Just as compressing air heats it, so expansion cools it.
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As the wrap cools, it will naturally create a seal.
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Once the resulting lava cools, it is essentially new land.
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But as the weather cools, it is expected to ramp up.
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If it cools it will solidify, simply warm again to liquify. 2.
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As the market cools, it becomes more difficult to sell your home.
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As the cheese cools it will begin to stiffen and become harder to stretch.
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Stretching one heats it up (duh) but letting it contract cools it below its starting temperature.
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As the liquid cools, it hardens into a thin, crisp brittle, giving the bun feathery, candylike edges.
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While house price inflation is slowing as demand for home purchases cools, it continues to outpace wage growth.
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As the air cools, it is a time to pause, reflect and atone, as we have for thousands of years.
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The bottles' necks compress hot air and cools it down, dropping temperatures inside a hut by as much as 5 degrees.
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"As the fuel oil cools, it will become more viscous which will help to slow or even prevent leaks," Greenpeace said.
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The Yomee heats your milk (which can also be dairy free), drops the culture, and then incubates the yogurt and cools it.
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It's easy to apply: you just warm it, mix it, apply it, and once it cools it becomes a hard road surface.
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From what I understand about the device, it relies on distillation, which means it boils the water and cools it for purification.
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As it cools, it creates a crystal clear tadpole-like droplet that's bulletproof on one end, but impossibly fragile on the other.
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When warm, humid air cools, it loses its capacity to maintain its water content and precipitation occurs in the form of raindrops.
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As the air inside the cup cools, it creates a vacuum, puckering up the skin, and supposedly reducing inflammation in the body.
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The crucial difference is that when a glass cools it does not form crystals, with the sudden, tissue-damaging change in volume this entails.
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Then he mixes the sludge with blue food coloring and gelatin, simmers for three hours, strains it into a shallow pan and cools it in a refrigerator.
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When lava hits the sea and cools, it breaks apart and sends fragments flying into the air, which could land on boats in the water, said U.S. Geological Survey scientist Wendy Stovall.
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During a fire, heat rises in a vertical column, and as it rises and cools, it pulls in more hot air at the bottom and can create enough energy to begin spinning.
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It's possible to pasteurize donor milk at home using what's known as the Holder pasteurization method, which heats milk to 145 degrees for a half hour then gradually cools it, or by flash heating, Flagg said by email.
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Although the move is seen as a step to avoid an NPL blow-up in China as the economy cools, it also raises concerns over Beijing's commitment toward structural reforms, and a possible weakening in banks' financial health.
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On its way to the cabin, the air temperature is lowered via two different cooling systems and then an expansion turbine, which "cools it the way blowing with your lips pursed results in a cool flow of air," according to Air & Space Smithsonian.
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Making a Prince Rupert's Drop is easy, you just need to melt a glass with a high thermal expansion coefficient—glass that expands when heated—like soda-lime or leaded glass, and then drop a molten blob of it into a container of cold water, which immediately cools it down in a process known as quenching.
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As glass cools, it shrinks and solidifies. Uneven cooling causes weak glass due to stress. Even cooling is achieved by annealing. An annealing oven (known in the industry as a lehr) heats the container to about , then cools it, depending on the glass thickness, over a 20 – 60 minute period.
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After the boiled syrup cools, it is called hard candy, since it becomes stiff and brittle as it approaches room temperature.
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It is soft when hot but hardens after it cools. It needs no preservatives and it can be preserved for several days for eating.
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Such a system dehumidifies the air as it cools it. It collects water condensed from the cooled air and produces hot air which must be vented outside the cooled area; doing so transfers heat from the air in the cooled area to the outside air.
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As the steel cools, it contracts, compressing the glass and making it resistant to tension. Because glass typically breaks under tension, mechanically prestressed glass is unlikely to break and endanger workers. The strongest sight glasses are made with borosilicate glass, because of the greater difference in its coefficient of expansions.
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Mercury(II) iodide displays thermochromism; when heated above 126 °C (400 K) it undergoes a phase transition, from the red alpha crystalline form to a pale yellow beta form. As the sample cools, it gradually reacquires its original colour. It has often used for thermochromism demonstrations.Thermochromism: Mercury(II) Iodide. Jchemed.chem.wisc.edu.
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Once the metal cools, it is cut into pieces, which are then rolled into shapes around molds called mandrels and soldered together. Thus, the cross-section of a metal pipe is usually circular. The low melting point, solderability and malleability of the organ metal makes the construction of pipes relatively easy.
