Talhelm notes that in the antebellum United States, slaves in rice-growing areas like South Carolina and Georgia were valued more highly, and may have been more collectivistic because of their work with rice.
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Depending on the initial definition of the nation (a composite entity or a collective individual) and the criteria of membership (civic/voluntary or ethnic), however, there exist three ideal types (in the Weberian sense) of nationalism – individualistic-civic nationalism, collectivistic-civic nationalism and collectivistic-ethnic nationalism. In the modern history of state-building, Greenfeld finds that individualistic-civic and collectivistic-civic nationalisms tend to result in liberal democracies (such as Britain, the United States and France), while collectivistic-ethnic nationalism seems to produce authoritarian democracies (such as Russia and Germany).
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In a collectivistic culture, where mutual-face concern is important, avoidance of conflict may prevail in order for the situation to be defused. Collectivistic communicators may also require a third-party negotiation to make progress in finding a resolution.
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Kim proposes that task- oriented constraints emphasize a concern for clarity. For example, task- oriented constraints measure the degree to which the intentions of messages are communicated explicitly. When comparing collectivistic cultures to individualistic cultures, the members of individualistic cultures consider clarity as more significant than members of collectivistic when aspiring goals. Further, members of individualistic cultures have thresholds and exploit more attention for clarity than members of collectivistic cultures.
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Allocentric and idiocentric personality orientations can be found in either collectivistic or individualistic cultures.
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A main distinction to understand when looking at psychology and culture is the difference between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. People from an individualistic culture typically demonstrate an independent view of the self; the focus is usually on personal achievement. Members of a collectivistic society have more of a focus on the group (interdependent view of self), usually focusing on things that will benefit the group. Research has shown such differences of the self when comparing collectivistic and individualistic cultures: The Fundamental Attribution Error has been shown to be more common in America (individualistic) as compared to in India (collectivistic).
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Neural Basis of Individualistic and Collectivistic Views of Self. Human Brain Mapping, 30(9), 2813-2820. There is neurobiological evidence supporting these two definitions of self-construal styles. fMRI data has been used to understand the biology of both the individualistic and collectivistic view of self.
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Some researchers are beginning to study comparisons between individualistic and collectivistic cultures, to examine the role that shyness might play in matters of social etiquette and achieving group-oriented goals. "Shyness is one of the emotions that may serve as behavioral regulators of social relationships in collectivistic cultures. For example, social shyness is evaluated more positively in a collectivistic society, but negatively evaluated in an individualistic society."Frijda, N.H., & Mesquita, B. Social roles and functions: A interaction functions of emotion. 1994.
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Individualistic cultures focus on the “I” consciousness while the collectivistic cultures have a greater emphasis on the “We” consciousness . According to the Key Concepts in Developmental Psychology individualism and collectivism have multiple factors which contribute to whether a culture is considered individualistic or collectivistic . Things such as the national wealth of the county, indices of modernity, the freedom of press, and even the frequency of traffic deaths. All of these play a roll in whether a county identifies as individualistic or collectivistic.
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Cultures low on individualism (i.e., collectivist cultures), in contrast, value conformity to ingroups and group memberships. In collectivistic cultures, knowing the context and social status of the other person is essential to predicting his or her behavior. Thus, people from collectivistic cultures are more likely to be high self-monitors.
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Each representation is at either end; thus, some members of individualistic cultures may hold collectivistic values, and some collectivistic individual may hold some individualist values. The concepts of collectivism and individualism show a general idea of the values of a specific ethnic culture but should not be juxtaposed in competition.
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In an individualistic culture, this social networking is more diversified than in the collectivistic cultures, where family is generally the center of the network. Additionally, these differences could reflect the closeness of the interpersonal relationships in collectivistic cultures, where it can be difficult for individuals to recognize when the social sharing occurs because they are so often together.
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According to Gudykunst, in individualistic cultures, independent self- construal prevails, while in collectivistic cultures, people are more related to interdependent self-construal.
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Certain people tend to view themselves in almost exclusively a collectivistic sense or an individualistic sense. When people have to describe themselves in a collectivistic way (as a part of a group), those who tend to view themselves collectivistically show greater fMRI activation in the medial prefrontal cortex than those who view themselves individualistically. The reverse is true when people describe themselves individualistically.
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Culture is not static. As the cultures continue to evolve it is necessary that research capture these changes. Identifying a culture as "collectivistic" or "individualistic" can provide a stable as well as inaccurate picture of what is really taking place. No one culture is purely collectivistic or individualistic and labeling a culture with these terms does not help account for the cultural differences that exist in emotions.
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In a detailed analysis of 40 national cultures, he stated that cultures can be identified as individualistic or collectivistic. Collectivistic cultures value the whole group or community rather than the individual . This idea, however, just defines and characterizes different societies and is not a description of different personalities . Knowing what cultures values are helps sociologist understand the human behavior of people from different cultures.
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This provides security to the otherwise, perhaps, abandoned widow. In this collectivistic culture, when a male in the family plans to marry, he builds onto the parents' home.
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Individualistic cultures direct attention to inner states and feelings (such as positive or negative affects), while in collectivistic cultures the attention is directed to outer sources (i.e. adhering to social norms or fulfilling one's duties). Indeed, Suh et al. (1998) found that the correlation between life satisfaction and the prevalence of positive affect is higher in individualistic cultures, whereas in collectivistic cultures affect and adhering to norms are equally important for life satisfaction.
