy cosmic ray particles are very rare; the energy of most cosmic ray particles is between 10 MeV and 10 GeV.

The dihydrogen ion is formed in nature by the interaction of cosmic rays and the hydrogen molecule. An electron is knocked off leaving the cation behind. :H2 \+ cosmic ray → + e− \+ cosmic ray. Cosmic ray particles have enough energy to ionize many molecules before coming to a stop.

CHICOS logo The California High School Cosmic Ray Observatory, (abbreviated CHICOS, for California HIgh school Cosmic ray ObServatory), operated by the Kellogg Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California, United States, is one of the world's largest ongoing Cosmic Ray observatory programs. It is known for its large network within the Los Angeles County area, based mainly on high school sites carrying cosmic ray detector units, though there are also detector units on associated elementary schools and middle schools.

There are a number of cosmic-ray research initiatives, listed below.

He was an initiator of cosmic ray research in Poland (1947).

Transition Radiation Array for Cosmic Energetic Radiation (TRACER) is a balloon flown cosmic ray detector built and designed at the University of Chicago. The detector is designed to measure the energy spectra of cosmic ray nuclei with atomic numbers between five and twenty-six (boron to iron). Muller, D., 2007, ‘’The TRACER Project: Instrument Concept, Balloon Flights, and Analysis Procedures’‘, 30th International Cosmic Ray Conference.

Because laboratories at the same depth (in meters) can have greatly varied levels of cosmic ray penetration, the m.w.e. provides a convenient and consistent way of comparing cosmic ray levels in different underground locations. Cosmic ray attenuation is dependent on the density of the material of the overburden, so the m.w.e. is defined as the product of depth and density (also known as an interaction depth).

The Lon and Mary Watson Millard County Cosmic Ray Center was dedicated on March 20, 2006.Draper, Dean (March 22, 2006). "Cosmic ray center dedicated". Millard County Chronicle Progress The center is located at 648 West Main Street in Delta.

The first experiment undertaken at BNO was not underground; it was the Carpet air- shower cosmic ray experiment in 1973. Carpet relied on liquid scintillator detectors to study cosmic ray air-showers. Carpet also made discoveries of astrophysical importance, such as detecting a giant flare in the Crab Nebula in 1989. The Carpet cosmic ray experiment continues as of 2017, and it is being upgraded in to gamma ray telescope.

CHICOS has a data collection system that is recording all the large cosmic ray showers that fall within the array. The information that is collected from the Cosmic Ray detectors from different schools are combined to reconstruct cosmic ray events. These events are analyzed to create histograms of cosmic ray incidents, including a sky-map that would indicate the spread of cosmic rays directions from outer space, with each shower that is recorded indicating a cosmic event. The goal of CHICOS is to be able to trace these cosmic rays back to their source, and understand what it exactly is that produces UHECRs.

Pavlov then claims that evidence of such processes are ultra-high-energy cosmic ray particles. Ultra-high energy cosmic ray particles may also be produced by the decay of super-heavy dark matter "X particles" such as Holeums. Such very energetic decay products, carrying a fraction of the mass of the X particle, are believed to be a plausible explanation for the observed ultra-high energy cosmic rays (UHECR). High energy cosmic ray particles traversing intergalactic space suffer the GZK cutoff above 1020 eV due to interactions with cosmic background radiation if the primary cosmic ray particles are protons or nuclei.

More recently, muons have been used to image magma chambers to predict volcanic eruptions. Nagamine et al. continue active research into the prediction of volcanic eruptions through cosmic ray attenuation radiography. Minato used cosmic ray counts to radiograph a large temple gate.

In 1979, a cosmic ray telescope was installed at Grand Canyon Caverns, below the surface.

In astroparticle physics, an ultra-high-energy cosmic ray (UHECR) is a cosmic ray with an energy greater than 1 EeV (1018 electronvolts, approximately 0.16 joules), far beyond both the rest mass and energies typical of other cosmic ray particles. An extreme-energy cosmic ray (EECR) is an UHECR with energy exceeding (about 8 joule), the so-called Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit (GZK limit). This limit should be the maximum energy of cosmic ray protons that have traveled long distances (about 160 million light years), since higher- energy protons would have lost energy over that distance due to scattering from photons in the cosmic microwave background (CMB). It follows that EECR could not be survivors from the early universe, but are cosmologically "young", emitted somewhere in the Local Supercluster by some unknown physical process.

Millard County is the home of the Telescope Array Project ultra-high-energy cosmic ray observatory.

Thus each extended-sidereal day is shorter than a sidereal day (23 hr 56 min) by about four minutes or 23 hr 52 min. All years mentioned have the same length.B. E. Kolterman, "A harmonic analysis of the large scale cosmic ray anisotropy", 30th International Cosmic Ray Conference (2007).

Later, with Frederick C. Chromey, Alvarez and Rossi patented a "Vertical Determination Device", which made use of cosmic ray telescopes. In Eritrea, Rossi discovered another phenomenon that would become a principal theme of his postwar cosmic ray research: extensive cosmic ray air showers. The discovery occurred during tests to determine the rate of accidental coincidences between the Geiger counters of his detector. To assure that no single particle could trigger the counters he spread them out in a horizontal plane.

The IceCube collaboration has published flux limits for neutrinos from point sources, gamma-ray bursts, and neutralino annihilation in the Sun, with implications for WIMP-proton cross section A shadowing effect from the Moon has been observed. Cosmic ray protons are blocked by the Moon, creating a deficit of cosmic ray shower muons in the direction of the Moon. A small (under 1%) but robust anisotropy has been observed in cosmic ray muons. A pair of high energy neutrinos were detected in 2013.

Cohen later married Diana Peckham in 1947. Peckham was a mathematician who worked on early cosmic ray research.

The main pathway for the production of is by the reaction of and H2. : + H2 → + H The concentration of is what limits the rate of this reaction in nature: the only known natural source of it is via ionization of H2 by a cosmic ray in interstellar space by the ionization of H2: :H2 \+ cosmic ray → + e− \+ cosmic ray The cosmic ray has so much energy, it is almost unaffected by the relatively small energy transferred to the hydrogen when ionizing an H2 molecule. In interstellar clouds, cosmic rays leave behind a trail of , and therefore . In laboratories, is produced by the same mechanism in plasma discharge cells, with the discharge potential providing the energy to ionize the H2.

The temperature minimum around 2.4 billion years goes along with a cosmic ray flux modulation by a variable star formation rate in the Milky Way. The reduced solar impact later results in a stronger impact of cosmic ray flux (CRF), which is hypothesized to lead to a relationship with climatological variations.

The main advantage of the neutron monitor is its long-term stability making them suitable for studied of cosmic- ray variability through decades Cosmic ray variability recorded by Oulu neutron monitor since 1964 . The most stable long-running neutron monitors are : Oulu , Inuvik, Moscow, Kerguelen, Apatity and Newark neutron monitors.

The ALICE cavern provides an ideal place for the detection of high energy atmospheric muons coming from cosmic ray showers. ACORDE detects cosmic ray showers by triggering the arrival of muons to the top of the ALICE magnet. The ALICE cosmic ray trigger is made of 60 scintillator modules distributed on the 3 upper faces of the ALICE magnet yoke. The array can be configured to trigger on single or multi-muon events, from 2-fold coincidences up to the whole array if desired.

The main QuarkNet student investigations supported at the national level are cosmic ray studies. Working with Fermilab technicians and research physicists, QuarkNet staff has developed a classroom cosmic ray muon detector that uses the same technologies as the largest detectors at Fermilab and CERN. To support interschool collaboration, QuarkNet collaborates with the Interactions in Understanding the Universe Project (I2U2) to develop and support the Cosmic Ray e-Lab.Cosmic Ray e-Lab An e-Lab is a student-led, teacher-guided investigation using experimental data.

The outward expansion of solar ejecta into interplanetary space provides overdensities of plasma that are efficient at scattering high-energy cosmic rays entering the solar system from elsewhere in the galaxy. The frequency of solar eruptive events is modulated by the cycle, changing the degree of cosmic ray scattering in the outer solar system accordingly. As a consequence, the cosmic ray flux in the inner Solar System is anticorrelated with the overall level of solar activity. This anticorrelation is clearly detected in cosmic ray flux measurements at the Earth's surface.

Cosmic radiation during transit is a significant obstacle to sending humans to Mars. Accurate measurements of the cosmic ray environment are needed to plan appropriate countermeasures. Most cosmic ray studies are done by balloon-borne instruments with flight times that are measured in days; these studies have shown significant variations. AMS-02 is operative on the ISS, gathering a large amount of accurate data and allowing measurements of the long term variation of the cosmic ray flux over a wide energy range, for nuclei from protons to iron.

Cosmic ray neutrino experiments detect neutrinos from space to study both the nature of neutrinos and the cosmic sources producing them.

Peter won the 1974 Hughes Medal of the Royal Society "for his outstanding contributions to cosmic ray and elementary particle physics".

Blackett spent some time in 1924–1925 at Göttingen, Germany, working with James Franck on atomic spectra. In 1932, working with Giuseppe Occhialini, he devised a system of Geiger counters which took photographs only when a cosmic ray particle traversed the chamber. They found 500 tracks of high energy cosmic ray particles in 700 automatic exposures.

Aleksandr Evgenievich Chudakov (16 June 1921 - 25 January 2001, Moscow) was a Soviet Russian physicist in the field of cosmic-ray physics, known for Chudakov Effect, the effect of decreasing ionization losses for narrow electron-positron pairs and for experimentally confirming existence of the transition radiation. He was also the chairman of the IUPAP Cosmic Ray Commission.

In 2017, HAWC announced the first measurement of the cosmic-ray spectrum and new results on the observed positron excess of antimatter.

The data acquired by KASCADE-Grande have meanwhile be made accesibile to the public in the KASCADE Cosmic-Ray Data Center (KCDC).

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai Sreekantan stayed at TIFR for 39 years, and before his retirement from TIFR service in 1987, he served as the director of the institute from 1975. At TIFR, he initiated many research streams in cosmic ray physics and astrophysics and the research team he established for studies in high energy cosmic rays is still active. One of his early assignments at TIFR was the study of cosmic-ray-produced muons detected deep underground and Sreekantan conducted experiments at Kolar Gold Mines in Karnataka, for the detection of the elementary particles at 2760 m deep. Though his experiments failed to find cosmic ray produced muons, he continued his search, which resulted in the detection of cosmic ray produced neutrinos, reportedly the first detection of the subatomic particles at such depth.

Its accomplishments include the observation of a super high energy cosmic ray air shower in 1995 that was previously thought to be impossible.

This studied the relationship between flashes seen by astronauts in space and cosmic rays, the cosmic ray visual phenomena. In December 1993, the Akeno Giant Air Shower Array in Japan (abbreviated AGASA) recorded one of the highest energy cosmic ray events ever observed. In October 2003, the Pierre Augur Observatory in Argentina completed construction on its 100th surface detector and became the largest cosmic-ray array in the world. It detects cosmic rays through the use of two different methods: watching Cherenkov radiation made when particles interact with water, and observing ultraviolet light emitted in the earth's atmosphere.

"University of Delaware Research Online Magazine." Retrieved June 10, 2020. Last but not least, the present research portfolio of Bartol also includes various areas of Astronomy, in particular, stellar and planetary astrophysics. Since 1985, the Bartol Research Institute awards the Shakti P. Duggal Award to a young scientist in cosmic-ray physics at each occurrence of the biannual International Cosmic Ray Conference.

Recent measurements by the Pierre Auger Project have found a correlation between the direction of high energy cosmic ray particles and the location of AGN.

Van Allen was also the man who designed and built the satellite instrumentation of Explorer 1. The satellite measured three phenomena: cosmic ray and radiation levels, the temperature in the spacecraft, and the frequency of collisions with micrometeorites. The satellite had no memory for data storage, therefore it had to transmit continuously. In March 1958 a second satellite was sent into orbit with augmented cosmic ray instruments.

Recent research at CERN's CLOUD facility examined links between cosmic rays and cloud condensation nuclei, demonstrating the effect of high-energy particulate radiation in nucleating aerosol particles that are precursors to cloud condensation nuclei. Kirkby (CLOUD team leader) said, "At the moment, it [the experiment] actually says nothing about a possible cosmic-ray effect on clouds and climate." After further investigation, the team concluded that "variations in cosmic ray intensity do not appreciably affect climate through nucleation." 1983–1994 global low cloud formation data from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) was highly correlated with galactic cosmic ray (GCR) flux; subsequent to this period, the correlation broke down.

CALET first published data on half a million electron and positron cosmic ray events in 2017, finding a spectral index of −3.152 ± 0.016 above 30 GeV.

Gaisser, Thomas K. "Brief History of the Shakti P. Duggal Award." Retrieved June 05, 2020.36th International Cosmic Ray Conference "Shakti P. Duggal Award." Retrieved June 15, 2020.

Vision of Britain website Between 1967 and 1987 the University of Leeds operated a cosmic ray detection array in the park, known as the Haverah Park experiment.

Observational cosmology is the study of the structure, the evolution and the origin of the universe through observation, using instruments such as telescopes and cosmic ray detectors.

An outer shell of proton-rich material – paraffin in the early neutron monitors, polyethylene in the more modern ones. Low energy neutrons cannot penetrate this material, but are not absorbed by it. Thus environmental, non-cosmic ray induced neutrons are kept out of the monitor and low energy neutrons generated in the lead are kept in. This material is largely transparent to the cosmic ray induced cascade neutrons.

Flying high, passengers and crews of jet airliners are exposed to at least 10 times the cosmic ray dose that people at sea level receive. Every few years, a geomagnetic storm permits a solar particle event to penetrate down to jetliner altitudes. Aircraft flying polar routes near the geomagnetic poles are at particular risk.Evaluation of the Cosmic Ray Exposure of Aircraft Crew There is also increased radiation from space.

As of 2018, the experimental complex is being expanded by three new cosmic ray detectors: NEVOD-EAS (for determination of cosmic ray air shower parameters), URAN (neutron detector) and TREK (drift chamber detector). Part of the new detectors are under operation (in 2018). The experimental complex used to also have a muon hodoscope URAGAN which was operational in 2016 and years prior. Current (2019) status of URAGAN is unknown.

In recent years, important science competitions and World events have been held in Mérida – FITA Archery World Cup Finals, the International Cosmic Ray Conference, a Physics Olympiad, etc.

Pierre Auger Observatory is an international cosmic ray observatory designed to detect ultra-high-energy cosmic ray particles (with energies beyond 1020 eV). These high-energy particles have an estimated arrival rate of just 1 per square kilometer per century, therefore, in order to record a large number of these events, the Auger Observatory has created a detection area of 3,000 km2 (the size of Rhode Island) in Mendoza Province, western Argentina. The Pierre Auger Observatory, in addition to obtaining directional information from the cluster of water tanks used to observe the cosmic-ray-shower components, also has four telescopes trained on the night sky to observe fluorescence of the nitrogen molecules as the shower particles traverse the sky, giving further directional information on the original cosmic ray particle. In September 2017, data from 12 years of observations from PAO supported an extragalactic source (outside of Earth's galaxy) for the origin of extremely high energy cosmic rays.

Shaviv has been one of the proponents of a cosmic ray climate link. In 2003 he has shown that the cosmic ray flux over the past billion years can be reconstructed from the exposure ages of Iron meteorites, that these flux variations are expected from spiral arm passages, and they correlate with the appearance of ice age epochs on Earth. In a later work with Ján Veizer, it was demonstrated that the temperature reconstruction over the Phanerozoic correlates with the cosmic ray flux, but it does not correlate with the CO2 reconstruction, thus placing an upper limit on the effects of CO2. This prompted several reactions by the climate community and rebuttals by Shaviv and his colleagues.

Linsley's observations at Volcano Ranch expanded the known cosmic ray energy spectrum, clarified the structure of air showers, and provided the first evidence on ultra-high-energy cosmic ray composition and arrival directions. Linsley’s observations also indicated that not all cosmic rays are confined within the galaxy and provided the first evidence of a flattening of the cosmic ray spectrum at energies above 1018 eV. Volcano Ranch was transferred from MIT to the University of New Mexico in 1972 and Linsley took a position as Adjunct Professor of Physics at the University of New Mexico. In 1973, Linsley created a denser array at Volcano Ranch to study the lateral distribution of air showers.

Shortly after these discoveries, Lofgren left for California to build the Bevatron. In 1949, Oppenheimer was forced to resign from the Minnesota faculty, because he had concealed his prewar membership in the Communist Party USA. That year, John R. Winckler joined Minnesota's cosmic ray group. In 1950, with the aid of a cloud chamber that contained lead plates, Ney, together with Charles Critchfield and graduate student Sophie Oleksa, searched for primary cosmic ray electrons.

Akeno Observatory is a cosmic ray observatory located in Akeno, a town in Yamanashi prefecture, Japan. The observatory is run by the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research (ICRR), based at the University of Tokyo. Akeno Observatory features AGASA, the Akeno Giant Air Shower Array, which studies the origins of very high energy cosmic rays. Construction of the observatory began in 1975, and in 1977 it became the second attached institution with ICRR.

The nuclear charge causes chemical bond breaking or ionization in the plastic. At the top of the plastic stack the ionization is less, due to the high cosmic ray speed. As the cosmic ray speed decreases due to deceleration in the stack, the ionization increases along the path. The resulting plastic sheets are "etched" or slowly dissolved in warm caustic sodium hydroxide solution, that removes the surface material at a slow, known rate.

The Oh-My-God particle was an ultra-high-energy cosmic ray detected on 15 October 1991 by the Fly's Eye camera in Dugway Proving Ground, Utah, U.S. At that time it was the highest-energy cosmic ray that had ever been observed. Although higher energy cosmic rays have been detected since then, this particle's energy was unexpected, and called into question theories of that era about the origin and propagation of cosmic rays.

Since the first observation, at least seven similar events (energy or greater) have been recorded, confirming the phenomenon. These ultra-high-energy cosmic ray particles are very rare; the energy of most cosmic ray particles is between 10 MeV and 10 GeV. More recent studies using the Telescope Array Project have suggested a source of the particles within a 20-degree radius "warm spot" in the direction of the constellation Ursa Major.

Several of these expeditions were sponsored by the National Geographic Society. He supervised the installation of a stationary cosmic ray detector facility at Thule Air Base in Greenland, and in 1960 Pomerantz installed a cosmic ray detector at McMurdo Station in Antarctica. Pomerantz' experiments at the South Pole commenced in 1964. These experiments and expeditions led to several insights, one of which was an inference about the magnetic field of the sun.

To address these themes, CTA will observe the following key targets: Galactic Centre, Large Magellanic Cloud, Galactic Plane, Galaxy Clusters, Cosmic Ray PeVatrons, Star Forming Systems, Active Galactic Nuclei, Transient Phenomena.

Linsley's observations suggested that not all cosmic rays are confined within the galaxy and showed the first evidence of a flattening of the cosmic ray spectrum at energies above 1018 eV.

Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass (CREAM) is an experiment to determine the composition of cosmic rays up to the 1015 eV (also known as the "knee prospect") in the cosmic ray spectrum. It has been hypothesized that the knee prospect of the cosmic ray spectrum can be explained by the theoretical maximum energy that a supernova can accelerate particles to according to Fermi acceleration. The measurements are accomplished using a timing-based charge detector and transition radiation detector sent to an altitude of at least 34 km (21 mi) with aid of a high-altitude balloon. After launching from McMurdo Station in Antarctica, the balloon will stay aloft for 60–100 days gathering data on charges and energies of the unimpeded cosmic rays that strike the detectors.

Since muons are much more deeply penetrating than X-rays or gamma rays, muon imaging can be used with much thicker material or, with cosmic ray sources, larger objects. One example is commercial muon tomography used to image entire cargo containers to detect shielded nuclear material, as well as explosives or other contraband. The technique of muon transmission radiography based on cosmic ray sources was first used in the 1950s to measure the depth of the overburden of a tunnel in Australia and in the 1960s to search for possible hidden chambers in the Pyramid of Chephren in Giza. In 2017, the discovery of a large void (with a length of 30 m minimum) by observation of cosmic-ray muons was reported.

TAMA 300 is a gravitational wave detector located at the Mitaka campus of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. It is a project of the gravitational wave studies group at the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research (ICRR) of the University of Tokyo. The ICRR was established in 1976 for cosmic ray studies, and is currently developing the Kamioka Gravitational Wave Detector (KAGRA). TAMA 300 was preceded in Mitaka by a 20m prototype TAMA 20 in years 1991-1994.

Edward Purdy Ney (October 28, 1920 - July 9, 1996) was an American physicist who made major contributions to cosmic ray research, atmospheric physics, heliophysics, and infrared astronomy. He was a discoverer of cosmic ray heavy nuclei and of solar proton events. He pioneered the use of high altitude balloons for scientific investigations and helped to develop procedures and equipment that underlie modern scientific ballooning. He was one of the first researchers to put experiments aboard spacecraft.

After the closing of Volcano Ranch, Linsley continued his work in the field of cosmic rays. In 1979, he proposed detecting the fluorescence created by cosmic rays in the atmosphere through the use of a space-based observatory, a project which he called SOCRAS (Satellite Observation of Cosmic Ray Air Showers). This was the first proposal of a space-based cosmic ray observatory. He served as Principal Investigator on two research projects and collaborated on several others.

The building serves as a headquarters and data processing center for the Telescope Array Project. In October 2011, a new visitor center was opened at the Cosmic Ray Center. It features displays about the history of cosmic ray research in Utah and about the Telescope Array, which is spread across the desert west of Delta. The center also includes a display about the nearby Topaz internment camp, where U.S. citizens of Japanese descent were imprisoned during World War II.

In addition, extremely high energy helium nuclei sometimes referred to as alpha particles make up about 10 to 12% of cosmic rays. The mechanisms of cosmic ray production continue to be debated.

If the primary cosmic ray that started the cascade has energy over 500 MeV, some of its secondary byproducts (including neutrons) will reach ground level where they can be detected by neutron monitors.

The suggested link from changes in cosmic ray flux cause changes in the amount of cloud formation.What do we really know about the Sun-climate connection?, E. Friis-Christensen and H. Svensmark, Adv.

When two neutron stars collide, a significant amount of neutron- rich matter may be ejected, including newly formed nuclei. Cosmic ray spallation is a process wherein cosmic rays impact the nuclei of the interstellar medium and fragment larger atomic nuclei. It is a significant source of the lighter nuclei, particularly 3He, 9Be and 10,11B, that are not created by stellar nucleosynthesis. Cosmic ray bombardment of solar-system material found on Earth (including meteorites) also contribute to the presence on Earth of cosmogenic nuclides.

The purpose of the HEAO C-3 experiment was to measure the charge spectrum of cosmic-ray nuclei over the nuclear charge (Z) range from 17 to 120, in the energy interval 0.3 to 10 GeV/nucleon; to characterize cosmic ray sources; processes of nucleosynthesis, and propagation modes. The detector consisted of a double-ended instrument of upper and lower hodoscopes and three dual-gap ion chambers. The two ends were separated by a Cerenkov radiater. The geometrical factor was 4 cm2-sr.

The Dysonberg confusion principle is the second theory developed by the Cosmic ray Deflection Society, which contends that cosmic rays have a low level of intelligence which allows them to be easily confused by actions contrary to what is considered normal. Once confused, cosmic rays tend to retreat on their own to whence they came. The Cosmic Ray Deflection Society believes that abnormal actions such as wearing Foster Grant brand sunglasses when not famous, lighting fireworks on Christmas, giving gifts on Independence Day, and celebrating the holiday of "Valloween" on Valentine's Day and Halloween each year confuses the cosmic rays. Then, if the rays are in a sufficient state of confusion, and one is also protected by a cosmic ray suit, one will not be affected by the rays.

Space shuttle Endeavor transported the Alphamagnetic Spectrometer (AMS) to the International Space Station on May 16, 2011. In just over one year of operating, the AMS collected data on 17 billion cosmic-ray events.

Photo-meson production is one of the hadronic processes that can occur in cosmic ray sources as gamma-ray bursts and active galactic nuclei, and that can result in an observable multi- messenger signature.

Cosmic Ray Commission, India. Dept. of Atomic Energy. with Homi Jehangir Bhabha for 23 years. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1992 by the Government of India, for his contributions to science and engineering.

Coincidence algorithms are also used to reject events that caused multiple channels to trigger, such as would be caused by an incoming cosmic ray muon or a gamma ray that Compton scatters in multiple crystals.

The more extensive the ionization along the path, the higher the charge. In addition to its uses for cosmic-ray detection, the technique is also used to detect nuclei created as products of nuclear fission.

FIscher was born in Ledec on 30 November 1936. He studied Atomic physics at Charles University and Moscow State University. His scientific work focuses on Cosmic ray. He became member of Communist party in 1957.

He wrote one of four independent papers proposing the theory of cosmic ray acceleration by shocks. He showed how strong magnetic field is generated during particle acceleration and how it enables cosmic ray acceleration to high energy. He initiated the theory of non-local transport for heat flow in inertial confinement fusion, explained the collimation of laser-produced energetic electrons by resistively generated magnetic field, and with John G. Kirk demonstrated the possibility of electron-positron pair production in ultra-high intensity laser-plasma interactions.

To be able to select secondary muons in air showers there were the Muon 'Towers' with 16 m² area each. Seventeen of these detectors were installed on La Palma. There were two more types of detectors at the HEGRA site: the CRT (Cosmic Ray Tracking) and the CLUE (Cherenkov Light Ultraviolet Experiment). Schematic representation of cosmic ray shower detection A remarkable achievement of the instrument was the detection of the most energetic photons observed from an extragalactic object, at 16 TeV, originating from Markarian 501 (Mrk 501).

These results on interpretation have been suggested to be due to positron production in annihilation events of massive dark matter particles. Cosmic ray antiprotons also have a much higher average energy than their normal-matter counterparts (protons). They arrive at Earth with a characteristic energy maximum of 2 GeV, indicating their production in a fundamentally different process from cosmic ray protons, which on average have only one-sixth of the energy. There is no evidence of complex antimatter atomic nuclei, such as antihelium nuclei (i.e.

The only requirements for membership into the CRDSNA is to build an anti-cosmic ray headpiece, (ACRaH.) and to attempt to read Dhalgren by Samuel R. Delany and The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test test by Tom Wolfe. A local chapter is approved by getting three members to make ACRaHs. Local chapters hold monthly covered dish meetings to help build a Cosmic Ray Cookbook for future publication. Chapters are urged to adopt a local outsider artist and help see to their daily needs on an ongoing basis.

Rocks returned from the Moon have been dated at a maximum of 4.51 billion years old. Martian meteorites that have landed upon Earth have also been dated to around 4.5 billion years old by lead-lead dating. Lunar samples, since they have not been disturbed by weathering, plate tectonics or material moved by organisms, can also provide dating by direct electron microscope examination of cosmic ray tracks. The accumulation of dislocations generated by high energy cosmic ray particle impacts provides another confirmation of the isotopic dates.

Cosmic ray antiprotons also have a much higher energy than their normal-matter counterparts (protons). They arrive at Earth with a characteristic energy maximum of 2 GeV, indicating their production in a fundamentally different process from cosmic ray protons, which on average have only one-sixth of the energy. There is an ongoing search for larger antimatter nuclei, such as antihelium nuclei (that is, anti-alpha particles), in cosmic rays. The detection of natural antihelium could imply the existence of large antimatter structures such as an antistar.

Supernova remnants are considered the major source of galactic cosmic rays. The connection between cosmic rays and supernovas was first suggested by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1934. Vitaly Ginzburg and Sergei Syrovatskii in 1964 remarked that if the efficiency of cosmic ray acceleration in supernova remnants is about 10 percent, the cosmic ray losses of the Milky Way are compensated. This hypothesis is supported by a specific mechanism called "shock wave acceleration" based on Enrico Fermi's ideas, which is still under development.

From Physical Research Laboratory, he was served as Scientist of exploration projects of ISRO at its preliminary state. He was associate scientist of Cosmic Ray experiment and chief scientist of Lunar Samples at spacecraft Spacelab-3.

38:419-436 (1975)with C.J. Waddington. "Nucleus-Nucleus Collisions and Interpretation of Cosmic Ray Cascades above 100 TeV," Phys. Rev. D Vol. 25, No. 9, 1 May (1982) with T.K. Gaisser, Todor Stanev, and C.J. Waddington.

Explorer 12 Explorer 12 was designed to study space physics, and so had a multitude of instruments including a cosmic-ray detector, a particle trapper, and a magnetometer. Good data was recorded for 90% of the mission.

Cosmogenic nuclides (or cosmogenic isotopes) are rare nuclides (isotopes) created when a high-energy cosmic ray interacts with the nucleus of an in situ Solar System atom, causing nucleons (protons and neutrons) to be expelled from the atom (see cosmic ray spallation). These nuclides are produced within Earth materials such as rocks or soil, in Earth's atmosphere, and in extraterrestrial items such as meteorites. By measuring cosmogenic nuclides, scientists are able to gain insight into a range of geological and astronomical processes. There are both radioactive and stable cosmogenic nuclides.

Totsuka became a Research Associate at the University of Tokyo in 1972, followed by seven years at Deutsches Electron Synchrotron (DESY) in Germany, where he investigated electron–positron collisions. Subsequently, he became an Associate Professor of the University of Tokyo from 1979 to 1987. In 1987, he was promoted to full Professor at the University of Tokyo. He later became the Director of the Kamioka Observatory, part of the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research (ICRR) at the University of Tokyo in 1995 and then Director of the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research in 1997.

This article, "Passage of Radiations Through Matter," summarized the effects of particles and radiation as they passed through solids. In time it became a standard reference for physics experimenters. Using the CIT cyclotron and following on work done by Bethe and Robert E. Marshak, Ashkin conducted experiments to determine the characteristics of a short-lived particle -- the pi-meson or pion -- that is produced when high energy cosmic ray protons and other cosmic ray components interact with matter in the Earth's atmosphere. Ashkin served as chair of the physics department between 1961 and 1972.

Seo has been president of the Korean-American Scientists and Engineers Association, Korean- American Women in Science and Engineering, and Association of Korean Physicists in America. In 2010 she was elected as a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS), after a nomination from the APS Division of Astrophysics, "for leading the development and utilization of particle detectors for balloon and space-based experiments to understand cosmic ray origin, acceleration and propagation, especially as Principal Investigator of the Cosmic Ray Energetics And Mass balloon-borne experiment over Antarctica".

By virtue of ballistic missile developments at Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), it was realistic to expect that within a year or two a small scientific satellite could be propelled into a durable orbit around the earth.[sic] ... I expressed a keen interest in performing a worldwide survey of the cosmic-ray intensity above the atmosphere.” On January 26, 1956 at the Symposium on "The Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites" at the University of Michigan, sponsored by the Upper Atmosphere Research Panel, James Van Allen proposed the use of U.S. satellites for cosmic-ray investigations.

Understanding how nature does this is important to space travel and has possible applications here on Earth. The CALET Principal Investigator is Shoji Torii from the Waseda University, Japan; John Wefel is the co-principal investigator for the US team; Pier S. Marrocchesi, is the co-investigator from the Italy team. Unlike optical telescopes, CALET operates in a scanning mode. It records each cosmic ray event that enters its field of view and triggers its detectors to take measurements of the cosmic ray in the extremely high energy region of teraelectronvolts (TeV, one trillion electronvolts).

After collapse of Soviet Union YerPhI continued research in the fields of high-energy physics and astrophysics in Armenia and worldwide using world biggest accelerators and cosmic ray detectors. Now YerPhI get status of A. Alikhanyan National Laboratory.

Rubbia studied physics at the University of Pisa and Scuola Normale in Pisa. He graduated on cosmic ray experiments in 1957 with Marcello Conversi. Rubbia obtained his Italian doctoral degree (Laurea) in 1958 from the University of Pisa.

If the "mesotron", a cosmic ray particle of negative charge, was indeed the meson postulated by Yukawa, it should be captured without decaying. Conversi, Piccioni and Pancini moved their experiment to a high school to avoid air raids.

The first appearance of Annihilus. Cover to Fantastic Four Annual #6. Art by Jack Kirby. Annihilus first encountered the Fantastic Four when they entered the Negative Zone seeking anti-particles needed to treat Sue's cosmic ray-related pregnancy complications.

The Cosmic Ray Deflection Society is a satirical/environmental pseudoscientific organization, based in New Orleans, Louisiana. A worldwide membership of over 250 members, the group believes the "deadly cosmic rays" are getting in through the hole in the ozone layer.

These lighter elements in the present universe are therefore thought to have been produced through billions of years of cosmic ray (mostly high-energy proton) mediated breakup of heavier elements in interstellar gas and dust. The fragments of these cosmic-ray collisions include helium-3 and the stable isotopes of the light elements lithium, beryllium, and boron. Carbon was not made in the Big Bang, but was produced later in larger stars via the triple-alpha process. The subsequent nucleosynthesis of heavier elements (Z ≥ 6, carbon and heavier elements) requires the extreme temperatures and pressures found within stars and supernovae.

When a charged particle from a cosmic ray travels through the box, it ionises the gas between the plates. Ordinarily this ionisation would remain invisible. However, if a high enough voltage can be applied between each adjacent pair of plates before that ionisation disappears, then sparks can be made to form along the trajectory taken by the ray, and the cosmic ray in effect becomes visible as a line of sparks. In order to control when this voltage is applied, a separate detector (often containing a pair of scintillators placed above and below the box) is needed.

CRS highlighted in red Diagram of CRS Cosmic Ray Subsystem (CRS, or Cosmic Ray System) is an instrument aboard the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft of the NASA Voyager program, and it is an experiment to detect cosmic rays. The CRS includes a High-Energy Telescope System (HETS), Low-Energy Telescope System (LETS), and The Electron Telescope (TET). It is designed to detect energetic particles and some of the requirements were for the instrument to be reliable and to have enough charge resolution. It can also detect the energetic particles like protons from the Galaxy or Earth's Sun.

By convention, certain stable nuclides of lithium, beryllium, and boron are thought to have been produced by cosmic ray spallation in the period of time between the Big Bang and the Solar System's formation (thus making these primordial nuclides, by definition) are not termed "cosmogenic," even though they were formed by the same process as the cosmogenic nuclides (although at an earlier time). The primordial nuclide beryllium-9, the only stable beryllium isotope, is an example of this type of nuclide. In contrast, even though the radioactive isotopes beryllium-7 and beryllium-10 fall into this series of three light elements (lithium, beryllium, boron) formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation nucleosynthesis, both of these nuclides have half lives too short for them to have been formed before the formation of the Solar System, and thus they cannot be primordial nuclides. Since the cosmic ray spallation route is the only possible source of beryllium-7 and beryllium-10 occurrence naturally in the environment, they are therefore cosmogenic.

W. Heitler and H. W. Peng, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 38 (1942), 296J. Hamilton, W. Heitler, and H. W. Peng Theory of Cosmic-Ray Mesons Physical Review Volume 64, Issue 3-4, pp. 78-94, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, Dublin, Ireland.

Instead, the spallation neutrons and radioisotopes produced by the cosmic rays may mimic the desired signals. For these experiments, the solution is to place the detector deep underground so that the earth above can reduce the cosmic ray rate to acceptable levels.

The free flyer version was to be launched in 2005 into Earth orbit at a height of . It aimed to detect high energy (>1 GeV per nucleon) cosmic ray nuclei, as well as electrons, to search for antimatter and dark matter candidates.

RAD on the MSL (2011–2013). Flying high, passengers and crews of jet airliners are exposed to at least 10 times the cosmic ray dose that people at sea level receive. Aircraft flying polar routes near the geomagnetic poles are at particular risk.

Additionally, this established a method to accurately study reactions caused by cosmic ray events. Her nuclear emulsions significantly advanced the field of particle physics in her time. For her work she was nominated for the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physics by Erwin Schrödinger.

He was born in Varanasi, India. He graduated from Banaras Hindu University. He graduated from Bombay University; his thesis was on cosmic ray physics; his thesis adviser was Bernard Peters. He was Director, of the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad from 1972 to 1983.

Husain, L. (1974) 40Ar-39Ar chronology and cosmic ray exposure ages of the Apollo 15 samples. J. Geophys. Res. 79, 2588-2606. The rock's age of formation has been estimated to be approximately 3.29 ± 0.05 billion years from Rb-Sr radiometric dating.

A site can upload the data to the WALTA server and data can be compared to see if events happen from the same shower. The timing of events and the area covered tells the energy and location where the cosmic ray hit the Earth's atmosphere.

Due to the large number of discrete detectors, cosmic ray muons can be easily excluded by rejecting events that occur simultaneously in multiple detectors. The CUORE towers were installed in the cryostat in August 2016, and data taking with CUORE began in May 2017.

Women in the Night is a 1948 American film directed by William Rowland shot in Mexico. The film is also known as When Men Are Beasts. The film depicts activities of German and Japanese who wish revenge on the Allies with a cosmic ray weapon.

Runaway electrons are the core element of the runaway breakdown based theory of lightning propagation. Since C.T.R. Wilson's work in 1925, research has been conducted to study the possibility of runaway electrons, cosmic ray based or otherwise, initiating the processes required to generate lightning.

Molchanov's design became a popular standard because of its simplicity and because it converted sensor readings to Morse code, making it easy to use without special equipment or training.DuBois, Multhauf and Ziegler, "The Invention and Development of the Radiosonde", Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology, No. 53, 2002. Working with a modified Molchanov sonde, Sergey Vernov was the first to use radiosondes to perform cosmic ray readings at high altitude. On April 1, 1935, he took measurements up to using a pair of Geiger counters in an anti-coincidence circuit to avoid counting secondary ray showers.Vernoff, S. "Radio-Transmission of Cosmic Ray Data from the Stratosphere", Nature, June 29, 1935.

Still other possible beryllium isotopes have even more severe mismatches in neutron and proton number, and thus are even less stable. Most in the universe is thought to be formed by cosmic ray nucleosynthesis from cosmic ray spallation in the period between the Big Bang and the formation of the solar system. The isotopes , with a half-life of 53.22 days, and are both cosmogenic nuclides because they are made on a recent timescale in the solar system by spallation, like . These two radioisotopes of beryllium in the atmosphere track the sun spot cycle and solar activity, since this affects the magnetic field that shields the Earth from cosmic rays.

Iodine-129 (129I; half-life 15.7 million years) is a product of cosmic ray spallation on various isotopes of xenon in the atmosphere, in cosmic ray muon interaction with tellurium-130, and also uranium and plutonium fission, both in subsurface rocks and nuclear reactors. Artificial nuclear processes, in particular nuclear fuel reprocessing and atmospheric nuclear weapons tests, have now swamped the natural signal for this isotope. Nevertheless, it now serves as a groundwater tracer as indicator of nuclear waste dispersion into the natural environment. In a similar fashion, 129I was used in rainwater studies to track fission products following the Chernobyl disaster. In some ways, 129I is similar to 36Cl.

Rao started his career as a cosmic ray scientist, and worked under Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, which he continued at MIT. In association with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory group, he was the first to establish the continuous nature of the solar wind and its effect on geomagnetism using Mariner 2 observations. Rao's experiments on a number of Pioneer and Explorer spacecraft led to a complete understanding of the solar cosmic ray phenomena and the electromagnetic state of the interplanetary space. Convinced of the imperative need to use space technology for rapid development, Rao undertook the responsibility for the establishment of satellite technology in India in 1972.

The first observation of a cosmic ray particle with an energy exceeding (16 J) was made by Dr John D Linsley and Livio Scarsi at the Volcano Ranch experiment in New Mexico in 1962. Cosmic ray particles with even higher energies have since been observed. Among them was the Oh-My-God particle observed by the University of Utah's Fly's Eye experiment on the evening of 15 October 1991 over Dugway Proving Ground, Utah. Its observation was a shock to astrophysicists, who estimated its energy to be approximately (50 J) --in other words, an atomic nucleus with kinetic energy equal to that of a baseball () traveling at about .

Interactions with blue-shifted cosmic microwave background radiation limit the distance that these particles can travel before losing energy; this is known as the Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit or GZK limit. The source of such high energy particles has been a mystery for many years. Recent results from the Pierre Auger Observatory show that ultra-high-energy cosmic ray arrival directions appear to be correlated with extragalactic supermassive black holes at the center of nearby galaxies called active galactic nuclei (AGN). However, since the angular correlation scale used is fairly large (3.1°) these results do not unambiguously identify the origins of such cosmic ray particles.