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Weisshaar 1988, p. 249. Commercial glue pots, simple water baths or double boilers may be used to keep the glue hot while in use. As hide glue cools, it gels quickly. At room temperature, prepared hide glue has the consistency of stiff gelatin, which is in fact a similar composition.
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Supersaturation occurs in the absence of condensation nuclei. Since the saturation vapor pressure is proportional to temperature, cold air has a lower saturation point than warm air. The difference between these values is the basis for the formation of clouds. When saturated air cools, it can no longer contain the same amount of water vapor.
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Lightning produces enough energy and heat to break this bond allowing nitrogen atoms to react with oxygen, forming . These compounds cannot be used by plants, but as this molecule cools, it reacts with oxygen to form . This molecule in turn reacts with water to produce (nitric acid), or its ion (nitrate), which is usable by plants.
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As this section of crust cools it tends to subside causing the footwall of the fault to tilt down toward the west. The Teton fault is also an important feature in a larger region of seismic activity called the Intermountain Seismic Belt. This region extends from western Montana south to northern Arizona.Smith, R.B., Byrd, O.D., (1993).
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After the drum cools, it is flattened by climbing on top of the drum and use all his weight and strength to pull it apart. The whole sheet of metal would then be hammered to make the metal softer and easier to work with. Jonas would then draw on his designs using chalk and be cut out.
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Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould. Then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould.Savage, George, ‘’A Concise History of Bronzes’’, Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. Publishers, New York, 1968 p.
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After it cools, it is broken up for consumption. Out of a gallon, this method yields about two cups. Other ingredients such as vanilla may be added for flavor. Much of the water in the milk evaporates and the mix thickens; the resulting dulce de leche is usually about a sixth of the volume of the milk used.
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These strikes conduct mass and energy away from the plasma, as well as spall off metal ions into the gas, which cools it. In fusors, the potential well is made with a wire cage. Because most of the ions and electrons fall into the cage, fusors suffer from high conduction losses. Hence, no fusor has come close to energy break-even.
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Solder fittings are smooth, and easily slip onto the end of a tubing section. The joint is then heated using a torch, and solder is melted into the connection. When the solder cools, it forms a very strong bond which can last for decades. Solder-connected rigid copper is the most popular choice for water supply lines in modern buildings.
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For heating purposes, a floor register is preferred. This is because hot air rises, and as it cools it falls. This creates good air circulation in a room, and helps to maintain a more even temperature as hot and cold air is mixed more thoroughly. Floor registers generally have a grille strong enough for a human being to walk on without damaging the grille.
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For jet engine forms of internal combustion engines, a propelling nozzle is present. This takes the high temperature, high pressure exhaust and expands and cools it. The exhaust leaves the nozzle going at much higher speed and provides thrust, as well as constricting the flow from the engine and raising the pressure in the rest of the engine, giving greater thrust for the exhaust mass that exits.
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When magma cools it solidifies and forms rocks. The type of rock formed depends on the chemical composition of the magma and how rapidly it cools. Magma that reaches the surface to become lava cools rapidly, resulting in rocks with small crystals such as basalt. Some of this magma may cool extremely rapidly and will form volcanic glass (rocks without crystals) such as obsidian.
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Here the glass panels are heated to upward of 600 degrees C and then the surfaces are cooled rapidly with cold air. This produces tensile stresses on the surface of the glass with the warmer internal glass particles. As the top thickness of the glass cools it contracts and forces the corresponding glass elements to contract to introduce stresses into the glass panel and increasing strength.
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As magma rises and cools, it undergoes many complex and dynamic compositional changes. Heavier minerals may crystallize and settle to the bottom of the magma chamber. The magma may also assimilate portions of host rock or mix with other batches of magma. These processes alter the composition of the remaining melt, so that any magma reaching the surface may be chemically quite different from its parent melt.
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The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometre (or per 1000 feet) of altitude. Note that the presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor.
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Since lead does not dissolve in brass, as the alloy cools, it forms grains of brass; the lead is found in inclusions within the grains, but also along the grain boundaries, which form a network like that of a pile of soap bubbles (the grains being the spaces inside the bubbles). There may thus be significant lead leaching from alloys which seem to have quite a low lead content.
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The resulting steam will disperse upwards and outwards rapidly and violently in a spray also containing the ignited oil. The correct method to extinguish such fires is to use either a damp cloth or a tight lid on the pan; both methods deprive the fire of oxygen, and the cloth also cools it down. Alternatively, a non-volatile purpose designed fire retardant agent or simply a fire blanket can be used.