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Uncertainty avoidance is how uncomfortable an individual is with the unknown. Collectivistic societies tend to be less individualistic and less avoidant of uncertainty while individualistic societies tend to be more individualistic and more avoidant of uncertainty. The results of this study show collectivistic cultural values support more permissiveness, as measured by sharing geographic location on a person’s profile. Privacy settings in collectivist communities supported more information sharing than in an individualistic community.
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The collectivistic view of self, however, involves people's perception of themselves as members of a group or in a particular situation. The view people have of themselves in a collectivistic sense is entirely dependent on the situation they are in and the group with which they are interacting. These two ideas of self are also called self-construal styles.Chiao, J. Y., Harada, T., Komeda, H., Li, Z., Mano, Y., Saito, D., et al. (2009).
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Self- disclosure, just like anything varies and differs depending on the culture. Collectivistic culture and individualism are two types of ways to explain self disclosure is a culture. If a country is more on the collectivistic side then they will tend to disclose themselves more as an Avatar, like in China and Germany. However, in a more individualist culture setting people open up more about themselves, even personal details, like in America.
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Maygar-Moe, Owens, and Conoley identified specific cultural considerations that affect how practitioners should engage with concepts and theories in positive psychology within counseling settings. The literature review specifically addresses well-being, meaning, and hope. Well- being Wealthy, individualistic cultures experience higher levels of social well-being than underprivileged, collectivistic cultures (Diener, Diener, & Diener, 1995). Self-esteem was also more predictive of life satisfaction in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures (Suh, Diner, Oishi, & Triadis, 1998).
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2 (Mar 1999) Methods of persuasion vary by culture, both in prevalence and effectiveness. For example, advertisements tend to appeal to different values according to whether they are used in collectivistic or individualistic cultures.
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The cultural differences between in group versus out group could also play a role in this relationship. Collectivistic societies, such as Japan or China, distinguish more between in group versus out group than their individualistic counterparts. Users in collectivistic countries typically keep a smaller inner circle, which fosters a more intimate, trusting environment for sharing personal information. On the other hand, individualistic societies such as the U.S. or Europe, typically keep a bigger social circle and in group and out group do not differ much.
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Harald Wallbott and Klaus Scherer suggest that in cultures that are collectivist and high in power parents use real shame in their parenting styles. Whereas in individualistic cultures that are low in power, and are uncertainty-avoidance, shame more closely resembles guilt in their parent style. For example, in Asian collectivistic cultures shame is a highly valued emotional response. So much so, that in Japan, which is considered to be a collectivistic culture, many people commit suicide after dishonoring or bringing shame to their family or community.
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Cultural individualism is strongly correlated with GDP per capita. The cultures of economically developed regions such as Australia, Japan, North America and Western Europe are the most individualistic in the world. Middle income regions such as Eastern Europe, South America and mainland East Asia have cultures which are neither very individualistic nor very collectivistic. The most collectivistic cultures in the world are from economically developing regions such as the Middle East and Northern Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, South and South-East Asia, Central Asia and Central America.
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His first attempt are a culture of robots who are not capable of being unhappy (e.g. they are happy if seriously beaten up). Klapaucius ridicules this. Next step is a collectivistic culture dedicated to common happiness.
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There is evidence of cross-cultural differences in the tendency to exhibit the self-serving bias, particularly when considering individualistic (Western) versus collectivistic (non-Western) societies. Family and group goals are important in collectivistic cultures. In contrast, the individual goals and identity focused on in individualistic societies increases the need for people within those cultures to guard and boost their personal self-esteem. While differences have been shown, conflicting literature has cited similarity in causal attributions across both individual and collective cultures, specifically between Belgium, West Germany, South Korea, and England.
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However, American students share more often and share more personal information to their followers. Cultures like Korea and China, the collectivistic cultures, are more reserved whereas, the American culture is more about disclosing a lot of personal details.
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Attempts to study the association of collectivism and political views and behaviors has largely occurred at the aggregate national level. However, more isolated political movements have also adopted a collectivistic framework. For example, collectivist anarchism is a revolutionaryPatsouras, Louis. 2005.
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Collectivistic cultures are believed to be less likely to express emotions, in fear of upsetting social harmony. Miyahara, referencing a study conducted on Japanese interpersonal communication, purports that the Japanese "are low in self disclosure, both verbally and non-verbally....Most of these attributes are ascribed to the Japanese people's collectivistic orientations". The study conducted showed that Japanese individuals have a relatively low expression of emotion. Niedenthal further suggests that: "Emotional moderation in general might be expected to be observed in collectivist cultures more than in individualistic cultures, since strong emotions and emotional expression could disrupt intra-group relations and smooth social functioning".
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There was also a longer delay between the emotional event and the social sharing for Asian groups than for Western ones. These differences could be explained by the collectivistic-individualistic culture continuum.Hofstede, G. (1991), Cultures and organizations. Software of the mind. London.
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To Kosaka, Holden's study was further evidence that Japanese society had evolved from its original collectivistic values to more individualistic values.See Kenji Kosaka, “Where Does Asia Go? Transitions in Asia-Pacific Societies,” The International Scope Review, Volume 2 (2000), Issue 4 (Winter), Editorial.
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Vasey and VanderLaan (2011) provides evidence that if an adaptively designed avuncular male androphilic phenotype exists and its development is contingent on a particular social environment, then a collectivistic cultural context is insufficient, in and of itself, for the expression of such a phenotype.
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Lebanese villages have always been collectivistic societies. Lebanon's villagers have always put the family in the first place, followed by the individual. The family, the church and the community at large dictate group patterns in Lebanese villages.Tannous, Afif, The University of Chicago Press, 1948.