Earlier in the year, the satellite PAMELA had found excess positrons (the antiparticle of the electron) in the cosmic ray signal, also believed to originate from dark matter interactions. ATIC cannot distinguish between electrons and positrons, so it is possible that the two results are compatible. On the other hand, in November 2008 the Milagro experiment reported cosmic ray "hotspots" in the sky, possibly supporting astrophysical objects as sources of the surplus electrons.Cosmic-ray hot spots puzzle researchers, Nature News, 26 November 2008 In May 2009, observations by the Fermi space telescope were reported which did not support the spike of high-energy electrons seen by ATIC.

Neville Ronsley Parsons is a retired Australian physicist and Antarctic researcher. Parsons was born in Tasmania in 1926, and educated at Scotch College, Launceston and the Universities of Tasmania and Melbourne. From 1949 Parsons spent fourteen years on the staff of the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE), spending 1950 at Macquarie Island and 1955 at Mawson Station in Antarctica as a cosmic ray and auroral physicist, establishing cosmic ray observatories in each case. He also spent the summers of 1961-62 and 1963-64 at Macquarie Island participating in joint programs with the University of California of high-altitude balloon studies of x-rays associated with auroral displays.

The influence of cosmic rays is more difficult to correct for since cosmic ray interactions affect the abundance of tungsten-182 much more than any of the other tungsten isotopes. Nonetheless cosmic ray effects can be corrected for by examining other isotope systems such as platinum, osmium or the stable isotopes of hafnium, or simply by taking samples from the interior that have not been exposed to cosmic rays, though the latter requires large samples. Tungsten isotopic data is usually plotted in terms of ε182W and ε183W, which represent deviations in the ratios 182W/184W and 183W/184W in parts per 10,000 relative to terrestrial standards.

Yellow and orange triangles are in operation. Blue triangles indicate the potential for future expansion. The CHICOS project represents a unique blending of cutting-edge scientific research and broadly- based educational outreach. CHICOS is an active research array for the detection of Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray.

To express the depth of an underground space in mwe (or kmwe for deep sites) as a single number, the convention is to use the depth beneath a flat overburden at sea level that gives the same overall cosmic ray muon flux in the underground location.

Glaser completed his doctoral thesis, The Momentum Distribution of Charged Cosmic Ray Particles Near Sea Level, after starting as an instructor at the University of Michigan in 1949. He received his Ph.D. from Caltech in 1950, and he was promoted to Professor at Michigan in 1957.

In physics, the meter water equivalent (often m.w.e. or mwe) is a standard measure of cosmic ray attenuation in underground laboratories. A laboratory at a depth of 1000 m.w.e is shielded from cosmic rays equivalently to a lab below the surface of a body of water.

The extra density gives this string more projection and often cellists will buy just this string and use it with three strings from a different set. Tungsten is used as an absorber on the electron telescope on the Cosmic Ray System of the two Voyager spacecraft.

Bob Jacklyn (January 13, 1922 – June 18, 2014) was an Australian cosmic ray physicist, and former head of the Australian Antarctic Division's research program. Mount Jacklyn, located in the Athos Range of Antarctica, is named after him for his important research at Mawson Station in 1956.

He hoped that one of them would find Rossi a job, and soon, Rossi received an invitation to come to the University of Manchester, where Blackett was developing a major center of cosmic ray research. After a pleasant two months in Denmark, Rossi and Nora arrived in Manchester.

AIRES package. Animated 3d models of this and other showers can be found on COSMUS. Air shower detected in a cloud chamber. An air shower is an extensive (many kilometres wide) cascade of ionized particles and electromagnetic radiation produced in the atmosphere when a primary cosmic ray (i.e.

The journal publishes invited reviews on all areas of astronomy and astrophysics, including cosmic ray physics, studies in the solar system, astrobiology, developments in laboratory or particle physics directly relevant to astronomy, instrumentation, computational or statistical methods with specific astronomical applications, and other subjects relevant to astronomy and astrophysics.

Eun-Suk Seo () is a Korean-American astrophysicist known for her observational research on cosmic rays. She is a professor of physics at the University of Maryland, College Park, where she is also affiliated with the Institute for Physical Science and Technology and heads the Cosmic Ray Physics Group.

The aim of the cosmic-ray measurements is to solve the question of the origin of the cosmic rays in the energy range up to about 1 EeV. Thus, the Tunka experiment explores the same energy range as the KASCADE-Grande cosmic-ray experiment at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) and as the surface detector IceTop of the IceCube experiment at South Pole. However, the first detector of TAIGA, Tunka-133, uses a different and independent measurement technique, which can be used to cross-check the results by the other experiments. For gamma-ray astronomy the aim is to identify sources of higher energy than possible by current gamma-ray observatories.

Cosmic ray muons have been used for decades to radiograph objects such as pyramids and geological structures. The technique of muon transmission imaging was first used in the 1950s by Eric George to measure the depth of the overburden of a tunnel in Australia. In a famous experiment in the 1960s, Luis Alvarez used muon transmission imaging to search for hidden chambers in the Pyramid of Chephren in Giza, although none were found at the time; a later effort discovered a previously unknown void in the Great Pyramid. In all cases the information about the absorption of the muons was used as a measure of the thickness of the material crossed by the cosmic ray particles.

The Track Imaging Cherenkov Experiment (TrICE) is a ground-based cosmic ray telescope located at Argonne National Laboratory near Chicago, IL. The telescope, which contains a Fresnel lens, eight spherical mirrors, and a camera with 16 multianode photomultiplier tubes, uses the atmospheric Cherenkov imaging technique to detect Cherenkov radiation produced when cosmic rays interact with particles in the Earth's atmosphere. The telescope is primarily a research and development tool for improving photomultiplier tube cameras and electronic systems for future gamma and cosmic ray telescopes. It is also used to study the energy and composition of cosmic rays in the TeV–PeV range, and the collaboration is currently conducting pioneering work in detecting direct Cherenkov signals from cosmic rays.

Anton 314 omnidirectional Geiger-Müller tube, designed by George H. Ludwig of the State University of Iowa Cosmic Ray Laboratory, detected cosmic rays. It could detect protons with energy over 30 MeV and electrons with energy over 3 MeV. Most of the time the instrument was saturated; Sometimes the instrumentation would report the expected cosmic ray count (approximately thirty counts per second) but sometimes it would show a peculiar zero counts per second. The University of Iowa (under Van Allen) noted that all of the zero counts per second reports were from an altitude of 2,000+ km (1,250+ miles) over South America, while passes at would show the expected level of cosmic rays.

In 1948 Skyhook balloons were used to show that in addition to protons and electrons, cosmic rays also include high energy atomic nuclei that are stripped of their electrons. Thirteen stratospheric plastic Skyhook balloons were launched in September 1953 as part of Project Churchy,Walt Kelly gave permission to use the name Churchy, the turtle character of his comic strip Pogo, as a nod to the turtles on the Galapagos Islands. an Office of Naval Research funded cosmic ray expedition at the geomagnetic equator. Project Churchy was conducted at the Galápagos because high-energy cosmic-ray particles can only be collected at the geomagnetic equator without accompanying low-energy particles found at higher latitudes.

In 1955 he gave Eugene N. Parker a job as a research associate in the Enrico Fermi Institute of the University of Chicago, and his progress was largely a consequence of Simpson's continued support. His research on cosmic ray neutrons in the lower atmosphere was developed from work by Serge Korff before World War II. In 1949, Simpson contributed to the discovery that the latitude effect seen with neutrons is around 20 times greater than with ionization chambers. In 1951 he found that the time variations are much greater as well. He had recognized the potential of neutrons and lower energy cosmic ray particles for exploring the causes of the time variations.

HAWC is a very sensitive detector for TeV cosmic rays. The large number of cosmic rays detected with HAWC forms an undesirable background in the search for gamma-ray sources, but it also permits precise measurements of small deviations from isotropy in the cosmic-ray flux. Over the last few years, cosmic-ray detectors in the northern and southern hemisphere have found anisotropy in the arrival direction distribution of TeV cosmic rays at the per-mille level. Since we expect the arrival directions of charged particles at these energies to be completely scrambled by Galactic magnetic fields, these deviations are surprising and imply that the propagation of cosmic rays from their sources to us is not understood.

The view that cosmic rays could provide the mechanism by which changes in solar activity affect climate is not supported by the literature., in Solomon et al. (2007), in state: > [..] the cosmic ray time series does not appear to correspond to global > total cloud cover after 1991 or to global low-level cloud cover after 1994. > Together with the lack of a proven physical mechanism and the plausibility > of other causal factors affecting changes in cloud cover, this makes the > association between galactic cosmic ray-induced changes in aerosol and cloud > formation controversial Studies by Lockwood and Fröhlich (2007) and Sloan and Wolfendale (2008) found no relation between warming in recent decades and cosmic rays.

Aplin's research has focussed on innovative instrumentation as applied to problems in space and atmospheric science, in particular electrical effects and measurements. She currently maintains the Snowdon space-weather observatory. She has performed experimental work on the atmospheric effects of ions formed by cosmic rays, but has been keen to stress that the formed "particles are too small to act as cloud condensation nuclei", and thus there is unlikely to be a strong cosmic- ray link to global cloud cover. Her work on atmospheric electricity also extends to the link between volcanoes, lightning and radon gas, and to other solar system bodies, in particular the ultraviolet and galactic cosmic ray effects on Neptune's atmosphere.

Fairchild Peak is a conspicuous rock peak, high, standing south-southeast of Portal Rock, at the south side of the mouth of Tillite Glacier. It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for William W. Fairchild, a United States Antarctic Research Program cosmic ray scientist at McMurdo Sound, 1961.

Ashot Chilingarian (; born 18 May 1949) is an Armenian physicist known for his contributions to the fields of high-energy astrophysics, space weather, and high-energy atmospheric physics. He is the head of the Cosmic Ray Division (CRD) and the director of the Alikhanyan Physics Institute in Armenia.Yerevan Physics Institute. Administration .

Just before the Copenhagen conference, Blackett suggested that observed variations of cosmic ray intensity with atmospheric temperature could be an indication that mesotrons are unstable, and he held intense discussions with Rossi on this subject. As a result, Rossi left Manchester determined to confirm their decay and to measure the lifetime.

These include ~44 radionuclides occurring in the decay chains of primordial uranium and thorium (radiogenic nuclides), such as radon-222. Others are the products of interactions with energetic cosmic-rays (e.g. cosmic ray spallation) (cosmogenic nuclides) such as carbon-14. This gives a total of about 350 naturally occurring nuclides.

He has since been principal investigator on nine NASA spacecraft missions and coinvestigator on five more. He was the P.I. for the Cosmic Ray System on the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecrafts, an experiment to measure cosmic rays. He also appeared in The Farthest, a 2017 documentary on the Voyager program.

HiRes-II was instrumented with an flash analog to digital converter (FADC) so that it essentially made movies of the cosmic ray events. Both observatory sites provided full azimuthal coverage (360 degrees in azimuth). They were operated independently on moonless clear nights. The duty cycle of HiRes was close to 10%.

The team calculated what signal a detector would register if a cosmic ray creates a miniature black hole that explodes nearby. The researchers' prediction is consistent with the observed Centauro events. The Tomaras team hopes that computer simulations of mini-black holes exploding, and further observations, will solve the puzzle.

Piara Singh Gill (28October 1911 – 23March 2002) was an Indian nuclear physicist who was a pioneer in cosmic ray nuclear physics and worked on the American Manhattan project.Up Against Odds: Autobiography of an Indian Scientist. (South Asia Books, 1993. ) He was the first Director of Central Scientific Instruments Organisation (CSIO) of India.

During his lifetime, he practiced Jainism. He attended Gujarat College, Ahmedabad, but later moved to the University of Cambridge, England, where he took his tripos in natural sciences in 1940. In 1945 he returned to Cambridge to pursue a doctorate and wrote a thesis, “Cosmic Ray Investigations in Tropical Latitudes,” in 1947.

In February 2017, organics (tholins) were detected on Ceres in Ernutet crater (see image). Dawn arrival in a stable orbit around Ceres was delayed after, close to reaching Ceres, it was hit by a cosmic ray, making it take another, longer route around Ceres in back, instead of a direct spiral towards it.

These detectors were operated day and night at any weather. The energy threshold of the scintillator array was between 40 and 100 TeV, depending on the kind of primary cosmic ray particle. The scintillator array has been dismantled as well. The scintillator array was sensitive to all types of charged secondary particles.

This magnetic field breakdown releases large amplitude electromagnetic waves (LAEMWs). The LAEMWs accelerate light ion remnants from the supernova to UHECR energies. Very high energy cosmic ray electrons might be explained by the Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration in the magnetospheres of the Crab-like Pulsars.Mahajan Swadesh, Machabeli George, Osmanov Zaza & Chkheidze Nino.

The Institute for Cosmic Ray Research (ICRR) of the University of Tokyo (東京大学宇宙線研究所 Tōkyōdaigaku Uchūsen Kenkyūsho) was established in 1976 for the study of cosmic rays.ICRR / About ICRR The gravitational wave studies group is currently constructing the detector KAGRA located at the Kamioka Observatory.

Periodic Table—Neon . explanation of the nucleogenic sources of Ne-21 and Ne-22. USGS.gov. 21Ne may also be produced in a nucleogenic reaction, when 20Ne absorbs a neutron from various natural terrestrial neutron sources. In addition, isotopic analysis of exposed terrestrial rocks has demonstrated the cosmogenic (cosmic ray) production of 21Ne.

Until the beginning of World War II, he managed the theoretical-physics personnel at Sverdlovsk University and Kiev University. In 1940 he defended his doctoral dissertation. In this period, Ivanenko's scientific interest gradually shifted from nuclear physics to cosmic ray theory. In particular, he proposed a non-linear generalization of Dirac's equation (1938).

Co-located with KASCADE-Grande is the LOPES experiment. LOPES consists of radio antennas and measures the radio emission of extensive air showers. KASCADE (including all extensions) stopped operation in 2013, but a part of the detectors is still used in other experiments for cosmic-ray air showers, e.g., LOFAR or Tunka.

In spite of this distraction, Rossi was able to complete, in 1933, an experiment on the East-West effect that he had begun before leaving Arcetri. Because this effect is more prominent near the equator, he organised an expedition to Asmara in Eritrea, which was then an Italian colony on the Red Sea at a latitude of 15° N. With Sergio De Benedetti, he set up a "cosmic ray telescope", which consisted of two separated GM counters in coincidence, whose axis of maximum sensitivity could be pointed in any direction. It soon became apparent that cosmic ray intensity from the West was significantly larger than that from the East. This meant that there was a larger influx of positive primary particles than of negative ones.

This enabled the time structure study of nuclear active components of air showers and led to the discovery that the nucleon- anti-nucleon production cross-section considerably increases with energy. In continuation of the work on cosmic ray research at CRL, GRAPES-1 experiment was upgraded in various stages to GRAPES-2. However, due to the technical and administrative problem in its further expansion, a new experiment was set up at the RAC site 8 km from the old site which is called GRAPES-3. The GRAPES-3 experiment at present is operating with ~400 (each 1 m2) plastic scintillator detectors with a separation of 8 meters, to record the density and arrival time of particles in cosmic ray showers, and in continuous operation.

The Washington Area Large-scale Time-coincidence Array (WALTA) is a cosmic ray physics experiment run by the University of Washington to investigate ultra high energy cosmic rays (>1019eV). The program uses detectors placed at Seattle-area high schools and colleges which are linked via the internet, effectively forming an Extensive Air Shower array. In addition to working on the unexplained levels of Ultra High Energy cosmic ray (UHECR) flux, it hopes to serve as a pedagogical tool for increasing the physics involvement of high schools and community colleges with a University level physics experiment. Each site has three to four scintillation detectors with the goal of having enough sites to cover a 200 km2 area around the city of Seattle.

Halzen is been a leading scientist in the development of cosmic ray physics and astroparticle physics since the 1970s. In addition to particle physics he published many early papers on cosmic ray anomalies and quark matter, and on relations between particle physics and cosmic rays, on particles from supernovae and on muon production in atmospheric gamma-ray showers. He has served on various advisory committees, including those for the SNO, Telescope Array and Auger-upgrade experiments, the Max Planck Institutes in Heidelberg and Munich, the ICRR at the University of Tokyo, the US Particle Physics Prioritization Panel and the ApPEC particle astrophysics advisory panel in Europe. With Alan Martin he is the co-author of Quarks and Leptons, a standard text.

All types of pions are also produced in natural processes when high energy cosmic ray protons and other hadronic cosmic ray components interact with matter in Earth's atmosphere. In 2013, the detection of characteristic gamma rays originating from the decay of neutral pions in two supernova remnants has shown that pions are produced copiously after supernovas, most probably in conjunction with production of high energy protons that are detected on Earth as cosmic rays. The concept of mesons as the carrier particles of the nuclear force was first proposed in 1935 by Hideki Yukawa. While the muon was first proposed to be this particle after its discovery in 1936, later work found that it did not participate in the strong nuclear interaction.

This craft, with a crew of military veterans and scientists, would ply the waters of "high-biodiversity areas" – the Amazon, or the great rivers of Borneo – seeking and studying rare plants and fungi as sources of new drugs. A Newsweek interviewer has described ... > ...Hatfill's unbuilt, twin-diesel-powered boat. Inside the vessel's aluminum > hull, he envisioned a plexus of laboratories, with DNA microarrays and other > "space-age zuzu" for analyzing the genetic compositions of plants. Bedrooms > would be equipped with video-conferencing systems and DVD players, and the > executive cabin was modeled after the president's quarters on Air Force > One.... Hatfill had also thrown in a roof-mounted cosmic ray detector, which > would switch on near the equator to capture data on "high-energy cosmic ray > showers".

These interactions would cause extra- galactic UHECRs to lose too much energy to reach the earth.Griesen 1966, page 749. Physicists have observed cosmic rays with energies at this level since 1963Linsley 1963, page 146. Some cosmic ray experiments claim that they have seen UHECR levels in excess of the GZK prediction,Yoshida, et al.

The Chooz detector was underground, with a 300 meter water equivalent overburden to reduce cosmic ray backgrounds. The detector itself was a cylinder 5.5 m in diameter and 5.5 m tall. The detector was composed of three regions. The innermost region (region I) contained 5 tons of scintillator doped with gadolinium in a Plexiglas container.

Another "extraordinarily large" 14C increase (2%) has been associated with a 5480 BC event, which is unlikely to be a solar energetic particle event. Carbon-14 may also be produced by lightning but in amounts negligible, globally, compared to cosmic ray production. Local effects of cloud-ground discharge through sample residues are unclear, but possibly significant.

Other scientific equipment was mounted on the outside, including micrometeoroid and cosmic ray detectors, and the Yenisey-2 imaging system. The gas jets for its attitude control system were mounted on the lower end of the spacecraft. Several photoelectric cells helped maintain orientation with respect to the Sun and the Moon. There were no rocket motors for course corrections.

The ratio of primary cosmic ray hadrons to gamma rays also gives a clue as to the origin of cosmic rays. Although gamma rays could be produced near the source of cosmic rays, they could also be produced by interactions with the cosmic microwave background by way of the Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit cutoff above 50 EeV.

On January 24, 1940, Poulter returned to the United States, leaving F. Alton Wade in charge of a partial crew. The scientists conducted seismologic experiments, cosmic-ray measurements, and ice core sampling while living in the snow- and timber-covered Snow Cruiser. Funding for the project was canceled as the focus in the United States became World War II.

Since the Galactic Center is in the deficit region, this anisotropy can be interpreted as evidence for the extragalactic origin of cosmic rays at the highest energies. This implies that there must be a transition energy from galactic to extragalactic sources, and there may be different types of cosmic- ray sources contributing to different energy ranges.

Cosmic rays have been implicated in the triggering of electrical breakdown in lightning. It has been proposed that essentially all lightning is triggered through a relativistic process, or "runaway breakdown", seeded by cosmic ray secondaries. Subsequent development of the lightning discharge then occurs through "conventional breakdown" mechanisms.Runaway Breakdown and the Mysteries of Lightning, Physics Today, May 2005.

The High Resolution Fly's Eye or HiRes detector was an ultra-high-energy cosmic ray observatory that operated in the western Utah desert from May 1997 until April 2006\. HiRes used the atmospheric fluorescence technique that was pioneered by the Utah group first in tests at the Volcano Ranch experiment and then with the original Fly's Eye experiment.

The Large High Altitude Air Shower Observatory (LHAASO) is a gamma-ray and cosmic-ray observatory in Daocheng, in the Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan, China. It is designed to observe air showers triggered by gamma rays and cosmic rays. The observatory is at an altitude of above sea level. Observations started in April 2019.

Then, he became a member of the theoretical group led by Eugene Wigner.The Manhattan Project and Predecessor Organizations He was a signatory of the Szilárd petition in July 1945. Friedman earned a Ph.D. from MIT in 1949 and became a Professor of Physics at MIT in 1950. There, he researched nuclear physics, theoretical physics, and cosmic ray theory.Obituary.

Neutron radiation was discovered with the neutron by Chadwick, in 1932. A number of other high energy particulate radiations such as positrons, muons, and pions were discovered by cloud chamber examination of cosmic ray reactions shortly thereafter, and others types of particle radiation were produced artificially in particle accelerators, through the last half of the twentieth century.

In 2013 NASA published a study that found changes to the eyes and eyesight of monkeys with spaceflights longer than 6 months. Noted changes included a flattening of the eyeball and changes to the retina. Space traveler's eye-sight can become blurry after too much time in space. Another effect is known as cosmic ray visual phenomena.

A Centauro event is a kind of anomalous event observed in cosmic-ray detectors since 1972. They are so named because their shape resembles that of a centaur: i.e., highly asymmetric. If some versions of string theory are correct, then high-energy cosmic rays could create black holes when they collide with molecules in the Earth's atmosphere.

For almost all event classes, Version P8R2 had a residual background that was not fully isotropic. This anisotropy was traced to cosmic-ray electrons leaking through the ribbons of the Anti-Coincidence Detector and a set of cuts allowed rejection of these events while minimally impacting acceptance. This selection was used to create the P8R3 version of LAT data.

On 29 June 1936, a Nazi Party newspaper published a column attacking Heisenberg. On 15 July 1937, he was attacked in a journal of the SS. In mid-1936, Heisenberg presented his theory of cosmic-ray showers in two papers., , as cited by Four more papersW. Heisenberg Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern, Ber.

Beryllium-10 (10Be) is a radioactive isotope of beryllium. It is formed in the Earth's atmosphere mainly by cosmic ray spallation of nitrogen and oxygen. Beryllium-10 has a half-life of 1.39 × 106 years, and decays by beta decay to stable boron-10 with a maximum energy of 556.2 keV. It decays through the reaction 10Be→10B + e−.

Like the Earth, the sun has a magnetic field. Initial estimates suggested that the sun's magnetic strength was about fifty times that of the Earth. The cosmic ray experiments indicated that the sun's magnetic strength was of the same magnitude as the Earth's; this result is now well-established by many subsequent measurements.Pomerantz, Martin A. and Shoemaker, Brian (2000).

The rock's cosmic ray exposure age was discovered to be about 285 million years.Kirsten, T., Deubner, J., Horn, P., Kaneoka, I., Kiko, J., Schaeffer, O. A., and Thio, S. K. (1972) The rare gas record of Apollo 14 and 15 samples. Proc. 3rd Lunar Sci. Conf. 1865-1889. Another study determined the age to be 315 million years.

Van Allen with four Soviet scientists visiting the University of Iowa, December 1959 Van Allen headed the University of Iowa Department of Physics and Astronomy until his retirement from teaching in 1985. During the 1950s, he and his graduate students used the UI football practice field to launch rockets and "Rockoons"—rockets carried aloft by balloons—to conduct cosmic ray experiments above the atmosphere. A highlight of that work was the 1953 discovery of electrons believed to be the driving force behind the aurora. In 1956, he proposed the use of U.S. satellites for cosmic-ray investigations and through "preparedness and good fortune," he later wrote, the experiment was selected as the principal payload for the first flight of a four-stage Juno I rocket in October 1957.

Some of these radionuclides are tritium, carbon-14 and phosphorus-32. Certain light (low atomic number) primordial nuclides (some isotopes of lithium, beryllium and boron) are thought to have been created not only during the Big Bang, and also (and perhaps primarily) to have been made after the Big Bang, but before the condensation of the Solar System, by the process of cosmic ray spallation on interstellar gas and dust. This explains their higher abundance in cosmic rays as compared with their ratios and abundances of certain other nuclides on Earth. This also explains the overabundance of the early transition metals just before iron in the periodic table; the cosmic-ray spallation of iron thus produces scandium through chromium on one hand and helium through boron on the other.

At Cornell, Rossi met his first American graduate student, Kenneth Greisen, with whom he wrote an article, "Cosmic-Ray Theory", which was published in the Reviews of Modern Physics and became known among cosmic-ray researchers as "The Bible". During the summer of 1941, Greisen and physicists from Denver and Boulder accompanied Rossi to Mount Evans, where they refined the knowledge of proportionality between mesotron momentum and lifetime before decay. Greisen and Rossi also carried out experiments, which showed, in terms of processes documented in the "Bible", that not all particles of the soft component, could be produced by mesotrons of the hard component. They interpreted this as evidence for primary electrons or photons, but it became evident later that the soft excess arises from the decay of neutral pions.

The first cosmic ray experiment was started in 1955 by B. V. Sreekantan by setting up cloud chambers that heralded the beginning of research at the Cosmic Ray Laboratory (CRL) in Ooty. The next decade witnessed a variety of experiments involving high energy interactions and extensive air shower studies in this laboratory. The world's largest multiplate cloud chamber was operated here as part of an air shower array and significant results on the high energy nuclear interactions and cores of extensive air showers were obtained. A triple set-up comprising an air Cherenkov counter, a multiplate cloud chamber and a total absorption spectrometer was operated in the early seventies to study the differences in the characteristics of interactions with nuclei of protons and pions in the energy range 10-40 GeV.

Onboard instruments The orbiter carries a complement of six instruments and one technology demonstration: ; Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation (CRaTER) : The primary goal of the Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation is to characterize the global lunar radiation environment and its biological impacts. ; Diviner : The Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment measures lunar surface thermal emission to provide information for future surface operations and exploration. ; Lyman-Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP) : The Lyman-Alpha Mapping Project peers into permanently shadowed craters in search of water ice, using ultraviolet light generated by stars as well as the hydrogen atoms that are thinly spread throughout the Solar System. ; Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) : The Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector provides measurements, creates maps, and detects possible near-surface water ice deposits.

An update to the ICE mission was approved by NASA in 1991. It defines a heliospheric mission for ICE consisting of investigations of coronal mass ejections in coordination with ground-based observations, continued cosmic ray studies, and the Ulysses probe. By May 1995, ICE was being operated under a low duty cycle, with some data-analysis support from the Ulysses project.

Francey Hill () is a low, snow-covered rock feature about south of Mount McKenzie in the Aramis Range of the Prince Charles Mountains, Antarctica. It was plotted from Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions air photos taken in 1960, and was named by the Antarctic Names Committee of Australia for R.J. Francey, a cosmic ray physicist at Mawson Station in 1964.

Dunlop Peak () is one of the Smith Peaks, 1,330 m, standing 1 nautical mile (1.9 km) south of Mount Hordern in the David Range, Framnes Mountains. Mapped by Norwegian cartographers from air photos taken by the Lars Christensen Expedition, 1936–37. Named by Antarctic Names Committee of Australia (ANCA) for R. Dunlop, cosmic ray physicist at Mawson station in 1959. Category:Mountains of Mac.

Mount Humble () is, at , the highest mountain in the Raggatt Mountains of Antarctica, standing south of the isolated mountain Mount Sibiryakov. It was plotted from air photos taken by the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions in 1956, and was named by the Antarctic Names Committee of Australia for John Edmund Humble, a cosmic ray physicist at Mawson Station in 1960.

The NASA Space Radiation Laboratory (NSRL, previously called Booster Applications Facility), is a heavy ion beamline research facility; part of the Collider-Accelerator Department of Brookhaven National Laboratory, located in Upton, New York on Long Island. Its primary mission is to use ion beams (H+to Bi83+) to simulate the cosmic ray radiation fields that are more prominent beyond earth's atmosphere.

The intense solar wind and particle storm associated with the CMEs led to one of the largest decreases in cosmic ray radiation from outside the Solar System, known as a Forbush decrease, ever observed. Solar energetic particle (SEP) onslaught was so strong that the Forbush decrease in fact partially abated. SEPs reached the Earth's surface, causing a ground level event (GLE).

Variations in the solar output have effects on climate, less through the usually quite small effects on insolation and more through the relatively large changes of UV radiation and potentially also indirectly through modulation of cosmic ray radiation. The 11-year solar cycle measurably alters the behaviour of weather and atmosphere, but decadal and centennial climate cycles are also attributed to solar variation.

The primary experiment, the cosmic ray detector, could sense heavy cosmic rays with an atomic number over 30. The diameter acrylic-lined aluminum sphere was filled with a gaseous oxygen, nitrogen, and helium mixture. Heavy cosmic rays penetrated the sphere and excited the gas to produce scintillation light; the acrylic produced Cerenkov radiation. These ultraviolet emissions were detected with 16 photo- multipliers.

The Milagro Experiment stopped taking data in April 2008 after seven years of operation. There is a follow up experiment called the High Altitude Water Cherenkov Experiment (HAWC) located near the Large Millimeter Telescope at the Sierra Negra volcano, Mexico, which is expected to be 15 times more sensitive. In November 2008 Milagro published the surprising result of observing cosmic ray anisotropy.

Tritium, 3H, is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, with a half-life of 12.3 years. It is produced in small amounts in nature (about 4 kg per year globally) by cosmic ray interactions in the upper atmosphere. Tritium is considered a weak radionuclide because of its low-energy radioactive emissions (beta particle energy up to 18.6 keV).Dr. Ian Fairlie, , Greenpeace, June 2007.

HEAO 3, launched on 20 September 1979 into a 43.6-degree inclination orbit, carried three experiments, known as C1, C2, and C3. The first was a cryogenically cooled germanium (Ge) high- resolution gamma-ray spectrometer, while the C2 and C3 experiments were large cosmic-ray instruments. The satellite re-entered the Earth's atmosphere and burned up on December 7, 1981.

There are no stones in the soil, not even gravel. Researchers can determine how many years a stone has been exposed on the ground. Wells used a method based on cosmogenic helium-3, which forms by cosmic ray bombardment at the ground surface. Helium-3 is retained inside grains of olivine and pyroxene in the lava flows, building up with exposure time.

Also, president Ignacy Mościcki was keenly interested in the project. However, military circles were informed by the civilian authorities that the flight would be possible if there were a serious scientific purpose associated to it. Therefore, professor Mieczyslaw Wolfke from the Warsaw Polytechnic suggested examination of the cosmic ray., which had been the scientific goal of several other high-altitude balloon flights.

Lawrence W. Jones, The History, Highlights and Outcome of the Michigan – Wisconsin Echo Lake Cosmic Ray Program, 1965–1972: An Informal Review, UM-HE 73-9, University of Michigan, February 1973. The University of Denver erected the 0.6m (24 inch) Ritchey–Chrétien telescope in its summit laboratory in 1972. This was used to observe comets Kohoutek and Halley in 1972 and 1986.

Post-primordial isotopes were created by cosmic ray bombardment as cosmogenic nuclides (e.g., tritium, carbon-14), or by the decay of a radioactive primordial isotope to a radioactive radiogenic nuclide daughter (e.g. uranium to radium). A few isotopes are naturally synthesized as nucleogenic nuclides, by some other natural nuclear reaction, such as when neutrons from natural nuclear fission are absorbed by another atom.

The first four satellites primarily studied the ionosphere. It was realized that higher quality X-ray data could be collected in space, and the experiments of Ariel 5 were designed to meet that primary objective. The last satellite in the series had a cosmic ray experiment and two X-ray experiments which would expand the data collected by its predecessor.

Using the Alikhanyan-Alikhanov magnetic spectrometer N. Kocharian obtained the energy spectra of muons and protons with energies up to several GeV (1952).Yerevan Physics Institute. Cosmic Ray Division. History, status and development 2009–2014 However, only some of the many peaks in mass distributions measured at Aragats were later verified to be "real" particles and became known as π- and K-mesons.

Natural processes which produce trace radioisotopes include cosmic ray bombardment of stable nuclides, ordinary alpha and beta decay of the long-lived heavy nuclides, thorium-232, uranium-238, and uranium-235, spontaneous fission of uranium-238, and nuclear transmutation reactions induced by natural radioactivity, such as the production of plutonium-239 and uranium-236 from neutron capture by natural uranium.

In 1935, Powell became a research fellow at the Franklin Institute's Bartol Laboratory and began investigation of cosmic rays. During the Depression years, funds for research were difficult to secure. Powell managed to obtain financing for his research on cosmic rays and the construction of bigger and better cloud chambers from the Rumford Fund of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Carnegie Institute, the Committee on Research of the American Philosophical Society and the Fund for Astrophysical Research. While at Bartol, Powell constructed two cloud chambers for cosmic ray study and developed a source of light at a much lower cost than the lighting used at the time. Awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1941, Powell put together the Kenyon Cosmic Ray Expedition, and took a cloud chamber to the top of Mount Evans in Colorado.

"Atmospheric C-14 changes resulting from fossil-fuel CO2 release and cosmic-ray flux variability." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 53(3): 349-362. In the mid-1980s he led the development of the first high precision radiocarbon calibration curve extending back nearly 10,000 years ago based on 14C measurements of tree-rings with known calendar ages from dendrochronology.Stuiver, M. and R. S. Kra, Eds. (1986).

Heavy Ion Counter The HIC was, in effect, a repackaged and updated version of some parts of the flight spare of the Voyager Cosmic Ray System. The HIC detected heavy ions using stacks of single crystal silicon wafers. The HIC could measure heavy ions with energies as low as and as high as per nucleon. This range included all atomic substances between carbon and nickel.

The Israel Cosmic Ray Center (ICRC) was established in November 1997 with support from the Israel Space Agency and with affiliation to Tel Aviv University and the Technion. The center is located on Mount Hermon and headed by Dr. Gideon Bela and Prof. Lev Dorman from the Tel Aviv University. The goal of the center is to monitor and forecast dangerous meteorological and space phenomena.

He later also joined the Federation of American Scientists. He was also a member of the American Physical Society. After the war, Oppenheimer returned to Berkeley, working with Luis Alvarez and Wolfgang Panofsky to develop the proton linear accelerator. In 1947 he took a position as Assistant Professor of Physics at the University of Minnesota, where he participated in the discovery of heavy cosmic ray nuclei.

At solar minimums, due to lower solar magnetic field shielding, the flux is about twice as high vs the solar maximum. It also dramatically increases during solar flares. In the vicinity of larger heavier objects, e.g. buildings or ships, the neutron flux measures higher; this is known as "cosmic ray induced neutron signature", or "ship effect" as it was first detected with ships at sea.

Stern, "Responsible Mothers" p. 387. Luis Barragán won the Pritzker Prize, the highest award in architecture, in 1980 In the 1930s Manuel Sandoval Vallartaa Mexican physicist worked on Cosmic ray research and by the 1943 to 1946, he divided his time between MIT and UNAM as a full-time professor. Antonio Lazcano served as president of the International Society for the Study of the Origin of Life.

Working with H. Carmichael he developed methods for measuring cosmic ray intensity at a height of 12 miles (19 km) above the surface of the planet. During the Second World War he was posted to Kew Observatory to make studies of the outer atmosphere, and perfected the British Radiosonde.Cambridge Journals: obituaries 1953 He returned to Edinburgh in 1946 and died there on 26 January 1953.

A Forbush decrease is a rapid decrease in the observed galactic cosmic ray intensity following a coronal mass ejection (CME). It occurs due to the magnetic field of the plasma solar wind sweeping some of the galactic cosmic rays away from Earth. The term Forbush decrease was named after the American physicist Scott E. Forbush, who studied cosmic rays in the 1930s and 1940s.

IceCube can observe neutrino oscillations from atmospheric cosmic ray showers, over a baseline across the Earth. It is most sensitive at ~25 GeV, the energy range for which the DeepCore sub-array has been optimized. DeepCore consists of 6 strings deployed in the 2009–2010 austral summer with a closer horizontal and vertical spacing. In 2014, DeepCore data was used to determine the mixing angle θ23.

Korff Ice Rise is an ice rise, long and wide, lying east-northeast of Skytrain Ice Rise in the southwestern part of the Ronne Ice Shelf, Antarctica. It was discovered by the US–IGY Ellsworth Traverse Party, 1957–58, and named by the party for Professor Serge A. Korff, vice chairman of the cosmic ray technical panel, U.S. National Committee for the International Geophysical Year, 1957–59.

He later put forward a hypothesis of the formation of iron meteorites, an evolutionary model of the formation of the meteorites which fell at Jilin in 1976, and a theory of multi-stage cosmic ray radiation history. His works include Celestial Chemistry, and he has published more than 160 scientific treatises. He was elected a Member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1991.

Any thermal neutrons colliding with the helium atoms give an energy signature which can be detected and counted. One of the canisters was wrapped in cadmium, and one in tin. The cadmium screens out thermal (low energy or slow-moving) neutrons, while the tin does not. Thermal neutrons are cosmic-ray-generated neutrons which have lost much of their energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms.

For his cosmic ray research, Reynolds attempted to grow large organic crystal scintillators to use as ionized particle detectors. Scintillators are luminescent materials that, when struck by an incoming particle, absorb its energy and scintillate – emit light. They are used in many areas of scientific research. He was frustrated by cracks in the crystals, and attempted to get around the problem by dissolving them in liquid.

The ICRR was established in 1976 for cosmic ray studies. The LCGT project was approved on 22 June 2010. In January 2012, it was given its new name, KAGRA, deriving the "KA" from its location at the Kamioka mine and "GRA" from gravity and gravitational radiation. The project is led by Nobelist Takaaki Kajita who had a major role in getting the project funded and constructed.

Veksler's family moved from Zhitomir to Moscow in 1915. In 1931 he graduated from the Moscow Power Engineering Institute. He began working at the Lebedev Physical Institute in 1936, and became involved in particle detector development and the study of cosmic rays. He participated in a number of expeditions to the Pamir Mountains and to Mount Elbrus, which were devoted to the study of cosmic ray composition.

Data processing to separate the two different types of ultraviolet emissions was performed by comparing the brightness and duration of the emissions. The amplitude of the signal was used to determine the atomic number of the cosmic ray. Unlike the X-ray experiments, this experiment had no pointing requirements other than what was required for thermal control. The two other experiments were X-ray telescopes.

However, at that point, quantum physics makes sound waves dissipate their energy into the superfluid, so that the zero sound speed condition is never encountered. In the dark- energy star hypothesis, infalling matter approaching the event horizon decays into successively lighter particles. Nearing the event horizon, environmental effects accelerate proton decay. This may account for high-energy cosmic-ray sources and positron sources in the sky.

MACRO (Monopole, Astrophysics and Cosmic Ray Observatory) was a particle physics experiment located at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in Abruzzo, Italy. MACRO was proposed by 6 scientific institutions in the United States and 6 Italian institutions. The primary goal of MACRO was to search for magnetic monopoles. The active elements of MACRO were liquid scintillator and streamer tubes, optimized for high resolution tracking and timing.

In 1946 Simpson developed a special interest in cosmic rays. Beginning with investigations into cosmic ray neutrons in the lower atmosphere, Simpson was there from the beginning phases of the field, and contributed significantly throughout the years to its development with his scientific investigations. Simpson's contributions were unique in that he accomplished his work in a way that boosted the accomplishments and careers of others around him.

This minor planet was named after American chemist Candace P. Kohl, who has been investigating ancient solar activity through analysis of nuclides in lunar rocks. She has also contributed in the development of dating techniques of cosmic-ray-produced nuclides in Earth surface materials. She is known for her popular astronomy lectures. Citation provided by Kunihiko Nishiizumi (also see ) at the request of the discoverers.

The LHCf experiment, the smallest of the seven experiments on the LHC The LHCf is intended to measure the energy and numbers of neutral pions () produced by the collider. This will hopefully help explain the origin of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. The results will complement other high-energy cosmic ray measurements from the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina, and the Telescope Array Project in Utah.