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Using a blow-pipe, a "gather" (glob) of molten glass is taken from the pot heating in the furnace. The gather is formed to the correct shape and a bubble of air blown into it. Using metal tools, molds of wood that have been soaking in water, and gravity, the gather is manipulated to form a long, cylindrical shape. As it cools, it is reheated so that the manipulation can continue.
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Generally, polycrystals cannot be superheated; they will melt promptly once they are brought to a high enough temperature. This is because grain boundaries are amorphous, and serve as nucleation points for the liquid phase. By contrast, if no solid nucleus is present as a liquid cools, it tends to become supercooled. Since this is undesirable for mechanical materials, alloy designers often take steps against it (by grain refinement).
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When an igneous rock cools, it acquires a thermoremanent magnetization (TRM) from the Earth's field. TRM can be much larger than it would be if exposed to the same field at room temperature (see isothermal remanence). This remanence can also be very stable, lasting without significant change for millions of years. TRM is the main reason that paleomagnetists are able to deduce the direction and magnitude of the ancient Earth's field.
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The presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming clouds), and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (5.5 °C per kilometre or 3 °F per 1000 feet).
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An alternative hypothesis claims that the magnetic anomalies on Mars are the result of successive dike intrusions due to lithospheric extension. As each dike intrusion cools, it would acquire thermoremanent magnetization from the planet's magnetic field. Successive dikes would be magnetized in the same direction, until the magnetic field reverses its polarity, resulting in the subsequent intrusions recording the opposite direction. These periodic reversals would require that the dike intrusions migrate over time.
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Note that the presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming clouds), and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (5.5 °C per kilometer or per 1000 feet).
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Once the plastic cools, it is removed from the mold. In the 1960s and 1970s, typical vehicle kits might contain 50 to 200 individual parts. Today it is common for a single vehicle kit to contain from 300 to 1200 parts. Each part must be carefully cut from the 'sprue' (the plastic channels that allow the plastic to flow into the mold and which hold the parts in place), cleaned of any flaws or mold marks, and then assembled.
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After cross- linking, the sheet is stretched by feeding it into a machine that heats it up, stretches it and cools it down. Because the sheet has been cross-linked, after stretching, it will want to recover to its original length when re-heated. In recent years, many manufacturers had already developed their technologies of extruding and expansion of polyolefin backing. In the past, the production process of backing was done by extruding, cross-linking and expansion.
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The conditions to create thermal subsidence can be initiated by various forms of uplift and denudation, but the actual process of thermal subsidence is governed by the loss of heat via thermal conduction. Contact with surrounding rock or the surface causes heat to leach out of a section of the lithosphere. As the lithosphere cools, it causes the rock to contract.Watts, A. B. “Isostasy and Flexture of the Lithosphere.” Department of Earth Sciences, Oxford University, Cambridge Free Press 2001.
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Tuttle and Bowen accomplished their work by using experimental petrologic laboratories that produce synthetic igneous materials from mixes of reagents. Observations from these experiments indicate that as a melt cools, it will produce derivative magmas and igneous rock. Following Bowen's research, the magma will crystallize a mafic igneous rock prior to a felsic igneous rock. As this crystallization process occurs in nature, pressure and temperature decrease, which changes the composition of the melt along various stages of the process.
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As the water heats, it is forced by the increasing vapor pressure up the siphon and into the bowl where it mixes with the grounds. When all the water possible has been forced into the bowl the infusion is allowed to sit for some time before the brewer is removed from the heat. As the water vapor in the lower pot cools, it contracts, forming a partial vacuum and drawing the coffee down through the filter.
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The state points of the air are also depicted in Figure 1. In this application, the air returning from the space, typically around 50% relative humidity (RH), is presented to the desiccant wheel and dries the desiccant. The air picks up moisture and cools in process 1 to 2. The moist air is now presented to the cooling surface (cooling coil of the air conditioner), which cools it below its dew point and dries the air in process 2 to 3.
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In metallurgy and materials science, annealing is a heat treatment that alters the physical and sometimes chemical properties of a material to increase its ductility and reduce its hardness, making it more workable. It involves heating a material above its recrystallization temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature for an appropriate amount of time and then cooling. In annealing, atoms migrate in the crystal lattice and the number of dislocations decreases, leading to a change in ductility and hardness. As the material cools it recrystallizes.