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There are both cross-cultural (i.e. individualistic and collectivistic culture differences) and special clinical population (i.e. depression) considerations within the bias. Much of the research on the self-serving bias has used participant self-reports of attribution based on experimental manipulation of task outcomes or in naturalistic situations.
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Collectivistic values and one's willingness to act in a corrupted way positively correlate in some studies and negatively correlate in others. Researchers are unsure how to interpret these mixed results. However, Huang et al. (2015) believed that evaluation apprehension was the third variable that was moderating the relationship.
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There are common conceptualizations of attributes that define collectivistic and individualistic cultures. Operationalizing the perceptions of cultural identities works under the guise that cultures are static and homogeneous, when in fact cultures within nations are multi-ethnic and individuals show high variation in how cultural differences are internalized and expressed.
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Argentine Values intends to create a community formed by all those who are convinced that Argentina is a great country. Argentina is a collective country where its values focus on diversity and solidarity. In addition to being a collectivistic society. The Argentines are from traditional customs, but also kind and friendly.
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Preventive strategies include credentialing, appealing for suspended judgment, pre-disclosure, pre-apology, hedging, and disclaimers.Culpach & Metts, 1994 Collectivistic cultures tend to employ more preventive strategies than individualistic cultures. Restorative facework attempts to repair face that was lost. Restorative strategies include excuses, justifications, direct aggression, humor, physical remediation, passive aggressiveness, avoidance, and apologies.
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Morals derived through religious scripts and teachings largely influence views on euthanasia. A recent psychological study in Belgium showed that people who disapprove the legalization of child euthanasia tend to be religious, have low flexibility in existential issues, endorse collectivistic morality (values of loyalty and purity), and/or express ingroup-oriented prosocial inclinations.
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Allocentrism tends to be found more in collectivistic cultures (about 60%) but can also be found in all cultures,Triandis et al. 2001 and in every culture there is a "full distribution of both types." Triandis, 1995, p. 5 While individualism and collectivism are used on the broad cultural level, Triandis et al.
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There may be a link between the personal importance of group membership and the larger culture in which the groups live. Collectivistic cultures, for example, place a greater emphasis on the importance of group membership compared to individualistic cultures.Markus, H.R. & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation.
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The collectivistic nature of those cultures discourages praising oneself, so such people are discouraged from public self- praise from fear of being evaluated negatively. Studies have revealed that when these people are in a more private setting where they do not have evaluation apprehension they are more likely to make positive self- evaluations.
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Individual needs, wishes, and desires are emphasized and the possibility of personal attainment is encouraged. Collectivistic cultures include those of Asia and Latin America, whilst individualistic cultures include those of North America and Western Europe. North America, specifically, is seen to be the prototype of an individualistic culture. Research has shown that the collectivism vs.
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They are expected to carry their own weight and rely on themselves. The United States is said to be one of the most individualistic countries, and on the other hand Korea and Japan are some of the most collectivistic countries. However both groups have their flaws. With an individualistic approach, one is inclined in possibly experiencing loneliness.
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Contemporary literature has traced the influence of culture on a variety of aspects of emotion, from emotional values to emotion regulation. Indeed, culture may be best understood as a channel through which emotions are molded and subsequently expressed. Indeed, this had been most extensively discussed in psychology by examining individualistic and collectivistic cultures. The individualistic vs.
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The heart of Face Negotiation Theories are 24 propositions. They are based on the seven assumptions and five taxonomies that have been proven in numerous cases and studies. They describe facework on three levels of communication: cultural, individual, and situational. Cultural-level propositions #Individualistic cultures predominantly express self-face maintenance interests than collectivistic culture members do.
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For allocentrics, the situation is of paramount importance and they tend to define themselves relative to the context. Priming people to think about commonalities that they have with family and friends gets them to be more allocentric.Trafimow et al., 1991 Allocentrics tend to be more cooperative in a collectivistic situation and less in an individualistic situation.
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Dobrev was born on 31 August 1888 in Kotel, Bulgaria. He studied at the Trade and Commerce College Svishtov. He graduated, completing a doctorate degree in economics at Erlangen, Germany in 1911. On completion of his studies, he returned as an idealistic proponent of collectivistic econometric doctrines which at that time predominated the minds of Bulgarian intellectuals.
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Some strategies employed when self-enhancing often include downward social comparison, compensatory self- enhancement, discounting, external attributions and basking in reflected glory. In contrast, collectivistic cultures often emphasize self-improvement as a leading motivating factor in their lives. This motivation is often derived from a desire to not lose face and to appear positively among social groups.
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In one critical model of collectivism, Markus and Kitayama describe the interdependent (i.e., collectivistic) self as fundamentally connected to the social context. As such, one's sense of self depends on and is defined in part by those around them and is primarily manifested in public, overt behavior. As such, the organization of the self is guided by using others as a reference.
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Harry et al., 1985 Minorities in the US such as Hispanics and Asians tend to be highly allocentric.Triandis, 1983 There are certain personality dimensions that all allocentrics share despite whether they are from an individualistic (American) or collectivistic (Japanese and Korean) culture. These dimensions include high affiliation with others, being sensitive to rejection from others, and less of a need for individual uniqueness.
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Donald J. Cosentino, "Bicentennial blues," African Arts 37, no. 3 (2004), 6 Constant bears witness to her nation's calamities. For example, after the earthquake in Haiti in 2010, the artwork Myrlande made represented the collectivistic society through the things that were going on at the time. Her works are densely beaded flags (some as large as six by seven feet).