This collection of 286 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides. Finally, an additional 53 short-lived nuclides are known to occur naturally, as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay (such as radium from uranium), or as products of natural energetic processes on Earth, such as cosmic ray bombardment (for example, carbon-14).For more recent updates see Brookhaven National Laboratory's Interactive Chart of Nuclides ] .

He attempted to equip it as best as his limited funds would allow. Wherever possible, equipment and parts were built by staff and students. His cosmic ray group participated in the 1947–48 Antarctic expedition of , and he designed and built a 200 kV neutron generator and a 1 MeV Van de Graaff generator. A 3 MeV betatron was converted an 18 MeV electron synchrotron in 1948.

3551 Verenia, 3908 Nyx, or 4055 Magellan. # Later smaller impacts on these near-Earth objects dislodged rock-sized meteorites, some of which later struck Earth. On the basis of cosmic ray exposure measurements, it is thought that most HED meteorites arose from several distinct impact events of this kind, and spent from about 6 million to 73 million years in space before striking the Earth.

A typical configuration might have a NaI scintillator almost completely surrounded by a thick CsI anticoincidence shield, with a hole or holes to allow the desired gamma rays to enter from the cosmic source under study. A plastic scintillator may be used across the front which is reasonably transparent to gamma rays, but efficiently rejects the high fluxes of cosmic- ray protons present in space.

Elements are composed either of one nuclide (mononuclidic elements), or of more than one naturally occurring isotopes. The unstable (radioactive) isotopes are either primordial or postprimordial. Primordial isotopes were a product of stellar nucleosynthesis or another type of nucleosynthesis such as cosmic ray spallation, and have persisted down to the present because their rate of decay is so slow (e.g. uranium-238 and potassium-40).

Another > exhibition in New York in 1961 again received positive notices. In 1961, > Conner completed his second film, Cosmic Ray, a 4-minute, 43 second black- > and-white quick edit collage of found footage and film that Conner had shot > himself, set to a soundtrack of Ray Charles' "What'd I Say." The movie > premiered in 1962; most suggest the film concerns sex and war.

While studying in Berlin, he also worked on Geiger counter instrumentation and cosmic ray measurements at the Institute of Cosmic Radiation Research. After graduating in the USA, he carried out further work in these fields at the Bartol Research Foundation of the Franklin Institute and was seconded to MIT helping to develop a long-range radio navigation system, LORAN. He also taught part-time at Swarthmore College.

After breakup of the parent body meteoroids are exposed to cosmic radiation. The length of this exposure can be dated using the 3H/3He method, 22Na/21Ne, 81Kr/83Kr. After impact on earth (or any other planet with sufficient cosmic ray shielding) cosmogenic radionuclides decay and can be used to date the time since the meteorite fell. Methods to date this terrestrial exposure are 36Cl, 14C, 81Kr.

The Telescope Array project is an international collaboration involving research and educational institutions in Japan, The United States, Russia, South Korea, and Belgium. The experiment is designed to observe air showers induced by ultra-high-energy cosmic ray using a combination of ground array and air-fluorescence techniques. It is located in the high desert in Millard County, Utah (USA) at about above sea level.

The High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO) Program involved three missions of large spacecraft in low-Earth orbit. Each spacecraft was about in length, massed between , and carried some of experiments for X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy and cosmic-ray investigations. The project provided insights into celestial objects by studying their high-energy radiation from space. Scientists from across the US served as principal investigators.

George Whipple Clark is an American astronomer and professor emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. When he retired, M.I.T. described him as "a central figure in the development of high-energy astrophysics, particularly in the design, analysis, and interpretation of experiments for the study of high-energy cosmic ray particles and the celestial sources of gamma rays and X-rays.""George Clark Retires" "MIT Physics Department Newsletter", Spring 1999.

Romero has worked extensively on gamma-ray, neutrino and cosmic-ray astrophysics, black holes, and scientific philosophy. He is well-known for his investigations of blazars, microquasars, and unidentified gamma-ray sources. His research has received around 11000 citations in the academic literature, making him on of the most cited scientists of Argentina . In the field of philosophy, he has contributed with research on Supertask, spacetime ontology , and aesthetics .

Evaluation of the Cosmic Ray Exposure of Aircraft CrewSources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, UNSCEAR 2008 # Missions beyond low Earth orbit transit the Van Allen radiation belts. Thus they may need to be shielded against exposure to cosmic rays, Van Allen radiation, or solar flares. The region between two and four Earth radii lies between the two radiation belts and is sometimes referred to as the "safe zone".

See the implications of the Van Allen belts for space travel for more information. # The interplanetary magnetic field, embedded in the solar wind, also deflects cosmic rays. As a result, cosmic ray fluxes within the heliopause are inversely correlated with the solar cycle. # Electromagnetic radiation created by lightning in clouds only a few miles high can create a safe zone in the Van Allen radiation belts that surround the earth.

Nir Joseph Shaviv (, born July 6, 1972) is an Israeli‐American physics professor. He is professor at the Racah Institute of Physics of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is known for his solar and cosmic-ray hypothesis of climate change. In 2002, Shaviv hypothesised that passages through the Milky Way's spiral arms appear to have been the cause behind the major ice- ages over the past billion years.

Rossi's Cosmic ray telescope In 1932, Rossi won a competition for an academic position in an Italian university, and was appointed professor of experimental physics at the University of Padua. Soon after Rossi arrived, the rector asked him to oversee the design and construction of Padua's new Physics Institute. Although this task diverted his attention from research and teaching, he complied willingly, and the institute opened in 1937.

Three successful telemetry sessions were conducted, gathering solar-wind and cosmic-ray data near Earth, at the Earth's Magnetopause, and on February 19 at a distance of . After discovering the solar wind with Luna 2, Venera 1 provided the first verification that this plasma was uniformly present in deep space. Seven days later, the next scheduled telemetry session failed to occur. On May 19, 1961, Venera 1 passed within of Venus.

Except for a sabbatical and two brief leaves of absence, Ney spent the rest of his life at Minnesota. At center right, a primary cosmic ray heavy nucleus goes vertically through a cloud chamber, which was suspended under a balloon near the top of the atmosphere. At left, a Helium nucleus enters through the side of the chamber. Thin tracks are singly charged particles moving at nearly the speed of light.

Proton 4 was the last in a series of spacecraft designed to study the energy spectrum and the chemical composition of cosmic rays. The spacecraft was cylindrical in form and had extended solar panels and antennas. Proton 4 also studied the possible collisions of cosmic ray particles with the nuclei of hydrogen, carbon, and iron. It was hoped that the postulated fundamental particle, the quark, might be discovered during this flight.

Unlike solar or galactic cosmic rays, little is known about the origins of extragalactic cosmic rays. This is largely due to a lack of statistics: only about 1 extragalactic cosmic ray particle per square meter per year reaches the Earth's surface (see figure). Image of an active galactic nucleus of the active galaxy M87. There are many ideas about which processes may be responsible for cosmic rays with such high energies.

Lakeville North Students are able to participate in many extracurricular activities including: Academic Decathlon, American Sign Language, Band, Best Buddies, Chess Club, Choir, Comic Book Club, Cosmic Ray Club, Dance Club, Debate, DECA, Environmental Club, Faith Club, French Club, Individuals Matter, Link Crew, Math League, Mock Trial, Model United Nations, One Act Play, Quiz Bowl, SADD, SAGE, Science Olympiad, Spanish Club, Speech, Student Council, Theatre, and Youth in Government.

Data from PAMELA indicated that these annihilation events occurred a thousand times more often than would be expected in the absence of antimatter. The data that contained evidence of antimatter were gathered between July 2006 and December 2008. Boron and carbon flux measurements were published in July 2014, important to explaining trends in cosmic ray positron fraction. The summary document of the operations of PAMELA was published in 2017.

Oxygen also has three stable isotopes, with present in 99.76%, in 0.04%, and in 0.2% of water molecules. Deuterium oxide, , is also known as heavy water because of its higher density. It is used in nuclear reactors as a neutron moderator. Tritium is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of 4500 days; exists in nature only in minute quantities, being produced primarily via cosmic ray- induced nuclear reactions in the atmosphere.

Stone in 1986 Stone was born in Knoxville, Iowa. After receiving his undergraduate education at Iowa's Burlington Junior College, Stone attended the University of Chicago where he earned his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in physics. Stone's astrophysics career goes back to his first cosmic-ray experiments on Discoverer satellites in 1961. He then joined the staff of Caltech as a research fellow, and became a full faculty member in 1967.

This design also allowed MACRO to operate as a neutrino detector and as a cosmic ray observatory. The experiment ceased operating in 2000. No monopole candidates were detected, meaning that the flux of monopoles is less than 1.4×10−16 per square centimetre per steradian per second (cm−2sr−1s−1) for velocities between and (between and ). The magnetic monopole is a theorized particle that has not yet been observed.

The winonaites show that the parent body was affected by impacts that formed breccias of different lithologies. Later these breccias were heated and Ar-Ar radiometric ages have constrained the metamorphism on the parent body to between 4.40 and 4.54 billion years. The parent body also reached temperatures where partial melting took place. Cosmic ray exposure ages show that the meteorites took about 20 to 80 million years to reach earth.

Boron is a chemical element with the symbol B and atomic number 5\. Produced entirely by cosmic ray spallation and supernovae and not by stellar nucleosynthesis, it is a low-abundance element in the Solar System and in the Earth's crust. It constitutes about 0.001 percent by weight of Earth's crust. Boron is concentrated on Earth by the water-solubility of its more common naturally occurring compounds, the borate minerals.

He thereby duplicated the Lorentz transformation and the Lorentz contraction that had been hypothesized to resolve experimental riddles and inserted into electrodynamic theory as dynamical consequences of the aether's properties. An elegant theory, special relativity yielded its own consequences,See Tests of special relativity. Also, for example: Sidney Coleman, Sheldon L. Glashow, Cosmic Ray and Neutrino Tests of Special Relativity, Phys. Lett. B405 (1997) 249–52, found here .

Atmospheric neutrinos result from the interaction of cosmic rays with atomic nuclei in the Earth's atmosphere, creating showers of particles, many of which are unstable and produce neutrinos when they decay. A collaboration of particle physicists from Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (India), Osaka City University (Japan) and Durham University (UK) recorded the first cosmic ray neutrino interaction in an underground laboratory in Kolar Gold Fields in India in 1965.

The first discovery of a charged Xi baryon was in cosmic ray experiments by the Manchester group in 1952. The first discovery of the neutral Xi particle was at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in 1959. It was also observed as a daughter product from the decay of the omega baryon () observed at Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1964. The Xi spectrum is important to nonperturbative quantum chromodynamics (QCD), such as Lattice QCD.

A certain style of music video makes extensive use of found footage, mostly found on TV, like news, documentaries, old (and odd) films etc. The forefather of found footage music videos was artist Bruce Conner who screened Cosmic Ray in 1961. Prominent examples are videos of bands such as Public Enemy and Coldcut. The latter also project video material during their stage show, which includes live mixing of video footage.

Charged particles in the shower, mostly electrons and positrons, are deflected slightly in Earth's magnetic field. As these particles change direction, they emit synchrotron radiation. This radiation is visible as a bright flash on the sky for several nanoseconds at frequencies up to a few hundred MHz. It is hoped that the LOPES project will pave the way for more cosmic ray experiments with digital radio telescopes, such as LOFAR.

CODALEMA (Cosmic ray Detection Array with Logarithmic ElectroMagnetic Antennas) is a set of instruments to try and detect ultra-high energy cosmic rays, which cause cascades of particles in the atmosphere. These air showers generate very brief electromagnetic signals that are measured in a wide frequency band from 20 MHz to 200 MHz. An array of about 50 antennas is spread over a large area of the site.

The LRO will provide a 3-D map of the Moon's surface to allow astronauts to return to the Moon by 2020. On board the LRO are seven instruments, the Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation (CRaTER), Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (DLRE), Lyman-Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP), Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND), Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA), Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC), and Miniature Radio Frequency radar (Mini-RF).

Cosmic ray visual phenomena, or light flashes (LF), are spontaneous flashes of light visually perceived by some astronauts outside the magnetosphere of the Earth, such as during the Apollo program. While LF may be the result of actual photons of visible light being sensed by the retina, the LF discussed here could also pertain to phosphenes, which are sensations of light produced by the activation of neurons along the visual pathway.

However, the arbitrary defining qualification for cosmogenic nuclides of being formed "in situ in the Solar System" (meaning inside an already-aggregated piece of the Solar System) prevents primordial nuclides formed by cosmic ray spallation before the formation of the Solar System from being termed "cosmogenic nuclides"—even though the mechanism for their formation is exactly the same. These same nuclides still arrive on Earth in small amounts in cosmic rays, and are formed in meteoroids, in the atmosphere, on Earth, "cosmogenically." However, beryllium (all of it stable beryllium-9) is present primordially in the Solar System in much larger amounts, having existed prior to the condensation of the Solar System, and thus present in the materials from which the Solar System formed. To make the distinction in another fashion, the timing of their formation determines which subset of cosmic ray spallation- produced nuclides are termed primordial or cosmogenic (a nuclide cannot belong to both classes).

Formation ages determined for many shergottites are variable and much younger, mostly ~150-575 Ma. The chronological history of shergottites is not totally understood, and a few scientists have suggested that some may actually have formed prior to the times given by their radiometric ages, a suggestion not accepted by most scientists. Formation ages of SNC meteorites are often linked to their cosmic-ray exposure (CRE) ages, as measured from the nuclear products of interactions of the meteorite in space with energetic cosmic ray particles. Thus, all measured nakhlites give essentially identical CRE ages of approximately 11 Ma, which when combined with their possible identical formation ages indicates ejection of nakhlites into space from a single location on Mars by a single impact event. Some of the shergottites also seem to form distinct groups according to their CRE ages and formation ages, again indicating ejection of several different shergottites from Mars by a single impact.

A model of the 1-meter diameter landing capsule of Venera 4 on display at the Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics in Moscow. The main carrier spacecraft 4 stood high, its solar panels spanned and had an area of . The carrier spacecraft included a long magnetometer, an ion detector, a cosmic ray detector and an ultraviolet spectrometer capable of detecting hydrogen and oxygen gases. The devices were intended to operate until entry into the Venusian atmosphere.

Lunokhod 1 was a lunar vehicle formed of a tub-like compartment with a large convex lid on eight independently powered wheels. Its length was . Lunokhod 1 was equipped with a cone-shaped antenna, a highly directional helical antenna, four television cameras, and special extendable devices to test the lunar soil for soil density and mechanical properties. An X-ray spectrometer, an X-ray telescope, cosmic ray detectors, and a laser device were also included.

Greisen did experiments on cosmic ray- and gamma ray- astronomy using high-altitude balloons. In 1971 he and his colleagues discovered pulsed gamma rays with energies greater than 200 MeV from the pulsar in the Crab Nebula. In 1966 he published the theory of the GZK cutoff, independently of the Russians Georgiy Zatsepin and Vadim Kuzmin who in 1966 also published their version of the same theory. In 1966 he joined the AAS.

Rossi and Greisen built an apparatus, centered around a Geiger-Müller counter, to distinguish the altitude dependence of hard (mesotron, i.e. muon) and soft (electron) cosmic ray secondaries. The goal of Rossi and Greisen was to confirm that the lifetimes of the muons depended upon their energy as predicted by the theory of special relativity. The data presented in Greisen's thesis was taken at altitudes of 249,1616, 3240, and 4300 meters at Echo Lake, Colorado.

The goals are to study potential upgrades to the existing Auger South ultra-high-energy cosmic ray observatory as well as develop technology for the proposed Auger NorthAuger North Proposal presented to the Physics Advisory Council at Fermilab in November 2009 (Fermilab proposal 997) observatory. The RDA investigates modifications to the Pierre Auger Observatory surface detectors (SD) and to the communications system by which the SDs transmit their data to the central data acquisition.

Taken on September 10, 2007 at a distance of Iapetus's equatorial ridge and surface are revealed. (CL1 and CL2 filters) Closeup of Iapetus surface, 2007 On September 10, 2007, Cassini completed its flyby of the strange, two-toned, walnut-shaped moon, Iapetus. Images were taken from above the surface. As it was sending the images back to Earth, it was hit by a cosmic ray that forced it to temporarily enter safe mode.

As an example, muons generally have a mean lifetime of about which means muons generated from cosmic ray collisions at about 10 km up in the atmosphere should be non-detectable on the ground due to their decay rate. However, it has been found that ~10% of muons are still detected on the surface, thereby proving that to be detectable they have had their decay rates slow down relative to our inertial frame of reference.

Bruno Benedetto Rossi (; ; 13 April 1905 – 21 November 1993) was an Italian experimental physicist. He made major contributions to particle physics and the study of cosmic rays. A 1927 graduate of the University of Bologna, he became interested in cosmic rays. To study them, he invented an improved electronic coincidence circuit, and travelled to Eritrea to conduct experiments that showed that cosmic ray intensity from the West was significantly larger than that from the East.

The problem here again is that deuterium is very unlikely due to nuclear processes, and that collisions between atomic nuclei are likely to result either in the fusion of the nuclei, or in the release of free neutrons or alpha particles. During the 1970s, cosmic ray spallation was proposed as a source of deuterium. That theory failed to account for the abundance of deuterium, but led to explanations of the source of other light elements.

It is generally understood that the inner and outer Van Allen belts result from different processes. The inner belt, consisting mainly of energetic protons, is the product of the decay of so- called "albedo" neutrons which are themselves the result of cosmic ray collisions in the upper atmosphere. The outer belt consists mainly of electrons. They are injected from the geomagnetic tail following geomagnetic storms, and are subsequently energized through wave-particle interactions.

Unidirectional velocity addition: The proper sum curves up. Proper velocity is useful for comparing the speed of objects with momentum per unit rest mass (w) greater than lightspeed c. The coordinate speed of such objects is generally near lightspeed, whereas proper velocity tells us how rapidly they are covering ground on traveling-object clocks. This is important for example if, like some cosmic ray particles, the traveling objects have a finite lifetime.

Niobium-92 is an extinct radionuclide with a half-life of 34.7 million years, decaying predominantly via β+ decay. Its abundance relative to the stable 93Nb in the early Solar System, estimated at 1.7×10−5, has been measured to investigate the origin of p-nuclei. This isotope, along with 94Nb, has been detected in refined samples of terrestrial niobium and may originate from bombardment by cosmic ray muons in Earth's crust.

The decay level scheme for 26Al and 26mAl to 26Mg. Cosmogenic aluminium-26 was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteorite fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial 26Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further 26Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age.

Tilav Cirque () is a cirque on the northwest side of McLean Buttress in The Fortress of the Cruzen Range, Victoria Land. It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2005 after Serap Z. Tilav, a US Antarctic Program field team member in support of the Antarctic Muon and Neutrino Detector Array (AMANDA) and cosmic-ray studies at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station for nine field seasons between 1991 and 2005.

Project Mogul was the forerunner of the Skyhook balloon program, which started in the late 1940s, as well as two other espionage programs involving overflights and photographic surveillance of the Soviet Union in the mid-1950s, Project Moby Dick and Project Genetrix. The spy balloon overflights raised storms of protest from the Soviets.Project Genetrix and Soviet protests The constant- altitude balloons also were used for scientific purposes such as cosmic ray experiments.

The first breakthrough was obtained at Caltech, where a cloud chamber was taken up Mount Wilson, for greater cosmic ray exposure. In 1950, 30 charged and 4 neutral V-particles were reported. Inspired by this, numerous mountaintop observations were made over the next several years, and by 1953, the following terminology was adopted: "L-meson" meant muon or pion. "K meson" meant a particle intermediate in mass between the pion and nucleon.

Aluminium-26 (26Al, Al-26) is a radioactive isotope of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either positron emission or electron capture to stable magnesium-26. The half-life of 26Al is 7.17 years. This is far too short for the isotope to survive as a primordial nuclide, but a small amount of it is produced by collisions of atoms with cosmic ray protons. Decay of aluminium-26 also produces gamma rays and x-rays.

Yangbajain (also spelled Yangbajing) is a town approximately north-west of Lhasa, halfway to Damxung in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. The town lies just south of the Nyainqêntanglha Mountains, in an upland lush green valley surrounded by the tents of nomads with grazing yak and sheep populating the hillside. It is the site Yangpachen Monastery, which was historically the seat of the Shamarpas of Karma Kagyü and the Yangbajing International Cosmic Ray Observatory.

The YBJ International Cosmic Ray Observatory (羊八井国际宇宙线观测站) is located in the Yangbajing valley of the Tibetan highland, a site chosen for its high altitude at 4300 meters above sea level. Collaborating institutes includes the INFN (Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare) and various Chinese and Japanese universities. The KOSMA 3-m submillimeter telescope has been relocated to a nearby site and renamed CCOSMA.

The Sulphur Mountain Cosmic Ray Station remained in operation until 1978 and the building was removed in 1981. A plaque now marks the site's location. The hot springs at the base of Sulphur Mountain are home to the endangered Banff Springs snail and the now-extinct Banff longnose dace. Mount Rundle and Sulphur Mountain as seen from the reeds along the shore of one of the Vermillion Lakes in Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada.

ITEP was established on December 1, 1945, initially carrying the name "Laboratory №3", with the purpose of conceiving a heavy water nuclear reactor and cosmic ray studies. Developed of the theoretical part KS 150. The laboratory worked with nuclear reactor development in the 1940s and over the years the institute expanded its research programme into high energy particle physics, astrophysics, medical physics and other related fields. The founder and director until 1968 was Abram Alikhanov.

In 2004, Virginia Tech upgraded its computer to Apple's newly released, Xserve G5 servers. The upgraded version ranked #7 in the 2004 TOP500 list and its server-grade error-correcting memory solved the problem of cosmic ray interference. In October 2004, Virginia Tech partially rebuilt System X at a cost of about $600,000. These improvements brought the computer's speed up to 12.25 Teraflops, which placed System X #14 on the 2005 TOP500 list.

The Kamioka Gravitational Wave Detector (KAGRA), formerly the Large Scale Cryogenic Gravitational Wave Telescope (LCGT), is a project of the gravitational wave studies group at the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research (ICRR) of the University of Tokyo. It is the world's first gravitational wave observatory in Asia, the first built underground, and the first whose detector uses cryogenic mirrors. The design calls for an operational sensitivity equal to, or greater, than LIGO.

Denali is approximately 130 miles South-Southwest of Fairbanks, Alaska, 20,310 ft in height, with the upper reaches permanently swathed in snow and glaciers. Operation White Tower drew together complex interests. The New England Museum supported scientific, surveying and photographic endeavors during the climb. The U.S. Air Force, interested in cosmic ray research and high altitude camping, helped with logistics, while the Alaska Communications System set up the team with radio support.

Homi J. Bhabha derived an expression for the probability of scattering positrons by electrons, a process now known as Bhabha scattering. His classic paper, jointly with Walter Heitler, published in 1937 described how primary cosmic rays from space interact with the upper atmosphere to produce particles observed at the ground level. Bhabha and Heitler explained the cosmic ray shower formation by the cascade production of gamma rays and positive and negative electron pairs.

More recently, the CMOS devices in pervasive smartphone cameras have been proposed as a practical distributed network to detect air showers from ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs). The first app, to exploit this proposition was the CRAYFIS (Cosmic RAYs Found in Smartphones) experiment.Collaboration website CRAYFIS detector array paper. Then, in 2017, the CREDO (Cosmic Ray Extremely Distributed Observatory) Collaboration released the first version of its completely open source app for Android devices.

The Real-time Neutron Monitor Database (or NMDB) is a worldwide network of standardized neutron monitors, used to record variations of the primary cosmic rays. The measurements complement space-based cosmic ray measurements. Unlike data from satellite experiments, neutron monitor data has never been available in high resolution from many stations in real-time. The data is often only available from the individual stations website, in varying formats, and not in real-time.

At this time, he also received lessons in music from Raymond Jones, a teacher at Bath Technical School and later an organist at Bath Abbey. The church organ was one of the main loves of his life, apart from science. Lovell worked in the cosmic ray research team at the University of Manchester until the outbreak of the Second World War. At the beginning of the war, Lovell published his first book, Science and Civilization.

Fantastic Four Annual #5 As a result, she takes time off as an active member of the team. Johnny's girlfriend, the Inhuman elementalist Crystal, joins the team, taking over Susan's roster spot.Fantastic Four #83 - 100 Susan's cosmic ray irradiated blood cells serve as an obstacle for her in carrying the unborn child to term. Knowing this, Reed, Johnny, and Ben journey into the Negative Zone to acquire the Cosmic Control Rod from Annihilus.

The bounty has not been successfully claimed, though the glitch has been recreated by hacking the game and changing a single bit of memory pertaining to Mario's height. Since this has only been achieved by hacking the game, the bounty is still unclaimed. One hypothesis suggests that a stray cosmic ray caused the bit to change. Pannenkoek2012 started working on a video detailing the workings of Super Mario 64s geometry in summer 2016.

UrQMD (Ultra relativistic Quantum Molecular Dynamics) is a fully integrated Monte Carlo simulation package for Proton+Proton, Proton+nucleus and nucleus+nucleus interactions. UrQMD has many applications in particle physics, high energy experimental physics and engineering, shielding, detector design, cosmic ray studies, and medical physics. Since version 3.3, an option has been incorporated to substitute part of the collision with a hydrodynamic model. UrQMD is available in as open-source Fortran code.

Interleaving allows distributing the effect of a single cosmic ray potentially upsetting multiple physically neighboring bits across multiple words by associating neighboring bits to different words. As long as a single event upset (SEU) does not exceed the error threshold (e.g., a single error) in any particular word between accesses, it can be corrected (e.g., by a single-bit error correcting code), and the illusion of an error-free memory system may be maintained.

Cosmogenic isotopes (or cosmogenic nuclides) are rare isotopes created when a high-energy cosmic ray interacts with the nucleus of an in situ atom. These isotopes are produced within earth materials such as rocks or soil, in Earth's atmosphere, and in extraterrestrial items such as meteorites. By measuring cosmogenic isotopes, scientists are able to gain insight into a range of geological and astronomical processes. There are both radioactive and stable cosmogenic isotopes.

Free neutrons, while not directly ionizing atoms, cause ionizing radiation. As such they can be a biological hazard, depending upon dose. A small natural "neutron background" flux of free neutrons exists on Earth, caused by cosmic ray showers, and by the natural radioactivity of spontaneously fissionable elements in the Earth's crust. Dedicated neutron sources like neutron generators, research reactors and spallation sources produce free neutrons for use in irradiation and in neutron scattering experiments.

The onboard instruments collected data on cosmic rays, the ozone distribution and electrical conductivity of the atmosphere at different altitudes, the atmospheric composition of the stratosphere, and the luminosity of the Sun, Moon and Earth. In addition, microorganisms were collected from the stratosphere. Mold samples were carried along to determine the effects of cosmic ray exposure. Stevens took along a camera to take pictures, including the first ever motion pictures shot from the stratosphere.

Mount Carpe is a mountain in the Alaska Range, in Denali National Park and Preserve, on a northeast buttress of Denali. The Carpe Ridge includes Mount Tatum. Mount Carpe was named in 1943 by the U.S. Army Test Expedition after Allen Carpe, who was killed along with Theodore G. Koven (for whom Mount Koven is named), while on the Rockefeller Cosmic Ray Expedition in May 1932 when they fell into a crevasse on Muldrow Glacier.

This was removed by taking an image affected by scattered light, aligning it with an unaffected image, and subtracting the unaffected image from the affected one. The resulting image was smoothed, and could then be subtracted from the bright frame. This procedure removed almost all of the scattered light from the affected images. Once the 342 individual images were cleaned of cosmic-ray hits and corrected for scattered light, they had to be combined.

Such 10BN materials are of particular theoretical value as composite structural materials in future manned interplanetary spacecraft, where absorption-shielding from cosmic ray spallation neutrons is expected to be a particular asset in light construction materials. Toxicological investigations on BNNTs conducted in the 2010s seem to show that the enhanced chemical inertia of BN nanotubes favors biocompatibility. As a result, their use in the biomedical field was suggested both as nanocarriers and as nanotransducers.

Neutral pions do not leave tracks in photographic emulsions or Wilson cloud chambers. The existence of the neutral pion was inferred from observing its decay products from cosmic rays, a so-called "soft component" of slow electrons with photons. The was identified definitively at the University of California's cyclotron in 1950 by observing its decay into two photons. Later in the same year, they were also observed in cosmic-ray balloon experiments at Bristol University.

He inferred that this was a decay product of radioactive iodine-129. This isotope is produced slowly by cosmic ray spallation and nuclear fission, but is produced in quantity only in supernova explosions. Because the half-life of 129I is comparatively short on a cosmological time scale (16 million years), this demonstrated that only a short time had passed between the supernova and the time the meteorites had solidified and trapped the 129I.

The Fred Lawrence Whipple Observatory is an American astronomical observatory owned and operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO); it is their largest field installation outside of their main site in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It is located near Amado, Arizona on the summit, a ridge and at the foot of Mount Hopkins. Research activities include imaging and spectroscopy of extragalactic, stellar, solar system and extra-solar bodies, as well as gamma-ray and cosmic-ray astronomy.

The Lovell Telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory. In the 1930s, Bernard Lovell, an astronomer moved to Manchester to become a research fellow on the cosmic ray research team at the Victoria University of Manchester. He spent war time years working on developing radar systems and the like to assist in the war effort. After the war, he continued his studies in cosmic rays, but background radiation and light in the large Manchester impeded his work.

Rocks and metals shielded by atmospheres (particularly thick ones), or other minerals, experience less weathering and fewer implantation chemistries and cosmic ray tracks. Asteroids are currently graded by their spectra, indicating surface properties and mineralogies. Some asteroids appear to have less space weathering, by various processes including a relatively recent formation date or a "freshening" event. As Earth's minerals are well shielded, space weathering is studied via extraterrestrial bodies, and preferably multiple examples.

Correlation between variations in cosmic ray flux (red) and change in sea temperature (black). Henrik Svensmark is director of the Center for Sun-Climate Research at the Danish Space Research Institute (DSRI), a part of the Danish National Space Center. He previously headed the sun-climate group at DSRI. He held postdoctoral positions in physics at three other organizations: University of California, Berkeley, Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics, and the Niels Bohr Institute.

Experiments conducted in the 1970s also studied the phenomenon. These experiments revealed that although several explanations for why the LF were observed by astronauts have been proposed, there may be other causes as well. Charman et al. (1971) asked whether the LF were the result of single cosmic-ray nuclei entering the eye and directly exciting the eyes of the astronauts, as opposed to the result of Cherenkov radiation within the retina.

Proponents for the court decision emphasize that the testimony established that Mauchly definitely had complete access to Atanasoff's machine and the documents describing it. Letters he wrote to Atanasoff show that he was at one time at least considering building on Atanasoff's approach. Mauchly consistently maintained that it was the use of high-speed electronic flip-flops in cosmic-ray counting devices at Swarthmore College that gave him the idea for computing at electronic speeds.

The Big Bang is thought to be the origin of the hydrogen (including all deuterium) and helium in the universe. Hydrogen and helium together account for 98% of the mass of ordinary matter in the universe, while the other 2% makes up everything else. The Big Bang also produced small amounts of lithium, beryllium and perhaps boron. More lithium, beryllium and boron were produced later, in a natural nuclear reaction, cosmic ray spallation.

A magnetometer was attached to the top of the mast below the omnidirectional antenna. Particle detectors were mounted halfway up the mast, along with the cosmic-ray detector. A cosmic-dust detector and solar plasma spectrometer/detector were attached to the top edges of the spacecraft base. A microwave radiometer, an infrared radiometer and the radiometer reference horns were rigidly mounted to a diameter parabolic radiometer antenna mounted near the bottom of the mast.

Fayyazuddin joined Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) in 1962 where he worked under the guidance of professor Abdus Salam and continued his research on the cosmic ray mu-mesons. He published his research journal on the basis of the Bethe-Bloch theory. At that time, he published his thesis that sparked a controversy between two sets of experiments. He undertook postdoctoral research at the Enrico Fermi Institute at the University of Chicago from 1966 to 1968.

Mount Parsons () is a prominent pointed peak, 1,120 m, standing in the David Range, 1 nautical mile (1.9 km) south-southwest of its north extremity. Mapped by Norwegian cartographers from aerial photos taken by the Lars Christensen Expedition, 1936–37. The peak was visited in January 1956 by an ANARE (Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions) party led by John Bechervaise. Named by Antarctic Names Committee of Australia (ANCA) for Neville Parsons, cosmic ray physicist at Mawson Station, 1955.

This experiment also introduced the technique of anti-coincidence, which has become a ubiquitous feature of instruments for detecting and analyzing energetic particles. By this time, cloud chamber observations had clarified the nature of the hard component. In 1936, Anderson and his student, Seth Neddermeyer, discovered cosmic ray particles with mass intermediate between those of the electron and the proton, which Anderson called "mesotrons". The mesotron subsequently became the known as the "μ meson", which was shortened to "muon".

The ionization energy of the hydrogen molecule is 15.603 eV. High speed electrons also cause ionization of hydrogen molecules with a peak cross section around 50 eV. The peak cross section for ionization for high speed protons is with a cross section of . A cosmic ray proton at lower energy can also strip an electron off a neutral hydrogen molecule to form a neutral hydrogen atom and the dihydrogen cation, () with a peak cross section at around of .

Trace amounts of radioactive 36Cl exist in the environment, in a ratio of about 7×10−13 to 1 with stable isotopes. 36Cl is produced in the atmosphere by spallation of 36Ar by interactions with cosmic ray protons. In the subsurface environment, 36Cl is generated primarily as a result of neutron capture by 35Cl or muon capture by 40Ca. 36Cl decays to either 36S (1.9%) or to 36Ar (98.1%), with a combined half-life of 308,000 years.

Silicon (14Si) has 23 known isotopes, with mass numbers ranging from 22 to 44. 28Si (the most abundant isotope, at 92.23%), 29Si (4.67%), and 30Si (3.1%) are stable. The longest-lived radioisotope is 32Si, which is produced by cosmic ray spallation of argon. Its half-life has been determined to be approximately 150 years (with decay energy 0.21 MeV), and it decays by beta emission to 32P (which has a 14.28-day half-life) and then to 32S.

Many of their names appear as authors not only of patents and technical reports, but also of scientific publications. In spite of its secrecy, many of the project's balloons carried instruments for open scientific research. For example, from January 20, 1953, until February 4, 1953, with Winzen Research, Inc, the project launched 13 flights at Pyote Air Force Base in Texas. Several of these carried packages for cosmic ray research, one of which was designated as "ballast".

When a high-energy particle from outer space ("primary" cosmic ray) encounters Earth, its first interaction is usually with an air molecule at an altitude of 30 km or so. This encounter causes the air molecule to split into smaller pieces, each having high energy. The smaller pieces are called "secondary" cosmic rays, and they in turn hit other air molecules resulting in more secondary cosmic rays. The process continues and is termed an "atmospheric cascade".

In the 1950s, TIFR gained prominence in the field of cosmic ray physics, with the setting up of research facilities in Ooty and in the Kolar gold mines. In 1957, India's first digital computer, TIFRAC was built in TIFR. Acting on the suggestions of British physiologist Archibald Hill, Bhabha invited Obaid Siddiqi to set up a research group in molecular biology. This ultimately resulted in the establishment of the National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS), Bangalore twenty years later.

Robert Benjamin Leighton (; September 10, 1919 - March 9, 1997) was a prominent American experimental physicist who spent his professional career at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). His work over the years spanned solid state physics, cosmic ray physics, the beginnings of modern particle physics, solar physics, the planets, infrared astronomy, and millimeter- and submillimeter-wave astronomy. In the latter four fields, his pioneering work opened up entirely new areas of research that subsequently developed into vigorous scientific communities.

Leighton was known as a remarkably ingenious physicist and astrophysicist during his 58 years at Caltech. He found no instrumentation problem too difficult, especially if it might open a new part of the electromagnetic spectrum to observation. If he found an inexpensive solution, he would build the apparatus in his spare time, for use by others and by himself. Leighton built, improved, and used cloud chambers to identify and measure new products of cosmic ray collisions.

It consisted of several detector types for observing secondary particles from particle cascades in the atmosphere. The particle cascades detected by HEGRA were produced by cosmic ray particles in the energy range of 1012eV to 1016eV. The detectors with the lowest energy threshold were the atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes with "cameras" of photomultiplier tubes. They were sensitive to showers above 1012eV (1 TeV) but had to look towards possible sources and could be operated only during clear, moonless nights.

Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation. Spallation is also responsible for the abundances of scandium, titanium, vanadium, and manganese ions in cosmic rays produced by collisions of iron and nickel nuclei with interstellar matter. At high energies the composition changes and heavier nuclei have larger abundances in some energy ranges. Current experiments aim at more accurate measurements of the composition at high energies.

Millikan thought his cosmic ray photons were the "birth cries" of new atoms continually being created to counteract entropy and prevent the heat death of the universe. Compton would eventually be proven right by the observation that cosmic rays are deflected by the Earth's magnetic field (and so must be charged particles). Robert Millikan was Vice Chairman of the National Research Council during World War I. During that time, he helped to develop anti- submarine and meteorological devices.

The NASA Voyager program was probably the first craft to routinely utilize the core dump feature in the Deep Space segment. The core dump feature is a mandatory telemetry feature for the Deep Space segment as it has been proven to minimize system diagnostic costs. The Voyager craft uses routine core dumps to spot memory damage from cosmic ray events. Space Mission core dump systems are mostly based on existing toolkits for the target CPU or subsystem.

Cosmic ray dating is only useful on material that has not been melted, since melting erases the crystalline structure of the material, and wipes away the tracks left by the particles. Altogether, the concordance of age dates of both the earliest terrestrial lead reservoirs and all other reservoirs within the Solar System found to date are used to support the fact that Earth and the rest of the Solar System formed at around 4.53 to 4.58 billion years ago.

It consisted of a single search coil that was mounted on the spacecraft in such a way that it measured the magnetic field perpendicular to the spin axis of the spacecraft. It could output its measurements in both an analog and a digital format. # A Neher-type integrating ionization chamber and an Anton 302 Geiger-Müller tube (which functioned as a cosmic ray detector) to measure cosmic radiation. It was mounted normal to the spin axis of the spacecraft.

The main isotopes of argon found on Earth are (99.6%), (0.34%), and (0.06%). Naturally occurring , with a half-life of 1.25 years, decays to stable (11.2%) by electron capture or positron emission, and also to stable (88.8%) by beta decay. These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of rocks by K–Ar dating. In the Earth's atmosphere, is made by cosmic ray activity, primarily by neutron capture of followed by two- neutron emission.

A model Deacon rocket with payload, representative of those used to test the ionosphere. Left to right, standing: Melvin B. Gottlieb, Lee Blodgett, Robert Ellis, Jr., and James Van Allen, and in front, Leslie H. Meredith. During World War II Gottlieb worked on radar counter-measures and with Van Allen on early cosmic ray studies. In 1950 Gottlieb accepted an appointment as assistant professor at the State University of Iowa where he continued to work with Van Allen.

The following step is planned for 2020, and its is a dedicated setup called GRANDProto300 within an area of 300 km2. The baseline layout is a square grid with a 1 km inter-antenna spacing, just as for later stages. Because GRANDProto300 will not be large enough to detect cosmogenic neutrinos, the viability will be tested using instead extensive air showers initiated by very inclined cosmic rays, thus providing an opportunity to do cosmic-ray science.

The 15 second exposures are a compromise to allow spotting both faint and moving sources. Longer exposures would reduce the overhead of camera readout and telescope re-positioning, allowing deeper imaging, but then fast moving objects such as near-Earth objects would move significantly during an exposure. Each spot on the sky is imaged with two consecutive 15 second exposures, to efficiently reject cosmic ray hits on the CCDs., this is a comprehensive overview of the LSST.

Lunar sample 67955 Based on sample 67955,67955 Summary Sheet available from Lunar and Planetary Institute a noritic anorthosite collected from Outhouse Rock, the impact that created North Ray crater was about 50 million year ago. This is based on the measured duration of the rock's exposure to cosmic rays.Drozd R.J., Hohenberg C.M., Morgan C.J. and Ralston C.E. (1974) Cosmic-ray exposure history at the Apollo 16 and other lunar sites: lunar surface dynamics. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 38, 1625-1642.

