The tumor was "progressing" — surely one of medicine's most perverse coinages.
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If you readers have suggested coinages, please leave them in the comments.
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A feature noted by some linguists is "hypersynonymy" whereby many competing coinages express the same notion.
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And the sometimes risible mock-medievalism of "Outsiders" goes way beyond a few vaguely Welsh and Gaelic coinages.
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The Buddhist spirit, or the easier American variant of it, blossomed in Beat literature, producing some fine coinages (Kerouac's " Dharma Bums ").
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But his novel — and coinages like Big Brother, thought police and double-think — have never been far from the cultural stage.
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Dictionary writers spend their days combing through examples of English, searching for intriguing word usage or new coinages that might pop up.
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In these now widely adopted coinages of mine, I discern a vague, threatening spectre somehow inexorably drawing me toward Italy—and I tremble.
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The technological use of "avatar" emerged via a spontaneous burst of coinages in the late 1980s and early '90s, at the dawn of personal computing.
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This practice, known as "trophallaxis" (another of William Wheeler's coinages), allows a communal pooling of digestive capacity, which can then be handed down from one generation to the next.
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Ataturk decreed a switch from the Arabic to the Latin alphabet and, in an extraordinary purge, sought to get rid of Arabic and Persian borrowings, replacing them with new coinages.
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It also reflects the way portmanteau coinages incorporating "bro-" and "man-" — "portmanbros," if you will — have increasingly taken on a critical edge, in keeping with shifts in conversations around gender.
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The Bitter Darling (a rye-based cocktail with clementine juice and a good lashing of bitters) and La Puesta del Sol (a Spanish-inflected aperitif) are two of my favorite coinages.
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The pursuit of Perfectionism, as the doctrine was called, led to a number of unorthodox practices, notably "complex marriage" and "sexual communism," which were essentially coinages for radical polyamory and free love.
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Hindi and Urdu are close enough that some consider them a single language, but since Indian and Pakistani independence, new Hindi coinages and borrowings have tended to come from Sanskrit, Urdu ones from Arabic and Persian.
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The original series, which ran from 2003 to 2006 on Fox, was a comedy miracle, capturing the oblivious entitlement of the wealthy Bluth family with elaborate farce plots and enough inspired coinages to fill a vault.
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Dr. McInnis used technology like Early English Books Online, which has full texts of early writing, to show that some coinages attributed to Shakespeare by sources like the Oxford English Dictionary appeared long before he used them.
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Some coinages Dr. McInnis investigated do have their origins in Shakespeare, he said, like the phrase "to make an ass of me," used by Bottom in "A Midsummer Night's Dream," when his head is, for a spell, transformed into a donkey's.
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Oxford University Press, which publishes the dictionary, said it had added 29 new Nigerian English words and expressions to its latest update -- including words derived from the Nigerian languages of Hausa and Yoruba as well as a number of unique Nigerian coinages.
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The Words With Friends development team meets monthly to review words and sources its words from player submissions via an in-game feature and online via social media, as well as dictionaries that the team closely monitors and new coinages from the world at large ("covfefe" was added earlier this year).
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The new words include an array of coinages that reflect modern life, like terms about gender identity (such as "genderqueer" and "cisgender"), online slang ("bae" is now on the table) and words related to political and cultural controversies ("antivaxxer" is as potent on the Scrabble board as in real life, with a whopping 19 points).
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We see this in the willing stockpiling of techie jargon into individual vocabularies (the Androids, the iPhones, the lesser-seen Surface Books); the new word coinages (blockchain), the new and expanding uses for existing words (a 'message' is a noun; 'message me' an imperative verb asking someone to send you an IM); the creative portmanteaus (glasshole is a particularly good one), the tech-obsessed idioms (I don't have bandwidth for that right now), and so on and on.
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It was only during the 1890s that provincial Chinese mints started producing native silver coinages.
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The word bit is a colloquial expression referring to specific coins in various coinages throughout the world.