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LaVey was a friend of James Madole, leader of the Fascist National Renaissance Party. Due to Madole's opposition to Christianity, he sought new religious ideas, and was attracted to an infusion of Fascism and Satanism.Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity (Chap. 4) by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (2001, ) In contrast to fascism LaVey generally propounded anti collectivistic ideas.
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When asked about where the emotions they feel originate from, Japanese school students never referred to themselves first. This suggests that Japanese people believe emotions exist within the environment, between individuals, in line with collectivistic values. Individualistic cultures, however, conceive emotions as independent internal experiences, occurring within an individual. When American school students were asked about their emotions, they usually stated that they experienced emotions within themselves.
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On a broad level, individualistic cultures operate with a more direct, low context facework with importance placed on verbal communication and nonverbal gestures for emphasis. Collectivistic cultures operate in a more indirect, high context facework emphasizing nonverbal subtleties. There are three prevalent facework strategies: dominating, avoiding, and integrating. Dominating facework is characterized by trying to maintain a credible image with the goal of winning the conflict.
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An element that is an essential component within the Conversational Constraints Theory emphasizes the role of minimizing imposition. The theory discusses cross-cultural differences that have been observed when studying communicative strategies in different cultures. For instance, members within collectivistic cultures view face- supporting behavior. One way this is done is through minimizing imposition as an important component when a member is in pursuit of a goal.
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Another study published in 2008, which compared the level of conformity among Japanese in-groups (peers from the same college clubs) with that found among Americans found no substantial difference in the level of conformity manifested by the two nations, even in the case of in-groups.Takano, Y., & Sogon, S. (2008). Are Japanese more collectivistic than Americans? Examining conformity in in-groups and the reference-group effect.
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In China, many traditional people hold to a collectivistic cultural tradition (or Confucianism). They learn to conform as an interdependent whole rather than as unique independent beings. This dependency starts in the family, where a parent to child hierarchy is enforced and children are taught to be submissive and obedient. This can cause feelings of rebellion in the child which is why some of them may turn to eating disorders.
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Most of modern western societies, such as the United States and European countries are directed towards individualism, while the eastern societies like China and Japan, are directed towards collectivism. Those of a collectivistic culture emphasize deeply on the unity one has with their families. They put others' needs before their individual desires. An individualistic culture is geared towards one's own personal achievements and it signals a strong sense of competition.
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Individualistic cultures are seen to express emotions more freely than collectivistic cultures. In a study comparing relationships among American and Japanese individuals, it was found that: "People in individualistic cultures are motivated to achieve closer relationships with a selected few, and are willing to clearly express negative emotions towards others". Research by Butler et al., found that the social impact of emotion suppression is moderated by the specific culture.
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The American group focused on the killer's own internal problems. The Chinese group focused more on the social conditions surrounding the killing. This reinforces the notion that individualistic and collectivistic cultures tend to focus on different aspects of a situation when making attributions. Additionally, some scientists believe that attributional biases are only exhibited in certain contexts of interaction, where possible outcomes or expectations make the forming of attributions necessary.
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In S. Kitayama & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of cultural psychology. (691–713). New York: Guilford. For example, the association between self-esteem and life satisfaction is much stronger in individualist culture than in collectivistic culture (Diener & Diener, 1995; Oishi, Diener, Lucas, & Suh, 1999). Diener and his colleagues also discovered a cultural congruence effect such that people are happier if their characteristics match the cultural norms (Fulmer et al.
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Stanley Milgram found that individuals in Norway (from a collectivistic culture) exhibited a higher degree of conformity than individuals in France (from an individualistic culture). Similarly, Berry studied two different populations: the Temne (collectivists) and the Inuit (individualists) and found that the Temne conformed more than the Inuit when exposed to a conformity task. Bond and Smith compared 134 studies in a meta-analysis and found that there is a positive correlation between a country's level of collectivistic values and conformity rates in the Asch paradigm. Bond and Smith also reported that conformity has declined in the United States over time. Influenced by the writings of late-19th- and early-20th-century Western travelers, scholars or diplomats who visited Japan, such as Basil Hall Chamberlain, George Trumbull Ladd and Percival Lowell, as well as by Ruth Benedict's influential book The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, many scholars of Japanese studies speculated that there would be a higher propensity to conform in Japanese culture than in American culture.
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Cultural differences such as being in a collectivistic versus an individualistic society can influence the general privacy settings chosen by users. In a study that analyzed varying Twitter privacy behaviors across the globe, there appeared a cultural difference between countries. In this study, culture was measured through individualism and uncertainty avoidance. According to Hofstede's cultural dimensions, individualism is a heavy focus on the person while collectivism is more based on group effort.
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Individualistic cultures are more likely to use restorative facework than collectivistic cultures. Facework differs from conflict styles by employing face-saving strategies which can be used prior to, during, or after a conflict episode and can be used in a variety of identity-threatening and identity-protection situations. These strategies are focused on relational and face identity beyond conflict goal issues. Conflict styles are specific strategies used to engage or disengage from a conflict situation.
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Yet on this icy, frozen world, life manages to thrive: the keracks, which are no bigger than a few centimeters in length resemble "large one-eyed prawns dressed in elaborate clothing". The keracks, despite their small size, have built rather small cities and developed a complex society on their planetoid which they dubbed "Ice". They have a collectivistic hive-like society with a rich culture suggesting that of England in the time of King Arthur.