In 1966, he became a professor at Yale University. He was Professor of Astrophysical Sciences in 1967 until he retired in 2004. In 1993, he received the James Clerk Maxwell Prize in Plasma Physics for "his pioneering contributions to basic plasma theory, to the physics of magnetically confined plasmas, and to plasma astrophysics. His important work en-compasses plasma equilibria and stability, adiabatic invariance, ballooning modes, runaway electrons, colliding beams, spin-polarized plasmas, and cosmic-ray instabilities".

The angular direction of the incoming shower is determined by finding the central axis of the spread of the shower on each telescope and tracing those axes until they cross. The intersection of these axes determines the incoming direction of the primary particle (cosmic ray or gamma ray) that initiated the air shower in the upper atmosphere. It also determines the shower core position, i.e. the extrapolated position of the primary particle on the ground had it not interacted.

Both can be used individually to date how long the material has been exposed at the surface. Because there are two radionuclides decaying, the ratio of concentrations of these two nuclides can be used without any other knowledge to determine an age at which the sample was buried past the production depth (typically 2–10 meters). Chlorine-36 nuclides are also measured to date surface rocks. This isotope may be produced by cosmic ray spallation of calcium or potassium.

The external payload manifested for this flight was the CREAM cosmic-ray detector. Last flight of a newly built Dragon capsule; further missions will use refurbished spacecraft. SpaceX CRS-13, SpaceX's thirteenth CRS mission, was the second use of a previously-flown Dragon capsule, but the first time in concordance with a reused first-stage booster. It was successfully launched on 15 December 2017 from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 40 at the first attempt.

Much of what is known about the magnetic environment of the interstellar medium and intergalactic medium is derived from observations of synchrotron radiation. Cosmic ray electrons moving through the medium interact with relativistic plasma and emit synchrotron radiation which is detected on Earth. The properties of the radiation allow astronomers to make inferences about the magnetic field strength and orientation in these regions, however accurate calculations of field strength cannot be made without knowing the relativistic electron density.

Coin commemorating the joint USSR-Mongolian spaceflight Soyuz 39 docked with the first Mongolian cosmonaut aboard. The resident EO-6 crew assisted the Intercosmos crew with station equipment and oriented the station according to the needs of the visiting crew's experiments. On 24 March, the cosmonauts installed cosmic ray detectors in the station's work and transfer compartments. On 26 March the cosmonauts performed the Illuminator ("viewing port") experiment, which studied the degradation of the station's viewports.

In 2005 it was shown that "other Centauro events" can be explained by peculiarities of the Chacaltaya detector. So-called "exotic signal" observed so far in cosmic ray experiments using a traditional X-ray emulsion chamber detector can be consistently explained within the framework of standard physics. The authors of the new analysis firmly believe that the behavior of Nature is more complex than people imagined. Nevertheless, in present case, mundane explanation without any exotic guesswork provides an answer.

Researchers believe that the LF perceived specifically by astronauts in space are due to cosmic rays (high-energy charged particles from beyond the Earth's atmosphere), though the exact mechanism is unknown. Hypotheses include Cherenkov radiation created as the cosmic ray particles pass through the vitreous humour of the astronauts' eyes, direct interaction with the optic nerve, direct interaction with visual centres in the brain, retinal receptor stimulation, and a more general interaction of the retina with radiation.

Pomerantz was one of the pioneers in balloon-borne cosmic ray research in the 1940s and 1950s. The initial work was done at the Bartol Institute near Philadelphia. However, the large majority of cosmic rays are charged particles, and the Earth's magnetic field strongly affects the paths of these cosmic rays. Since the Earth's magnetic field varies significantly with latitude, Pomerantz led a number of expeditions measuring cosmic rays from sites at varying latitudes around the Earth.

However, management problems and cost overruns led to the cancellation of the LAS program in 1968. Wilson's team scaled down their plans and submitted a more modest proposal to ESRO, but this was not selected as the Cosmic Ray satellite was given precedence. Rather than give up on the idea of an orbiting UV telescope, they instead sent their plans to NASA administrator Leo Goldberg, and in 1973 the plans were approved. The proposed telescope was renamed the International Ultraviolet Explorer.

Despite this setback, Nikolai Budarin was able to perform several tasks alone, including preparatory work for the installment of MIRAS and retrieval of an American cosmic ray detector, TREK. The crew returned to the airlock after three hours and eight minutes. Upon returning to the airlock, the crew discovered a gap in the seal, which created difficulty in sealing the hatch. July 20 saw the launch of the Progress M-28 resupply ship to the station, which docked on July 22.

These Geiger–Müller tubes (GM tubes or counters) made possible Bothe's investigations. With Occhialini's help in the construction of GM tubes, and with the aid of a practical coincidence circuit, Rossi confirmed and extended the results of Bothe, who invited him to visit Berlin in the summer of 1930. Here, with financial support arranged by Garbasso, Rossi collaborated on further investigations of cosmic ray penetration. He also studied Carl Størmer's mathematical description of the trajectories of charged particles in the Earth's magnetic field.

Established in 1981, this facility is a National Science Foundation research facility. It is operated by both the Physics Department and the Geosciences Department of the University of Arizona. It is tasked with both scientific inquiry and education. Topical coverage of investigations includes archaeology, art history, forensic science, radioactive tracer studies, radiometric dating, the carbon cycle, cosmic ray physics, meteorites, geology, paleoclimate, faunal extinctions, hydrologic balance, frequency rate of forest fires, terrestrial magnetic field, solar wind, ocean sciences and instrument development.

Luis Alvarez next to his cosmic ray telescope. In 1923, Compton moved to the University of Chicago as Professor of Physics, a position he would occupy for the next 22 years. In 1925, he demonstrated that the scattering of 130,000-volt X-rays from the first sixteen elements in the periodic table (hydrogen through sulfur) were polarized, a result predicted by J. J. Thomson. William Duane from Harvard University spearheaded an effort to prove that Compton's interpretation of the Compton effect was wrong.

26Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and meteorites. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used to study the role of sediment transport, deposition, and storage, as well as burial times, and erosion, on 105 to 106 year time scales. 26Al has also played a significant role in the study of meteorites.

36Cl occurs in trace quantities in nature as a cosmogenic nuclide in a ratio of about (7–10) × 10−13 to 1 with stable chlorine isotopes: it is produced in the atmosphere by spallation of 36Ar by interactions with cosmic ray protons. In the top meter of the lithosphere, 36Cl is generated primarily by thermal neutron activation of 35Cl and spallation of 39K and 40Ca. In the subsurface environment, muon capture by 40Ca becomes more important as a way to generate 36Cl.

Within MIT's new Laboratory for Nuclear Science, headed by Zacharias, Rossi was assigned to create a cosmic ray research group. He recruited four young scientists who had been at Los Alamos, including Sands, and two who had been in the Radiation Laboratory, as Ph.D. candidates. All were more mature than typical graduate students, with several years of wartime research experience. They were paid a stipend similar to that of a postdoctoral researcher, which enabled them to support families during their graduate studies.

Survey of the sky at energies above 1 GeV, collected by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope in five years of observation (2009 to 2013). The sky at energies above 100 MeV observed by the Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope (EGRET) of the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO) satellite (1991-2000). The Moon as seen by the Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope (EGRET), in gamma rays of greater than 20 MeV. These are produced by cosmic ray bombardment of its surface.

Individual particle physics events are modeled by scattering theory based on an underlying quantum field theory of the particles and their interactions. The S-matrix is used to characterize the probability of various event outgoing particle states given the incoming particle states. For suitable quantum field theories, the S-matrix may be calculated by a perturbative expansion in terms of Feynman diagrams. Events occur naturally in astrophysics and geophysics, such as subatomic particle showers produced from cosmic ray scattering events.

Bieber Bench () is a relatively horizontal upland area of at the south side of the Surveyors Range, Churchill Mountains. The ice-covered feature rises to between Mansergh Snowfield and the head of Algie Glacier. It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after John W. Bieber of the Bartol Research Institute, University of Delaware: he was United States Antarctic Program principal investigator for solar and heliospheric studies with Antarctic cosmic ray observations at McMurdo Station and South Pole Station, 1988–2002.

Suzuki earned his Ph.D. in Physics from Kyōto University in 1979 under Kozo Miyake. After postdoctoral work at Brown and Osaka University, he was appointed associate professor at the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research (ICRR) at Tōkyō University in 1989. He was promoted to professor in 1996 and became director of the institute in 2004. Suzuki was deputy director of the Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU) at Tōkyō University from 2007 until March 2018.

As the Shroud was rolled and unrolled for display throughout the centuries, it sustained a repeated abrasion of the charred edges to the areas holed in the fire. The low magnification images of the blood areas already show an extensive abrasion of this type. To reduce the stress of gravity the Shroud was suggested being in horizontal display. To minimize possible cosmic ray exposure, it was also suggested that the plane of the cloth be aligned perpendicular to the ground.

He graduated in 1951 and gained the Samuel Bright Research Award for the top physics student. He joined Patrick Blackett’s cosmic ray group at Manchester, where his research on photometric measurement of ionization in cloud chambers was supervised by H J J Braddick. He was awarded a PhD in 1954. Butterworth then moved to Harwell, as a scientific officer at the UK Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE), where he conducted research on materials for the production of a cold neutron source.

TV camera still of Big Muley prior to collection. Big Muley was discovered on the eastern rim of Plum crater (Station 1) in the Descartes highlands of the Moon. The rock's cosmic ray exposure age was discovered to be about 1.8 million years, linking it to ejecta, or debris, from the impact that formed South Ray crater, to the south of the Apollo 16 landing site. The rock's age has been estimated since 1980 to be approximately 3.97 ± 0.25 billion years.

December 16, 1965 Launched at 07:31:00 UTC from Cape Canaveral to a circular solar orbit with a mean distance of 0.8 AU. December 1995 The prime Traveling-wave tube (TWT) failed sometime after December 1995. July 1996 Spacecraft commanded to the backup TWT. October 6, 1997 Tracked with the 70 meter Deep Space Station 43 in Australia. The MIT and ARC Plasma Analyzers, as well as the cosmic ray detector from the University of Chicago, were turned on and working.

The LHCf (Large Hadron Collider forward) is a special-purpose Large Hadron Collider experiment for astroparticle (cosmic ray) physics, and one of eight detectors in the LHC accelerator at CERN. The other seven are: ATLAS, ALICE, CMS, MoEDAL, TOTEM, LHCb and FASER. LHCf is designed to study the particles generated in the "forward" region of collisions, those almost directly in line with the colliding proton beams. It therefore consists of two detectors, 140 m on either side of the interaction point.

Instrumentation consisted of a cosmic ray detection package and a ring of micrometeorite erosion gauges. The Explorer 3 spacecraft was spin-stabilized and had an on- board tape recorder to provide a complete radiation history for each orbit. Data from these instruments was transmitted to the ground by a 60 milliwatt transmitter operating on 108.03 MHz and a 10 milliwatt transmitter operating on 108.00 MHz. Transmitting antennas consisted of two fiberglass slot antennas in the body of the satellite itself.

HiRes-I (located on Five Mile Hill or Little Granite Mountain()) had one ring of 22 telescopes viewing from 3–17 degrees in elevation. HiRes-I was instrumented with sample and hold electronics which took a "snapshot" of the extensive air shower generated when the incident cosmic ray interacted with the atmosphere. Meanwhile, HiRes-II (located on Camel's Back Ridge ()) had two rings of telescopes to provide viewing higher into the atmosphere. It observed from 3 to 31 degrees in elevation.

His interest in particle physics led him to work with Nobel laureate Carl David Anderson, studying cosmic rays with cloud chambers. He preferred the accessibility of cosmic ray research over that of nuclear physics. While at Caltech he learned to design and build the equipment he needed for his experiments, and this skill would prove to be useful throughout his career. He also attended molecular genetics seminars led by Nobel laureate Max Delbrück; he would return to this field later.

Muons arriving on the Earth's surface are created indirectly as decay products of collisions of cosmic rays with particles of the Earth's atmosphere. When a cosmic ray proton impacts atomic nuclei in the upper atmosphere, pions are created. These decay within a relatively short distance (meters) into muons (their preferred decay product), and muon neutrinos. The muons from these high-energy cosmic rays generally continue in about the same direction as the original proton, at a velocity near the speed of light.

However, the process of stellar evolution can result in the synthesis of radioactive isotopes. Selected isotopes can subsequently undergo negative beta decay, emitting an electron and antineutrino from the nucleus. An example is the cobalt-60 (60Co) isotope, which decays to form nickel-60 (). An extended air shower generated by an energetic cosmic ray striking the Earth's atmosphere At the end of its lifetime, a star with more than about 20 solar masses can undergo gravitational collapse to form a black hole.

Because mesons are composed of quarks, they participate in both the weak and strong interactions. Mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction. Mesons are classified according to their quark content, total angular momentum, parity and various other properties, such as C-parity and G-parity. Although no meson is stable, those of lower mass are nonetheless more stable than the more massive, and hence are easier to observe and study in particle accelerators or in cosmic ray experiments.

The first publication of anomalous gas in a carbonaceous chondrite (Murray) was in 1960. "Gas-rich meteorites" of other classes host their gas in dark liths, in most cases closely related to CM. Gases in meteorites include primordial, solar (both solar wind, and a distinct solar flare component), radiogenic (due to cosmic-ray exposure), and fissile (decay products). Host materials are generally carbonaceous, including presolar grains: diamond, silicon carbide, graphite, and organics. Nogoya is one particularly gas-rich CM chondrite.

Tholins might have also been detected in the stellar system of the young star HR 4796A using the Near-Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) aboard the Hubble Space Telescope. The HR 4796 system is approximately 220 light years from Earth. Models show that even when far from UV radiation of a star, cosmic ray doses may be fully sufficient to convert carbon-containing ice grains entirely to complex organics in less than the lifetime of the typical interstellar cloud.

Loh spent his childhood in Suzhou, China and emigrated to Virginia with his family at 14. He received his BS from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and his PhD from MIT. He took his first faculty job at Cornell University before moving to the University of Utah in 1975. He led the team to build the Fly's Eye detector at the US Army's Dugway Proving Ground, which in 1991 recorded the most energetic cosmic ray ever detected, known as the "Oh-My-God particle".

3D map of the large-scale distribution of dark matter, reconstructed from measurements of weak gravitational lensing with the Hubble Space Telescope. CALET is an astrophysics mission that searches for signatures of dark matter and provides the highest energy direct measurements of the cosmic ray electron spectrum in order to observe discrete sources of high- energy particle acceleration in our local region of the galaxy.CALET aboard the ISS Kibo Started the First Direct Electron Observation in Tera Electron Volt Region. JAXA Press Release.

The objectives are to understand the following: #origin and mechanisms of acceleration of high-energy cosmic rays and gamma rays #propagation mechanism of cosmic rays throughout the Galaxy #identity of dark matter As a cosmic ray observatory, CALET aims to clarify high energy space phenomena and dark matter from two perspectives; one is particle creation and annihilation in the field of particle physics (or nuclear physics) and the other is particle acceleration and propagation in the field of space physics.

He became a permanent member of the Foundation's scientific staff in 1943. In 1951, he received his Ph.D. in physics from Temple University for a thesis based on his extensive scientific work at Bartol.Pomerantz, Martin A. (1951). "The increase in the primary cosmic ray intensity at high latitudes, and the non-existence of a detectable permanent solar magnetic field," Temple University doctoral dissertation. In 1959, Pomerantz became the second Director of the Foundation, replacing W. F. G. Swann upon the latter's retirement.

Our fragile world: challenges and opportunities for sustainable development, Volume 2, Mostafa Kamal Tolba, 2001, p. 1101 In 1948 A. Alikhanov and A. Alikhanian again were awarded the USSR State Prize for the investigation of cosmic rays. After they founded a cosmic ray station on Aragats at an altitude of 3250 m, the two brothers participated in the foundation of the Armenian Academy of Sciences and established the Yerevan Physics Institute in 1943. A. Alikhanian became its Director for the next 30 years.

The magnetosphere guides cosmic ray and solar energetic particles to polar latitudes, while high energy charged particles enter the mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. These energetic particles at the top of the atmosphere shatter atmospheric atoms and molecules, creating harmful lower energy particles that penetrate deep into the atmosphere and create measurable radiation. All aircraft flying above 8 km (26,200 feet) altitude are exposed to these particles. The dose exposure is greater in polar regions than at mid-latitude and equatorial regions.

CORSIKA (COsmic Ray SImulations for KAscade) is a physics computer software for simulation of extensive air showers induced by high energy cosmic rays, i.e. protons and atomic nuclei, as well as Gamma rays (photons), electrons, and neutrinos. It may be used up to and beyond the highest energies of 100 EeV. In the current version the program utilizes the hadronic interaction models EPOS, QGSJET, and DPMJET, which are based on Gribov-Regge theory, and SIBYLL based on a minijet model for high energies.

He found a happy marriage between his career as a physicist and his interest in climbing. For instance, he combined a climbing expedition to the Andes in 1934 with a project to measure geomagnetic effects on cosmic rays.Nick Ellis, M. Belén Gavela, 1993 European School of High-Energy Physics: Zakopane, Poland, 12–25 September 1993: proceedings, Issue 4 (1994), p. 246 Between 1933 and 1939, of the seventeen papers on cosmic-ray physics published in Poland, Jodko-Narkiewicz was author or co-author of twelve.

Model of Lunokhod vehicle Detail of Lunokhod's wheels Lunokhod 1 was a lunar vehicle formed of a tub-like compartment with a large convex lid on eight independently-powered wheels. Its length was 2.3 metres. It was equipped with a cone-shaped antenna, a highly directional helical antenna, four television cameras, and special extendable devices to impact the lunar soil for density measurements and mechanical property tests. An X-ray spectrometer, X-ray telescope, Cosmic Ray Detector, and a laser device were also included.

More specifically, Freier was an internationally reputable cosmic-ray physicist. Her expertise was the application of nuclear emulsions to astrophysics and physics. At the University of Minnesota, she and her colleagues discovered the presence of heavy nuclei in cosmic radiation, which remains one of the key discoveries in astrophysics. In addition to her contribution as graduate student, mentioned above, she also published other significant contributions in the fields of particle physics, geophysics, and astrophysics that covered nuclear emission spectra, cosmic rays, and applying nuclear emulsions.

With the success of the Manhattan Project and the Radiation Laboratory, MIT moved into a new era of "big science" funded by the US government. MIT's expansion in nuclear physics was spearheaded by Jerrold R. Zacharias, who went to Los Alamos late in the war, and recruited Viki Weisskopf and Rossi as MIT professors. Rossi left Los Alamos for Cambridge on 6 February 1946. Within the new Laboratory for Nuclear Science, headed by Zacharias, Rossi was delegated to create a cosmic ray research group at MIT.

Starting 2012 other detector systems have been installed, first Tunka-Rex and Tunka-HiSCORE in the frame of a Helmholtz-Russia Joint Research Group (HRJRG) running from 2012 to 2015. In 2014 Tunka-Grande was built, and since 2015 the first telescope of Tunka-IACT is under construction. By this the focus of the Tunka experiment had been broadened. It now includes gamma astronomy in addition to cosmic rays which is reflected in the new name TAIGA (Tunka Advanced Instrument for cosmic ray physics and Gamma Astronomy).

Starting with 18 antennas in 2012 Tunka-Rex was successively increased and now consists of 63 antenna stations distributed over the whole area of Tunka-133. By comparison to Tunka-133 it was shown that the radio measurements have the same accuracy for the cosmic-ray energy than the Cherenkov-light measurements. While these Cherenkov-light measurements are possible only during dark and clear nights, the radio measurements are done at any time of the day, which now significantly enhances the duty cycle of the experiment.

James Adams/National Space Science and Orbiting Centre Orbiting Astronomical Spectrometer in Space - the goal of the OASIS mission is to identify the site and sites where Galactic cosmic ray originate and are accelerated. Roger Brissenden hea-www.harvard.edu [Retrieved 2011-10-30] /Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory A concept of the technology required for Generation X: A Large Area and High resolution X-ray observatory to study the early universe. The gen-x mission is designed to observe the first black-holes and stars at redshift z~10-20.

Very-high-energy gamma rays are of importance because they may reveal the source of cosmic rays. They travel in a straight line (in space- time) from their source to an observer. This is unlike cosmic rays which have their direction of travel scrambled by magnetic fields. Sources that produce cosmic rays will almost certainly produce gamma rays as well, as the cosmic ray particles interact with nuclei or electrons to produce photons or neutral pions which in turn decay to ultra-high-energy photons.

The Volcano Ranch experiment was an array of particle detectors in Volcano Ranch, New Mexico, used to measure ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. The array was built by John Linsley and Livio Scarsi in 1959. On February 22, 1962, Linsley observed an air shower at Volcano Ranch created by a primary particle with an energy greater than 1020 eV, the highest energy cosmic ray particle ever detected at the time. Linsley continued to operate Volcano Ranch until 1978, when it was closed due to lack of funding.

Price later retracted his claim, and a possible alternative explanation was offered by Alvarez. In his paper it was demonstrated that the path of the cosmic ray event that was claimed due to a magnetic monopole could be reproduced by the path followed by a platinum nucleus decaying first to osmium, and then to tantalum. High energy particle colliders have been used to try to create magnetic monopoles. Due to the conservation of magnetic charge, magnetic monopoles must be created in pairs, one north and one south.

60, 413–414 (1941) He had made improvements to the cloud chamber, such as a new lighting system that enabled him to take pictures in one thirty-thousandth of a second. During this expedition, Henry Allen Moe, then president of the Guggenheim Foundation, Professor Raymond Birge, head of the physics department at the University of California, Berkeley, and German physicist Hans Bethe visited the mountaintop laboratory. In 1941, Powell went to the University of California, Berkeley to continue cosmic ray research with Robert Brode.

Indeed, recent analysis of cosmic ray measurements with the Pierre Auger Observatory suggests a correlation between the arrival directions of cosmic rays of the highest energies of more than 5×1019 eV and the positions of nearby active galaxies. There are many more possible sources scientists are considering. These include colliding galaxy systems, accretion flow shocks to clusters of galaxies, and more exotic processes from the very early universe, such as the decay of superheavy particles trapped in the galactic halo, or topological defects.

CLIO is an optical interferometer with two perpendicular arms each of 100 m length. The mirrors are cooled to ; this reduces various thermal noise sources which trouble other gravity observatories, but cooling the mirrors (which are heated by the powerful laser used in the interferometer) while keeping them isolated from vibrations is difficult. CLIO is situated 1000 m underground in the Kamioka Observatory, Gifu Prefecture. CLIO is one of the science facilities for physics of the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research of the University of Tokyo.

PAMELA was the largest device up to the time built by the Wizard collaboration, which includes Russia, Italy, Germany and Sweden and has been involved in many satellite and balloon-based cosmic ray experiments such as Fermi-GLAST. The 470 kg, US$32 million (EU€24.8 million, UK£16.8 million) instrument was originally projected to have a three-year mission. However, this durable module remained operational and made significant scientific contributions until 2016. PAMELA is mounted on the upward-facing side of the Resurs-DK1 Russian satellite.

Gaisser Valley () is a mostly ice-free valley, long, that descends south from Vashka Crag in the Cruzen Range of Victoria Land. The valley is bounded to the east by Peterson Terrace and terminates as a hanging valley northwest of Lake Vashka. Named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2005 after Thomas K. Gaisser, Bartol Research Institute, University of Delaware; United States Antarctic Program principal investigator for the study of cosmic-ray showers at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station from 1991 to 2005.

John David Linsley (12 March 1925 – 25 September 2002) was an American physicist who performed pioneering research on cosmic rays, particularly ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. He did his most significant work from 1959 to 1978 using a ground-based array of detectors at Volcano Ranch in New Mexico. He is best known for being the first to detect an air shower created by a primary particle with an energy of 1020 eV. This was the highest energy cosmic ray observed up to that point.

In 1957, Rossi asked Linsley to design a much larger array based on the principles of the Agassiz array. Linsley worked with Livio Scarsi from the University of Milan to build an array of nineteen plastic scintillation detectors at Volcano Ranch near Albuquerque, New Mexico. They began making observations in the summer of 1959. On February 22, 1962, Linsley observed an air shower created by a primary particle with an energy greater than 1020 eV, the highest energy cosmic ray particle ever detected at the time.

John Grunsfeld during STS-109 March 4, 2002 John Mace Grunsfeld (born October 10, 1958) is an American physicist and a former NASA astronaut. He is a veteran of five Space Shuttle flights and has served as NASA Chief Scientist. His academic background includes research in high energy astrophysics, cosmic ray physics and the emerging field of exoplanet studies with specific interest in future astronomical instrumentation. After retiring from NASA in 2009, he served as the Deputy Director of the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, Maryland.

Many of the L chondrite meteors may have their origin in the Ordovician meteor event, radioisotope dated with uranium-lead at around 467.50±0.28 million years ago. Compared to other chondrites, a large proportion of the L chondrites have been heavily shocked, which is taken to imply that the parent body was catastrophically disrupted by a large impact. This impact has been dated via cosmic ray exposure at around 468.0±0.3 million years ago. Earlier argon dating placed the event at around 470±6 million years ago.

The fraction of muons among the secondary particles in one traditional way to estimate the mass composition of the primary cosmic rays. A historic method of secondary particle detection still used for demonstration purposes involves the use of cloud chambers to detect the secondary muons created when a pion decays. Cloud chambers in particular can be built from widely available materials and can be constructed even in a high-school laboratory. A fifth method, involving bubble chambers, can be used to detect cosmic ray particles.

Galactic cosmic rays are one of the most important barriers standing in the way of plans for interplanetary travel by crewed spacecraft. Cosmic rays also pose a threat to electronics placed aboard outgoing probes. In 2010, a malfunction aboard the Voyager 2 space probe was credited to a single flipped bit, probably caused by a cosmic ray. Strategies such as physical or magnetic shielding for spacecraft have been considered in order to minimize the damage to electronics and human beings caused by cosmic rays.

Whereas "normal" astronomical telescopes view the universe in visible light, Milagro saw the universe at very high energies. The light that Milagro saw was about 1 trillion times more energetic than visible light. While these particles of light, known as photons, are the same as the photons that make up visible light, they behave quite differently due to their high energies. A cosmic ray or high-energy gamma ray striking an atom in the upper atmosphere generates a cascade of particles known as an air shower.

Isotopes such as lithium-6, as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation. This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected. Elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae and colliding neutron stars through the r-process, and in AGB stars through the s-process, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei. Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.

Explorer 3 Flight Recorder Explorer 3 was launched in conjunction with the International Geophysical Year (IGY) by the U.S. Army (Ordnance) into an eccentric orbit. The objective of this spacecraft was a continuation of experiments started with Explorer 1. The payload consisted of a cosmic ray counter (a Geiger-Müller tube) and a micrometeorite detector (a wire grid array and acoustic detector). The Explorer 3 spacecraft was spin-stabilized and had an on-board tape recorder to provide a complete radiation history for each orbit.

Noh-Varr serves as an ensign aboard the 18th Kree Diplomatic Gestalt interstellar schooner the Marvel, which traverses millions of alternate dimensions on its way home. The ship is drawn toward the Marvel Universe and shot down by the forces of Doctor Midas, a multi-trillionaire obsessed with gaining powers through the absorption of cosmic rays. Midas blasts the Marvel out of the sky in an attempt to acquire the ship's cosmic ray-powered engines. His friends and comrades killed, Noh-Varr emerges as the only survivor.

The magnet was delivered in March 1943, and the first beam of deuteron was emitted in December. The inauguration ceremony for the cyclotron was held on 2 June 1944. In 1941, Gentner was authorized as a Dozent (lecturer) with a Lehrauftrag (teaching assignment) at the University of Heidelberg. In 1946, Gentner became an ordentlicher Professor (ordinarius professor) at the Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, where he worked on nuclear and cosmic-ray physics. From 1947 to 1949, he was also Prorektor (Vice-Rector) of the University.

The LOPES project (LOFAR PrototypE Station) was a cosmic ray detector array, located in Karlsruhe, Germany, and is operated in coincidence with an existing, well calibrated air shower experiment called KASCADE. In 2013, after approximately 10 years of measurements, LOPES was finally switched off and dismantled. There are different ways to observe cosmic rays, or, more accurately, the air showers that cosmic rays produce when they enter our atmosphere. Traditionally, one directly measures the shower products that make it all the way to the surface.

View from the summit of Mount Evans of the end of the Mount Evans Scenic Byway, Crest House and the Meyer–Womble Observatory, 2010. The easy access to the summit provided by the Mount Evans Highway has made it a popular location for scientific research. Arthur H. Compton conducted pioneering research on cosmic rays on the mountain in 1931, shortly after the road to the summit was completed. The University of Denver built a pair of A-frame buildings on the summit to house cosmic-ray researchers.

In 2003 an international team of researches from Russia and Japan found out that the mysterious observation from mountain-top cosmic ray experiments can be explained with conventional physics. The new analysis of Centauro I reveals that there is a difference in the arrival angle between the upper block and lower block events, so the two are not products of the same interaction. That leaves only the lower chamber data connected to the Centauro I event. In other words, the man-horse analogy becomes redundant.

Ariel was a British satellite research programme conducted between the early 1960s and 1980s. Six satellites were launched as part of the programme, starting with the first British satellite, Ariel 1, which was launched on 26 April 1962, and concluding with the launch of Ariel 6 on 2 June 1979. The launch of Ariel 1 made Britain the third country to have a satellite orbiting the Earth. The first four were devoted to studying the ionosphere, the remaining two to X-ray astronomy and cosmic-ray studies.

In 1973 his instruments on Pioneer 10 and 11 indicated a cosmic ray intensity increase of about 1 percent per AU. In 1975 he found that during the low point of activity three years prior, the abundance of cosmic ray helium was strangely enhanced at these very low energies, as opposed to it dropping off with declining energies like protons do toward zero energy. In 1975 and 1977 Simpson discovered that Beryllium-10 nuclei are scarce in cosmic rays, and that this scarcity indicates that they have been around for about 2 x 107 years. This led him to conclude that cosmic rays pass freely between the gaseous disk and the extended magnetic halo portion of the galaxy, where the ambient gas density is more like 10−2 atoms/cm3 or less. In the 1980s Simpson and A. J. Tuzzolino developed the dust flux monitor instrument which involved a thin sheet of plastic that was polymerized in the presence of a strong electric field perpendicular to the plane of the plastic, and then electrically polarized carrying a positive electric charge on one of its surfaces and a negative charge on the other.

Many of the cores have sufficient of the surface cortex to allow reconstruction of the original stone's shape. Stone tools of Qesem belong to 2 industries: Amudian (blades dominated) and Yabrudian (scraper dominated). Using the concentration of cosmic ray created Beryllium-10 it has been argued that the flint used at Qesem Cave was surface-collected or only dug from shallow quarries. This is in contrast to flint of the same period from Tabun Cave nearby that originated two or more metres below the surface, probably after being mined.

It is thought that its surface contains tholins, which are irradiated organic compounds that are more common in objects in the outer Solar System and can help determine the age of the surface. Also here at Phys.org This possibility is inferred from spectroscopic characterization and its dark and reddened color, and from the expected effects of interstellar radiation. Despite the lack of any cometary coma when it approached the Sun, it may still contain internal ice, hidden by "an insulating mantle produced by long-term cosmic ray exposure".

The Yerevan Physics Institute was founded in 1943 as a branch of the Yerevan State University by brothers Abraham Alikhanov and Artem Alikhanian. Later two high-altitude cosmic ray stations were founded on Mount Aragats (3,200 m) and Nor Amberd (2,000 m). The view of the Yerevan Physics Institute In 1963 the institute was transferred to the Soviet Union Atomic Energy State Committee. The construction of a 6 GeV electron synchrotron accomplished in 1967 became an important landmark in the history of institute, it is the first particle accelerator in Armenia (Arus "ԱՐՈՒՍ").

Iron Man #15 He battled Iron Man and the Unicorn, but was defeated by Alpha and Beta, who turned against him.Iron Man #16 He later formed an alliance with Attuma and battled the Defenders, but was defeated.Defenders #7-8 Kragoff next experimented with a cosmic-ray intensifier to attempt to increase his own superhuman powers but instead unintentionally caused himself to be unable to leave a state of intangibility. He had his original Super-Apes kidnap Anthony Stark and forced him to build a "cosmitronic cannon" and return him to a tangible state.

The Red Ghost is a scientific genius with advanced knowledge in fields including rocketry, engineering, communications, genetics, robotics, physics, hypnotism, and the training of simians. He is an expert in radiology with a Ph.D. in radiology. He has perfected force-field devices, devices to mentally communicate with and control other primates, a cosmitronic gun, freeze ray pistols, rocket fuel from material found in a meteorite crater, and spacecraft made of transparent ceramic plastic to be unshielded against cosmic ray storms. He has studied various forms of socialist and communist theory.

Mehdi Tayoubi is Strategy and Innovation Vice-President at Dassault Systèmes (a subsidiary of the Dassault Group), and an employee since 2001. He is the co-director of the ScanPyramids mission launched in 2015 and co-founder of the HIP (Heritage Innovation Preservation) Institute. In November 2017, he was a co-author with the ScanPyramids team, in the journal Nature, of "Discovery of a big void in Khufu's Pyramid by observation of cosmic-ray muons".The team revealed their third discovery named ScanPyramids Big Void thanks to muography.

Considering his interests in cosmic rays and mountaineering, it was a natural development for Narkiewicz-Jodko to take to the skies as a balloonist. A high point in this area of his career came on March 29, 1936, when with a scientific colleague he succeeded in taking the balloon Warszawa II (Warsaw II) up to a height of 10,000 metres for the purpose of scientific measurements.S. Ziemecki & K. Narkiewicz-Jodko, 'Continuous Variation of Cosmic Ray Intensity in the Higher Layers of the Troposphere', in Acad. Polonaise Sciences et Lettres, bulletin no.

The primary natural source of carbon-14 on Earth is cosmic ray action on nitrogen in the atmosphere, and it is therefore a cosmogenic nuclide. However, open-air nuclear testing between 1955 and 1980 contributed to this pool. The different isotopes of carbon do not differ appreciably in their chemical properties. This resemblance is used in chemical and biological research, in a technique called carbon labeling: carbon-14 atoms can be used to replace nonradioactive carbon, in order to trace chemical and biochemical reactions involving carbon atoms from any given organic compound.

During her time in Manchester, Nicolson worked with Douglas Hartree and became a proficient numerical analyst and an expert user of Hartree's differential analyser. Nicolson initially worked on cosmic ray problems, but after the outbreak of war Hartree's differential analyser group pursued defence-related problems. Two of the problems in her thesis are derived from work done for the Ministry of Supply. One of these problems was on solutions of the heat equation, and with her colleague John Crank she investigated the numerical stability of several solution techniques.

In 1929, Rossi's first graduate student, Giuseppe Occhialini, was awarded the doctoral degree. In search of pioneering research, Rossi turned his attention to cosmic rays, which had been discovered by Victor Hess in manned balloon flights in 1911 and 1912. In 1929, Rossi read the paper of Walther Bothe and Werner Kolhörster, which described their discovery of charged cosmic ray particles that penetrated of gold. This was astonishing, for the most penetrating charged particles known at the time were electrons from radioactive decay, which could penetrate less than a millimetre of gold.

Although Rossi avoided politics, some of Rossi's associates were active opponents of the fascist state. For example, he mentored Eugenio Curiel, who became a member of the communist party, while completing a degree at Padua. Later, in 1943, Curiel joined the resistance in Milan, and in 1945, was assassinated by soldiers of the Republic of Salò a German puppet state. Similarly, Ettore Pancini, who received his PhD under Rossi in 1938, spent the war years alternating between cosmic ray research and active participation in the Italian resistance movements of Padua and Venice.

Tellurium has eight stable or nearly stable isotopes, 31 unstable ones, and 17 isomers. Polonium has 42 isotopes, none of which are stable. It has an additional 28 isomers. In addition to the stable isotopes, some radioactive chalcogen isotopes occur in nature, either because they are decay products, such as 210Po, because they are primordial, such as 82Se, because of cosmic ray spallation, or via nuclear fission of uranium. Livermorium isotopes 290Lv through 293Lv have been discovered; the most stable livermorium isotope is 293Lv, which has a half-life of 0.061 seconds.

In 2018 the NA61/SHINE collaboration published an addendum presenting an intent to upgrade the experimental facility and perform a new set of measurements after Long Shutdown 2. As in the original program, the new one proposes studies of hadron-nucleus and nucleus-nucleus interactions for heavy ions, neutrino and cosmic-ray physics. The heavy ions program will focus on study of charm hadron production (mostly D mesons) in lead-lead interactions. In 2020 the SPS and PS Experiments Committee (SPSC) recommended approval of beam time in 2021.

Astronauts are also affected by this region, which is said to be the cause of peculiar "shooting stars" (phosphenes) seen in the visual field of astronauts, an effect termed cosmic ray visual phenomena. Passing through the South Atlantic Anomaly is thought to be the reason for the failures of the Globalstar network's satellites in 2007. The PAMELA experiment, while passing through the SAA, detected positron levels that were orders of magnitude higher than expected. This suggests the Van Allen belt confines antiparticles produced by the interaction of the Earth's upper atmosphere with cosmic rays.

With the NASA RHESSI project's observations, Reuven's early calculations on low energy cosmic ray lines and theories on solar flare emissions are now being tested showing his work to be accurate and consistent. Following the initial discoveries of these observations, Reuven spent 30 years refining his findings with the Solar Maximum Mission along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. This effort was carried out mainly with the help of Benz Kozlosvsky from Reuven's alma mater, Tel Aviv University. These discoveries would then lead to Reuven's theorisation on the origin of low energy cosmic rays.

Sulfur (16S) has 23 known isotopes with mass numbers ranging from 27 to 49, four of which are stable: 32S (95.02%), 33S (0.75%), 34S (4.21%), and 36S (0.02%). The preponderance of sulfur-32 is explained by its production from carbon-12 plus successive fusion capture of five helium-4 nuclei, in the so- called alpha process of exploding type II supernovas (see silicon burning). Other than 35S, the radioactive isotopes of sulfur are all comparatively short-lived. 35S is formed from cosmic ray spallation of 40Ar in the atmosphere.

The Cosmic Ray Inspection and Passive Tomography (CRIPT) detector is a Canadian muon tomography project which tracks muon scattering events while simultaneously estimating the muon momentum. The CRIPT detector is 5.3 m tall and has a mass of 22 tonnes. The majority of the detector mass is located in the muon momentum spectrometer which is a feature unique to CRIPT regarding muon tomography. After initial construction and commissioning at Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada, the CRIPT detector was moved to Atomic Energy Of Canada Limited's Chalk River Laboratories.

See also: # Geiger, H. and Müller, W. (1928) "Das Elektronenzählrohr" (The electron counting tube), Physikalische Zeitschrift, 29: 839-841. # Geiger, H. and Müller, W. (1929) "Technische Bemerkungen zum Elektronenzählrohr" (Technical notes on the electron counting tube), Physikalische Zeitschrift, 30: 489-493. # Geiger, H. and Müller, W. (1929) "Demonstration des Elektronenzählrohrs" (Demonstration of the electron counting tube), Physikalische Zeitschrift, 30: 523 ff. In 1929 Geiger was named professor of physics and director of research at the University of Tübingen where he made his first observations of a cosmic ray shower.

In the summer of 2011, a reactor mockup was imaged using Muon Mini Tracker (MMT) at Los Alamos. The MMT consists of two muon trackers made up of sealed drift tubes. In the demonstration, cosmic-ray muons passing through a physical arrangement of concrete and lead; materials similar to a reactor were measured. The mockup consisted of two layers of concrete shielding blocks, and a lead assembly in between; one tracker was installed at 2.5 m height, and another tracker was installed on the ground level at the other side.

Most lunar meteorites are launched from the Moon by impacts making lunar craters of a few kilometers in diameter or less. No source crater of lunar meteorites has been positively identified, although there is speculation that the highly anomalous lunar meteorite Sayh al Uhaymir 169 derives from the Lalande impact crater on the lunar nearside. Cosmic-ray exposure history established with noble-gas measurements have shown that all lunar meteorites were ejected from the Moon in the past 20 million years. Most left the Moon in the past 100,000 years.

The lightest chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universeSee the timeline on p.10 in in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (or 12:1 by number of atoms), along with tiny traces of the next two elements, lithium and beryllium. Almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation.