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When lava solidifies and cools it retains an imprint of the earth's magnetic field, thus recording how it was oriented. Measurements of such paleomagnetic fields in the Oregon Coast Range show rotations of 46 to 75°, all of it following the presumed accretion to the continent (alternately, formation) of the Siletz terrane at about 50 Ma. These rotations are all clockwise, and show a strong correlation with the age of the rock: about one and a half degrees of rotation per million years.
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When magma cools it begins to form solid mineral phases. Some of these settle at the bottom of the magma chamber forming cumulates that might form mafic layered intrusions. Magma that cools slowly within a magma chamber usually ends up forming bodies of plutonic rocks such as gabbro, diorite and granite, depending upon the composition of the magma. Alternatively, if the magma is erupted it forms volcanic rocks such as basalt, andesite and rhyolite (the extrusive equivalents of gabbro, diorite and granite, respectively).
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The hot-wire barretter depends upon the increase of a metal resistivity with increasing temperature. The device is biased by a direct current adjusted to heat the wire to its most sensitive temperature. When there is an oscillating current from the antenna through the extremely fine platinum wire loop, the wire is further heated as the current increases and cools as the current decreases again. As the wire heats and cools, it varies its resistance in response to the signals passing through it.
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Solder fittings are smooth, and easily slip onto the end of a tubing section. Both the male and female ends of the pipe or pipe connectors are cleaned thoroughly then coated with flux to make sure there is no surface oxide and to ensure that the solder will bond properly with the base metal. The joint is then heated using a torch, and solder is melted into the connection. When the solder cools, it forms a very strong bond which can last for decades.
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A coulage is a kind of automatic or involuntary sculpture made by pouring a molten material (such as metal, wax, chocolate or white chocolate) into cold water. As the material cools it takes on what appears to be a random (or aleatoric) form, though the physical properties of the materials involved may lead to a conglomeration of discs or spheres. The artist may use a variety of techniques to affect the outcome. This technique is also used in the divination process known as ceromancy.
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This is not apparent in everyday life, because it only happens at far higher temperatures than we usually see in our present universe. These phase transitions in the universe's fundamental forces are believed to be caused by a phenomenon of quantum fields called "symmetry breaking". In everyday terms, as the universe cools, it becomes possible for the quantum fields that create the forces and particles around us, to settle at lower energy levels and with higher levels of stability. In doing so, they completely shift how they interact.
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Drop-hammer forging usually only deforms the surfaces of the workpiece in contact with the hammer and anvil; the interior of the workpiece will stay relatively undeformed. There are a few disadvantages to this process, most stemming from the workpiece being in contact with the dies for such an extended period of time. The workpiece will cool faster because the dies are in contact with workpiece; the dies facilitate drastically more heat transfer than the surrounding atmosphere. As the workpiece cools it becomes stronger and less ductile, which may induce cracking if deformation continues.
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In turn, the computing equipment is often designed to draw cooling air from below and exhaust into the room. An air conditioning unit then draws air from the room, cools it, and forces it beneath the raised floor, completing the cycle. Above describes what has historically been perceived as raised floor and still serves the purpose for which it was originally designed. Decades later, an alternative approach to raised floor evolved to manage underfloor cable distribution for a wider range of applications where underfloor air distribution is not utilized.
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The reason for this was discovered upon analyzing data from the USARRAY project. It was found that the asthenosphere had invaded the overlying lithosphere, as a result of an area of mantle upwelling stemming from either the disintegration of the descending Farallon Plate, or the survival of the subducted spreading center connected to the East Pacific Rise and Gorda Ridge beneath western North America, or possibly both. The asthenosphere erodes the lower levels of the Plateau. At the same time, as it cools, it expands and lifts the upper layers of the Plateau.
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As the gas cools, it decreases in volume, and the pressure drops. Thus when the flaming alcohol in a backdraft is covered with a pint glass over a saucer, the dense, cold air is replaced with less dense, warm air with a lot of alcohol vapour held in it. As the oxygen flow to the fire is restricted, the remaining oxygen is used up and the fire in the pint glass goes out, removing the heat source. The alcohol-laden warm air now in the glass cools and begins to create a pressure difference.
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The other common manufacturing method is casting, which uses molten metals poured into a mold. Since metals expand when heated and contract when cooled, cast bullets must be cast with a mold slightly larger than the desired finish size, so that as the molten metal cools, it will harden at just the right point to shrink to the desired size. In contrast, swaged bullets, since they are formed at the temperature at which they will be used, can be formed in molds of the exact desired size. This means that swaged bullets are generally more precise than cast bullets.