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In 1994 Ruth Chao, argued that “parenting styles developed on North American samples cannot be simply translated to other cultures, but instead must reflect their sociocultural contexts” . Many cultures have different styles of parenting and the dynamics those families are also different. People from individualistic cultures usually look out for themselves and their immediate family only . While people from collectivistic cultures look out for their community or group, as well as their family.
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In J. M. Darley & J. Cooper (Eds.), Attribution and social interaction (pp. 99-114). Washington, DC, American Psychological Association. With such distinct definitions between the two, some cross-cultural studies also found that cultural differences of correspondence bias are not equivalent to those of fundamental attribution error. While the latter has been found to be more prevalent in individualistic cultures than collectivistic cultures, correspondence bias occurs across cultures,Masuda, T., & Kitayama, S. (1996).
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This difference was attributed to general differences in values of East Asian cultures, which place more value on interdependence, and Western cultures (e.g., U.S. culture), which place more value on independence. Eastern cultures promote more collectivistic values and individuals are more likely to describe themselves in relation to others and by their group memberships. In contrast, Western cultures promote more individualistic values and thus individuals place high importance on being seen as a unique individual, separate from others.
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The concepts of collectivism and individualism have been applied to high- and low-context cultures by Dutch psychologist Geert Hofstede in his Cultural Dimensions Theory. Collectivist societies prioritize the group over the individual, and vice versa for individualist ones. In high-context cultures, language may be used to assist and maintain relationship-building and to focus on process. India and Japan are typically high-context, highly collectivistic cultures, where business is done by building relationships and maintaining respectful communication.
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Family therapy in China has also proven beneficial because families can talk about issues in the family. This in turn strengthens the patient and creates a foundation for them to hold onto. Accomplishing this kind of therapeutic bond though is the difficult part for some Chinese people because of the collectivistic culture in which they live in where the children are afraid to speak up against their parents because they do not want to bring shame upon them.
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Although charisma is valued across cultures, culture plays a major role in the specific content of leadership prototypes. For example, a study that began in 1991 measured leadership prototypes across 60 countries found that more individualistic cultures tend to favor ambitious leaders, whereas collectivistic cultures often prefer leaders who are self- effacing. Cross-cultural differences may be difficult to study when using nations as a guideline for grouping, as many countries have a variety of cultures within them.
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School psychologists in many districts provide professional development to teachers and other school personnel on topics such as positive behavior intervention plans and achievement tests. One salient application for school psychology in today's world is responding to the unique challenges of increasingly multicultural classrooms. For example, psychologists can contribute insight about the differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures.Patricia M. Greenfield, "Applying Developmental Psychology to Bridge Cultures in the Classroom", in Donaldson, Berger, & Pezdek (eds.), Applied Psychology (2006).
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After returning to the U.S. in 1935, Sokolsky strongly sided with NAM in touting its conception of the American Way of Life. NAM followed the New Deal in laying claim to "the greatest good for the greatest number." Sokolsky encouraged NAM to reach out and awaken the passions of the American middle class in opposition to the "collectivistic" current of the New Dealers. Also in 1935, Sokolsky became a contributor to the New York Herald Tribune through 1940.
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There has been limited research on motivated tactical thinking outside of Western countries. One theory experts have mentioned is that a person's culture could play a large role in a person's motivations. Nations like the United States are considered to be individualistic, while many Asian nations are considered to be collectivistic. An individualist emphasizes importance on the self and is motivated by individual reward and affirmation, while a collectivist sees the world as being more group- or culture-based.
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In order to explain how a human views him or herself, two different conceptual views of self-perception exist: the individualist and collectivistic views of self. The individualistic view of self involves people's perception of themselves as a stand-alone individual. This is thought of as a somewhat permanent perception of oneself that is unaffected by environmental and temporary cues and influences. People who view themselves in an individualistic sense describe themselves with personality traits that are permanent descriptions unrelated to particular situations.
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Many armed conflicts occur among collectivistic societies and therefore this can be a better-suited approach. By involving the community in the healing processids outsider imposition of values and understanding. Before community healing can occur a more comprehensive approach is needed to remedy many systemic problems in war zones such as the short supply of water, food, shelter and other basic necessities. There is often a lack of professional, institutional, and economic support for this form of family and community reintegration.
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While many traditional African societies are highly religious, their religions are not revealed, and hence, ethics does not center around divine commands. Instead, ethics is humanistic and utilitarian: it focuses on improving social functioning and human flourishing. On the other hand, social welfare is not a mere aggregate of individual welfare; rather, there is a collective "social good" embodying values that everyone wants, like peace and stability. In general, African ethics is social or collectivistic rather than individualistic and united in ideology.
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It is difficult to identify a universal indicator as to how much subjective well-being individuals in different societies experience over a period of time. One important topic is whether individuals from individualistic or collectivistic countries are happier and rate higher on subjective well-being. Diener, Diener, and Diener, 1995, noted that individualist cultural members are found to be happier than collectivist cultural members. It is also important to note that happier nations may not always be the wealthier nations.
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A multi-country study, based on the GLOBE culture model, found that virtual communication environments were experienced differently by people from different cultures. The culture dimension individualism- collectivism was most strongly and very significantly related to how positively or negatively team members experienced videoconferences and telephone conferences, compared to face-to-face meetings. People from collectivistic societies showed a stronger preference for face-to-face meetings and evaluated virtual meetings more negatively compared to people from more individualistic societies.Westphal, P. (2016).
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One’s cultural style can also interfere with work-family relationship dynamics between different cultures. In Shan Xu research he found that, employees from more individualistic cultures are more sensitive to how their work interferes with their family life . These employees are more concerned about their own individual family dynamics and structure. While people from more collectivistic cultures are more concerned about how their work provides material, social, and cognitive resources such as intelligence and experience which will help their families.