Scientists Dr. Edward C. Smith, Al Holman, and Dr. Dan Binder explained the anomaly as a single-event upset (SEU) and published the first SEU paper in the IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science journal in 1975. In 1978, the first evidence of soft errors from alpha particles in packaging materials was described by Timothy C. May and M.H. Woods. In 1979, James Ziegler of IBM, along with W. Lanford of Yale, first described the mechanism whereby a sea-level cosmic ray could cause a single event upset in electronics.

Most neutrino experiments must address the flux of cosmic rays that bombard the Earth's surface. The higher-energy (>50 MeV or so) neutrino experiments often cover or surround the primary detector with a "veto" detector which reveals when a cosmic ray passes into the primary detector, allowing the corresponding activity in the primary detector to be ignored ("vetoed"). Since the atmospheric muon incident flux is isotropic, a localised and anisotropic detection is discriminated in relation to the background betraying a cosmic event. For lower-energy experiments, the cosmic rays are not directly the problem.

In September 1939, Bhabha was in India for a brief holiday when World War II started, and he decided not to return to England for the time being. He accepted an offer to serve as the Reader in the Physics Department of the Indian Institute of Science, then headed by renowned physicist C. V. Raman. He received a special research grant from the Sir Dorab Tata Trust, which he used to establish the Cosmic Ray Research Unit at the Institute. Bhabha selected a few students, including Harish-Chandra, to work with him.

There are about 106 times more cosmic ray muons than neutrino-induced muons observed in IceCube. Most of these can be rejected using the fact that they are traveling downwards. Most of the remaining (up-going) events are from neutrinos, but most of these neutrinos are from cosmic rays hitting the far side of the Earth; some unknown fraction may come from astronomical sources, and these neutrinos are the key to IceCube point source searches. Estimates predict the detection of about 75 upgoing neutrinos per day in the fully constructed IceCube detector.

Watson was Professor of Physics at the University of Leeds from 1984, having previously been Reader in Particle Cosmic Physics there, and retired in 2003 with the title Emeritus Professor. Watson was instrumental in the creation of the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina (begun 1999) which gathered the data that led to major discoveries in cosmic-ray astronomy. The Observatory covers an area of 3000 square km with 1,600 particle detectors each placed at intervals. Watson was serving as the spokesperson of the Pierre Auger collaboration and was later given the title of Spokesperson Emeritus.

After the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Froman joined the McGill group working on radar and waveguides. In 1941 he became head of the Mount Evans High Altitude Laboratory, working on cosmic ray research, and taught physics at the University of Denver from 1941 to 1942. He joined the Navy Radio and Sound Laboratory in 1942. Later that year Froman joined the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago, where he witnessed the start up of Chicago Pile-1, the world's first nuclear reactor, in December 1942.

He returned to Italy, in 1944, taught first in Genoa (1950) and then in Milan (1952). In 1947 he contributed to the discovery of the pion or pi-meson decay in collaboration with César Lattes and Cecil Frank Powell. The discovery was made at the Wills Laboratory of Bristol using the technology of the tracks on specialized photographic emulsions. He was a protagonist in cosmic ray research with the nuclear utilization of photographic emulsions exposed to high energy cosmic radiation, work which culminated in 1954 with the European G-Stack collaboration.

Suzuki earned his doctorate from Tohoku University in 1974, supervised by Masatoshi Koshiba. In 1982 he was appointed to the faculty of the Tōkyō University. In 1993, he took concurrent positions as professor at the High Energy Physics Laboratory of Tohoku University and professor at the Institute of Cosmic Ray Research (ICRR) of Tōkyō University. Having taken part in the Kamiokande-II and Super-Kamiokande neutrino detection experiments, Suzuki was appointed Director of the Research Center for Neutrino Science in 1998 and led the KamLAND neutrino detection experiments.

Solar Wind is a British small press comics anthology. Edited by Cosmic Ray (a pseudonym for small press comics publisher Paul Scott), the comic is devoted to gentle parodies of British boys' comics of the 1970s and 80s. Eight issues in all were produced between 2003 and 2007, with the final issue published in November 2007 as the Solar Wind Summer Special. Emerging originally from the fanbase of best selling British comic 2000AD, Solar Wind has featured writers and artists including Gordon Rennie, Rufus Dayglo, Al Ewing and PJ Holden.

Creators Gaines and Feldstein made cameos in the stories "Cosmic Ray Bomb Explosion" (14, July–August 1950), "7 Year Old Genius" (7) and "The Expert" (14) and "The Ad" (14). Issues 14 and 15 in 1952 ran EC Quickies, a format featuring two similarly themed stories, each three or four pages, in the space usually devoted to a seven or eight-page story. In Weird Fantasy 17 (1953), Al Williamson illustrated "The Aliens". Three aliens head for Earth to prevent a nuclear war, but they arrive too late.

Price Terrace () is a relatively level ice-free area (c. 1 square mile) between LaBelle Valley and Berkey Valley in the Cruzen Range of Victoria Land. The terrace rises to 1250 m, about 750 m above Barwick Valley close southward. Named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2005 after P. Buford Price, Physics Department, University of California at Berkeley, a United States Antarctic Program principal investigator for cosmic-ray studies near McMurdo Station in 1989, and neutrino astrophysics research at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in 1991.

Shmoos (The Cosmic Ray Detectors Unit)The detectors used in the CHICOS program are specially called "Shmoos" because of their similarity in shape to the cartoon character Shmoo. Each school site generally has two of these Shmoos set on their campus, to help gather accurate particle shower data. CHICOS school site The Shmoos are the most important part of the CHICOS project, and their setup requires accurate measurements and careful construction from the inside-out. Shmoos are generally set up at the Kellogg Radiation Laboratory and sent to schools.

For the case of cosmic rays the Compton–Getting effect only applies to those that are unaffected by the Solar wind such as extremely high energy rays. It has been calculated that the speed of the Earth within the galaxy () would result in a difference between the strongest and weakest cosmic ray intensities of about 0.1%. This small difference is within the capabilities of modern instruments to detect, and was observed in 1986. Forman (1970) derives the Compton–Getting effect anisotropy from the Lorentz invariance of the phase space distribution function.

The field of astroparticle physics is evolved out of optical astronomy. With the growth of detector technology came the more mature astrophysics, which involved multiple physics subtopics, such as mechanics, electrodynamics, thermodynamics, plasma physics, nuclear physics, relativity, and particle physics. Particle physicists found astrophysics necessary due to difficulty in producing particles with comparable energy to those found in space. For example, the cosmic ray spectrum contains particles with energies as high as 1020 eV, where a proton- proton collision at the Large Hadron Collider occurs at an energy of ~1012 eV.

In 1929, Bothe and Kolhörster discovered charged cosmic-ray particles that could penetrate 4.1 cm of gold. Charged particles of such high energy could not possibly be produced by photons from Millikan's proposed interstellar fusion process. In 1930, Bruno Rossi predicted a difference between the intensities of cosmic rays arriving from the east and the west that depends upon the charge of the primary particles—the so-called "east-west effect". Three independent experiments found that the intensity is, in fact, greater from the west, proving that most primaries are positive.

The caustic sodium hydroxide dissolves the plastic at a faster rate along the path of the ionized plastic. The net result is a conical etch pit in the plastic. The etch pits are measured under a high-power microscope (typically 1600× oil-immersion), and the etch rate is plotted as a function of the depth in the stacked plastic. This technique yields a unique curve for each atomic nucleus from 1 to 92, allowing identification of both the charge and energy of the cosmic ray that traverses the plastic stack.

The origin of the cosmic radiation has been a mystery since its discovery by Victor Hess in 1912. The cosmic-ray energy spectrum extends from a few GeV to above 1020 eV. As yet there is no experimental proof of the transition from Galactic to extragalactic cosmic rays, though it is believed that cosmic rays below about 1017.5 eV are of Galactic origin. While there is a consensus that supernovae (SN) explosions accelerate cosmic rays up to energies of ~1015 eV, experimental evidence has been difficult to obtain.

Bonolis, Luisa Walther Bothe and Bruno Rossi: The birth and development of coincidence methods in cosmic-ray physics The study of cosmic radiation would be conducted by Bothe for the rest of his life. In 1930, he became an ordentlicher Professor and director of the physics department at the Justus Liebig-Universität Gießen. That year, working with Herbert Becker, Bothe bombarded beryllium, boron, and lithium with alpha particles from polonium and observed a new form of penetrating radiation. In 1932, James Chadwick identified this radiation as the neutron.

The lander was designed to be able to survive pressure of up to (2,610 psi) and temperatures of . This was significantly greater than what was expected to be encountered but significant uncertainties as to the surface temperatures and pressure of Venus resulted in the designers’ opting for a large margin of error. The degree of hardening added mass to the probe which limited the amount of mass available for scientific instruments both on the probe itself and the interplanetary bus. The interplanetary bus carried a solar wind charged particle detector and a cosmic ray detector.

Gaurang Yodh (1928 - 2019) was an Indian-American physicist and an expert in astroparticle physics and cosmic-ray physics. He earned his B.Sc. at the University of Bombay in 1948 and his Ph.D. in Physics at the University of Chicago in 1955. During his career, he held appointments at Stanford University, Carnegie-Mellon University, and the University of Maryland, before joining the faculty at the University of California, Irvine in 1988. Yodh was a Fellow of the American Physical Society and an Elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

This then became the first "hybrid experiment" collecting information both on the development of the air shower induced by the incident cosmic ray, but also measuring the shower's footprint at the Earth's surface and 3 m below surface (with the buried muon array). The HiRes prototype was disassembled early in 1997 to become part of the final HiRes configuration. In its final configuration, HiRes was composed of two sites separated by 12.6 km. The sites were located on hilltops in Dugway Proving Grounds, a U.S. Army test facility in the west Utah desert.

He made a great contribution to many road and railway tunnels, both in Georgia and in other Caucasian republics. Additionally his works includes the following: large agricultural facilities, railway stations (Sokhumi, Gagra, Sochi, Tuapse, Borjomi), the Akhmeta-Omalo road, Tskhratskaro cosmic ray station, and the improvement works of Akhali Atoni cave. In 1977, he was awarded the USSR State Prize, among others. He also supervised the construction of the Tbilisi railway station, the Institute of Physics, Republic Square, and the Metekhi Tunnel; and he participated in reconstruction works in Tbilisi and Yerevan.

Lunokhod 1 was equipped with a cone-shaped antenna, a highly directional helical antenna, four teleray spectrometer, an x-ray telescope, cosmic-ray detectors, and a laser device were also included. The vehicle was powered by a solar cell array mounted on the underside of the lid. Lunokhod 1 was intended to operate through three lunar days but actually operated for eleven lunar days (eleven earth months). The operations of Lunokhod officially ceased on 4 October 1971, the anniversary of Sputnik 1, after having traveled over while taking pictures and performing numerous tests.

In August of that year, Cocconi laid the foundation of cosmic ray research in Milan. While at Milan, Cocconi supervised Vanna Tongiorgi, who picked cosmic rays as her thesis' subject, and later married her in 1945. In 1942, Cocconi was nominated professor at University of Catania, but was engaged by the Italian army to research infrared phenomena for the Italian airforce until the end of World War II, in late 1944. He taught at Catania until 1947, when Hans Bethe made a request that he would join Cornell University.

It is estimated that in about 100 million years the family will have dispersed to a degree where it cannot be separated from the background population of asteroids. The family may also be the source of one of the interplanetary dust bands discovered by the IRAS satellite and may also have generated meteorites which would have compositions consistent with S-type asteroids and cosmic ray exposure ages of approximately 5.8 million years. A study of the Karin family has for the first time detected the Yarkovsky effect in main belt asteroids.

The velocity of the craft steadily decreased, as it had not yet reached the lunar sphere of gravitational influence. The early part of day three was largely housekeeping, spacecraft maintenance and exchanging status reports with Mission Control in Houston. The crew performed the Apollo light flash experiment, or ALFMED, to investigate "light flashes" that were seen by the astronauts when the spacecraft was dark, regardless of whether or not their eyes were open, on Apollo lunar flights. This was thought to be caused by the penetration of the eye by cosmic ray particles.

Radioactive primordial nuclides found in the Earth are residues from ancient supernova explosions that occurred before the formation of the solar system. They are the fraction of radionuclides that survived from that time, through the formation of the primordial solar nebula, through planet accretion, and up to the present time. The naturally occurring short-lived radiogenic radionuclides found in today's rocks, are the daughters of those radioactive primordial nuclides. Another minor source of naturally occurring radioactive nuclides are cosmogenic nuclides, that are formed by cosmic ray bombardment of material in the Earth's atmosphere or crust.

The Mars 6 spacecraft carried an array of instruments to study Mars. The lander was equipped with a thermometer and barometer to determine the surface conditions, an accelerometer and radio altimeter for descent, and instruments to analyse the surface material including a mass spectrometer. The coast stage, or bus, carried a magnetometer, plasma traps, cosmic ray and micrometeoroid detectors, and an instrument to study proton and electron fluxes from the Sun. Built by Lavochkin, Mars 6 was the first of two 3MP spacecraft launched to Mars in 1973 and was followed by Mars 7.

Mars 7 spacecraft carried an array of instruments to study Mars. The lander was equipped with a thermometer and barometer to determine the surface conditions, an accelerometer and radio altimeter for descent, and instruments to analyse the surface material including a mass spectrometer. The coast stage, or bus, carried a magnetometer, plasma traps, cosmic ray and micrometeoroid detectors, stereo antennae, and an instrument to study proton and electron fluxes from the Sun. Built by Lavochkin, Mars 7 was the second of two 3MP spacecraft launched to Mars in 1973, having been preceded by Mars 6.

Gehrels' graduate schooling was at Caltech, working with advisors Rochus Vogt (1976–1979) and Edward C. Stone (1979–1981). The early period was spent performing laboratory and accelerator calibrations of the cosmic ray instrument on Voyager. The later years saw analysis of data from the instrument during the fly-bys of Jupiter (1979 for both Voyager 1 and 2). The elemental abundance of MeV particles in the Jovian magnetosphere was expected to be dominated by hydrogen and helium, so it was a surprise to find oxygen and sulfur dominant.

When this trigger senses that a cosmic ray has just passed, it fires a fast switch to connect the high voltage to the plates. The high voltage cannot be connected to the plates permanently, as this would lead to arc formation and continuous discharging.A spark chamber at the physics museum of the Sapienza University of Rome As research devices, spark chamber detectors have lower resolution than bubble chamber detectors. However they can be made highly selective with the help of auxiliary detectors, making them useful in searching for very rare events.

In 1959, McDonald became one of the first scientists to join NASA's new Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. For the next 11 years, he carried out cosmic ray research here as head of the Energetic Particles Branch. During that time, he provided the conceptual framework for a series of small spacecraft known as the international monitoring platforms, or IMP. From 1970 to 1982, McDonald was chief of Goddard's Laboratory of High Energy Astrophysics, where he helped design a satellite program with instruments that could study X-rays, gamma rays and cosmic rays.

Nucleogenic isotopes, as noted, are the result of a more complicated nuclear reaction, although such reactions may begin with a radioactive decay event. Alpha particles that produce nucleogenic reactions come from natural alpha particle emitters in uranium and thorium decay chains. Neutrons to produce nucleogenic nuclides may be produced by a number of processes, but due to the short half- life of free neutrons, all of these reactions occur on Earth. Among the most common are cosmic ray spallation production of neutrons from elements near the surface of the Earth.

Scott conducted most of his research during his career at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (DTM) of the Carnegie Institution of Washington where he was appointed chairman of a section on theoretical geophysics in 1957. Forbush used statistical methods in analyses of magnetic storms, solar activity, rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the sun, and the correlation of this geophysical and solar phenomena with temporal variations of cosmic-ray intensity.By James A. Van Allen, (The National Academies Press), "Scott Ellsworth Forbush". Visited on August the 11th, 2010.

Henri Becquerel himself proved that beta rays are fast electrons, while Rutherford and Thomas Royds proved in 1909 that alpha particles are ionized helium. Rutherford and Edward Andrade proved in 1914 that gamma rays are like X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths. Cosmic ray radiations striking the Earth from outer space were finally definitively recognized and proven to exist in 1912, as the scientist Victor Hess carried an electrometer to various altitudes in a free balloon flight. The nature of these radiations was only gradually understood in later years.

Mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction. They are classified according to their quark content, total angular momentum, parity, and various other properties such as C-parity and G-parity. While no meson is stable, those of lower mass are nonetheless more stable than the most massive mesons, and are easier to observe and study in particle accelerators or in cosmic ray experiments. They are also typically less massive than baryons, meaning that they are more easily produced in experiments, and will exhibit higher-energy phenomena sooner than baryons would.

On 27 March, Vladimir Kovalyonok and Viktor Savinykh of the resident crew used the Gologramma ("hologram") apparatus to image a viewing port damaged by micrometeoroids. They repeated this experiment the next day, when they also collected samples of the station's air and microflora and removed the cosmic ray detectors for return to Earth. 28–29 March were largely devoted to studies of Mongolia from space. The visiting crew also checked out their spacecraft on 29 March The Soviet news service TASS noted that by 29 March, Salyut 6 had conducted 20,140 revolutions of Earth.

Naturally occurring krypton in Earth's atmosphere is composed of five stable isotopes, plus one isotope (78Kr) with such a long half-life (9.2×1021 years) that it can be considered stable. (This isotope has the second-longest known half-life among all isotopes for which decay has been observed; it undergoes double electron capture to 78Se). In addition, about thirty unstable isotopes and isomers are known. Traces of 81Kr, a cosmogenic nuclide produced by the cosmic ray irradiation of 80Kr, also occur in nature: this isotope is radioactive with a half-life of 230,000 years.

The gadolinium quickly captured the neutrons produced in the inverse beta decay. The second region (region II) contained 17 tons of undoped scintillator to capture the electromagnetic energy from the inverse beta decay (≈99%) and the photons from the neutron capture in the Gd (>95%). The outer surface of region II contained 192 inward facing photomultiplier tubes (PMT) held in an opaque plastic structure. The outermost region (region III) contained ninety tons of the same undoped scintillator as region II and vetoed cosmic ray events using 48 PMTs.

In 1976, Qu and his colleagues developed statistical curves on pulsar energy loss rates, and suggested that JP 1953 is a pulsar. On 5 March 1979, an intense burst of hard X-rays and γ-rays was recorded, and Qu's team analyzed its light curve and energy spectrum. They created a model for a neutron star binary system, and provided detailed explanation of the observational data using the mechanism of Bremsstrahlung and Kruskal-Schwarzschild instability. Their work was reported at the 17th International Cosmic Ray Conference held in 1981.

Valley Forge remained engaged in operations with TG Alpha through the early fall of 1959, when she then entered the New York Naval Shipyard for repairs. The ship returned to sea on 21 January 1960, bound for maneuvers in the Caribbean. During her ensuing operations, the carrier served as the launching platform for Operation Skyhook. This widely publicized scientific experiment involved the launching of three of the largest balloons ever fabricated, carrying devices to measure and record primary cosmic ray emissions at an altitude of between above the Earth's surface.

Fenton grew up in Australia, the daughter of two scientists. Her mother was a zoologist and her father was a cosmic ray and aurora physicist who worked with the Australian Antarctic Division during the 1950s. She completed a science degree with Honours at the University of Tasmania on coastal krill from south- eastern Australia and southern New Zealand. She continued her work at the University of Tasmania as part of a PhD focused on mysid crustaceans, discovering three new genera and 12 new species, graduating in 1986 at the age of 24.

While he was still at UW - Madison, Cline worked with Dr. Francis Halzen and studied hadron collisions from cosmic ray interactions. Their observations showed evidence for high-transverse-momentum secondaries in excess of the predicted exponential cutoff, which matched data from CERN at the time. Experiments at CERN ISR had shown that the cross sections of hadron collisions had been larger than expected. The data supported the quark model of the proton, where small momentum collisions would scatter at the “surface”, leading to an exponential cutoff of the transverse-momentum.

Jones' research has involved not only particle accelerator design and experiments at proton accelerators, but also detector development and cosmic ray research. He collaborated in the 1950s in the Midwestern Universities Research Association (MURA), which developed the concept of colliding beams in modern particle accelerators. He contributed to development of the scintillation chamber, optical spark chamber, and the ionization calorimeter for hadron energy measurement. He participated in experiments on hadron cross- sections as well as elastic and inelastic scattering and production of particles, dimuons, neutrinos, and proton charm production.

As of 2019, CRS is one of the active remaining instruments on both Voyager spacecraft, and it is described by as being able to detect electrons from 3–110 MeV and cosmic ray nuclei 1–500 MeV/n. All three systems used solid-state detectors. CRS is one of the five fields and particle experiments on each spacecraft, and one of the goals is to gain a deeper understanding of the solar wind. Other objects of study including electrons and nuclei from planetary magnetospheres and from outside the solar system.

Physicists are unable to demonstrate experimental and astrophysical constraints of zero probability of catastrophic events, nor that tomorrow Earth will be struck with a "doomsday" cosmic ray (they can only calculate an upper limit for the likelihood). The result would be the same destructive scenarios described above, although obviously not caused by humans. According to this argument of upper limits, RHIC would still modify the chance for the Earth's survival by an infinitesimal amount. Concerns were raised in connection with the RHIC particle accelerator, both in the media and in the popular science media.

Iris was mainly intended to study X-ray and particle emissions from the Sun, however, it is credited with some extra-solar observations. ESRO 2B (Iris) was the first successful ESRO satellite launch. Iris was launched on May 17, 1968, had an elliptical orbit with (initially) apogee 1086 km, perigee 326 km, and inclination 97.2°, with an orbital period of 98.9 minutes. The satellite carried seven instruments to detect high energy cosmic rays, determine the total flux of solar X-rays, and measure trapped radiation, Van Allen belt protons and cosmic ray protons.

Sunspot record (blue) with 14C (inverted). The production of carbon-14 (radiocarbon: 14C) is related to solar activity. Carbon-14 is produced in the upper atmosphere when cosmic ray bombardment of atmospheric nitrogen (14N) induces the nitrogen to undergo β+ decay, thus transforming into an unusual isotope of carbon with an atomic weight of 14 rather than the more common 12. Because galactic cosmic rays are partially excluded from the Solar System by the outward sweep of magnetic fields in the solar wind, increased solar activity reduces 14C production.

In summer 2007, QuarkNet inaugurated the QuarkNet Fellows Program to develop the leadership potential of teachers who would work with staff to provide professional development activities and support for centers. Three groups of fellows in the areas of cosmic ray studies, LHC and teaching and learning share responsibilities for offering workshops and sessions, developing workshop materials, supporting e-Labs and masterclasses, giving presentations at AAPT and more. In 2009 a new group of fellows joined the program. Leadership fellows work with staff to support centers and gather data about center performance.

The spacecraft took 118 days to reach Venus with one mid-course correction on 6 April 1972, separating from the bus (which contained a cosmic ray detector, solar wind detector, and ultraviolet spectrometer) and entering the atmosphere on 22 July 1972 at 08:37 UT. A refrigeration system attached to the bus was used to pre-chill the descent capsule's interior prior to atmospheric entry in order to prolong its life on the surface. Descent speed was reduced from 41,696 km/h to about 900 km/h by aerobraking. The 2.5 meter diameter parachute opened at an altitude of 60 km.

Léon Van Hove and Rolf Hagedorn watching results on a computer terminal at CERN, 1968. Hagedorn's work started when Bruno Ferretti (then-head of the Theory Division), asked him to try to predict particle yields in the high energy collisions of the time. He started with Frans Cerulus. There were few clues to begin with but they made the best of the "fireball concept" which was then supported by cosmic ray studies and used it to make predictions about particle yields (and therefore the secondary beams to be expected from the main beam directed at a target).

He formed an alliance with the Mole Man who was trying to use an earthquake machine to attack the surface world, and battled the Avengers, but was defeated.Avengers #12 Back with the Super- Apes again, Kragoff appeared among the villains assembled by Doctor Doom to destroy the Fantastic Four.Fantastic Four Annual #3 Kragoff eventually lost his original powers. He formed an alliance with the Unicorn to steal Anthony Stark's cosmic-ray intensifier, which he used to gain the new superhuman power of a mist-like form and to give powers to his new trained apes, Alpha and Beta.

Neutrino 2011. The first conference was held in Balatonfüred in 1972; however, three preceding conferences are often referenced with respect to the history of the Neutrino series. These meetings include the 1965 Informal Conference on Experimental Neutrino Physics at CERN; a 1968 conference in Moscow sponsored by the Academy of the USSR, which was organized just after certain cosmic ray neutrino events were seen in the gold mines of India, South Africa and Utah; and a 1970 meeting in Cortona. Each conference is supervised by a changing International Advisory Committee as well as the permanent International Neutrino Commission.

This is commonly done by measurement of the alpha radioactivity (the uranium and thorium content) and the potassium content (K-40 is a beta and gamma emitter) of the sample material. Often the gamma radiation field at the position of the sample material is measured, or it may be calculated from the alpha radioactivity and potassium content of the sample environment, and the cosmic ray dose is added in. Once all components of the radiation field are determined, the accumulated dose from the thermoluminescence measurements is divided by the dose accumulating each year, to obtain the years since the zeroing event.

James "Jim" Hamilton (29 January 1918 – 6 July 2000) was an Irish mathematician and theoretical physicist who, whilst at Dublin Institute for Advanced Sciences (1941-1943), helped to develop the theory of cosmic-ray mesons with Walter Heitler and Hwan-Wu Peng. He was born in Sligo. His family moved to Belfast in 1920, where after attending the Royal Academical Institution he entered Queen's University in 1935. Following his graduation, Jim continued to work at Queen's, and was the first fellow to be enrolled in the School of Theoretical Physics at the Dublin Institute for Advanced Sciences.

Due to the potential negative effects of astronaut exposure to cosmic rays, solar activity may play a role in future space travel. Because galactic cosmic ray fluxes within the Solar System are lower during periods of strong solar activity, interplanetary travel during solar maximum should minimize the average dose to astronauts. Although the Forbush decrease effect during coronal mass ejections can temporarily lower the flux of galactic cosmic rays, the short duration of the effect (1–3 days) and the approximately 1% chance that a CME generates a dangerous solar proton event limits the utility of timing missions to coincide with CMEs.

Joseph Dwyer Joseph R. Dwyer (born 1963) is an American physicist known for his lightning research. He is a Professor of Physics at the University of New Hampshire. Dwyer received his Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Chicago in 1994 and worked on cosmic-ray physics and gamma-ray astronomy as a research scientist at Columbia University and the University of Maryland before joining the faculty at the Florida Institute of Technology in 2000. After moving to Melbourne, Florida, Dwyer became interested in lightning physics and his research now focuses on high-energy radiation production from thunderstorms and lightning.

The Ranger 1 and 2 Block I missions were virtually identical. Spacecraft experiments included a Lyman-alpha telescope, a rubidium-vapor magnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium-energy-range particle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic-ray integrating ionization chamber, cosmic dust detectors, and scintillation counters. The goal was to place these Block I spacecraft in a very high Earth orbit with an apogee of and a perigee of . From that vantage point, scientists could make direct measurements of the magnetosphere over a period of many months while engineers perfected new methods to routinely track and communicate with spacecraft over such large distances.

Given the long free paths, an electric field can accelerate these electrons to energies far higher than that of initially static electrons. If they strike air molecules, more relativistic electrons will be released, creating an avalanche multiplication of "runaway" electrons. This process, relativistic runaway electron avalanche, has been hypothesized to lead to electrical breakdown in thunderstorms, but only when a source of high-energy electrons from a cosmic ray is present to start the "runaway" process. The resulting conductive plasma trail, many tens of meters long, is suggested to supply the "seed" which triggers a lightning flash.

Firstly, while sunspot activity declined after 1985, cosmic ray flux reached a minimum in 1992 and contributed to warming during the 1990s. Secondly, Shaviv argues that short term variations in radiative forcing are damped by the oceans, leading to a lag between changes in solar output and the effect on global temperatures. While the 2001 maximum was weaker than the 1990 maximum, increasing solar activity during previous decades was still having a warming effect, not unlike the lag between noon and the hottest hour of the day. Later quantitative modeling showed that indeed there is no discrepancy.

By 1952, a bewildering "zoo" of elementary particles had been reported, with various masses, decay schemes, nomenclature and reliability of identification. To deal with this situation, Blackett and Leprince-Ringuet organized an International Cosmic Ray Conference at Bagnères-de-Bigorre in 1953. According to James Cronin, "this conference can be placed in importance in the same category as two other famous conferences, the Solvay congress of 1927 and the Shelter Island Conference of 1948." Leprince-Ringuet asked Rossi to give a summary of new information presented at the conference and to propose nomenclature for the new particles.

By the time of the Bagnères-de-Bigorre conference, Rossi had already turned his attention toward the astrophysical implications of cosmic ray phenomena, particularly extensive air showers. After Rossi's recognition, in Eritrea, that these events exist, they were extensively studied by Pierre Auger, and by Williams. At this time, the extremely fast response of the newly developed scintillation counters offered a new way to study the structure of air showers. To do this, Rossi enlisted his student, George W. Clark, who completed a PhD in 1952, and Piero Bassi, who was a visitor from the University of Padua.

Institute for Nuclear Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences (INR RAS, ) is a Russian scientific research centre "for further development of the experimental base and fundamental research activities in the field of atomic nucleus, elementary particle and cosmic ray physics and neutrino astrophysics". It was founded in 1970 by the Decree of the USSR Council of Ministers. Located in Moscow, Russia near the Moscow State University and in Troitsk. The Institute is a founder of the Baksan Neutrino Observatory, the Baikal Deep Underwater Neutrino Telescope (Lake Baikal) and the former Artemovskaya Scientific Station (Soledar, Ukraine).

A high-gain directional dish antenna was attached to the bottom of the base. Spacecraft experiments and other equipment were mounted on the base and tower. Instruments aboard the spacecraft included a Lyman-alpha telescope, a rubidium-vapor magnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium-energy-range particle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic-ray integrating ionization chamber, cosmic dust detectors, and scintillation counters. The communications system included the high-gain antenna and an omnidirectional medium-gain antenna and two transmitters at approximately 960 MHz, one with 0.25 W power output and the other with 3 W power output.

20 years after Carl David Anderson and Seth Neddermeyer discovered that muons were generated from cosmic rays in 1936, the Australian physicist E.P. George made the first known attempt to measure the areal density of the rock overburden of the Guthega- Munyang tunnel (part of the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme) with cosmic ray muons. He used a Geiger counter. Although he succeeded in measuring the areal density of rock overburden placed above the detector, and even successfully matched the result from core samples, due to the lack of directional sensitivity in the Geiger counter, imaging was impossible.

He was the first American to climb Aconcagua and the first American to climb Mount Kenya. While still serving with the Army's Ground Forces, Lt. Hackett’s Mt. McKinley climb in 1947 was part of Operation White Tower 1947. Operation White Tower was sponsored by RKO Radio Pictures and served two purposes: to get snow pictures while testing high altitude photography and to conduct scientific testing of cosmic ray effects in addition to performing geological surveys of the area. Dartmouth Digital Collections Dartmouth College Library "Mount McKinley: Encyclopedia 12: Alaska, Geography and General (1947)" Retrieved 21 August 2017.

The owner of the station sponsored Goad to attend Union College where he studied physics and also enrolled in the V-12 Navy College Training Program. Graduating in the spring of 1945, Goad was assigned to a Navy ship in Manila just as World War II was coming to an end. On his discharge in June 1946, Goad began graduate studies in the physics department at the University of California at Berkeley. The following year he transferred to Duke University where he began to work on a PhD in cosmic ray physics under the supervision of Lothar Nordheim.

Principally used for the detection of alpha radiation emitting radionuclides (especially radon gas), the radiation- sensitivity properties of CR-39 are also used for proton and neutron dosimetry and historically cosmic ray investigations. The ability of CR-39 to record the location of a radiation source, even at extremely low concentrations is exploited in autoradiography studies with alpha particles,A quantitative method for determining the biodistribution of alpha radionuclides using whole- body cryosectioning and alpha-track autoradiography Cebrián, D., Morcillo, M.A.; Radiation Dosimetry, CIEMAT Avd. Complutense 22; 28040-Madrid Spain. and for (comparatively cheap) detection of alpha-emitters like uranium.

Cosmic rays also cause elemental transmutation in the atmosphere, in which secondary radiation generated by the cosmic rays combines with atomic nuclei in the atmosphere to generate different nuclides. Many so-called cosmogenic nuclides can be produced, but probably the most notable is carbon-14, which is produced by interactions with nitrogen atoms. These cosmogenic nuclides eventually reach the Earth's surface and can be incorporated into living organisms. The production of these nuclides varies slightly with short-term variations in solar cosmic ray flux, but is considered practically constant over long scales of thousands to millions of years.

He received his degree in Physics from Sussex University in 1974, and his DPhil in Experimental Physics from Sussex University, for work carried out jointly with the Institut Laue- Langevin in Grenoble. He joined the Cosmic-Ray and Space Physics group at Imperial College in 1979, and in 1984 became the project manager for flight hardware for the x-ray satellite ROSAT. He received a Group Achievement award from NASA for the project in 1990. He became involved in the search for the direct demonstration of the existence of galactic dark matter, known as "Weakly Interacting Massive Particles". (WIMP).

Bhabha and Heitler then made numerical estimates of the number of electrons in the cascade process at different altitudes for different electron initiation energies. The calculations agreed with the experimental observations of cosmic ray showers made by Bruno Rossi and Pierre Victor Auger a few years before. Bhabha later concluded that observations of the properties of such particles would lead to the straightforward experimental verification of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. In 1937, Bhabha was awarded the Senior Studentship of the 1851 exhibition, which helped him continue his work at Cambridge until the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

Sands received his Ph.D. in physics from MIT in 1948, writing his thesis on "The meson component of cosmic radiation". Sands then joined the faculty as an assistant professor, and continued his cosmic ray research in Rossi's group. Another project of the Laboratory for Nuclear Science was a synchrotron particle accelerator, which was designed to accelerate electrons to an energy of 350 MeV. The accelerator was funded by the Office of Naval Research and built under the supervision of Ivan A. Getting, who was a professor of electrical engineering and had worked at the Radiation Laboratory on the extremely successful SCR‑584 radar.

Long before experiments could detect gamma rays emitted by cosmic sources, scientists had known that the universe should be producing them. Work by Eugene Feenberg and Henry Primakoff in 1948, Sachio Hayakawa and I.B. Hutchinson in 1952, and, especially, Philip Morrison in 1958 had led scientists to believe that a number of different processes which were occurring in the universe would result in gamma-ray emission. These processes included cosmic ray interactions with interstellar gas, supernova explosions, and interactions of energetic electrons with magnetic fields. However, it was not until the 1960s that our ability to actually detect these emissions came to pass.

Sreekantan attended the local high school in Nanjangud and completed his intermediate degree course at Mysore. He secured his graduate degree in physics, with honours, in 1946 and completed his master's degree the following year, specializing in Wireless communication, from Mysore University. He continued his studies as a research scholar at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, but moved to Mumbai in 1948 to the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) when Homi J. Bhabha invited him for advanced research in cosmic ray physics. His research at TIFR earned him a PhD from the University of Mumbai in 1954.

The dose from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, with a dose rate that varies in different parts of the world and based largely on the geomagnetic field, altitude, and solar cycle. Airline crews receive more cosmic rays if they routinely work flight routes that take them close to the North or South pole at high altitudes, where this type of radiation is maximal. The air shower was discovered by Bruno Rossi in 1934. By observing the cosmic ray with the detectors placed apart from each other, Rossi recognized that many particles arrive simultaneously at the detectors.

Cosmic radiation image identifying muon production mechanisms in Earth's atmosphere Muon tomography is a technique that uses cosmic ray muons to generate three-dimensional images of volumes using information contained in the Coulomb scattering of the muons. Since muons are much more deeply penetrating than X-rays, muon tomography can be used to image through much thicker material than x-ray based tomography such as CT scanning. The muon flux at the Earth's surface is such that a single muon passes through a volume the size of a human hand per second. Muon imaging was originally proposed and demonstrated by Alvarez.

Some naturally occurring isotopes are entirely radiogenic, but all these are isotopes that are radioactive, with half-lives too short to occur primordially. Thus, they are only present as radiogenic daughters of either ongoing decay processes, or else cosmogenic (cosmic ray induced) processes that produce them in nature freshly. A few others are naturally produced by nucleogenic processes (natural nuclear reactions of other types, such as neutron absorption). For radiogenic isotopes that decay slowly enough, or that are stable isotopes, a primordial fraction is always present, since all sufficiently long-lived and stable isotopes do in fact naturally occur primordially.

His scientific paper on the role of neutrinos was included by the American Physical Society and the Physics Review magazine, in their selection of 1000 most important scientific papers of the century. Cowsik has reported contributions towards understanding highly energetic phenomena in astrophysics such as cosmic ray, pulsar, supernova remnant, gamma ray burst, active galactic nucleus and other similar sources powered by accretion flows. His studies cover the diffuse non thermal radiations found all over space as well as radiations from discrete astronomical sources. His experiments are known to be interdisciplinary in nature and bridge the gap between universal phenomena and experimental physics.

Jim Russell patented a method for optical digital recording and playback, eventually used in compact discs and digital video discs, while a Senior Scientist at PNL in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1969, NASA chose PNL to measure the concentration of both solar and galactic cosmic-ray-produced radionuclides in lunar material collected from the entire Apollo program. In the 1970s, PNL expanded into energy, environment, health and national security research. The shift occurred as the AEC was replaced by the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) in 1974 and the Department of Energy in 1977.

Cosmic ray spallation process reduces the atomic weight of interstellar matter by the impact with cosmic rays, to produce some of the lightest elements present in the universe (though not a significant amount of deuterium). Most notably spallation is believed to be responsible for the generation of almost all of 3He and the elements lithium, beryllium, and boron, although some and are thought to have been produced in the Big Bang. The spallation process results from the impact of cosmic rays (mostly fast protons) against the interstellar medium. These impacts fragment carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen nuclei present.

Space exploration by means of balloon borne detectors is the main concern of this department. ICSP has pioneered in this field of low cost exploration of near earth space using light weight payloads on board weather balloons. In the course of the experiments ICSP payloads has visited the space more than 100 times and has gathered a multitude of data from extraterrestrial radiation sources, atmospheric radiation data due to cosmic ray interactions and other atmospheric data. These data has provided new understandings about the cosmic radiation sources as well as the radiation effects on the earth atmosphere.

Since 1988 Kajita has been at the Institute for Cosmic Radiation Research, University of Tokyo, where he became an assistant professor in 1992 and professor in 1999. He became director of the Center for Cosmic Neutrinos at the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research (ICRR) in 1999. , he is a Principal Investigator at the Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe in Tokyo, and Director of ICRR. In 1998, Kajita's team at the Super-Kamiokande found that when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere, the resulting neutrinos switched between two flavours before they reached the detector under Mt. Kamioka.

During his time in Pisa, he founded the Centro Studi Calcolatrici Elettroniche (CSCE), where the first Italian computer was built. For this work he received the gold medal of the President of Italy in 1961. He also developed a new track detector, known as the flash chamber — a precursor to the spark chamber — which went on to become the standard tool in particle and cosmic ray physics. In 1958 he returned to the University of Rome, as a Professor of Advanced Physics. He had two appointments as director of the institute, one from 1960 to 1962 and the second from 1964 to 1966.

However, the energetic protons consist of two populations of particles. The first population with energies of less than about 10 MeV has the same origin as electrons, while the second one with the maximum flux near 20 MeV results from the interaction of cosmic rays with solid material present in the Saturnian system (so called cosmic ray albedo neutron decay process—CRAND). The main radiation belt of Saturn is strongly influenced by interplanetary solar wind disturbances. The innermost region of the magnetosphere near the rings is generally devoid of energetic ions and electrons because they are absorbed by ring particles.

"Stringfield, 1977, p. 44 In 1977, at the First International UFO Congress in Chicago, Hynek presented his thoughts in his speech "What I Really Believe About UFOs". "I do believe", he said, "that the UFO phenomenon as a whole is real, but I do not mean necessarily that it's just one thing. We must ask whether the diversity of observed UFOs ... all spring from the same basic source, as do weather phenomena, which all originate in the atmosphere", or whether they differ "as a rain shower differs from a meteor, which in turn differs from a cosmic-ray shower.