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The terms galactic corona and gaseous corona have been used in the first decade of the 21st century to describe a hot, ionised, gaseous component in the galactic halo of the Milky Way. A similar body of very hot and tenuous gas in the halo of any spiral galaxy may also be described by these terms. This coronal gas may be sustained by the galactic fountain, in which superbubbles of ionised gas from supernova remnants expand vertically through galactic chimneys into the halo. As the gas cools, it is pulled back into the galactic disc of the galaxy by gravitational forces.
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This indicates whether or not the two points are directly connected as if they are next to each other in spacetime. When they are on the links have additional state variables that define the random dynamics of the graph under the influence of quantum fluctuations and temperature. At high temperature, the graph is in Phase I where all the points are randomly connected to each other and no concept of spacetime as we know it exists. As the temperature drops and the graph cools, it is conjectured to undergo a phase transition to a Phase II where spacetime forms.
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Potted meat is a preserved meat, where the meat is cooked, placed hot in a pot, tightly packed to exclude air, and then covered with hot fat. As the fat cools, it hardens and forms an airtight seal, preventing spoilage by airborne bacteria. Before the days of refrigeration, potted meat was developed as a way to preserve meat when a freshly-slaughtered animal could not be fully eaten immediately. Often when making potted meat, only the meat of one animal was used, although other recipes, such as the Flemish potjevleesch, used three or four different meats (animals).
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At steady state conditions, the vapor and liquid on each tray are at equilibrium. The most volatile component of the mixture exits as a gas at the top of the column. The vapor at the top of the column then passes into the condenser, which cools it down until it liquefies. The separation is more pure with the addition of more trays (to a practical limitation of heat, flow, etc.) Initially, the condensate will be close to the azeotropic composition, but when much of the ethanol has been drawn off, the condensate becomes gradually richer in water.
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While stirring the mixture, Blumenthal cools it as fast as possible using liquid nitrogen. Blumenthal's bacon-and-egg ice cream, now one of his signature dishes, along with his other unique flavours, has given him a reputation as "The Wizard of Odd" and has made his restaurant a magnet for food enthusiasts. Blumenthal has stated that one ambition is to create an ice cream with flavours released in time- separated stages; for example, bacon and egg followed by orange juice or tea. Once he perfects the technique of separating the flavours, he would attempt mussels followed by chocolate.
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The proposed Simple Depot cryogenic PTSD mission utilizes "remote berthing arm and docking and fluid transfer ports" both for propellant transfer to other vehicles, as well as for refilling the depot up to the full 30 tonne propellant capacity. S.T. Demetriades proposed a method for refilling by collecting atmospheric gases. Moving in low Earth orbit, at an altitude of around 120 km, Demetriades' proposed depot extracts air from the fringes of the atmosphere, compresses and cools it, and extracts liquid oxygen. The remaining nitrogen is used as propellant for a nuclear-powered magnetohydrodynamic engine, which maintains the orbit, compensating for atmospheric drag. This system was called “PROFAC” (PROpulsive Fluid ACcumulator).
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When diving cylinders are filled the gas inside them warms as a result of adiabatic heating. When the gas cools by losing heat to the surroundings, the pressure will drop as described by the general gas equation and Gay-Lussac's law. Divers, to maximise their dive time, generally want their cylinders filled to their safe capacity, the working pressure. To provide the diver with a cylinder filled to the working pressure at the nominal temperature of 15 or 20 °C, the cylinder and gas must be kept cool when filling or filled to a pressure such that when it cools it is at the working pressure.
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Despite an incomplete understanding of the principles behind them, in some ways Evans's thinking about the potential for steam engines was once again far ahead of its time. In the postscript of the Steam Engineer's Guide, Evans noted that drawing a vacuum on water reduces its boiling point and cools it. He further observed that a vacuum would have the same effect upon ether, and the resulting cooling should be sufficient to produce ice. He went on to describe a piston vacuum pump apparatus to produce this effect, and also showed that a compression cylinder, or the compression stroke of the vacuum pump, should produce heat in a condenser.
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However, all ocean crust and guyots form from hot magma and/or rock, which cools over time. As the lithosphere that the future guyot rides on slowly cools, it becomes denser and sinks lower into Earth's mantle, through the process of isostasy. In addition, the erosive effects of waves and currents are found mostly near the surface: the tops of guyots generally lie below this higher-erosion zone. This is the same process that gives rise to higher seafloor topography at oceanic ridges, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean, and deeper ocean at abyssal plains and oceanic trenches, such as the Mariana Trench.