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Individualist Resilience: (1) redistribution of power/resources, (2) returning to routine, (3) emotional expression through formal support systems, (4) confrontation of the problem, (5) reshaping one's outlook after the disaster experience. Whereas individualistic societies promote individual responsibility for self- sufficiency, the collectivistic culture defines self-sufficiency within an interdependent communal context (Kayseret 2008). Even where individualism is salient, a group thrives when its members choose social over personal goals and seek to maintain harmony and where they value collectivist over individualist behavior (McAuliffe et al. 2003).
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Culture bias is when someone makes an assumption about the behavior of a person based on their cultural practices and beliefs. An example of culture bias is the dichotomy of "individualistic" and "collectivistic cultures". People in individualist cultures, generally Anglo-America and Anglo-Saxon European, are characterized as societies which value individualism, personal goals, and independence. People in collectivist cultures are thought to regard individuals as members of groups such as families, tribes, work units, and nations, and tend to value conformity and interdependence.
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These four branches allowed researchers to examine empathic proclivities among individuals of different cultures. While individualism was not shown to correlate with either types of dispositional empathy, collectivism was shown to have a direct correlation with both types of dispositional empathy, possibly suggesting that by having less focus on the self, there is more capacity towards noticing the needs of others. More so, individualism predicted experienced intellectual empathy, and collectivism predicted experienced empathic emotion. These results are congruent with the values of collectivistic and individualistic societies.
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In addition, a difference between collectivist and individualist cultures is the conceptualization of positive and negative emotions, including happiness. For example, research indicates that individualism moderates the relationship between hedonism and happiness, such that hedonism is more strongly related to happiness in more individualistic (vs collectivistic) cultures. In individualist cultures, individuals attempt to avoid negative emotions, but in Eastern communities, some negative emotions are viewed as a virtue. One example of this is that collectivist cultures value shame because they view it as an opportunity to better themselves.
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When majority members of a population felt that the minority members wanted to seek contact with them, their meta-stereotypes about themselves were more positive and that led to them having more positive attitudes about the minority group. The collectivistic meta-stereotype of Asians may lead them to think that they need to be more of an individual. This self-perceived notion of individuation may lead to tension with their culture and a continuation of their stereotype to relieve this tension. White Americans may hold the meta-stereotype that Black Americans perceive them negatively.
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In countries with more individualistic views such as America, happiness is viewed as infinite, attainable, and internally experienced. In collectivistic cultures such as Japan, emotions such as happiness are very relational, include a myriad of social and external factors, and reside in shared experiences with other people. Uchida, Townsend, Markus, & Bergseiker (2009) suggest that Japanese contexts reflect a conjoint model meaning that emotions derive from multiple sources and involve assessing the relationship between others and the self. However, in American contexts, a disjoint model is demonstrated through emotions being experienced individually and through self-reflection.
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Conversational Constraints Theory, developed in Min-Sun Kim, attempts to explain how and why certain conversational strategies differ across various cultures and the effects of these differences. It is embedded in the Social Science communication approach which is based upon how culture influences communication. There are five universal conversational constraints: 1) clarity, 2) minimizing imposition, 3) consideration for the other's feelings, 4) risking negative evaluation by the receiver, and 5) effectiveness. These five constraints pivot on the notion of if a culture is more social relational (collectivistic cultures), or task oriented (individualistic cultures).
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Collectivistic cultures tend to use effectiveness within their conversations as more diffused and watered-down so as to lessen negativity and offense. This aspect of effectiveness has more ease and cushion in how the message is spoken, and is structured in a way that will minimize dissonance at all costs. On the other hand, individualistic cultures maximize the punctuality of effectiveness in delivering the message. The tone of their message focuses on directness, frankness, and being straightforward with their listener, and intend on being bluntly honest in order to be effective.
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Some psychologist employed cultural priming to understand how people living with multiple culture interpret events. For example, Hung and his associate display participants a different set of culture related images, like U.S white house building vs Chinese temple, and then watch a clip of an individual fish swimming ahead of a group of fishes. When exposed to the latter one, Hong Kong participants are more likely to reason in a collectivistic way. In contrast, their counterparts who view western images are more likely to give a reverse response and focus more on that individual fish.
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While self-enhancement is a person's motivation to view themselves positively, self-improvement is a person's motivation to have others view themselves positively. The distinction between the two modes of life is most evident between independent and collectivistic cultures. Cultures with independent self-views (the premise that people see themselves as self- contained entities) often emphasize self-esteem, confidence in one's own worth and abilities. With self-esteem seen as a main source of happiness in Western cultures, the motivation to self-enhance generally follows as a way to maintain one's positive view about oneself.
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There are some characteristics of Chinese culture that influence its way of consumption and could explain the perception of Internet celebrities, according to that cultural values are considered as determinants of attitudes and behaviors: The first feature of Chinese society is the collective nature. The Chinese will adhere more easily to the standards of group than people in individualistic societies. The second feature is Polychronic, the people in a polychronic culture are enjoying social harmony and in general emphasizing relationships more than tasks. According to the research cited “online social interaction is important in a collectivistic culture such as China.
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Cognitive tools suggest a way for people from certain culture to deal with real-life problems, like Suanpan for Chinese to perform mathematical calculation Starting in the 1990s, psychological research on culture influence began to grow and challenge the universality assumed in general psychology. Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture. For example, people from collectivistic cultures, such as the Japanese, suppress their positive emotions more than their American counterparts. Culture may affect the way that people experience and express emotions.