The diffuse gamma radiation from our Galaxy also probes the origin of cosmic rays. This radiation is due to the interaction of hadronic cosmic rays with interstellar gas and subsequent decay of neutral pions, and the interaction of high-energy electrons with gas and radiation fields (radio, microwave, infrared, optical, UV and magnetic). If the distribution of matter and radiation is known through other measurements, knowledge of the diffuse emission allows one to measure the cosmic-ray flux and spectrum throughout the Galaxy. This information can be used to determine the regions within the Galaxy where particle acceleration has recently occurred.

The term hadron refers to subatomic composite particles composed of quarks held together by the strong force (as atoms and molecules are held together by the electromagnetic force). The best-known hadrons are the baryons such as protons and neutrons; hadrons also include mesons such as the pion and kaon, which were discovered during cosmic ray experiments in the late 1940s and early 1950s. A collider is a type of a particle accelerator with two directed beams of particles. In particle physics, colliders are used as a research tool: they accelerate particles to very high kinetic energies and let them impact other particles.

Gamma rays from radioactive decay are in the energy range from a few kiloelectronvolts (keV) to approximately 8 megaelectronvolts (~8 MeV), corresponding to the typical energy levels in nuclei with reasonably long lifetimes. The energy spectrum of gamma rays can be used to identify the decaying radionuclides using gamma spectroscopy. Very-high-energy gamma rays in the 100–1000 teraelectronvolt (TeV) range have been observed from sources such as the Cygnus X-3 microquasar. Natural sources of gamma rays originating on Earth are mostly as a result of radioactive decay and secondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with cosmic ray particles.

The third stage of the CZ-1 was specially equipped with a 40 m2 solar reflector (观察球) deployed by the centrifugal force developed by the spin up orbital insertion solid propellant stage. Therefore, the faint magnitude 5 to 8 brightness of the DFH-1 made the satellite (at best) barely visible with naked eyes was consequently dramatically increased to a comfortable magnitude 2 to 3. The PRC's second satellite was launched with the last of the CZ-1 SLVs on March 3, 1971. The 221 kg ShiJian-1 (SJ-1) was equipped with a magnetometer and cosmic-ray/x-ray detectors.

Thus, gamma rays are now usually distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by definition by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus. Exceptions to this convention occur in astronomy, where gamma decay is seen in the afterglow of certain supernovas, but radiation from high energy processes known to involve other radiation sources than radioactive decay is still classed as gamma radiation. The Moon as seen by the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, in gamma rays of greater than 20 MeV. These are produced by cosmic ray bombardment of its surface.

The initial experiments that took place in KGF were related to the study of cosmic ray muons. KGF was chosen because the depths of its mines allowed muons to be studied in a better environment than what was possible with magnet spectrometers operated at sea level. KGF also allowed the scientists to study the energy spectrum and angular distributions of muons even at very high energies. The mines had abundance of Kolar rock whose special characteristics with respect to density and chemical composition (different from that of normal rock) were also a useful advantage in the experiments.

The spacecraft was equipped with a mechanical soil- measuring penetrometer, a dynamograph, and a radiation densitometer for obtaining data on the mechanical and physical properties and the cosmic ray reflectivity of the lunar surface. Transmissions from the spacecraft ceased on 28 December 1966. Luna 13 became the third spacecraft to land successfully on the surface of the Moon (after Luna 9 and the American Surveyor 1). The probe landed in the Ocean of Storms at 18:01 UT on 24 December 1966, between the Krafft and Seleucus craters at 18°52' north latitude and 62°3' west longitude.

Ultra Heavy Cosmic Ray Experiment The descent stage of the Apollo Lunar Module, and the bottom of the ascent stage surrounding the ascent engine, were covered in blankets of aluminized Kapton foil to provide thermal insulation. During the return journey from the Moon, Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong commented that during the launch of the Lunar Module ascent stage, he could see "Kapton and other parts on the LM staging scattering all around the area for great distances." Apollo 11 Flight Journal – Day 6 part 4: Trans-Earth Injection. History.nasa.gov (2011-03-15). Retrieved on 2012-04-28.

This anomaly apparently allows her to perceive invisible people and objects, though she does not see them in colour since the cosmic-ray reflections bypass her eyes' rods and cones; her vision may also be monochromatic when she herself is invisible since her eyes do not reflect light in that state, though she otherwise seems to possess a full range of vision while she is invisible.Christiansen, Jeff; Sullivan, Mike (2010). Women of Marvel: Celebrating Seven Decades Handbook. . She can also sense people or objects made invisible by scientific means, and can restore them to a visible state at will.

The High Energy Astronomy Observatory Program was a NASA program of the late 1970s and early 1980s that included a series of three large low-Earth-orbiting spacecraft for X-ray and Gamma-Ray astronomy and Cosmic-Ray investigations. After launch, they were denoted HEAO 1, HEAO 2 (also known as The Einstein Observatory), and HEAO 3, respectively. The large (~3000 kg) satellites were 3-axis stabilized to arc-minute accuracy, with fixed solar panels. All three observatories were launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida on Atlas-Centaur SLV-3D launch vehicles into near-circular orbits with initial altitudes slightly above 500 km.

He helped to guide the development of airborne magnetometers for the detection of submerged submarines. After World War II ended and he returned to DTM he was pulled aside once again for a year due to the Korean War in 1951, where he directed a mathematical analysis division of an operations research office based at Johns Hopkins University. From 1958 to 1984 Scott extended his earlier seminal work on correlations between cosmic-ray intensity, geomagnetic storms and solar activity, while traveling around to lecture at international meetings and expanding his personal research to become more inclusive for collaboration with other researchers.

This visualization of particle acceleration across a shock is a simplified representation of shock drift acceleration showing the motion of electrons (yellow) and protons (blue). Solar energetic particles (SEP) are high-energy particles coming from the Sun. They were first observed in the early 1940s. They consist of protons, electrons and HZE ions with energy ranging from a few tens of keV to many GeV (the fastest particles can reach a large fraction of the speed of light, as in a "ground-level enhancement", a sudden increase in cosmic ray intensity observed by ground‐based detectors first observed by Scott Forbush).

The other main controversial issue was a demand by critics for physicists to reasonably exclude the probability for such a catastrophic scenario. Physicists are unable to demonstrate experimental and astrophysical constraints of zero probability of catastrophic events, nor that tomorrow Earth will be struck with a "doomsday" cosmic ray (they can only calculate an upper limit for the likelihood). The result would be the same destructive scenarios described above, although obviously not caused by humans. According to this argument of upper limits, RHIC would still modify the chance for the Earth's survival by an infinitesimal amount.

The visionary but ill-fated Antarctic Snow Cruiser, a vehicle having several innovative features, was used by the expedition but it generally failed to operate as hoped for under the difficult conditions and was eventually abandoned in Antarctica. It was rediscovered in 1958 but has since been presumed to have been lost due to the breaking off and eventual melting of the ice floe it was on. Observations were conducted in every conceivable area: seismic, cosmic ray, auroral, biological, tidal, magnetic and physiological to name a few. All in all, it was an extremely successful expedition.

Diagram of HEAO 3 Satellite The last of NASA's three High Energy Astronomy Observatories, HEAO 3 was launched 20 September 1979 on an Atlas-Centaur launch vehicle, into a nearly circular, 43.6 degree inclination low-Earth orbit with an initial perigeum of 486.4 km. The normal operating mode was a continuous celestial scan, spinning approximately once every 20 min about the spacecraft z-axis, which was nominally pointed at the Sun. Total mass of the observatory at launch was . HEAO 3 included three scientific instruments: the first a cryogenic high-resolution germanium gamma-ray spectrometer, and two devoted to cosmic-ray observations.

The tubes are coupled to fast electronics which amplify, digitise and record the pattern or image of the shower. The most effective mode of operation is to use an array of such telescopes, which can be typically located 70 to 120 meters apart. The primary advantage of this mode of operation is that the energy threshold (the peak sensitivity) of the telescope can be lowered as local muons produced by cosmic ray induced showers can be eliminated. This is because the narrow Cherenkov light cone produced by local muons will only be recorded by a single telescope.

Noting from prevalent records (Shri Durga Sapthashathi)The demon King Mahishasura after intense penance (Tapas) of years received indomitable powers from Lord Shiva. Power intoxicated him with such great arrogance that he started disturbing the Rishis in their holy rituals and attacking the Gods. When he defeated Lord Indra and captured his capital Amaravati, Fearing his might and insolence, the Rishis and Gods approached Brahma, Rudra and Lord Narayana and narrated their predicament. As Lord Maha Vishnu heard the details of Mahishasura’s misdeeds his calm face turned fierce and an intense cosmic ray of light (Divya Jyothi) emanated from his face.

Seo has been a co-investigator on international astrophysical collaborations including the Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter, Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, and Balloon-borne Experiment with Superconducting Spectrometer, and has been principal investigator on the Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass Experiment (CREAM), both in its initial balloon-launched configuration and in its second-generation ISS-CREAM experiment sent aboard the International Space Station in 2017. In 2019, NASA attempted to replace Seo as principal investigator on ISS-CREAM, and after a majority of the project's scientists supported Seo by rejecting NASA's chosen successor as principal investigator, they discontinued the experiment.

Mawson Station is a base for scientific research programs including an underground cosmic ray detector, various long-term meteorological aeronomy and geomagnetic studies, as well as ongoing conservation biology studies, in particular of nearby Auster rookery, a breeding ground for emperor penguins and Adélie penguins. Mawson Station houses approximately 20 personnel over winter and up to 60 in summer. It is the only Antarctic station to use wind generators for over 70% of its power needs, saving over of diesel fuel per year. It is accessible by sea for only a short period each austral summer, between February and March.

One of the measurement stations of EMMA experiment situated in Pyhäsalmi mine EMMA (Experiment with MultiMuon Array) is a cosmic- ray experiment taking place in CUPP and it is still partly under construction. The experiment is a joint venture of the University of Oulu, University of Jyväskylä, University of Aarhus and the Russian Academy of Sciences. EMMA is focused on studying the composition of cosmic rays in the energy above 1 PeV- range, the so-called knee region. When a primary cosmic particle collides with the atmosphere, it decays into secondary cosmic particles creating an air shower (muons, electrons, hadrons).

A pioneer in the use of nuclear emulsions for cosmic ray and accelerator research, Friedlander founded and headed the Cosmic Rays Laboratory at the Institute for Atomic Physics in Bucharest, Romania, before emigrating to the United States in 1975. He authored more than 250 scientific publications, was a professor at Cornell University, the University of Pennsylvania, and the University of Marburg in Germany, and conducted research at CERN, Fermilab, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Russia, and at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley, California. He was the recipient of a Humboldt Prize in 1986. Friedlander's research focused on multiparticle production dynamics.

His Cosmic Ray Laboratory in Romania was among the first to discover multiplicity scaling laws in proton-nucleus reactions. During his years at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Friedlander was engaged in the experimental study of the interactions of relativistic heavy ion nuclei and their secondary products. He played a leading role in many international collaborations, including the initiation of a collaboration using relativistic heavy ion beams at the Bevatron. Friedlander was the youngest person ever elected to the Romanian Academy, an honor withdrawn by the country's Communist regime after he defected to the West in 1975.

Bruno Rossi and Giuseppe Cocconi were among those involved.Johnny Florea, Cosmic Ray Research: Seven Colleges Join to Study Nature's Mightiest Force (photoessay), Life, Vol. 25, No. 19 (Nov. 8, 1948); pages 119–125. In 1965, the Midwestern Universities Research Association began doing high-energy physics experiments on the summit using cosmic rays to explore energies above those accessible with the most powerful particle accelerators of the day. The first experiments were conducted in a semi-trailer, and then in 1966, a temporary laboratory building was erected near the summit. This building was moved to Echo Lake that fall, where research continued until 1972.

Mount Evans dominates the Denver metropolitan area skyline, rising over above the area. Mount Evans can be seen from points south of Castle Rock, up to ( south) and as far north as Fort Collins ( north), and from areas near Limon ( east). In the early days of Colorado tourism, Mount Evans and Denver were often in competition with Pikes Peak and Colorado Springs. Mount Evans, along with Echo Lake, was designated as a historic site by the American Physical Society in 2017, commemorating the many cosmic-ray physics experiments conducted on the mountain between 1935 and 1960.

What began as an astrophysics project, with school groups using the Faulkes Telescope to make their own astrophysical observations, became something much more elaborate. Today a flagship IRIS projected allows school students to collaborate with CERN (CERN @ School), supported by the UK's Science and Technology Facilities Council, the Institute of Physics and SEPnet. Dr Jonathan Eastwood of Imperial College London described a new style cosmic ray detector designed by school students as the "UK's latest space facility". To build the detector, Parker raised in excess of £60,000, using initial funds from the British National Space Centre.

Ron Evans wearing the ALFMED light- flash detector during the outbound flight from Earth During the Apollo 16 and Apollo 17 transits, astronauts conducted the Apollo Light Flash Moving Emulsion Detector (ALFMED) experiment where an astronaut wore a helmet designed to capture the tracks of cosmic ray particles to determine if they coincided with the visual observation. Examination of the results showed that two of fifteen tracks coincided with observation of the flashes. These results in combination with considerations for geometry and Monte Carlo estimations led researchers to conclude that the visual phenomena were indeed caused by cosmic rays.

Space climatology considers long-term (longer than the latitudinally variable 27-day solar rotation period, through the 11-year solar cycle and beyond, up to and exceeding millennia) variability of solar indices, cosmic ray, heliospheric parameters, and the induced geomagnetic, ionospheric, atmospheric, and climate effects. It studies mechanisms and physical processes responsible for their variability in the past with projections onto future. It is a broader and more general concept than space weather, to which it is related like the conventional climate and weather. In addition to real-time solar observations, the field of research also covers analysis of historical space climate data.

DRAM memory may provide increased protection against soft errors by relying on error correcting codes. Such error- correcting memory, known as ECC or EDAC-protected memory, is particularly desirable for high fault-tolerant applications, such as servers, as well as deep-space applications due to increased radiation. Some systems also "scrub" the memory, by periodically reading all addresses and writing back corrected versions if necessary to remove soft errors. Interleaving allows for distribution of the effect of a single cosmic ray, potentially upsetting multiple physically neighboring bits across multiple words by associating neighboring bits to different words.

The Telescope Array RADAR (TARA) Project is an effort to overcome some of the problems inherent to current cosmic ray detection techniques. Due to sun, moon and weather, fluorescence telescopes are usually limited to a ten percent duty cycle. Ground arrays can run during the day, but require a large amount of land, making it necessary to build them in remote locations. The goal of the TARA Project is to develop a bistatic radar detection system that is able to maintain a 24-hour duty cycle at a fraction of the cost of conventional detection systems.

The hybrid setup of the Telescope Array project allows for simultaneous observation of both the longitudinal development and the lateral distribution of the air showers. When a cosmic ray passes through the earth's atmosphere and triggers an air shower, the fluorescence telescopes measure the scintillation light generated as the shower passes through the gas of the atmosphere, while the array of scintillator surface detectors samples the footprint of the shower when it reaches the Earth's surface. At the center of the ground array is the Central Laser Facility which is used for atmospheric monitoring and calibrations.

The fact that they were found indicates that these chemical reactions in interstellar clouds take place faster than suspected, likely in gas-phase reactions unfamiliar to organic chemistry as observed on earth. These reactions are studied in the CRESU experiment. Interstellar clouds also provide a medium to study the presence and proportions of metals in space. The presence and ratios of these elements may help develop theories on the means of their production, especially when their proportions are inconsistent with those expected to arise from stars as a result of fusion and thereby suggest alternate means, such as cosmic ray spallation.

He was principal developer of the cosmic ray and radiation belt instruments for Rockoon and the successfully launched Explorers, I, III, IV, VII and, in some cases, their spacecraft structures and subsystems. The space-based instruments were all transistor, a first. He also served as a research engineer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California for a five-month period following the October 1957 launch of Sputnik I by the Soviet Union, in order to adapt Iowa scientific instrumentation to the Explorer satellites. He was one of the co-discoverers of the Van Allen Radiation Belts.

The division chair that Bacher now occupied at Caltech had been vacant since Robert A. Millikan had retired in 1945. Although nominally a professorship, it was primarily an administrative post. In 1949 there were 17 professors in the department, of whom nine were physicists, two were astrophysicists, and the remaining six were mathematicians. There were two world class research laboratories funded by the Office of Naval Research, the Cosmic Ray Laboratory that had been founded by Millikan, which was now directed by Carl Anderson, and the W. K. Kellogg Radiation Laboratory which was directed by Charles Lauritsen.

Since the Earth bulges at the equator and mountains and deep oceanic trenches allow for deviations of several kilometers relative to an uniformly smooth spheroid, cosmic-rays bombard the Earth's surface unevenly based on the latitude and altitude. Thus, many geographic and geologic considerations must be understood in order for cosmic-ray flux to be accurately determined. Atmospheric pressure, for example, which varies with altitude can change the production rate of nuclides within in minerals by a factor of 30 between sea level and the top of a 5km high mountain. Even variations in the slope of the ground can affect how far high-energy muons can penetrate the subsurface.

He has also shown that the cosmic ray climate link explains part the faint sun paradox, since the slowly decreasing solar wind will give rise to a cooling effect that compensates the solar irradiance increase. Moreover, long term star formation activity in the Milky Way correlate with long term climate variations. In a more recent work with Andreas Prokoph and Ján Veizer, it was argued that the reconstructed temperature has a clear 32 million year oscillation that is consistent with the solar system's motion perpendicular to the galactic plane. The oscillation also appears to have a secondary modulation consistent with the radial epicyclic motion of the solar system.

In 1948, with the aid of a multi-plate cloud chamber in which lead plates alternated with aluminium ones, Gregory, Rossi and Tinlot showed that the source of the electromagnetic component of cosmic ray interactions was predominantly energetic photons, rather than electrons. This result confirmed Oppenheimer's suggestion of 1947 that neutral pions are produced in interactions, along with charged ones, and that this component arises from their rapid decay into photons. To study the new elementary particles, Bridge and Martin Annis operated a large rectangular multi plate cloud chamber at Echo Lake. This investigation provided the basis for a 1951 PhD thesis by Annis, supervised by Rossi.

The Tunka experiment now named TAIGA (Tunka Advanced Instrument for cosmic ray physics and Gamma Astronomy) measures air showers, which are initiated by charged cosmic rays or high energy gamma rays. TAIGA is situated in Siberia in the Tunka valley close to lake Baikal. Meanwhile, TAIGA consists of five different detector systems: Tunka-133, Tunka-Rex, and Tunka-Grande for charged cosmic rays; Tunka-HiSCORE and Tunka-IACT for gamma astronomy. From the measurements of each detector it is possible to reconstruct the arrival direction, energy and type of the cosmic rays, where the accuracy is enhanced by the combination of different detector systems.

They did not find them, but in 1960, James Earl, who joined the Minnesota group in 1958, used similar apparatus to discover a small primary electron component. During the decade from 1950 to 1960, Ney's cosmic ray research shifted away from cloud chambers toward emulsions. However, his graduate students used counter controlled cloud chambers to make significant advances in electronic instrumentation for the detection and analysis of cosmic rays. Specifically, in 1954, John Linsley used a cloud chamber triggered by a cherenkov detector to study the charge distribution of heavy nuclei, and in 1955, Frank McDonald used one triggered by a scintillation counter for a similar purpose.

Commenting on the discovery of carbon and silicate grains around aging stars: > In a cosmology dominated by Hydrogen and Helium, it was a relief to find a > source of the material that forms the terrestrial planets. On January 19, 1953, replying to an invitation to attend the Bagnères-de- Bigorre cosmic ray conference from Louis Leprince-Ringuet, whom he addressed as "petit Prince", Ney wrote: > I would like very much to attend the conference in the Pyrenees in July. It > would be very good if I could locate some little French girl to teach me the > language before I come over. I am looking forward to seeing your "charming" > scanners.

Muon tomography is a technique that uses cosmic ray muons to generate three- dimensional images of volumes using information contained in the Coulomb scattering of the muons. Since muons are much more deeply penetrating than X-rays, muon tomography can be used to image through much thicker material than x-ray based tomography such as CT scanning. The muon flux at the Earth's surface is such that a single muon passes through an area the size of a human hand per second. Since its development in the 1950s, muon tomography has taken many forms, the most important of which are muon transmission radiography and muon scattering tomography.

The determination that ALH A81005 was of lunar origin was made by Robert Clayton and Toshiko Mayeda, researchers at the University of Chicago, following the determination by Smithsonian Institution scientist Brian Harold Mason that the meteorite was similar in chemical and isotopic composition to rocks returned by the Apollo program astronauts from lunar highland areas. Evidence that ALHA 81005 is a lunar sample, was presented at the 18 March 1983 meeting of the Lunar and Planetary Institute. The evidence included fabric data, mineralogical data, compositional data, Oxygen isotope data, Noble gas data, Cosmic ray exposure history, magnetic properties, nuclear particle tracks, and thermoluminescence data.

Strongly interacting massive particles (SIMPs) are hypothetical particles that interact strongly between themselves [looks like they scatter off each other - observation of colliding galaxies in the Abell 3827 cluster, where it seemed that dark matter lagged behind the ordinary matter] and weakly with ordinary matter, but could form the inferred dark matter despite this. However, this finding has since been discounted based on further observations and modelling of the cluster. Strongly interacting massive particles have been proposed as a solution for the ultra-high-energy cosmic-ray problem and the absence of cooling flows in galactic clusters. Various experiments and observations have set constraints on SIMP dark matter from 1990 onward. .

He assisted Homi Bhabha in the installation of two cloud chambers, Rani and Maharani at the cosmic ray laboratory in Ooty in 1954. Later, a larger cloud chamber, the largest one in India till then, and an air shower array were also set up there, with his assistance. He also designed, together with Subramanian and Ramamurthy, a total absorption spectrometer and an air Cherenkov counter, and the experiments revealed to Sreekantan and his associate, S. C. Tonwar, that increase in energy was an influential factor in the increase of nucleon-anti nucleon production cross section. Their findings have been published in Palau International Coral Reef Center (PICRC) journal in 1979.

He joined the TIFR in 1955. He undertook experiments with cosmic rays to explore the properties of fundamental particles. He was actively involved in setting up balloon flight experiments, as well as deep underground experiments with cosmic ray neutrinos in the mines at Kolar Gold Fields. He was the President of the Indian Statistical Institute, the Vikram Sarabhai Fellow of the Indian Space Research Organisation, President of the National Academy of Sciences, India, Director of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai (1966–1975), Chairman Board of Governors, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay and chairman Board of Governors of the Indian Institute of Information Technology, Allahabad.

He has conducted extensive research on pre-solar grains of aluminum oxide found in meteorites and has devised a methodology to assess the age of the universe from them. Ramanath Cowsik is credited with the first detailed calculations on neutrino fluxes generated atmospheric cosmic ray interactions and observations of the same in underground detectors. These findings have been known to have assisted in the discovery of neutrino oscillations at Super-Kamiokande observatory in Japan. He is also known to have made the longest half-life measured in the world which related to that of double beta decay of Te-128, as 7.7 x 1024 years.

During this unauthorized ride into the upper atmosphere of Earth and the Van Allen Belts, they are pelted by a cosmic ray storm and exposed to radiation against which the ship's shields are no protection. Upon crashing down to Earth, each of the four learn that they have developed fantastic superhuman abilities. Grimm's skin is transformed into a thick, lumpy orange hide, which gradually evolves into his now-familiar craggy covering of large rocky plates. Richards proposes the quartet band together to use their new abilities for the betterment of humanity, and Grimm, in a moment of self-pity, adopts the super-heroic sobriquet, the Thing.

Millikan believed that his measurements proved that the primary cosmic rays were gamma rays; i.e., energetic photons. And he proposed a theory that they were produced in interstellar space as by-products of the fusion of hydrogen atoms into the heavier elements, and that secondary electrons were produced in the atmosphere by Compton scattering of gamma rays. But then, sailing from Java to the Netherlands in 1927, Jacob Clay found evidence, later confirmed in many experiments, that cosmic ray intensity increases from the tropics to mid-latitudes, which indicated that the primary cosmic rays are deflected by the geomagnetic field and must therefore be charged particles, not photons.

Since then, a wide variety of potential sources for cosmic rays began to surface, including supernovae, active galactic nuclei, quasars, and gamma-ray bursts. Sources of ionizing radiation in interplanetary space. Later experiments have helped to identify the sources of cosmic rays with greater certainty. In 2009, a paper presented at the International Cosmic Ray Conference (ICRC) by scientists at the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina showed ultra-high energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) originating from a location in the sky very close to the radio galaxy Centaurus A, although the authors specifically stated that further investigation would be required to confirm Centaurus A as a source of cosmic rays.

That fusion process essentially shut down at about 20 minutes, due to drops in temperature and density as the universe continued to expand. This first process, Big Bang nucleosynthesis, was the first type of nucleogenesis to occur in the universe, creating the so-called primordial elements. A star formed in the early universe produces heavier elements by combining its lighter nucleihydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium, and boronwhich were found in the initial composition of the interstellar medium and hence the star. Interstellar gas therefore contains declining abundances of these light elements, which are present only by virtue of their nucleosynthesis during the Big Bang, and also cosmic ray spallation.

A more practical application is the creation of nucleopore filters, widely used in microbiology. To create nucleopore filters, the technique is applied to a polycarbonate film and the etching is allowed to continue from both sides of a sheet of plastic until the two holes are connected, resulting in a tiny hole in the sheet. Continuous dissolving thereafter slowly and predictably widens the hole diameter until the desired diameter is obtained. Use of the technique in an experiment carried by a high- altitude balloon in 1975 resulted in the detection of one highly anomalous cosmic ray particle that traversed a stack of 32 sheets of Lexan plastic.

There was one Stratobowl launch in 1956, three in 1958, and seven in 1959. On November 8, 1956, the Strato-Lab I gondola lifted Malcolm Ross and M. L. Lewis from the Stratobowl to a world altitude record for manned balloon flight of . The purpose of the flight was to gather meteorological, cosmic ray, and other scientific data necessary to improve safety at high altitudes.Ross and Lewis, 1957 The most publicized flight, Strato-Lab IV piloted by Malcolm Ross and Charles B. Moore, lifted off from Stratobowl on November 28, 1959, reached an altitude of , and landed safely in Kansas after 20 hours in the air.

Echo Lake Park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1995. The listing included two contributing buildings, two contributing structures, and a contributing sites on . It included the Echo Lake Lodge, built in 1926, which was designed by Denver architect Jules Jacques Benoit Benedict, a two-story octagonal log building on a base of local granite that resembles a Native American earth lodge. With Echo Lake, along with Mount Evans, was designated as a historic site by the American Physical Society in 2017, in honor of many cosmic-ray physics experiments conducted at the lake and on the mountain between 1935 and 1960.

Working principle of a Micromegas detector. A particle detector is used to detect a passing particle and obtain information such as its position, arrival time and momentum. In experimental physics, the particle is usually coming from a particle accelerator but it can also come from space (cosmic ray) or from a nuclear reactor. The Micromegas detector detects particles by amplifying the charges that have been created by ionisation in the gas volume. In a Micromegas detector, this gas volume is divided in two by a metallic micro-mesh (“Micromesh” on the schematic) placed between 25 μm and 150 μm of the readout electrode (Strips on the schematic).

Mount Koven is a mountain in the Alaska Range, in Denali National Park and Preserve. Mount Eldridge lies to the northeast of Denali on Karstens Ridge, with Mount Carpe to the northeast on the Carpe Ridge extension of Denali's northeast buttress. Mount Koven overlooks the Great Icefall of Muldrow Glacier, with the west fork of Traleika Glacier to the east. It was named for Theodore G. Koven, who, while trying to rescue Allen Carpe (for whom Mount Carpe is named) from a crevasse in Muldrow Glacier, fell into the same crevasse and was killed while on the Rockefeller Cosmic Ray Expedition in May 1932.

Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets (CLOUD)CLOUD official website is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) and aerosols under controlled conditions. The experiment began operation in November 2009.CLOUD experiment provides unprecedented insight into cloud formation, CERN The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) on aerosols and clouds, and their implications for climate. Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question, (as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions.

In 1934 he completed an undergraduate degree at the Technische Hochschule in Stuttgart and in 1938 completed his doctorate in physics. During this period the physics department was very active at the Technische Hochschule, with teachers such as Erwin Schrödinger, Erich Regener and Paul Peter Ewald. Rathgeber played an important role in Erich Regener's aerial cosmic ray measurements, as he was the only student at that time who owned a car, and was therefore asked to collect the balloons and measuring apparatus, which could travel up to a distance of 200 km from Stuttgart. On 2 August 1932 Rathgeber married Erich Regener's daughter, Erika Regener.

The Chicago Air Shower Array (CASA) was a very large array of scintillation detectors located at Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah, USA, approximately 80 kilometers southwest of Salt Lake City. The full CASA detector, consisting of 1089 detectors began operating in 1992 in conjunction with a second instrument, the Michigan Muon Array (MIA), under the name CASA-MIA. MIA was made of 2500 square meters of buried muon detectors. At the time of its operation in the 1990s, CASA-MIA was the most sensitive experiment built to date in the study of gamma ray and cosmic ray interactions at energies above 100 TeV (1014 electronvolts).

This allows muons of a given energy to penetrate far deeper into matter because the deceleration of electrons and muons is primarily due to energy loss by the bremsstrahlung mechanism. For example, so- called "secondary muons", created by cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere, can penetrate the atmosphere and reach Earth's land surface and even into deep mines. Because muons have a greater mass and energy than the decay energy of radioactivity, they are not produced by radioactive decay. However they are produced in great amounts in high-energy interactions in normal matter, in certain particle accelerator experiments with hadrons, and in cosmic ray interactions with matter.

It was the first practical AND circuit, precursor of the AND logic circuits of electronic computers. To detect the voltage pulse produced by the coincidence circuit when a coincidence event occurred, Rossi first used earphones and counted the ‘clicks’, and soon an electro-mechanical register to count the coincidence pulses automatically. Rossi used a triple-coincidence version of his circuit with various configurations of Geiger counters in a series of experiments during the period from 1930 to 1943 that laid an essential part of the foundations of cosmic-ray and particle physics. About the same time, and independently of Rossi, Bothe devised a less practical electronic coincidence device.

Erlykin et al. (2009) found that the evidence showed that connections between solar variation and climate were more likely to be mediated by direct variation of insolation rather than cosmic rays, and concluded: "Hence within our assumptions, the effect of varying solar activity, either by direct solar irradiance or by varying cosmic ray rates, must be less than 0.07 °C since 1956, i.e. less than 14% of the observed global warming." Carslaw (2009) and Pittock (2009) review the recent and historical literature in this field and continue to find that the link between cosmic rays and climate is tenuous, though they encourage continued research.

Apollo 17 included a biological cosmic ray experiment (BIOCORE), carrying five mice that had been implanted with radiation monitors to see whether they suffered damage from cosmic rays. The five pocket mice (Perognathus longimembris) were implanted with radiation monitors under their scalps and flown on the mission. The species was chosen because it was well-documented, small, easy to maintain in an isolated state (not requiring drinking water for the duration of the mission and with highly concentrated waste), and for its ability to withstand environmental stress. Four of the five mice survived the flight; the cause of death of the fifth mouse was not determined.

The first true meson to be discovered was what would later be called the "pi meson" (or pion). This discovery was made in 1947, by Cecil Powell, César Lattes, and Giuseppe Occhialini, who were investigating cosmic ray products at the University of Bristol in England, based on photographic films placed in the Andes mountains. Some of those mesons had about the same mass as the already-known mu "meson", yet seemed to decay into it, leading physicist Robert Marshak to hypothesize in 1947 that it was actually a new and different meson. Over the next few years, more experiments showed that the pion was indeed involved in strong interactions.

The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system. This cosmic radiation consists of relativistic particles: positively charged nuclei (ions) from 1 amu protons (about 85% of it) to 26 amu iron nuclei and even beyond. (The high-atomic number particles are called HZE ions.) The energy of this radiation can far exceed that which humans can create, even in the largest particle accelerators (see ultra-high-energy cosmic ray). This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, including x-rays, muons, protons, antiprotons, alpha particles, pions, electrons, positrons, and neutrons.

Teflon thermal cover showing impact craters, from NASA Ultra Heavy Cosmic Ray Experiment (UHCRE) In 1936 he was hired as a research chemist by E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company at their Jackson Laboratory in Deepwater, New Jersey. The discovery of Teflon is best described in Plunkett's own words:Plunkett, RJ The History of Polytetrafluoroethylene: Discovery and Development, pages 261-266 in "High Performance Polymers: Their Origin and Development. Proceedings of the Symposium on the History of High Performance Polymers at the American Chemical Society Meeting held in New York, April 15–18, 1986." Seymour RB and Kirshenbaum GS, Editors, Elsevier, New York, 1986.

In 1956, McDonald began his career at the University of Iowa. In collaboration with James A. Van Allen he worked on "rockoons", which were small rockets lifted to 70,000 feet by balloons. At this height, the rockets would ignite and shoot up to 350,000 feet, carrying equipment intended to study cosmic rays and particles trapped in Earth's magnetic field. The same year, McDonald combined the scintillation counter of his thesis with a cherenkov detector into a balloon instrument that not only provided a novel measurement of the energy spectrum of primary cosmic ray helium nuclei, but also served as a prototype for devices carried on many spacecraft.

Several cameras are mounted around it, allowing a three-dimensional image of an event to be captured. Following the discovery of strange particles in cosmic-ray showers and the evidence of a large spectrum of heavy mesons, Charles Peyrou started the construction of a liquid hydrogen bubble chamber. A prototype, the 10 cm Bubble Chamber, was first built in 1957 and it was seen as a learning process, allowing the team to test and study the functionality of bubble chambers. Furthermore, the chamber was easily modifiable and had no magnetic field. The experience acquired during the prototype phase enabled the team to build the 30 cm bubble chamber.

At the time this detailed image of the lunar surface was termed by NASA scientist Martin Swetnick and subsequently quoted by Time magazine as "one of the great pictures of the century." The Apollo 12 mission landed south of Copernicus on mare basalts of Oceanus Procellarum that were believed to have been in the path of one of the crater's rays, and scientists hoped cosmic ray exposure ages of soil samples would help constrain the crater age. The results were inconclusive, but not inconsistent with the estimated 800 million year age of crater formation. Copernicus itself was a possible landing site for the canceled Apollo 20 mission.

These black holes would be tiny, with a mass of around 10 micrograms. They would also be unstable enough to explode in a burst of particles within around 10−27 seconds. Theodore Tomaras, a physicist at the University of Crete in Heraklion, Greece, and his Russian collaborators hypothesize that these miniature black holes could explain certain anomalous observations made by cosmic-ray detectors in the Bolivian Andes and on a mountain in Tajikistan. In 1972, the Andean detector registered a cascade that was strangely rich in charged, quark-based particles; far more particles were detected in the bottom portion of the detector than in the top portion.

Apollo 17 launched December 7, 1972, and returned to Earth on December 19. A biological cosmic ray experiment (BIOCORE) carried the five pocket mice (Perognathus longimembris), a species chosen for the experiment because they had well documented biological responses. Some advantages of the species included their small size, their ease of maintenance in an isolated state (requiring no drinking water for the expected duration of the mission and producing highly concentrated waste), and their proven capability of withstanding environmental stress. Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey had been implanted with radiation monitors under their scalps to see whether they would suffer damage from cosmic rays.

After leaving his job as a high-school mathematics teacher in 1977, he became a full-time writer and translator."Sci-Fi Author/Anime Staffer Takumi Shibano Passes Away," AnimeNewsNetwork, January 17, 2010, accessed January 31, 2010. Under the pen-name , a play on "cosmic ray," he translated as many as sixty science fiction novels from English into Japanese, including E. E. Smith's Lensman series and Larry Niven's Known Space series. Also as Rei Kozumi, he wrote three children's books, Superhuman ‘Plus X’ (1969), Operation Moonjet (1969), and Revolt in North Pole City (1977), and was also principal author of The World of Popular Literature (1978).

The controversy mostly ended with the report of a committee convened by the director of Brookhaven National Laboratory, J. H. Marburger, ostensibly ruling out the catastrophic scenarios depicted. However, the report left open the possibility that relativistic cosmic ray impact products might behave differently while transiting earth compared to "at rest" RHIC products; and the possibility that the qualitative difference between high-E proton collisions with earth or the moon might be different than gold on gold collisions at the RHIC. Wagner tried subsequently to stop full energy collision at RHIC by filing Federal lawsuits in San Francisco and New York City, but without success.e.g. NBC News, June 14, 2000.

KASCADE was a European physics experiment started in 1996 at Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Germany (now Karlsruher Institut für Technologie), an extensive air shower experiment array to study the cosmic ray primary composition and the hadronic interactions, measuring simultaneously the electronic, muonic and hadronic components. KASCADE-Grande was a further extension of the previous project by reassembling 37 detectors of the former EAS-TOP experiment running between 1987 and 2000 at Campo Imperatore, Gran Sasso Laboratories, Italy. By this Grande extension of KASCADE the energy range was extended to 1014–1018 eV. The experiment contributed significantly to the development of the CORSIKA simulation program which is use heavily in astroparticle physics.

For their methodical studies at the Institute for Radium Research of the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna, Blau and Wambacher received the Lieben Prize of the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1937. Also in 1937, Blau and Wambacher jointly discovered "disintegration stars" in photographic plates that had been exposed to cosmic radiation at an altitude of 2300 m above sea level. These stars are the patterns of particle tracks from nuclear reactions (spallation events) of cosmic-ray particles with nuclei of the photographic emulsion. After Blau had to leave Austria in 1938, Hertha Wambacher continued working on the identification of particles from nuclear reactions of cosmic rays with the emulsion constituents.

Chlorine-36 (36Cl) is an isotope of chlorine. Chlorine has two stable isotopes and one naturally occurring radioactive isotope, the cosmogenic isotope 36Cl. Its half-life is 301,300 ± 1,500 years. 36Cl decays primarily (98%) by beta- minus decay to 36Ar, and the balance to 36S. Trace amounts of radioactive 36Cl exist in the environment, in a ratio of about (7-10) × 10−13 to 1 with stable chlorine isotopes. This corresponds to a concentration of approximately 1 Bq/(kg Cl). 36Cl is produced in the atmosphere by spallation of 36Ar by interactions with cosmic ray protons. In the top meter of the lithosphere, 36Cl is generated primarily by thermal neutron activation of 35Cl and spallation of 39K and 40Ca.

The RDA is located in an area of several square miles just South of the city of Lamar, Colorado, in the United States, part of the area proposed for Auger North. It consists of surface detectors (water tanks instrumented with photomultiplier tubes and readout electronics), communication towers, and a building housing the data concentrator and computing. The ten water tanks are instrumented with one photomultiplier tube each to detect the Cherenkov radiation generated by particles in cosmic ray air showers. (The water tanks currently used in the southern Pierre Auger observatory use three photomultiplier tubes each.) The communication towers will test a new way to transport data from the water tanks to the data concentrator.

Shortly after the first geomagnetic polarity time scales were produced, scientists began exploring the possibility that reversals could be linked to extinctions. Most such proposals rest on the assumption that the Earth's magnetic field would be much weaker during reversals. Possibly the first such hypothesis was that high-energy particles trapped in the Van Allen radiation belt could be liberated and bombard the Earth. Detailed calculations confirm that if the Earth's dipole field disappeared entirely (leaving the quadrupole and higher components), most of the atmosphere would become accessible to high-energy particles, but would act as a barrier to them, and cosmic ray collisions would produce secondary radiation of beryllium-10 or chlorine-36.

On the night of January 31, 1958, Stuhlinger was at the controls of the timer when the Explorer 1 was launched, triggering the device right on time. He became known as "the man with the golden finger." This satellite discovered the Van Allen radiation belt through a cosmic ray sensor, a felicitous intersection with his early physics expertise, included in a science package supervised by Stuhlinger. MSFC Heritage Gallery In 1960, the major part of ABMA was transferred to NASA, forming the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama. Stuhlinger served as director of the MSFC Space Science Laboratory from its formation in 1960 until 1968, and then was MSFC's associate director for science from 1968 to 1975.