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This cools the smoke which is then less likely to start a fire when it moves away. As gas cools it becomes denser (Charles's law); thus, it also reduces the mobility of the smoke and avoids a "backfire" of water vapor. Also, the diffuse spray creates an inert "water vapor sky", which prevents "roll-over" (rolls of flames on the ceiling created by hot burning gases). Only short pulses of water need to be sprayed, otherwise the spraying modifies the equilibrium, and the gases mix instead of remaining stratified: the hot gases (initially at the ceiling) move around the room, and the temperature rises at the ground, which is dangerous for firefighters.
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When power is removed, the heating due to the leakage current will stop and the PPTC device will cool. As the device cools, it regains its original crystalline structure and returns to a low resistance state where it can hold the current as specified for the device. This cooling usually takes a few seconds, though a tripped device will retain a slightly higher resistance for hours, unless the power in it is weaker, or has been often used, slowly approaching the initial resistance value. The resetting will often not take place even if the fault alone has been removed with the power still flowing as the operating current may be above the holding current of the PPTC.
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The part of the bleed air that is directed to the ECS is then expanded to bring it to cabin pressure, which cools it. A final, suitable temperature is then achieved by adding back heat from the hot compressed air via a heat exchanger and air cycle machine known as a PAC (Pressurization and Air Conditioning) system. In some larger airliners, hot trim air can be added downstream of air conditioned air coming from the packs if it is needed to warm a section of the cabin that is colder than others. Boeing 737-800 At least two engines provide compressed bleed air for all the plane's pneumatic systems, to provide full redundancy.
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The drawing and blowing cause the film to be thinner than the extruded tube, and also preferentially aligns the polymer molecular chains in the direction that sees the most plastic strain. If the film is drawn more than it is blown (the final tube diameter is close to the extruded diameter) the polymer molecules will be highly aligned with the draw direction, making a film that is strong in that direction, but weak in the transverse direction. A film that has significantly larger diameter than the extruded diameter will have more strength in the transverse direction, but less in the draw direction. In the case of polyethylene and other semi-crystalline polymers, as the film cools it crystallizes at what is known as the frost line.
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After the lead shot cools, it is washed, then dried, and small amounts of graphite are finally added to prevent clumping of the lead shot. Lead shot larger than about #5 tends to clump badly when fed through tubes, even when graphite is used, whereas lead shot smaller than about #6 tends not to clump when fed through tubes when graphite is used. Lead shot dropped quickly into liquid cooling baths when being produced from molten lead is known as "chilled lead shot", in contrast to "soft lead shot" which is produced by molten lead not being dropped as quickly into a liquid cooling bath. The process of rapidly chilling lead shot during its manufacturing process causes the shot to become harder than it would otherwise be if allowed to cool more slowly.
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As explained in the thermodynamics of gas storage section above, compressing air heats it and expanding it cools it. Therefore, practical air engines require heat exchangers in order to avoid excessively high or low temperatures and even so don't reach ideal constant temperature conditions, or ideal thermal insulation. Nevertheless, as stated above, it is useful to describe the maximum energy storable using the isothermal case, which works out to about 100 kJ/m3 [ ln(PA/PB)]. Thus if 1.0 m3 of air from the atmosphere is very slowly compressed into a 5 L bottle at , the potential energy stored is 530 kJ. A highly efficient air motor can transfer this into kinetic energy if it runs very slowly and manages to expand the air from its initial 20 MPa pressure down to 100 kPa (bottle completely "empty" at atmospheric pressure).
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In the period 1956 to 1963, S.T. Demetriades proposed methods of atmospheric gas accumulation by means of a satellite moving in low Earth orbit, at an altitude of around 120 km, or propellant accumulation by stations on the surface of a planet or by gathering and exploiting interstellar matter JBIS, Vol 17, p114, 1959 - 1960; ARS Preprint 2438-62, Part I, 14-16 Mar 1962; Parts II, III and IV not to be found in the open literature; also National Archives ARC Identifier No. 1250057 and 12500581963 McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science and Technology. In its simplest form, Demetriades' proposed satellite extracts air from the fringes of the atmosphere, compresses and cools it, and extracts liquid oxygen. The remaining nitrogen is, in part, used as propellant for a nuclear-powered magnetohydrodynamic electromagnetic plasma thruster, which maintains the orbit at about 120 km, or a solar powered thruster (and collection system) for altitudes above 150 km (as stated in the original 1959 JBIS article, p119) compensating for atmospheric drag. This system was called “PROFAC” (PROpulsive Fluid ACcumulator).
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