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It has been suggested cultural differences occur in attribution error: people from individualistic (Western) cultures are reportedly more prone to the error while people from collectivistic cultures are less prone. Based on cartoon-figure presentations to Japanese and American subjects, it has been suggested that collectivist subjects may be more influenced by information from context (for instance being influenced more by surrounding faces in judging facial expressions). Alternatively, individualist subjects may favor processing of focal objects, rather than contexts. Others suggest Western individualism is associated with viewing both oneself and others as independent agents, therefore focusing more on individuals rather than contextual details.
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Western cultures tend to be more individualistic in nature and therefore the people of those cultures have an easier time making public, positive self-evaluations. The individualistic nature of those cultures encourages people who reside in them to make public, positive self-evaluations because of a lack of social/societal judgment when they do. Eastern cultures, on the other hand, tend to be more collectivistic in nature and therefore the people of those cultures are less likely to make public, positive self- evaluations than they are to make private self-evaluations. This may be due to evaluation apprehension.
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Cultural priming is a technique employed in the field of cross-cultural psychology and social psychology to understand how people interpret events and other concepts, like cultural frame switching and self- concept. For example, Hung and his associate display participants a different set of culture related images, like U.S. Capitol building vs Chinese temple, and then watch a clip of fish swimming ahead of a group of fishes. }} When exposed to the latter one, Hong Kong participants are more likely to reason in a collectivistic way. In contrast, their counterparts who view western images are more likely to give a reverse response and focus more on that individual fish.
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Finally, children are able to understand that others may have false beliefs and that others are capable of hiding emotions. While this sequence represents the general trend in skill acquisition, it seems that more emphasis is placed on some skills in certain cultures, leading to more valued skills to develop before those that are considered not as important. For example, in individualistic cultures such as the United States, a greater emphasis is placed on the ability to recognize that others have different opinions and beliefs. In a collectivistic culture, such as China, this skill may not be as important and therefore may not develop until later.
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Egocentric bias might also result in an overestimation of the number of students that received low grades in the class for the purpose to normalize these students' performance. However, similar to the false- consensus effect, the self-serving bias and the egocentric bias have also been used as interchangeable terms. Both concepts may be the product of individualistic cultures that usually stress independence and personal achievement over group-oriented success. Cross-cultural studies have found a strong presence of the egocentric bias in the primarily individualistic American, South African, and Yugoslavian communities, but noted the opposite effect in the collectivistic Japanese, Nepali, and Indian societies.
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For example, a person might try to make a good first impression to seek approval in an interview by using strategies to avoid negative evaluation from the individual who is conducting the interview. Among the various cultures that conversational constraints have been studied, individualistic cultures have been shown to have differences in comparison to other types of cultures. Individualistic cultures are more focused on the amount of clarity within a conversational constraint and less concerned with avoiding negative evaluation from the hearer. In contrast, collectivistic cultures are more concerned with behaviors that include avoiding negative evaluation from the hearer, and minimizing imposition because these constraints are considered face-supporting behavior.
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The Kraybill Conflict Style Inventory (KCSI, also known by the book title Style Matters) is a conflict style inventory developed in the 1980s by Dr. Ronald S. Kraybill. Like the widely used Thomas Kilmann Inventory (TKI), it is built around the Mouton-Blake grid and identifies five styles of responding to conflict, in this case: directing, harmonizing, avoiding, cooperating, and compromising. The Kraybill model takes into consideration conflict response styles when things are going well ("calm") and when conflict increases ("storm"). KCSI is different from predecessors in the Mouton-Blake tradition in encouraging users to consider options for cultural adaptability, taking into account variation in participants' responses as appropriate to individualistic or collectivistic cultures.
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Psychological research has connected religiosity with homophobic attitudes and physical antigay hostility, and has traced religious opposition to gay adoption to collectivistic values (loyalty, authority, purity) and low flexibility in existential issues, rather than to high prosocial inclinations for the weak. Attitudes toward homosexuality have been found to be determined not only by personal religious beliefs, but by the interaction of those beliefs with the predominant national religious context—even for people who are less religious or who do not share their local dominant religious context. Many argue that it is homosexual actions which are sinful, rather than same-sex attraction itself. To this end, some discourage labeling individuals according to sexual orientation.
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They hypothesized that there would be a negative correlation between collectivism and corruption when evaluation apprehension was high because of the fear of being judged for being corrupt by the other people of one's culture. On the other hand, they hypothesized that there would be a positive correlation when evaluation apprehension was low because people would have low fear of judgment from others for being corrupt. Therefore, the researchers conducted an experiment that tested the relationship between collectivism and corruption with the independent variable being evaluation apprehension. All of the conditions in the experiment contained situations where collectivistic values and one's willingness to act corruptly were tested, the conditions only differed in the amount of evaluation apprehension they contained.
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Though it is agreed that there are differences between one culture and another, most of the differences that were addressed in researches are related to the comparison between individualism and collectivism. In individualistic cultures, it was found that there is a strong relationship between dispositional affect (either positive or negative) and general life satisfaction (though the relationship was stronger for positive affectivity compared to negative affectivity). On the other hand, in many collectivistic cultures, it was found that there is a no relationship between negative affectivity and general life satisfaction, and it may result from the great variance in the ways that different cultures regulate their positive affectivity compared to negative affectivity.Suh, E., Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Triandis, H. C. (1998).