GPS sonde, approx 220 × 80 ×75 mm (8.7 × 3.1 × 3 in) (with grounding station in the background, used to perform a 'ground check' and also recondition the humidity sensor) A radiosonde is a battery-powered telemetry instrument carried into the atmosphere usually by a weather balloon that measures various atmospheric parameters and transmits them by radio to a ground receiver. Modern radiosondes measure or calculate the following variables: altitude, pressure, temperature, relative humidity, wind (both wind speed and wind direction), cosmic ray readings at high altitude and geographical position (latitude/longitude). Radiosondes measuring ozone concentration are known as ozonesondes. Radiosondes may operate at a radio frequency of 403 MHz or 1680 MHz.

Immediately after the Rome conference, Rossi carried out two experiments that led to a significant advance in the understanding of cosmic rays. Both involved triple coincidences of pulses from three Geiger counters; but in the first, the counters were aligned and separated by blocks of lead, while in the second, they were placed in a triangular configuration such that all three could not be traversed by a single particle travelling in a straight line. Results from the first configuration demonstrated the existence of cosmic-ray particles capable of penetrating of lead. With the second configuration enclosed in a lead box, the results showed that some cosmic rays interact in lead to produce multiple secondary particles.

In October 1960 at the Fifth International Congress on High Speed Photography, A. Anderson, manager of the applied physics department of Westinghouse Research Laboratories stated that, "a new electronic tube, so sensitive it can "see" individual particles of light, has enabled Westinghouse scientists to photograph the faint tracks of Cosmic ray as they move through solid crystal at speeds near the velocity of light." The Astracon, light amplifier tube, was brought to practical application by Goetze. His research was supported in part by the United States Atomic Energy Commission and the United States Army Corps of Engineers. In the early 1960s in the Pittsburgh research laboratories the SEC (Secondary Electron Conduction) effect was discovered by Goetze.

Instruments aboard the spacecraft included a Lyman-alpha telescope, a rubidium-vapor magnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium-energy range particle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic-ray integrating ionization chamber, cosmic dust detectors, and solar X-ray scintillation counters. There was no camera or midcourse correction engine on the Block I spacecraft. The communications system included the high-gain antenna and an omnidirectional medium-gain antenna and two transmitters, one at 960.1 MHz with 0.25 watts power output and the other at 960.05 MHz with 3 watts power output. Power was to be furnished by 8680 solar cells on the two panels, a silver-zinc battery, and smaller batteries on some of the experiments.

It is believed that proton energies exceeding 50 MeV in the lower belts at lower altitudes are the result of the beta decay of neutrons created by cosmic ray collisions with nuclei of the upper atmosphere. The source of lower energy protons is believed to be proton diffusion due to changes in the magnetic field during geomagnetic storms. Due to the slight offset of the belts from Earth's geometric center, the inner Van Allen belt makes its closest approach to the surface at the South Atlantic Anomaly. In March 2014, a pattern resembling "zebra stripes" was observed in the radiation belts by the Radiation Belt Storm Probes Ion Composition Experiment (RBSPICE) onboard Van Allen Probes.

The more energetic an event is, the larger volume IceCube may detect it in; in this sense, IceCube is more similar to Cherenkov telescopes like the Pierre Auger Observatory (an array of Cherenkov detecting tanks) than it is to other neutrino experiments, such as Super-K (with inward-facing PMTs fixing the fiducial volume). IceCube is more sensitive to point sources in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere. It can observe astrophysical neutrino signals from any direction, but neutrinos coming from the direction of the southern hemisphere are swamped by the cosmic-ray muon background. Thus, early IceCube point source searches focus on the northern hemisphere, and the extension to southern hemisphere point sources takes extra work.

At the beginning of his career in Germany, England, and Ireland, Jánossy focussed on cosmic rays, both experiment and theory. His name is linked to Geiger's coincidence detector development with special application to cosmic- ray secondary components created in the upper layers of the atmosphere (mesons such as kaons, muons, gamma rays). He demonstrated how primary cosmic rays colliding with the Earth's atmosphere produced secondary penetrating showers cascading to the surface of the earth (1940–1941). From an early age to his death, he had a wide-ranging interest in the mathematical and statistical aspects of physical analysis, and, in particular, the application of probability and calculus to experimental results in nuclear physics and particle physics.

He held the post of the vice chairman of the IUPAP Cosmic Ray Commission from 1987 to 1993, sat as a member of the Atomic Energy Commission during 1985–86 and has held the chair of the Research Council of National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi. During 1986–88, he served as the vice president of the Indian Academy of Sciences. He is a former editorial fellow of the Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture and chairs the Gandhi Centre for Science and Human Values of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. He also serves as the chairman of the board of directors of Sadvaidyasala, an Ayurvedic medicine company founded by his father.

Here, with John Rose, he provided early leadership and scientific direction of the Radiological Physics Division and concurrently the Biology and Medical Ressearch DivisionArgonne National Laboratory Report-4488, Report 4571. He authored review articles on dosimetry in the Annual Review of Nuclear Science, in Radiation Biology, and in the Handbook of Medical Radiology. His studies of physics dealt now with electron diffusion from point sources in air, and with the cosmic ray background. In radiology he pioneered the detection of minimal burdens of radioactivity in humans, studying their distribution and variation in tissues and the epidemiology of chronic low levels of radiationRADIATION RESEARCH, Vol 61, No 3, Mar., 1975, Pp 538-539.

In this case, helium, atomic number 2, remains the even numbered counterpart to hydrogen. Thus, neutral hydrogen—or hydrogen paired with an electron, the only stable lepton—constituted the vast majority of the remaining unannihilated portions of matter following the conclusion of inflation. Another exception to the rule is beryllium, which, even with an even atomic number (4) is more rare than the odd number elements to either side of it (lithium and boron). This is because most of the universe's lithium, beryllium, and boron are made by cosmic ray spallation, not ordinary stellar nucleosynthesis, and beryllium has only one stable isotope, causing it to lag in abundance with regard to its neighbors, which both have two stable isotopes.

Grunsfeld's academic positions include that of visiting scientist, University of Tokyo/Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (1980–81); graduate research assistant, University of Chicago (1981–1985); NASA Graduate Student Fellow, University of Chicago (1985–1987); W.D. Grainger Postdoctoral Fellow in Experimental Physics, University of Chicago (1988–89); and senior research fellow, California Institute of Technology (1989–1992). Grunsfeld's research has covered x-ray and gamma-ray astronomy, high-energy cosmic ray studies, and development of new detectors and instrumentation. Grunsfeld studied binary pulsars and energetic x-ray and gamma ray sources using the NASA Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, x-ray astronomy satellites, radio telescopes, and optical telescopes including the NASA Hubble Space Telescope.

Spacecraft, both robotic and crewed, must cope with the high radiation environment of outer space. Radiation emitted by the Sun and other galactic sources, and trapped in radiation "belts" is more dangerous and hundreds of times more intense than radiation sources such as medical X-rays or normal cosmic radiation usually experienced on Earth. When the intensely ionizing particles found in space strike human tissue, it can result in cell damage and may eventually lead to cancer. The usual method for radiation protection is material shielding by spacecraft and equipment structures (usually aluminium), possibly augmented by polyethylene in human spaceflight where the main concern is high-energy protons and cosmic ray ions.

This animation tracks several gamma rays through space and time, from their emission in the jet of a distant blazar to their arrival in Fermi's Large Area Telescope (LAT). Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma decay from naturally occurring radioisotopes such as potassium-40, and also as a secondary radiation from various atmospheric interactions with cosmic ray particles. Some rare terrestrial natural sources that produce gamma rays that are not of a nuclear origin, are lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, which produce high energy emissions from natural high-energy voltages. Gamma rays are produced by a number of astronomical processes in which very high-energy electrons are produced.

Extraterrestrial, high energy gamma rays include the gamma ray background produced when cosmic rays (either high speed electrons or protons) collide with ordinary matter, producing pair-production gamma rays at 511 keV. Alternatively, bremsstrahlung are produced at energies of tens of MeV or more when cosmic ray electrons interact with nuclei of sufficiently high atomic number (see gamma ray image of the Moon at the beginning of this article, for illustration). Image of entire sky in 100 MeV or greater gamma rays as seen by the EGRET instrument aboard the CGRO spacecraft. Bright spots within the galactic plane are pulsars while those above and below the plane are thought to be quasars.

The Cosmic-Ray Isotope Spectrometer covers the highest decade of the Advanced Composition Explorer's energy interval, from 50 to 500 MeV/nucleon, with an isotopic resolution for elements from Z ≈ 2 to 30. The nuclei detected in this energy interval are predominantly cosmic rays originating in our Galaxy. This sample of galactic matter investigates the nucleosynthesis of the parent material, as well as fractionation, acceleration, and transport processes that these particles undergo in the Galaxy and in the interplanetary medium. Charge and mass identification with CRIS is based on multiple measurements of dE/dx and total energy in stacks of silicon detectors, and trajectory measurements in a scintillating optical fiber trajectory (SOFT) hodoscope.

The Solar Isotope Spectrometer (SIS) provides high-resolution measurements of the isotopic composition of energetic nuclei from He to Zn (Z = 2 to 30) over the energy range from ~10 to ~100 MeV/nucleon. During large solar events, SIS measures the isotopic abundances of solar energetic particles to determine directly the composition of the solar corona and to study particle acceleration processes. During solar quiet times, SIS measures the isotopes of low-energy cosmic rays from the Galaxy and isotopes of the anomalous cosmic ray component, which originates in the nearby interstellar medium. SIS has two telescopes composed of silicon solid-state detectors that provide measurements of the nuclear charge, mass, and kinetic energy of incident nuclei.

Yukawa or Carl David Anderson, who discovered muon, had originally named the particle the "mesotron", but he was corrected by the physicist Werner Heisenberg (whose father was a professor of Greek at the University of Munich). Heisenberg pointed out that there is no "tr" in the Greek word "mesos".G. Gamow, (1961) The first candidate for Yukawa's meson, now known in modern terminology as the muon, was discovered in 1936 by Carl David Anderson and others in the decay products of cosmic ray interactions. The mu meson had about the right mass to be Yukawa's carrier of the strong nuclear force, but over the course of the next decade, it became evident that it was not the right particle.

The first two ionizing sources to be recognized were given special names used today: Helium nuclei ejected from atomic nuclei are called alpha particles, and electrons ejected usually (but not always) at relativistic speeds, are called beta particles. Natural cosmic rays are made up primarily of relativistic protons but also include heavier atomic nuclei like helium ions and HZE ions. In the atmosphere such particles are often stopped by air molecules, and this produces short-lived charged pions, which soon decay to muons, a primary type of cosmic ray radiation that reaches the ground (and also penetrates it to some extent). Pions can also be produced in large amounts in particle accelerators.

When one of these particles strikes an atom it can dislodge one or more protons and/or neutrons from that atom, producing a different element or a different isotope of the original element. In rock and other materials of similar density, most of the cosmic ray flux is absorbed within the first meter of exposed material in reactions that produce new isotopes called cosmogenic nuclides. At Earth's surface most of these nuclides are produced by neutron spallation. Using certain cosmogenic radionuclides, scientists can date how long a particular surface has been exposed, how long a certain piece of material has been buried, or how quickly a location or drainage basin is eroding.

One also gathered information about the momentum (a quantity related to mass and energy) of the particles by measuring their deflection in the magnetic field present in the detector. The three main outer layers were the electro-magnetic calorimeter (also called BGO because it's made of Bismuth Germanium Oxide), the hadronic calorimeter (HCAL) and the muon detector. Calorimeters are dense and stop most particles, measuring their energy. A set of scintillation counters was placed between the electro-magnetic and hadronic calorimeters: one of their functions was to help in recognising and rejecting signals coming from cosmic ray muons, very highly energetic particles which come from the space and can disturb the measurement.

The film society and self- financing model continued over the next two decades, but by the early 1960s, a different outlook became perceptible in the work of American avant-garde filmmakers. Artist Bruce Conner created early examples such as A Movie (1958) and Cosmic Ray (1962). As P. Adams Sitney has pointed out, in the work of Stan Brakhage and other American experimentalists of early period, film is used to express the individual consciousness of the maker, a cinematic equivalent of the first person in literature. Brakhage's Dog Star Man (1961–64) exemplified a shift from personal confessional to abstraction, and also evidenced a rejection of American mass culture of the time.

However, the report left open the possibility that relativistic cosmic ray impact products might behave differently while transiting earth compared to "at rest" RHIC products; and the possibility that the qualitative difference between high-E proton collisions with earth or the moon might be different than gold on gold collisions at the RHIC. Wagner tried subsequently to stop full-energy collision at RHIC by filing Federal lawsuits in San Francisco and New York, but without success. The New York suit was dismissed on the technicality that the San Francisco suit was the preferred forum. The San Francisco suit was dismissed, but with leave to refile if additional information was developed and presented to the court.

The scientific objectives of the mission's three experiments were: :(1) to study intensity, spectrum, and time behavior of X-ray and gamma-ray sources between 0.06 and 10 MeV; measure isotropy of the diffuse X-ray and gamma-ray background; and perform an exploratory search for X-and gamma-ray line emissions; :(2) to determine the isotopic composition of the most abundant components of the cosmic-ray flux with atomic mass between 7 and 56, and the flux of each element with atomic number (Z) between Z = 4 and Z = 50; :(3) to search for super-heavy nuclei up to Z = 120 and measure the composition of the nuclei with Z >20.

In 1958, Gell-Mann in collaboration with Richard Feynman, in parallel with the independent team of E. C. George Sudarshan and Robert Marshak, discovered the chiral structures of the weak interaction of physics and developed the V-A theory (vector minus axial vector theory). This work followed the experimental discovery of the violation of parity by Chien-Shiung Wu, as suggested by Chen- Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao Lee, theoretically. Gell-Mann's work in the 1950s involved recently discovered cosmic ray particles that came to be called kaons and hyperons. Classifying these particles led him to propose that a quantum number called strangeness would be conserved by the strong and the electromagnetic interactions, but not by the weak interactions.

Most Planck units are extremely small, as in the case of Planck length or Planck time, or extremely large, as in the case of Planck temperature or Planck acceleration. For comparison, the Planck energy is approximately equal to the energy stored in an automobile gas tank (57.2 L of gasoline at 34.2 MJ/L of chemical energy). The ultra-high-energy cosmic ray observed in 1991 had a measured energy of about 50 J, equivalent to about 2.5×10−8 . Theoretically, the highest energy photon carries about 1 of energy (see Ultra-high-energy gamma ray), and any further increase of energy (trans-Planckian photon) will make it indistinguishable from a Planck particle carrying the same momentum.

Light elements in the atmosphere react with high energy galactic cosmic ray particles. The spallation of the reaction products is the source of 10Be (t, u particles like n or p): :14N(t,5u)10Be; Example: 14N(n,p α)10Be :16O(t,7u)10Be Plot showing variations in solar activity, including variation in 10Be concentration which varies inversely with solar activity. (Note that the beryllium scale is inverted, so increases on this scale indicate lower beryllium-10 levels). Because beryllium tends to exist in solutions below about pH 5.5 (and rainwater above many industrialized areas can have a pH less than 5), it will dissolve and be transported to the Earth's surface via rainwater.

Professor David B. Cline, 1983 David B. Cline, among other physicists, at a cosmic ray meeting in 1979 Cline, among other physicists, in a salt mine. [Editor note: Most likely the site of a neutrino detector] David Bruce Cline (December 7, 1933 – June 27, 2015) was an American particle physicist known for his contributions to the discovery of the Higgs boson and the W and Z intermediate bosons. After receiving his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, he went on to join the University’s physics faculty and founded the “Pheno Group”. Shorthand for phenomenology, the group consisted of particle physicists designing and running experiments alongside developing theoretical models that went beyond the current standard model of particle physics.

Among the key results of YerPhI in the early years were the discovery of protons and neutrons in cosmic rays, and the establishment of the first evidence of existence of the particles with masses between that of muons and protons. The high altitude research stations have remained the main research base of the Cosmic Ray Division (CRD) of YerPhI until now. Among the CRD achievements there were: discovery of sharp knee in light components of primary cosmic rays, detection of the highest energy protons accelerated on the Sun, and the creation of the Aragats Space environ¬mental Center in 2000 for studies of the solar-terrestrial connection, where CRD becomes one of the world's leaders. The 6 GeV electron synchrotron was accomplished in 1967.

Obituary: Professor Cormac O'Ceallaigh by D.H. Perkins, The Independent, 1 November 1996 Ó Ceallaigh remained at Cork until 1947 and then took a position at the University of Bristol working in a group assembled by the Nobel Prize winning particle physicist C F Powell. Bristol was at the time the worldwide centre of cosmic ray research, and O'Ceallaigh, nurtured by Rutherford and Powell, two of the greatest experimental physicists in history, soon became one of its leading figures. Their research into cosmic rays, involving pions, kaons,Science and Politics in 20th Century Ireland: O Ceallaigh when with Powell in Bristol identified a meson of a new type, the K-meson, and commenced work on the analysis of its decay-modes.

However the glassy material is enriched in these elements. The data on refractory trace elements, sulfur and fluorine as well as the data on the isotopic composition of nitrogen, argon and carbon released upon heating from the matrix and glass veins in the meteorite unambiguously indicate the presence of a Martian surface component including trapped atmospheric gases. So, the influence of in situ Martian weathering can be distinguished from terrestrial contamination in the meteorite. The Martian weathering features in Tissint are compatible with the results of spacecraft observations of Mars, and Tissint has a cosmic ray dating exposure age of 0.7 ± 0.3 Ma—consistent with the reading of many other shergottites, notably EETA79001, suggesting that they were ejected from Mars during the same event.

Peng was granted his PhD in 1940 and DSc in 1945. Recommended by Born, Peng worked at Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies in Ireland as a postdoctoral scholar from 1941-1943 and later as an assistant professor from 1945-1947. While at DIAS Peng worked with another one of Born's students Sheila Tinney to produce important work on crystal lattices.MacTutor biography of Sheila Christina Power Tinney"On the stability of crystal lattices VIII. Stability of rhombohedral Bravais lattices" (with S. C. Power), Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Vol 38, Issue 1, January 1942, pp. 67-81 From August 1941 to July 1943, Peng collaborated with Walter Heitler and James Hamilton to study cosmic ray, and developed HHP theory.

Li, Be and B are rare because they are poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and also in stars; the main source of these elements is cosmic ray spallation. Older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more. The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the "mixing" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed, while lithium is produced in younger stars. Though it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than current computations would predict in later-generation stars.

Because the existence of a significant cosmic ray climate link implies that solar variability will also have a large effect on the climate, Shaviv advocated the idea that natural climate variations play a significant role in 20th century climate change. Moreover, if solar activity increase over the 20th century contributed to warming in addition to the anthropogenic forcing, then the overall climate sensitivity should be lower than advocated by standard scenarios which do not include solar forcing. In 2008, Shaviv used the oceans as a giant calorimeter to quantify the solar radiative forcing. He found that the peak to peak variations are close to 1 W/m2, significantly more than can be expected from the changes in the solar irradiance.

There are close correlations between Earth's climate oscillations and astronomical factors (barycenter changes, solar variation, cosmic ray flux, cloud albedo feedback, Milankovic cycles), and modes of heat distribution between the ocean-atmosphere climate system. In some cases, current, historical and paleoclimatological natural oscillations may be masked by significant volcanic eruptions, impact events, irregularities in climate proxy data, positive feedback processes or anthropogenic emissions of substances such as greenhouse gases. Over the years, the definitions of climate variability and the related term climate change have shifted. While the term climate change now implies change that is both long-term and of human causation, in the 1960s the word climate change was used for what we now describe as climate variability, that is, climatic inconsistencies and anomalies.

In some designs (O'Neill/NASA Ames "Stanford Torus" and "Crystal palace in a Hatbox" habitat designs have a non-rotating cosmic ray shield of packed sand (~1.9 m thick) or even artificial aggregate rock (1.7 m ersatz concrete). Other proposals use the rock as structure and integral shielding (O'Neill, "the High Frontier". Sheppard, "Concrete Space Colonies"; Spaceflight, journal of the B.I.S.) In any of these cases, strong meteoroid protection is implied by the external radiation shell ~4.5 tonnes of rock material, per square meter. Note that Solar Power Satellites are proposed in the multi-gW ranges, and such energies and technologies would allow constant radar mapping of nearby 3D space out-to arbitrarily far away, limited only by effort expended to do so.

Among contemporary astronomical telescopes, any telescope with a focal ratio slower (bigger number) than f/12 is generally considered slow, and any telescope with a focal ratio faster (smaller number) than f/6, is considered fast. Faster systems often have more optical aberrations away from the center of the field of view and are generally more demanding of eyepiece designs than slower ones. A fast system is often desired for practical purposes in astrophotography with the purpose of gathering more photons in a given time period than a slower system, allowing time lapsed photography to process the result faster. Wide- field telescopes (such as astrographs), are used to track satellites and asteroids, for cosmic-ray research, and for astronomical surveys of the sky.

This motivated the first further development of the Eulerian theory of rigid body dynamics after nearly 200 yearsto address this kind of momentum- preserving energy dissipation. Sometimes the instrumentation reported the expected cosmic ray count (approximately 30 counts per second) but other times it would show a peculiar zero counts per second. The University of Iowa (under James Van Allen) observed that all of the zero counts per second reports were from an altitude of more than over South America, while passes at would show the expected level of cosmic rays. Later, after Explorer 3, it was concluded that the original Geiger counter had been overwhelmed ("saturated") by strong radiation coming from a belt of charged particles trapped in space by the Earth's magnetic field.

This radiation interacts with atoms in the atmosphere to create an air shower of secondary radiation, including X-rays, muons, protons, alpha particles, pions, electrons, and neutrons. The immediate dose from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, and this dose varies in different parts of the world based largely on the geomagnetic field and altitude. For example, the city of Denver in the United States (at 1650 meters elevation) receives a cosmic ray dose roughly twice that of a location at sea level. This radiation is much more intense in the upper troposphere, around 10 km altitude, and is thus of particular concern for airline crews and frequent passengers, who spend many hours per year in this environment.

Starting his nuclear physics career in Britain, Bhabha had returned to India for his annual vacation before the start of World War II in September 1939. War prompted him to remain in India and he accepted a post of reader in physics at the Indian Institute of Science in Bengaluru, headed by Nobel laureate C.V. Raman. During this time, Bhabha played a key role in convincing the Congress Party's senior leaders, most notably Jawaharlal Nehru who later served as India's first Prime Minister, to start the ambitious nuclear programme. As part of this vision, Bhabha established the Cosmic Ray Research Unit at the Institute, began to work on the theory of point particles movement, while independently conducting research on nuclear weapons in 1944.

Secondary payloads were: Ascent Particle Monitor (APM); Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM); Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM); Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE); Protein Crystal Growth II-2 (PCG II-2); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment. The flight was the first to test an electronic still camera in space, a modified Nikon F4. Images obtained during the flight were monochrome with 8 bits of digital information per pixel (256 gray levels) and stored on a removable hard disk. The images could be viewed and enhanced on board using a modified lap- top computer before being transmitted to the ground via the orbiter digital downlinks.

Bull Brogin, "Handsome" Harry Phillips, and Yogi Dakor were three career criminals brought together by Doctor Doom to help him destroy the Fantastic Four. He pays their bail using a robot and gives each of them superpowers, multiplying their natural abilities by a dozen. The trio capture the Fantastic Four, Phillips tracks the Invisible Girl and gases her, Dakor pretends to be delivering a car to the Torch from a Maharaja, but reveals it is fireproof when he traps him inside and fills it with gas, and Bull uses a cosmic ray gun from Doom to briefly turn the Thing to Ben Grimm and knocks him out. Doom captures Mr Fantastic using a robot Thing which helps him imprison Mr Fantastic in a glass box.

The narrator, Arthur Wright, and his friend Hugh Dutton visit their former classmate, Dr. John Pollard at his combination house/laboratory. Pollard, a classic mad scientist, has been conducting research into the question of what causes the mutations that drive evolution. Pollard informs them that he has determined that cosmic rays are the source of the mutations, and that he has decided that bombarding himself with heavy concentrations of cosmic rays will cause him to evolve into a future version of humanity. Pollard has built himself a cosmic-ray-concentrator that will allow him to evolve at the rate of 50 million years every 15 minutes exposure, but he needs someone else to operate it, which is why he has invited Wright and Dutton to his laboratory.

The array as presently deployed has already seen extended air showers, and the soon-to-be-completed CHICOS 90 array will observe with large aperture in the energy range from 1018 to 1021 eV, with the angular resolution to address questions of clustering in several years of run time. The events CHICOS is designed to observe are single subatomic particles slamming into the Earth's atmosphere with the energy of a brick falling from a rooftop. These Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray, or UHECRs, interact with the atmosphere to produce large showers of secondary particles at the surface of the Earth. Detection of UHECRs therefore depends on an array of particle sensors deployed like a net over many square kilometers to catch the incoming shower.

NASA describes the spacecraft as: > nearly identical to the Venera 1 design, a cylindrical body about 2 meters > high with two solar panel wings, a 2.33 meter high-gain net antenna, and a > long antenna arm, and had a mass of about 650 kg. It carried a 10 kg science > payload consisting of a magnetometer on a boom, cosmic ray counter, plasma- > ion trap, a radiometer, a micrometeorite detector, and a > spectroreflectometer to study the CH band, a possible indicator of life on > Mars. These instruments were mounted on the outside of the spacecraft. A > photo-television camera was held in a sealed module in the spacecraft and > could take pictures through a viewport when a sensor indicated the Sun- > illuminated martian surface was in view.

In particle physics, V was a generic name for heavy, unstable subatomic particles that decay into a pair of particles, thereby producing a characteristic letter V in a bubble chamber or other particle detector. Such particles were first detected in cosmic ray interactions in the atmosphere in the late 1940s and were first produced using the Cosmotron particle accelerator at Brookhaven National Laboratory in the 1950s. Since all such particles have now been identified and given specific names, such as K meson or Sigma baryon, this term has fallen into disuse. V0 is still used on occasion to refer generally to neutral particles that may confuse the B-tagging algorithms in a modern particle detector, as is used in Section 7 of this ATLAS conference note.

Electrical or magnetic interference inside a computer system can cause a single bit of DRAM to spontaneously flip to the opposite state. The majority of one-off ("soft") errors in DRAM chips occur as a result of background radiation, chiefly neutrons from cosmic ray secondaries, which may change the contents of one or more memory cells or interfere with the circuitry used to read/write them. The problem can be mitigated by using redundant memory bits and additional circuitry that use these bits to detect and correct soft errors. In most cases, the detection and correction are performed by the memory controller; sometimes, the required logic is transparently implemented within DRAM chips or modules, enabling the ECC memory functionality for otherwise ECC-incapable systems.

In October 1945 he arrived at the University of Chicago, at that time a world centre of nuclear physics where he had the opportunity to learn from Fermi, Teller and others. He was particularly influenced by Fermi, and he later adopted a similar presentation style whose goal was always to simplify and demystify physics. In 1951, he was awarded his PhD for a thesis on "Investigations on Large Cosmic-ray Bursts" done under Marcel Schein. In 1950 he accepted a position as assistant professor in the physics department at Marquette University Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where his young family settled. In 1948 he had married Bridie Lavelle in Chicago, and by the time he returned to UCC in 1952, the couple had three children.

In modern physics, antimatter is defined as matter which is composed of the antiparticles (or "partners") of the corresponding particles of "ordinary" matter. Minuscule numbers of antiparticles are generated daily at particle accelerators – total production has been only a few nanograms – and in natural processes like cosmic ray collisions and some types of radioactive decay, but only a tiny fraction of these have successfully been bound together in experiments to form anti-atoms. No macroscopic amount of antimatter has ever been assembled due to the extreme cost and difficulty of production and handling. In theory, a particle and its anti-particle (for example, a proton and an antiproton) have the same mass, but opposite electric charge and other differences in quantum numbers.

ACE also measures abundances of cosmic ray nickel-59 and cobalt-59 isotopes; these measurements indicate that a time longer than the half-life of nickel-59 with bound electrons (7.6 × 104 years) elapsed between the time nickel-59 was created in a supernova explosion and the time cosmic rays were accelerated. Such long delays indicate that cosmic rays come from the acceleration of old stellar or interstellar material rather than from fresh supernova ejecta. ACE also measures an iron-58/iron-56 ratio that is enriched over the same ratio in solar system material. These and other findings have led to a theory of the origin of cosmic rays in galactic superbubbles, formed in regions where many supernovae explode within a few million years.

The treatise, The New Art of Projecting Concentrated Non-dispersive Energy through the Natural Media, described an open-ended vacuum tube with a gas jet seal that allows particles to exit, a method of charging slugs of tungsten or mercury to millions of volts, and directing them in streams (through electrostatic repulsion). Tesla tried to interest the US War Department,"Aerial Defense 'Death-Beam' Offered to U.S. By Tesla" 12 July 1940 the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia in the device. In 1935 at his 79th birthday party, Tesla covered many topics. He claimed to have discovered the cosmic ray in 1896 and invented a way to produce direct current by induction, and made many claims about his mechanical oscillator.

Scattering may also refer to particle-particle collisions between molecules, atoms, electrons, photons and other particles. Examples include: cosmic ray scattering in the Earth's upper atmosphere; particle collisions inside particle accelerators; electron scattering by gas atoms in fluorescent lamps; and neutron scattering inside nuclear reactors. The types of non-uniformities which can cause scattering, sometimes known as scatterers or scattering centers, are too numerous to list, but a small sample includes particles, bubbles, droplets, density fluctuations in fluids, crystallites in polycrystalline solids, defects in monocrystalline solids, surface roughness, cells in organisms, and textile fibers in clothing. The effects of such features on the path of almost any type of propagating wave or moving particle can be described in the framework of scattering theory.

Advertisement of the Happy Pan, a Teflon-coated pan from the 1960s Teflon thermal cover showing impact craters, from NASA's Ultra Heavy Cosmic Ray Experiment (UHCRE) PTFE was accidentally discovered in 1938 by Roy J. Plunkett while he was working in New Jersey for DuPont. As Plunkett attempted to make a new chlorofluorocarbon refrigerant, the tetrafluoroethylene gas in its pressure bottle stopped flowing before the bottle's weight had dropped to the point signaling "empty." Since Plunkett was measuring the amount of gas used by weighing the bottle, he became curious as to the source of the weight, and finally resorted to sawing the bottle apart. He found the bottle's interior coated with a waxy white material that was oddly slippery.

In the 1950s Clark worked with Bruno Rossi and other collaborators on several large cosmic ray air shower experiments that used the novel methods of density sampling and fast timing to measure the energy spectrum of the primary cosmic rays to 1 billion billion (10^18) electron volts and to determine the distribution of their celestial arrival directions. In 1962 he was awarded Fulbright and Guggenheim Fellowships."The John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, All Fellows" In 1991, he received the M.I.T. School of Science Teaching Prize for his work over many years as the faculty member in charge of Physics 8.13-14 (Experimental Physics). He received the NASA Exceptional Scientific Achievement Award for his work with Claude R. Canizares on the Focal Plane Crystal Spectrometer experiment on the Einstein X-Ray Observatory.

A picture of Samuel Ting after he delivered a lecture on the topic of Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) in Shandong University on October 16, 2011 In 1995, not long after the cancellation of the Superconducting Super Collider project had severely reduced the possibilities for experimental high- energy physics on Earth, Ting proposed the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, a space-borne cosmic-ray detector. The proposal was accepted and he became the principal investigator and has been directing the development since then. A prototype, AMS-01, was flown and tested on Space Shuttle mission STS-91 in 1998. The main mission, AMS-02, was then planned for launch by the Shuttle and mounting on the International Space Station. This project is a massive $2 billion undertaking involving 500 scientists from 56 institutions and 16 countries.

These works include scientific writings, articles, books, research proposals and proposals for scientific research missions. Beyond his scientific work a with the Goddard Space Flight Centre the archive also documents conferences organised by Reuven. As of 2020, there are over 400 documents in The Online Archive of California on Reuven's work and remains readily accessible to those who visit the Library of Congress institutions across the U.S. Reuven's most notable work includes the early predictions and observations of low energy metagalactic cosmic rays which were first published in 1971 and co-authored by Lennard A. Fisk at the Goddard Space Flight Centre. The paper is a foundation on which later findings on low energy cosmic rays was built on as Reuven applied previous understandings of universal cosmic ray models produced by Giancarlo Setti.

Other three recurrently occurring later processes are thought to have produced the remaining elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis, an ongoing process inside stars, produces all elements from carbon through iron in atomic number, but little lithium, beryllium, or boron. Elements heavier in atomic number than iron, as heavy as uranium and plutonium, are produced by explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovas and other cataclysmic cosmic events. Cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is important to the production of lithium, beryllium and boron. During the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen-1 (protium, 1H) and helium-4 (4He), as well as a smaller amount of deuterium (2H) and very minuscule amounts (on the order of 10−10) of lithium and beryllium.

Cherenkov radiation (light) glowing in the core of a nuclear reactor. In comparison to this, the camera has captured a blue light from this effect in the water from the radiation given off by reactor, the cosmic-ray observatories look for this radiation coming from cosmic-rays in Earth's atmosphere "In 1952, a simple and audacious experiment allowed the first observation of Cherenkov light produced by cosmic rays passing through the atmosphere, giving birth to a new field of astronomy". This work, involving minimal instrument expense (a dustbin, a war-surplus parabolic mirror, and a 5 cm diameter photomultiplier tube), and based on a suggestion by Patrick Blackett, led ultimately to the current international multibillion-dollar investment in gamma ray astronomy. The Explorer 1 satellite launched in 1958 subsequently measured cosmic rays.

In pursuit of the carriers of 22Ne in the sludge produced by chemical destruction of some meteorites, carrier grains in micron size, acid-resistant ultra-refractory materials (e.g. C, SiC) were found by E. Anders & the Chicago group. The carrier grains were clearly shown to be circumstellar condensates from earlier stars and often contained very large enhancements in 26Mg/24Mg from the decay of 26Al with 26Al/27Al sometimes approaching 0.2 These studies on micron scale grains were possible as a result of the development of surface ion mass spectrometry at high mass resolution with a focused beam developed by G. Slodzian & R.Castaing with the CAMECA Co. The production of 26Al by cosmic ray interactions in unshielded materials is used as a monitor of the time of exposure to cosmic rays.

MARIACHI, the Mixed Apparatus for Radar Investigation of Cosmic-rays of High Ionization, is an apparatus for the detection of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECR) via bi-static radar interferometry using VHF transmitters. MARIACHI is also the name of the research project created and directed by Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) on Long Island, New York, initially intended to verify the concept that VHF signals can be reflected off the ionization patch produced by a cosmic ray shower. Project emphasis subsequently shifted to the attempted detection of radio wave reflections from a high energy ionization beam apparatus located at BNL's NASA Space Radiation Laboratory. Its inventors hope the MARIACHI apparatus will detect UHECR over much larger areas than previously possible, and that it will also detect ultra-high-energy neutrino flux.

L. D. Marinelli British Journal of Radiology Suppl.(Nov 1956)7:38-43 In 1953 he improved and applied the "twin" scintillation low-level gamma-ray crystal spectrometry method to detect and locate elements that are naturally radioactive in the human bodyL. D. Marinelli, British Journal of Radiology Suppl.(Nov 1956)7:38-43 These methods were quickly copied in laboratories throughout the world and yielded insights into the human metabolisms of many elements and their compounds.Rossi, Harald H., Letter, April 15, 1975 In 1956, he developed the twin scintilltor method for dosimetry and spectrometry of fast neutrons and its application to the measurement of cosmic-ray neutron background(Patent # 2-795-703, June 11, 1957) Berlman, I.B. and L.D. Marinelli. June 25, 1956. Twin scintillation fast neutron detector.

The energy of this particle is some 40 million times that of the highest energy protons that have been produced in any terrestrial particle accelerator. However, only a small fraction of this energy would be available for an interaction with a proton or neutron on Earth, with most of the energy remaining in the form of kinetic energy of the products of the interaction (see Collider#Explanation). The effective energy available for such a collision is the square root of double the product of the particle's energy and the mass energy of the proton, which for this particle gives , roughly 50 times the collision energy of the Large Hadron Collider. Since the first observation, by the University of Utah's Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector, at least fifteen similar events have been recorded, confirming the phenomenon.

Measurements of the energy and arrival directions of the ultra-high-energy primary cosmic rays by the techniques of density sampling and fast timing of extensive air showers were first carried out in 1954 by members of the Rossi Cosmic Ray Group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The experiment employed eleven scintillation detectors arranged within a circle 460 metres in diameter on the grounds of the Agassiz Station of the Harvard College Observatory. From that work, and from many other experiments carried out all over the world, the energy spectrum of the primary cosmic rays is now known to extend beyond 1020 eV. A huge air shower experiment called the Auger Project is currently operated at a site on the pampas of Argentina by an international consortium of physicists.

That year he also invented the neutron monitor to fulfill the need for a stable ground-based neutron detector. In doing so, he established neutron monitor stations at various locations including Peru, Huancayo, Mexico, Mexico City, New Mexico, Sacramento Peak, Colorado, Climax, and Chicago Illinois. In 1954 and 1955, Simpson explored the global and time variations of cosmic rays around the world at these neutron monitor stations. In 1956, a giant cosmic ray flare provided the first direct glimpse of the state of things in interplanetary space. At this point the scientific community surrounding cosmic rays and solar activity had grown large, and for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58) Simpson was one of 12 scientists responsible for organizing and coordinating the international program, helping to make it a huge success.

Positron decay results in nuclear transmutation, changing an atom of one chemical element into an atom of an element with an atomic number that is less by one unit. Positron emission occurs only very rarely naturally on earth, when induced by a cosmic ray or from one in a hundred thousand decays of potassium-40, a rare isotope, 0.012% of that element on earth. Positron emission should not be confused with electron emission or beta minus decay (β− decay), which occurs when a neutron turns into a proton and the nucleus emits an electron and an antineutrino. Positron emission is different from proton decay, the hypothetical decay of protons, not necessarily those bound with neutrons, not necessarily through the emission of a positron and not as part of nuclear physics, but rather of particle physics.

The most stable of these is 26Al: while it was present along with stable 27Al in the interstellar medium from which the Solar System formed, having been produced by stellar nucleosynthesis as well, its half-life is only 717,000 years and therefore it could not have survived since the formation of the planet. However, minute traces of 26Al are produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic ray protons. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used for radiodating of geological processes over 105 to 106 year time scales, in particular transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion. Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.

Research topics on data from this experiment covered a wide variety of physics issues, including the search for gamma rays from Galactic sources (especially the Crab Nebula and the X-ray binaries Cygnus X-3 and Hercules X-1) and extragalactic sources (active Galactic nuclei and gamma-ray bursts), the study of diffuse gamma-ray emission (an isotropic component or from the Galactic plane), and measurements of the cosmic ray composition in the region from 100 to 100,000 TeV. For the topic of composition, CASA-MIA worked in conjunction with several other experiments at the same site: the Broad Laterial Non-imaging Cherenkov Array (BLANCA), the Dual Imaging Cherenkov Experiment (DICE) and the Fly's Eye HiRes prototype experiment. CASA-MIA operated continuously between 1992 and 1999. In summer 1999, it was decommissioned.

One likely explanation for the error was a single- event upset caused by a cosmic ray, which the voting system did not protect against. Furthermore, a sourcecode analysis of the DigiVote system in 2004 found several obvious errors with the security of the encryption keys, leaking of sensitive information, and lack of defensive secure coding practices. The voting system was also found to be vulnerable to a limited replay attack. Note that DigiVote is a trade name owned by German-based company Brähler ICS Konferenztecknik AG (also spelt Brahler and Braehler in non German speaking regions) Brähler ICS own the trade name DigiVote which manufactures battery powered radio audience response voting units for use in meetings and should not be confused with the ballot system used in Belgium.

In the field of particle physics, "shmoo" refers to a high energy survey instrument, as used at the Los Alamos National Laboratory to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the Cygnus X-3 constellation. Capp also had a knack for popularizing certain uncommon terms, such as druthers, schmooze, and nogoodnik, neatnik, etc. In his book The American Language, H.L. Mencken credits the postwar mania for adding "-nik" to the ends of adjectives to create nouns as beginning—not with beatnik or Sputnik—but earlier, in the pages of Li'l Abner. Al Capp's life and career are the subjects of a new life-sized mural commemorating the 100th anniversary of his birth. Created by resident artist Jon P. Mooers, the mural was unveiled in downtown Amesbury on May 15, 2010.