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau, claims that his concept of general will in The Social Contract is not the simple collection of individual wills and that it furthers the interests of the individual (the constraint of law itself would be beneficial for the individual, as the lack of respect for the law necessarily entails, in Rousseau's eyes, a form of ignorance and submission to one's passions instead of the preferred autonomy of reason). Individualism versus collectivism is a common dichotomy in cross-cultural research. Global comparative studies have found that the world's cultures vary in the degree to which they emphasize individual autonomy, freedom and initiative (individualistic traits), respectively conformity to group norms, maintaining traditions and obedience to in-group authority (collectivistic traits). Cultural differences between individualism and collectivism are differences in degrees, not in kind.
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Jack A. Goncalo is Professor of Business Administration and the Robert and Helen Seass Faculty Fellow at the Gies College of Business, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.. Goncalo received his BS, MS and Ph.D. degrees from the University of California, Berkeley. He began his career at the School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell University where he was the Proskauer Professor. Professor Goncalo is known for his research on individual and team creativity which has been published in numerous academic journals and highlighted in Time Magazine, The New York Times, Forbes Magazine and CNN. Key findings from Professor Goncalo’s research have shown that individualistic groups are more creative than collectivistic groups, the norm to be Politically Correct can boost the creativity of demographically diverse teams and that decision makers can be biased against creative ideas Jack maintains an updated website with his research at CreativityGuy.com.
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There is inconsistency in the claims made by scientists and researchers that attempt to prove or disprove attribution theories and the concept of attributional biases. The theory was formed as a comprehensive explanation of the way people interpret the basis of behaviors in human interactions; however, there have been studies that indicate cultural differences in the attribution biases between people of Eastern, collectivistic societies and Western, individualistic societies. A study done by Thomas Miller shows that when dealing with conflict created by other people, individualistic cultures tend to blame the individual for how people behave (dispositional attributions), whereas collectivist cultures blame the overall situation on how people behave (situational attributions). These same findings were replicated in a study done by Michael Morris where an American group and a Chinese group were asked their opinions about the killings perpetrated by Gang Lu at the University of Iowa.
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Herbert Spencer believed that society was evolving toward increasing freedom for individuals; and so held that government intervention, ought to be minimal in social and political life, differentiated between two phases of development, focusing is on the type of internal regulation within societies. Thus, he differentiated between military and industrial societies. The earlier, more primitive military society has a goal of conquest and defence, is centralised, economically self-sufficient, collectivistic, puts the good of the group over the good of the individual, uses compulsion, force, and repression, rewards loyalty, obedience and discipline. The industrial society has a goal of production and trade, is decentralised, interconnected with other societies via economic relations, achieves its goals through voluntary cooperation and individual self-restraint, treats the good of the individual as the highest value, regulates the social life via voluntary relations, and values initiative, independence, and innovation.
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He stated that North American and Western European countries classify themselves as an individualistic culture that is centred around the principles of egalitarianism, lack of in-group interdependence, direct communication and low power distance. Therefore, from a western perspective, the authoritative aspects of paternalism are not accepted innately whereas the parental aspect of this leadership style is looked upon as an invasion of privacy as personal and professional lives are two separate facets of life. On the other hand, paternalistic leadership style is quite effective and successful in non-western cultures which are collectivistic in nature as these societies look up to their leaders as a fatherly figure and rely upon him for guidance and protection in return of deference and loyalty, thereby aligning with the principles of paternalistic style. It is essential that extensive research be initiated, from a Non- Western point of view to understand the implications of this leadership style on social, cultural and organisational metrics without any negative bias.
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Having identified this bond as a sort of quasi-kinship that has also been observed by social scientists in more recent cultures, Herman further argues (in 'Le parrainage, "l'hospitalité" et l'expansion du Christianisme') that it provided the idea for Christian godparenthood. he followed up its implications for Greek histoire événementielle by examining how xenia/hospitium functioned in three largely dissimilar social settings: the hierarchical, individualistic world of petty rulers reflected in the Homeric poems, the egalitarian (at the elite level, at least), collectivistic world of the classical and Hellenistic city-state, reflected in classical Greek literature, and the huge upper-class power networks of the late (by then Christian) Roman empire, reflected in the Greek and Latin literature of the late Roman and early medieval periods. In 'Rituals of evasion in ancient Greece' Herman describes a kind of ritual that has survived into the world of the Greek city states from that early stage of human existence during which societal norms had not as yet been internalised, and no sense of guilt had yet been formed. In Greeks between East and West (2007).
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In the true history of the world (according to the comic Before The Great Flood), two major civilizations emerged on two different continents, named Mu (a pseudo-Asiatic realm ruled by an authoritarian, collectivistic philosophy) and Atlantis (a proto-Aryan regime devoted to individualism and capitalism); despite their ideological differences, both had developed advanced civilizations, comparable to the 'Eighties' ideas of an early 21st century. As a result of their rivalry, a great war flared up after several proxy conflicts fought over Gondwana, which ultimately saw the employment of nuclear warheads and other final weapons; in the end the losing side, triggered a doomsday machine, which plunged the world in a veritable cataclysm, destroying nearly every sign of the antediluvian civilization. The Atlantis-Mu overarching storyline was very poignant in the early 1980s, when the comic was born, as the antediluvian holocaust represented a warning to mankind (then enveloped in the last throes of the USA-USSR arms race); it gradually lost importance during the nineties. Martin Mystère exists in the same fictional universe with other Sergio Bonelli comics characters, including Zagor, Mister No and Dylan Dog, a universe which would eventually evolve into the science-fiction milieu of Nathan Never.
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