In his Sasquatch form, Langkowski possesses superhuman strength and heightened endurance as well as a high degree of resistance to injury that enabled him to go toe-to-toe with the Hulk and survive (in an early appearance, Sasquatch fought the Hulk for "fun" in order to test the limits of his own strength). Sasquatch has proven sufficiently strong enough to pull a naval destroyer ashore for repairs,Incredible Hulk Annual #8, 1979 and to hold a DC-10 against the thrust of its engines and then hurl the plane over 1,000 feet backwards.Uncanny X-Men #120, 1979 He also has a healing factor. This was demonstrated when his arm, broken in the murderous attack of Super-Skrull against a cosmic ray monitoring station, healed in changing into Sasquatch to fight the multi-powered foe.

M.K.Ammosov North-Eastern Federal University is situated in the city. There is also a branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, which contains, among other things, the Institute of Cosmophysical Research, which runs the Yakutsk Extensive Air Shower installation (one of the largest cosmic-ray detector arrays in the world), and the Melnikov Permafrost Institute, founded in 1960 with the aim of solving the serious and costly problems associated with construction of buildings on frozen soil. In 2020, with global heating thawing the ground, the Institute is measuring the rate at which the permafrost is thawing, which affects the city as well as the climate. At the primary and secondary levels, the city has a number of UNESCO Associated Schools, including the Sakha-Turkish College, Sakha-French School, Sakha-Korean School, and School #16.

DNA copy-number ratios from microarray data, (b) cosmic ray intensity from a neutron monitor, (c) rotation speed against time of R. Sphaeroides flagellar motor, and (d) red pixel intensity from a single scan line of a digital image. In statistics and signal processing, step detection (also known as step smoothing, step filtering, shift detection, jump detection or edge detection) is the process of finding abrupt changes (steps, jumps, shifts) in the mean level of a time series or signal. It is usually considered as a special case of the statistical method known as change detection or change point detection. Often, the step is small and the time series is corrupted by some kind of noise, and this makes the problem challenging because the step may be hidden by the noise.

A section of the HDF about 14 arcseconds across in each of the four wavelengths used to construct the final version: 300 nm (top left), 450 nm (top right), 606 nm (bottom left) and 814 nm (bottom right) The production of a final combined image at each wavelength was a complex process. Bright pixels caused by cosmic ray impacts during exposures were removed by comparing exposures of equal length taken one after the other, and identifying pixels that were affected by cosmic rays in one exposure but not the other. Trails of space debris and artificial satellites were present in the original images, and were carefully removed. Scattered light from the Earth was evident in about a quarter of the data frames, creating a visible "X" pattern on the images.

O. Eugster, G. F. Herzog, K. Marti, M. W. Caffee Irradiation Records, Cosmic-Ray Exposure Ages, and Transfer Times of Meteorites, see section 4.5 Martian Meteorites LPI, 2006L.E. NYQUIST1, D.D. BOGARD1, C.-Y. SHIH2, A. GRESHAKE3, D. STÖFFLER AGES AND GEOLOGIC HISTORIES OF MARTIAN METEORITES 2001Tony Irving Martian Meteorites - has graphs of ejection ages - site maintained by Tony Irving for up to date information on Martian meteorites Earth receives a steady stream of meteorites from Mars, but they come from relatively few original impactors, and transfer was more likely in the early Solar System. Also some life forms viable on both Mars and on Earth might be unable to survive transfer on a meteorite, and there is so far no direct evidence of any transfer of life from Mars to Earth in this way.

Small amounts of fission products are naturally formed as the result of either spontaneous fission of natural uranium, which occurs at a low rate, or as a result of neutrons from radioactive decay or reactions with cosmic ray particles. The microscopic tracks left by these fission products in some natural minerals (mainly apatite and zircon) are used in fission track dating to provide the cooling (crystallization) ages of natural rocks. The technique has an effective dating range of 0.1 Ma to >1.0 Ga depending on the mineral used and the concentration of uranium in that mineral. About 1.5 billion years ago in a uranium ore body in Africa, a natural nuclear fission reactor operated for a few hundred thousand years and produced approximately 5 tonnes of fission products.

General antiparticle spectrometer (GAPS) is a planned experiment that will use a high-altitude balloon flying in Antarctica to look for antideuteron particles from outer space cosmic rays,Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, Review of the theoretical and experimental status of dark matter identi cation with cosmic-ray antideuterons in an effort to search for dark matter. Anti- deuterons could perhaps be produced by the annihilation of hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs).F. Donato, N. Fornengo, P. Salati, Antideuterons as a Signature of Supersymmetric Dark Matter (arXiv version) The goal of the GAPS experiment is to capture anti-deuterons in a target material, to form an exotic atom in an excited state. The exotic atom would quickly decay, producing detectable X-rays energies with pion signature from nuclear annihilation.

The results are: × 10−3 eV2/c4 and (90% confidence limit). In 2011, the above results were updated again, using a more than double data sample (exposure of 7.25×1020 protons on target) and improved analysis methodology. The results are: × 10−3 eV2/c4 and (90% confidence limit). In 2010 and 2011, MINOS reported results according to which there is a difference in the disappearance and consequently the masses between antineutrinos and neutrinos, which would violate CPT symmetry. However, after additional data were evaluated in 2012, MINOS reported that this gap has closed and no excess is there any more. Cosmic ray results from the MINOS far detector have shown that there is a strong correlation between high energy cosmic rays measured and the temperature of the stratosphere.

This shows cosmic ray hits as recorded by Voyager 1 from 2011–2012, a time when it is thought to have finally exited the Heliosphere A view of the outer solar system as discovered by Voyager as of June 2013 Voyager 2 is reported as leaving the heliosphere on November 5, 2018. In 1977 the spectra of Helium (He), Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Neon during the solar minimum was measured using the CRS instrument on the Voyagers that year. The solar minimum of 1977 occurred towards the end of year, and it was possible to observe both interplanetary, galactic, and anomalous energy spectras. In the early 1980s, the CRS detected charged particles around Saturn. It detected a 0.43 million volt flux of protons as it traveled through Saturn's magnetosphere.

The most striking example of fluorescence occurs when the absorbed radiation is in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum, and thus invisible to the human eye, while the emitted light is in the visible region, which gives the fluorescent substance a distinct color that can be seen only when exposed to UV light. Fluorescent materials cease to glow nearly immediately when the radiation source stops, unlike phosphorescent materials, which continue to emit light for some time after. Fluorescence has many practical applications, including mineralogy, gemology, medicine, chemical sensors (fluorescence spectroscopy), fluorescent labelling, dyes, biological detectors, and cosmic-ray detection. Its most common everyday application is in energy-saving fluorescent lamps and LED lamps, where fluorescent coatings are used to convert short-wavelength UV light or blue light into longer-wavelength yellow light, thereby mimicking the warm light of energy-inefficient incandescent lamps.

The rate of 14C production can be modelled, yielding values of 16,400 or 18,800 atoms of 14C per second per square meter of the Earth's surface, which agrees with the global carbon budget that can be used to backtrack, but attempts to measure the production time directly in situ were not very successful. Production rates vary because of changes to the cosmic ray flux caused by the heliospheric modulation (solar wind and solar magnetic field), and due to variations in the Earth's magnetic field. The latter can create significant variations in 14C production rates, although the changes of the carbon cycle can make these effects difficult to tease out. Occasional spikes may occur; for example, there is evidence for an unusually high production rate in AD 774–775, caused by an extreme solar energetic particle event, strongest for the last ten millennia.

The mission aims to study the existence of possible (temporal and spatial) correlations between the observation of iono- magnetospheric perturbations as well as precipitation of particles from the inner Van Allen belts and the occurrence of seismic events. However, a careful analysis is needed in order to distinguish measurements possibly associated to earthquakes from the large background generated in the geomagnetic cavity by the solar activity and the tropospheric electromagnetic emissions. CSES mission will investigate the structure and the dynamics of the topside ionosphere, the coupling mechanisms between upper atmosphere, ionosphere and magnetosphere and the temporal variations of the geomagnetic field, in quiet and disturbed conditions. Data collected by the mission will also allow to studying solar-terrestrial interactions and phenomena of solar physics, namely Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), solar flares and cosmic ray solar modulation.

Kenneth John Frost (October 3, 1934 – August 5, 2013)Kenneth J. Frost (1934 - 2013) was a pioneer in the early space program, designing and flying instruments to detect and measure X-rays and gamma-rays in space, primarily from the Sun. He was the first to suggest the use of an active scintillation shield operated in electronic anticoincidence with the primary detector to reduce the background from cosmic ray interactions, an innovation that made sensitive hard X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy possible. He was an American astrophysicist at Goddard Space Flight Center working as a civil servant for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. During his career, he was the project scientist of the Solar Maximum Mission, principal investigator of six science instruments, the head of the Solar Physics Branch, and the Associate Director of Space Sciences.

Musala is also the 3rd most topographically isolated major peak in Continental Europe. Musala is situated within the Rila National Park, which is noted for its rich flora, including species such as Macedonian Pine and Bulgarian Fir in the forests on its middle slopes, and fauna; it is one of the easiest places in Europe to see the wallcreeper. All major mountain ranges of Bulgaria can be seen from the top; these include Vitosha to the northwest, Sredna Gora towards the northeast, the Balkan Mountains along most of the northern horizon behind Vitosha and Sredna Gora, the Rhodope Mountains to the southeast, Pirin to the south, Osogovo and Ruy Mountain to the west, and of course, the rest of Rila. A cosmic ray station was built on the peak in 1960 with cooperation from the Hungarian Academy of Science.

Science data from HST arrive at the STScI a few hours after being downlinked from TDRSS and subsequently passing through a data capture facility at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. Once at STScI, the data are processed by a series of computer algorithms that convert its format into an internationally accepted standard (known as FITS: Flexible Image Transport System), correct for missing data, and perform final calibration of the data by removing instrumental artifacts. The calibration steps are different for each HST instrument, but as a general rule they include cosmic ray removal, correction for instrument/detector non- uniformities, flux calibration, and application of world coordinate system information (which tells the user precisely where on the sky the detector was pointed). The calibrations applied are the best available at the time the data pass through the pipeline.

Since then the collaboration has attracted the interest and support of many scientific institutions, educational institutions and members of the public around the world. Future research has to show in what aspects this new technique can compete with dedicated EAS arrays. The first detection method in the second category is called the air Cherenkov telescope, designed to detect low-energy (<200 GeV) cosmic rays by means of analyzing their Cherenkov radiation, which for cosmic rays are gamma rays emitted as they travel faster than the speed of light in their medium, the atmosphere. While these telescopes are extremely good at distinguishing between background radiation and that of cosmic-ray origin, they can only function well on clear nights without the Moon shining, and have very small fields of view and are only active for a few percent of the time.

In 1932, soon after the prediction of positrons by Paul Dirac, Carl D. Anderson found that cosmic-ray collisions produced these particles in a cloud chamber— a particle detector in which moving electrons (or positrons) leave behind trails as they move through the gas. The electric charge-to-mass ratio of a particle can be measured by observing the radius of curling of its cloud-chamber track in a magnetic field. Positrons, because of the direction that their paths curled, were at first mistaken for electrons travelling in the opposite direction. Positron paths in a cloud-chamber trace the same helical path as an electron but rotate in the opposite direction with respect to the magnetic field direction due to their having the same magnitude of charge-to-mass ratio but with opposite charge and, therefore, opposite signed charge-to-mass ratios.

Lawrence Sulak is an American physicist, currently the David M. Myers Distinguished Professor at Boston University. Some of Sulak's research has included Higgs detection at the Compact Muon Solenoid in the Large Hadron Collider, neutrino physics, astrophysics, and contributing work for the Monopole, Astrophysics and Cosmic Ray Observatory. The 1986 book _Second Creation_ on the history of modern particle physics by Robert Crease and Charles Mann opened with a description of being escorted by Larry Sulak down to the experimental halls of the salt mine under Lake Erie in Ohio converted to a proton decay detector designed by Sulak and the rest of the Irvine Michigan Brookhaven collaboration. The 1996 update of the book has replaced this description with another physicist led tour of another Sulak experimental collaboration effort on the muon g-2 measurement at Brookhaven National Laboratory.

The Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite (CRRES) was launched on July 25, 1990, into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) for a nominal three- year mission to investigate fields, plasmas, and energetic particles inside the Earth's magnetosphere. As part of the CRRES program, the SPACERAD (Space Radiation Effects) project, managed by Air Force Geophysics Laboratory, investigated the radiation environment of the inner and outer radiation belts and measured radiation effects on state-of-the-art microelectronics devices. CRRES aboard Atlas I Other magnetospheric, ionospheric, and cosmic ray experiments were also included onboard CRRES and supported by NASA or the Office of Naval Research. The chemical release project was managed by NASA/MSFC and utilized the release of chemicals from onboard canisters at low altitudes near dawn and dusk perigee times and at high altitudes near local midnight.

The methodical goals which she pursued were the identification of particles, in particular alpha-particles and protons, and the determination of their energy based on the characteristics of the tracks they left in emulsions; there, she developed a photographic emulsion technique used in the study of cosmic rays, being the first scientist use nuclear emulsions to detect neutrons. For this work, Blau and her former student Hertha Wambacher received the Lieben Prize of the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1937. It was her greatest success when, also in 1937, she and Wambacher discovered "disintegration stars" in photographic plates that had been exposed to cosmic radiation at an altitude of 2,300 metres (≈7,500 feet) above sea level. These stars are the patterns of particle tracks from nuclear reactions (spallation events) of cosmic-ray particles with nuclei of the photographic emulsion.

Paolo Giubellino is frequently invited to give public lectures on experimental particle physics at the LHC. He has delivered about 50 talks at international conferences and many invited seminars and colloquia about the results of his scientific work, including the closing plenary talk at the 2002 Quark Matter Conference and the plenary talk dedicated to Heavy Ion Physics at the 25th International Nuclear Physics Conference (INPC 2013)INPC 2013 Official Website in June 2013, and chaired sessions in numerous international conferences. In May 2015, he delivered a talk about the work done at ALICE at the first Italian Conference of Physics Students. Giubellino has played a significant role in developing collaboration between Europe and Latin American institutes. His support led to Mexico’s involvement in ALICE, particularly in the successful construction of the V0 detector and the Cosmic Ray detector.

These neutrons come from the spontaneous fission of uranium-238, naturally neutron-induced fission of uranium-235, cosmic ray spallation of nuclei, and light elements absorbing alpha particles and emitting a neutron. The half-life of 239Np is very short, although the detection of its much longer-lived daughter 239Pu in nature in 1951 definitively established its natural occurrence. In 1952, 237Np was identified and isolated from concentrates of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo: in these minerals, the ratio of neptunium-237 to uranium is less than or equal to about 10−12 to 1. Most neptunium (and plutonium) now encountered in the environment is due to atmospheric nuclear explosions that took place between the detonation of the first atomic bomb in 1945 and the ratification of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963.

NEVOD building NEVOD (, Neutrino Water Detector; nevod means "dragnet" in Russian) is a neutrino detector and cosmic ray experiment that attempts to detect Cherenkov radiation arising from interactions between water and charged particles (mostly muons). It represents the first attempt to perform such measurements at the Earth's surface; it is because of this surface deployment that the experiment is also able to investigate cosmic rays. NEVOD is situated at the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute (MEPhI). The term NEVOD experimental complex is used of the experimental complex built around the original water Cherenkov detector for the study of cosmic rays; as of 2018, the experimental complex consists of: the Cherenkov water detector (the eponymous NEVOD detector), a coordinate-tracking detector DECOR, an array of scintillation detectors forming the calibration telescopes system CTS, and PRISMA array of thermal neutron detectors.

Also it can be expected to be applied to local heating in a vacuum space or a fine space, such as hyperthermia, which uses heat in an outer space(space station or space shuttle) or kills cancer cells by heat. This innovative research was highly evaluated and published by the American Chemical Society (ACS) in the field of polymer. (Macromolecules 2019, 52, 2,708-717) 2018: OIT researcher at Department of Information Systems, Faculty of Information Science and Technology participated in “KAGRA”(Kamioka Gravitational Wave Detector) Project, a national project managed by Institute for Cosmic Ray Research (ICRR) of University of Tokyo and National Institutes of Natural Sciences(NINS)/National Astronomical Observatory of Japan(NAOJ)/High Energy Accelerator Research Organization(KEK) for Astrophysics & Information systems research on Gravitational-wave observatory. From Institute of technology in Japan, only Tokyo Institute of Technology and OIT were engaged in the project.

Elektron 2 and 4 had design masses of , were in diameter and long, also cylindrical, but with a skirt of solar cells with a combined area of 20 m2 for power generation rather than solar panels. The satellites were to be boosted into highly eccentric × orbits to map the outer Van Allen belt while, simultaneously, Elektron 1 and 3 probed the inner radiation belt. To achieve this orbit, Elektron 2 and 4 were each equipped with solid-propellant perigee kick motor of 3,350 kgf and 12 to 15 seconds duration. The experiment packages for Elektron 2 and 4 were also identical and each included a radio frequency mass spectrometer; Geiger counters, scintillation counters, and semiconductor detectors for radiation studies; a spherical ion trap; two three-axis fluxgate magnetometers; a galactic radio-noise receiver; solar X-ray photometers; and a Cerenkov-scintillator cosmic-ray telescope.

However, no correlation was found between the incidence of gamma-ray bursts and cosmic rays, causing the authors to set upper limits as low as 3.4 × 10−6× erg·cm−2 on the flux of cosmic rays from gamma-ray bursts. In 2009, supernovae were said to have been "pinned down" as a source of cosmic rays, a discovery made by a group using data from the Very Large Telescope. This analysis, however, was disputed in 2011 with data from PAMELA, which revealed that "spectral shapes of [hydrogen and helium nuclei] are different and cannot be described well by a single power law", suggesting a more complex process of cosmic ray formation. In February 2013, though, research analyzing data from Fermi revealed through an observation of neutral pion decay that supernovae were indeed a source of cosmic rays, with each explosion producing roughly 3 × 1042 – 3 × 1043J of cosmic rays.

Marcello Conversi (August 25, 1917 – September 22, 1988) was an Italian particle physicist. He is best known for his 1946 cosmic ray experiment where he showed that the "mesotron", now known as the muon, was not a strongly interacting particle. Conversi studied under Enrico Fermi at the University of Rome, and received his doctorate in 1940, doing his thesis under Bruno Ferretti. During World War II, Conversi remained in Italy, doing research and teaching at the University of Rome. Together with Oreste Piccioni and Ettore Pancini he conducted the experiment that Luis Walter Alvarez, Nobel Prize laureate of 1968, called the "start of modern particle physics" in his Nobel lecture. In 1946, they showed that the "mesotron", now known as the muon, which had been discovered in 1937 by Seth Neddermeyer and Carl David Anderson, was not the particle predicted by Hideki Yukawa as mediator of the strong force.

Malitson's publications included "Predicting Large Solar Cosmic Ray Events" (Astronomy and Aerospace Engineering 1963), "The Solar Energy Spectrum" (Sky and Telescope 1965), "The Solar Electromagnetic Radiation Environment" (Solar Energy 1968), "Type III Radio Bursts in the Outer Corona" (Solar Physics 1969), "A Density Scale for the Interplanetary Medium from Observations of a Type II Solar Radio Burst Out to 1 Astronomical Unit" (Astrophysical Journal 1973), and "Hectometric and kilometric solar radio emission observed from satellites in August 1972" (Space Science Reviews 1976). She also co-authored reports for NASA, including Solar Proton Manual (1963),Malitson, H.H. and W.R. Weber, Solar Proton Manual, F.G. McDonald, ed., NASA Goddard Space Flight Center X-611-62-122, 1963 and Observations of Solar Radio Bursts at 26.3 MC/S (1965).Harriet H. Malitson and William C. Erickson, Observations of Solar Radio Bursts at 26.3 MC/S (NASA 1965).

The energy of supernova neutrinos ranges from a few to several tens of MeV. The sites where cosmic rays are accelerated are expected to produce neutrinos that are at least one million times more energetic, produced from turbulent gaseous environments left over by supernova explosions: the supernova remnants. The origin of the cosmic rays was attributed to supernovas by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky; this hypothesis was refined by Vitaly L. Ginzburg and Sergei I. Syrovatsky who attributed the origin to supernova remnants, and supported their claim by the crucial remark, that the cosmic ray losses of the Milky Way is compensated, if the efficiency of acceleration in supernova remnants is about 10 percent. Ginzburg and Syrovatskii's hypothesis is supported by the specific mechanism of "shock wave acceleration" happening in supernova remnants, which is consistent with the original theoretical picture drawn by Enrico Fermi, and is receiving support from observational data.

Kane’s more recent work has been in the development of testable models based on string theory, in particular those based on G2 compactifications of M-Theory, a predictive approach that might explain the hierarchy between the weak scale and the Planck scale. With colleagues, he has recently re- emphasized the role of neutralino dark matter in the context of cosmic ray data, as well as the importance of connecting dark matter and the LHC - in particular focusing on light gluinos and light neutralinos (the putative superparteners of the gluon and W boson respectively) that arise in supergravity and string theory motivated models. He has argued that these ideas form a consistent framework with a non-thermal cosmological history of the universe. Recently, he and collaborators have generalized results of compactified string theories, and in particular have shown that scalar superpartners should have masses of order tens of TeV.

In the period shortly after World War II, Heisenberg briefly returned to the subject of his doctoral thesis, turbulence. Three papers were published in 1948 as cited in as cited in as cited in and one in 1950.Werner Heisenberg On the stability of laminar flow, Proc. International Congress Mathematicians Volume II, 292–296 (1950), as cited in In the post-war period Heisenberg continued his interests in cosmic-ray showers with considerations on multiple production of mesons. He published three papers as cited in as cited in as cited in in 1949, two as cited in as cited in in 1952, and one as cited in in 1955. In late 1955 to early 1956, Heisenberg gave the Gifford Lectures at St Andrews University, in Scotland, on the intellectual history of physics. The lectures were later published as Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science.

Pierre Sokolsky earned a BA degree in 1967 at the University of Chicago, and a MS and PhD degree in 1969 and 1973 at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Following his degree conferral, he started a postdoctoral researcher position at Columbia University. Sokolsky joined the University of Utah physics faculty in 1981 and was promoted to full professor in 1988. He served as the chair of the physics department from August 2003 to July 2007 after which he became dean of the University of Utah College of Science until 2014. In 2004, Sokolsky spearheaded the University’s $17 million Telescope Array Project located just west of Delta, Utah, to study ultra-high- energy cosmic rays in a collaboration with scientists from the University of New Mexico, the University of Montana, the University of Tokyo Institute for Cosmic Ray Research and several other Japanese universities.

ECC protects against undetected memory data corruption, and is used in computers where such corruption is unacceptable, for example in some scientific and financial computing applications, or in file servers. ECC also reduces the number of crashes that are especially unacceptable in multi-user server applications and maximum-availability systems. Electrical or magnetic interference inside a computer system can cause a single bit of dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) to spontaneously flip to the opposite state. It was initially thought that this was mainly due to alpha particles emitted by contaminants in chip packaging material, but research has shown that the majority of one-off soft errors in DRAM chips occur as a result of background radiation, chiefly neutrons from cosmic ray secondaries, which may change the contents of one or more memory cells or interfere with the circuitry used to read or write to them.

After completing his Ph.D., Foster moved to the Fox Valley with his family to pursue a career in high-energy (particle) physics at Fermilab, a Department of Energy National Laboratory. During Foster's 22 years at Fermilab he participated in several projects, including the design of equipment and data analysis software for the CDF Detector, which were used in the discovery of the top quark, and the management of the design and construction of a 3 km Anti-Proton Recycler Ring for the Main Injector. He has been elected a fellow of the American Physical Society, was on the team receiving the 1989 Bruno Rossi Prize for cosmic ray physics for the discovery of the neutrino burst from the supernova SN 1987A, received the Particle Accelerator Technology Prize from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and was awarded an Energy Conservation award from the United States Department of Energy for his application of permanent magnets for Fermilab's accelerators.

Bruno Rossi wrote that: > In the late 1920s and early 1930s the technique of self-recording > electroscopes carried by balloons into the highest layers of the atmosphere > or sunk to great depths under water was brought to an unprecedented degree > of perfection by the German physicist Erich Regener and his group. To these > scientists we owe some of the most accurate measurements ever made of > cosmic-ray ionization as a function of altitude and depth. Ernest Rutherford stated in 1931 that "thanks to the fine experiments of Professor Millikan and the even more far-reaching experiments of Professor Regener, we have now got for the first time, a curve of absorption of these radiations in water which we may safely rely upon". In the 1920s, the term cosmic rays was coined by Robert Millikan who made measurements of ionization due to cosmic rays from deep under water to high altitudes and around the globe.

Throughout Olinto's career, she has made theoretical and experimental contributions to astroparticle physics, including contributions to the study of the structure of neutron stars, inflationary theory, cosmic magnetic fields, the nature of dark matter, and the origin of the highest energy cosmic particles: cosmic rays, gamma-rays, and neutrinos. Olinto emerged as a leader of the science behind the 3,000 km2 Pierre Auger Observatory in Malargue, Argentina, built and operated by a 19-country collaboration. Her group pioneered in depth studies of the physics and astrophysics of ultra-high energy cosmic ray (UHECR) including the propagation and neutrino production of UHE nuclei and acceleration models based on newborn pulsars. Starting in 2012, Olinto served as the United States principal investigator of JEM-EUSO (Extreme Universe Space Observatory on-board of the Japanese Experiment Module of the International Space Station) mission—an international collaboration involving 16 countries to discover the origin of the highest energy cosmic rays.

In any location with high neutron fluxes, such as within the cores of nuclear reactors, neutron activation contributes to material erosion; periodically the lining materials themselves must be disposed of, as low-level radioactive waste. Some materials are more subject to neutron activation than others, so a suitably chosen low-activation material can significantly reduce this problem (see International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility). For example, Chromium-51 will form by neutron activation in chrome steel (which contains Cr-50) that is exposed to a typical reactor neutron flux. Carbon-14, most frequently but not solely, generated by the neutron activation of atmospheric nitrogen-14 with thermal neutron, is (together with its dominant natural production pathway from cosmic ray-air interactions and historical production from atmospheric nuclear testing) also generated in comparatively minute amounts inside many designs of nuclear reactors which contain nitrogen gas impurities in their fuel cladding, coolant water and by neutron activation of the oxygen contained in the water itself.

In 1969 Drury won first place at the Aer Lingus Young Scientists’ exhibition, now called the BT Young Scientist and Technology Exhibition.Former winners reflect on the Young Scientist Exhibition By Dan Griffin, The Irish Times, Jan 8, 2014 He was elected a scholar of Trinity College Dublin (TCD) in 1973 and got a BA (mod) in pure mathematics and experimental physics from TCD in 1975 and earned his Ph.D. in astrophysics from University of Cambridge in 1979, writing a thesis on "Some fluid dynamical problems in Astrophysics" , supervised by John M. Stewart.TCD Physicist Elected President of the Royal Irish Academy 18th March 2011, Trinity College DublinLuke Drury at the Mathematics Genealogy Project From 1980 to 1986 he worked at the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics in Heidelberg with Professor H. J. Voelk. In 1986 he returned to Dublin where he became Senior Professor in the School of Cosmic Physics and head of the then Cosmic Ray Section (now Astronomy and Astrophysics Section) at DIAS.

Gamma decay as a separate phenomenon, with its own half-life (now termed isomeric transition), was found in natural radioactivity to be a result of the gamma decay of excited metastable nuclear isomers, which were in turn created from other types of decay. Although alpha, beta, and gamma radiations were most commonly found, other types of emission were eventually discovered. Shortly after the discovery of the positron in cosmic ray products, it was realized that the same process that operates in classical beta decay can also produce positrons (positron emission), along with neutrinos (classical beta decay produces antineutrinos). In a more common analogous process, called electron capture, some proton-rich nuclides were found to capture their own atomic electrons instead of emitting positrons, and subsequently these nuclides emit only a neutrino and a gamma ray from the excited nucleus (and often also Auger electrons and characteristic X-rays, as a result of the re- ordering of electrons to fill the place of the missing captured electron).

Somayajulu is known to have done extensive researches on the physico-chemical reactions within the oceans and the water-sediment interface and has developed many research methodologies which include the nuclear methods for the determination of the growth rates of manganese nodules, advection-diffusion mixing of ocean waters, cosmic ray-produced 32Si and 10Be in studies for determining the calculation of sediment accumulation rates and geochemical methods for studying reactive elements in sea water. He conducted beryllium-10 studies on manganese nodules which helped establish the slow rate of growth of the nodules. His researches have been documented as chapter in a book, The Indian Human Heritage, and as several peer-reviewed articles, the article repository of the Indian Academy of Sciences has listed 100 of them. He has also edited a book, From Mantle to Meteorites: A Garland of Perspectives - A Festschrift for Devendra Lal, published by Indian Academy of Sciences in 1990 and his work has been cited by several authors.

Early experimenters in X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy found that their detectors, flown on balloons or sounding rockets, were corrupted by the large fluxes of high-energy photon and cosmic-ray charged-particle events. Gamma-rays, in particular, could be collimated by surrounding the detectors with heavy shielding materials made of lead or other such elements, but it was quickly discovered that the high fluxes of very penetrating high-energy radiation present in the near-space environment created showers of secondary particles that could not be stopped by reasonable shielding masses. To solve this problem, detectors operating above 10 or 100 keV were often surrounded by an active anticoincidence shield made of some other detector, which could be used to reject the unwanted background events.Laurence E. Peterson, Instrumental Technique in X-Ray Astronomy. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 13, 423 (1975) Drawing of an active anticoincidence collimated scintillation spectrometer designed for gamma-ray astronomy in the energy range from 0.1 to 3 MeV.

No sources were found. A summary of the measurements was published in Physical Review D vol 55 page 1714 (1997). In 1998 he joined the faculty at the University of Utah on a half-time basis to work on ultra-high- energy cosmic ray physics and to jumpstart the Pierre Auger Observatory project. His appointment was to last five years, but he left after a year to continue gathering international support for the Observatory with Alan Watson and Murat Boratav. Cronin is one of the 20 American recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physics to sign a letter addressed to President George W. Bush in May of 2008, urging him to "reverse the damage done to basic science research in the Fiscal Year 2008 Omnibus Appropriations Bill" by requesting additional emergency funding for the Department of Energy’s Office of Science, the National Science Foundation, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

The Explorer 11 telescope, developed at MIT under the direction of William L. Kraushaar, used a combination of a sandwich scintillator detector along with a Cherenkov counter to measure the arrival directions and energies of high-energy gamma rays. Since the telescope could not be aimed, the spacecraft was set in a slow spin to scan the celestial sphere. Due to a higher than planned orbit that carried the spacecraft into the detector-jamming radiation of the Van Allen belt, and an early failure of the on-board tape recorder, only 141 hours of useful observing time could be culled from about 7 months during which the instrument operated. During this time thirty-one "gamma-ray signature" events were recorded when the telescope was pointing in directions well away from the Earth's atmosphere, which is a relatively bright source of gamma rays produced in interactions of ordinary cosmic ray protons with air atoms.

While there he excelled in mathematics and physics, winning first-class honours every year, and earning an honours B.Sc. in Experimental Physics and Mathematics in 1927. He got his M.Sc. under JJ Nolan in 1928 for a treatise on "The Effect of Water Vapour on the Diffusion Coefficients and Mobilities of Ions in the Air". That year he was also awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship (a legacy of The Great Exhibition of 1851), and this enabled him to study spectroscopy at Imperial College, London (1929–1931). In 1931 he returned to UCD to continue his research and was appointed assistant in the department of experimental physics.Nevin, Thomas Edwin (1906–86) Dictionary of Irish biography In 1940, he was awarded a D.Sc. degree at National University of Ireland (NUI) for previously published work, and in 1942, he was awarded an honorary doctorate at Queen's University Belfast. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s he continued his research in molecular spectroscopy, often working with research groups in fundamental particle and cosmic ray physics.

He set up his laboratory using war-surplus goods from World War II procured by TIFR as well as from other sources and with the assistance of H. L. N. Murthy, an expert in glass work, who helped him in the development of Geiger counters, he measured the lifespan of the positive muons as 2.24±0.15 microseconds. His findings were published in the Indian journal, Proceedings of Indian Academy of Sciences in 1951. Cosmic ray air shower created by a 1TeV proton hitting the atmosphere 20 km above the Earth (simulation) When a joint team of Durham University, UK, Osaka City University, and TIFR started experiments for studying neutrinos at a depth of 2.3 km, Sreekantan was a part of the team which recorded 18 events of neutrino interactions in rock. He was also a member of the team that worked on the Grand Unification Theory, to detect the decay of protons in subterranean environment, in the 1970s, the other members of the team included M. G. K. Menon.

Mission duration was 168 hours. Duties on orbit included satellite deployment operation with the NUSAT satellite as well as animal care for the 24 rats and two squirrel monkeys contained in the Research Animal Holding Facility (RAHF). Other duties were operation of the Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell (GFFC), Urinary Monitoring System (UMS) and the Ionization States of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Ray Heavy Nuclei (IONS) experiment. After 110 orbits of the Earth, Challenger landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on May 6, 1985. He next served on the crew of STS-30, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on May 4, 1989, aboard the Orbiter Atlantis. During this four-day mission, crew members deployed the Magellan Venus-exploration spacecraft, the first U.S. planetary science mission launched since 1978, and the first planetary probe to be deployed from the Shuttle. Magellan arrived at Venus in mid-1990 and mapped the entire surface of Venus using specialized radar instruments. In addition, crew members also worked on secondary payloads involving fluid research in general, chemistry and electrical storm studies. Mission duration was 97 hours.

Danish physicist Henrik Svensmark has controversially argued that because solar variation modulates the cosmic ray flux on Earth, they would consequently affect the rate of cloud formation and hence be an indirect cause of global warming. Svensmark is one of several scientists outspokenly opposed to the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming, leading to concerns that the proposition that cosmic rays are connected to global warming could be ideologically biased rather than scientifically based. Other scientists have vigorously criticized Svensmark for sloppy and inconsistent work: one example is adjustment of cloud data that understates error in lower cloud data, but not in high cloud data; another example is "incorrect handling of the physical data" resulting in graphs that do not show the correlations they claim to show.Peter Laut, "Solar activity and terrestrial climate: an analysis of some purported correlations", Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 65 (2003) 801- 812 Despite Svensmark's assertions, galactic cosmic rays have shown no statistically significant influence on changes in cloud cover, and have been demonstrated in studies to have no causal relationship to changes in global temperature.

Uraninite, a uranium ore and the host for most of Earth's promethium In 1934, Willard Libby reported that he had found weak beta activity in pure neodymium, which was attributed to a half-life over 1012 years. Almost 20 years later, it was claimed that the element occurs in natural neodymium in equilibrium in quantities below 10−20 grams of promethium per one gram of neodymium. However, these observations were disproved by newer investigations, because for all seven naturally occurring neodymium isotopes, any single beta decays (which can produce promethium isotopes) are forbidden by energy conservation. In particular, careful measurements of atomic masses show that the mass difference 150Nd-150Pm is negative (−87 keV), which absolutely prevents the single beta decay of 150Nd to 150Pm. In 1965, Olavi Erämetsä separated out traces of 145Pm from a rare earth concentrate purified from apatite, resulting in an upper limit of 10−21 for the abundance of promethium in nature; this may have been produced by the natural nuclear fission of uranium, or by cosmic ray spallation of 146Nd.

Although their lifetime without relativistic effects would allow a half-survival distance of only about 456 meters at most (as seen from Earth) the time dilation effect of special relativity (from the viewpoint of the Earth) allows cosmic ray secondary muons to survive the flight to the Earth's surface, since in the Earth frame the muons have a longer half-life due to their velocity. From the viewpoint (inertial frame) of the muon, on the other hand, it is the length contraction effect of special relativity which allows this penetration, since in the muon frame its lifetime is unaffected, but the length contraction causes distances through the atmosphere and Earth to be far shorter than these distances in the Earth rest-frame. Both effects are equally valid ways of explaining the fast muon's unusual survival over distances. Since muons are unusually penetrative of ordinary matter, like neutrinos, they are also detectable deep underground (700 meters at the Soudan 2 detector) and underwater, where they form a major part of the natural background ionizing radiation.

The possibility that Lorentz symmetry may be violated has been seriously considered in the last two decades, particularly after the development of a realistic effective field theory that describes this possible violation, the so-called Standard-Model Extension. This general framework has allowed experimental searches by ultra-high energy cosmic-ray experiments and a wide variety of experiments in gravity, electrons, protons, neutrons, neutrinos, mesons, and photons. The breaking of rotation and boost invariance causes direction dependence in the theory as well as unconventional energy dependence that introduces novel effects, including Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations and modifications to the dispersion relations of different particle species, which naturally could make particles move faster than light. In some models of broken Lorentz symmetry, it is postulated that the symmetry is still built into the most fundamental laws of physics, but that spontaneous symmetry breaking of Lorentz invariance shortly after the Big Bang could have left a "relic field" throughout the universe which causes particles to behave differently depending on their velocity relative to the field; however, there are also some models where Lorentz symmetry is broken in a more fundamental way.

Gary Steigman, assistant professor of Astronomy at Yale University, observed in 1976 that space probes had proven — by the fact that they were not annihilated upon impact — that bodies such as Mars, Venus, and the Moon were not antimatter. He also noted that had any of the planets or similar bodies been antimatter, their interaction with the terrene solar wind and the sheer strength of the gamma ray emissions that would have resulted would have made them readily noticeable long since. He noted that not even antimatter cosmic rays had been found, with all of the nuclei found in studies having been uniformly terrene, the experimental data in several studies made from 1961 onwards by various people excluding the presence of a fractional antimatter composition of cosmic rays any larger than 10−4 of the total. Further, the uniformly terrene nature of the cosmic ray flux indicates that nowhere in the Milky Way are there any sources of heavier antimatter elements (such as carbon), since (although it is not proven) it is a likely assumption that they represent the overall composition of the entire galaxy.

One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese Asahi Shimbun newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348). Finally, in cooperation with the US Postal Service, the mission also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with $9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA.

In mid-1936, Heisenberg presented his theory of cosmic- ray showers in two papers., , as cited by Four more papersW. Heisenberg Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern, Ber. Sächs, Akad. Wiss. Volume 89, 369; Die Naturwissenschaften Volume 25, 749–750 (1937), as cited by W. Heisenberg Theoretische Untersuchungen zur Ultrastrahlung, Verh. Dtsch. Physical. Ges. Volume 18, 50 (1937), as cited by , as cited by W. Heisenberg Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern, Nuovo Cimento Volume 15, 31–34; Verh. Dtsch. physik. Ges. Volume 19, 2 (1938), as cited by appeared in the next two years. In December 1938, the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann sent a manuscript to The Natural Sciences reporting they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons and Otto Hahn concluded a bursting of the uranium nucleus;O. Hahn and F. Strassmann Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle (On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons), Naturwissenschaften Volume 27, Number 1, 11–15 (1939).

The least stable is 29Ar with a half- life of approximately seconds. The naturally occurring 40K, with a half-life of 1.248 years, decays to stable 40Ar by electron capture (10.72%) and by positron emission (0.001%), and also transforms to stable 40Ca via beta decay (89.28%). These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of rocks through potassium–argon dating. Despite the trapping of 40Ar in many rocks, it can be released by melting, grinding, and diffusion. Almost all of the argon in the Earth's atmosphere is the product of 40K decay, since 99.6% of Earth atmospheric argon is 40Ar, whereas in the Sun and presumably in primordial star-forming clouds, argon consists of < 15% 38Ar and mostly (85%) 36Ar. Similarly, the ratio of the three isotopes 36Ar:38Ar:40Ar in the atmospheres of the outer planets is measured to be 8400:1600:1. In the Earth's atmosphere, radioactive 39Ar (half-life 269 years) is made by cosmic ray activity, primarily from 40Ar. In the subsurface environment, it is also produced through neutron capture by 39K or alpha emission by calcium. The content of 39Ar in natural argon is measured to be of (8.0±0.6)×10−16 g/g, or (1.01±0.08) Bq/kg of 36, 38, 40Ar.