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Since 1985, banknotes have been issued common to both New Caledonia and French Polynesia, although separate coinages continue.
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Nicholas Gervase Rhodes (26 May 1946 – 7 July 2011) was a British numismatist who specialised in the coinages of Asia.
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Malakismenos is a passive participle, ('someone jerked off'). One of the two feminine coinages makes use of the same participle .
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They were all struck at the London mint and bear the inscription RICARD REX ANGL (Richard King of England). Henry IV issued farthings in both the "heavy" (pre 1412) and "light" (1412–13) coinages (20% lighter), although allowing for the prevalence of clipping it is quite difficult to distinguish between the two coinages at the size of the farthing.
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While initially the aristocracy tended to buried with genuine specimens of "high currency", later clay versions of these coinages were also produced.
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The Lower Rhine triquetrum coinages and the ethnogenesis of the Batavi. Berlin. pp. 93–145. The Ethnogenesis of the Batavi (Germanic tribe) into Gaul is reflected by the circulation and production of the triquetrum coinages shortly after the Gallic Wars that evidences the hypothesis that the mass migration of Germanic peoples was rooted in 'Caesarian frontier policy'.Slofstra, Jan (2002/07).
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Many Roman AE/As coins are with adlocutio of emperors. The coinages of adlocutio tell the differences between the ways each emperor addressing the army.
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The spread of minting in Iberia from the fifth century BC to the first century AD (known and likely locations) The history of ancient Iberian coinage begins as early as the fifth century BC, but widespread minting and circulation in the Iberian peninsula did not begin until late in the third century, during the Second Punic War. Civic coinages - emissions made by individual cities at their own volition - continued under the first two and a half centuries of Roman control until ending in the mid-first century AD. Some non-civic coins were minted on behalf of Roman emperors during this period and continued to be minted after the cessation of the civic coinages. After the cessation of the civic coinages, these Imperial coins were the only coins minted in Iberia until the coins of the Suebi and Visigoths. Ancient Iberia was connected to the eastern and central Mediterranean, and so there are links to the Greek, Roman and Punic (Carthaginian) civic coinages.
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The highest standard of indigenous Chinese coinages produced under Qing rule was probably achieved by the gold, silver, and copper coins produced in the city of Tianjin between the years 1906 and 1907.
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This severely negatively affected the economy of rural areas where copper-alloy cash coins circulated as the principal (if not only) currency and was used in high frequency for the daily transactions of most (if not all) people in these regions. It has always been a challenge for the imperial Chinese government to debase the copper coinage to make its production more adorable. This was because debased coinages will be discounted on the market and always invite widespread counterfeiting. The solution to this problem was by introducing new machine-struck coinages that were produced by steam powered machines, this would make it more difficult for counterfeiters to produce fake coinages as the initial costs to purchase the machines needed for counterfeiting were very high and discouraged many would- be counterfeiters.
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Taras (or Tarentum) was among the most prominent city states. By the second century BC some of these Greek coinages evolved under Roman rule, and can be classified as the first Roman provincial currencies.
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Before minting of their own coinage, a flow of international coins provided the basis for an early economy with which to develop. Danish ruled kingdoms in the British Isles, known as the Danelaw, began to model their own coins on rulers in addition to various Christian imagery. Within Scandinavia, the adoption of particular coinages within each of the Danish, Swedish and Norwegian coinages became evident towards the late 990s.Silver Economy in the Viking Age, edited by James Graham-Campbell, and Gareth Williams, Taylor & Francis Group, 2007.
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Medieval European Coinage. British Academy. Retrieved 1 February 2019. It has been described as the "first comprehensive survey of European medieval coinages since the Traité de numismatique du moyen âge of Engel and Serrure" (1891-1905).
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The CFP franc is also issued in New Caledonia and was used in the New Hebrides until 1983. Since 1985, banknotes have been issued common to both French Polynesia and New Caledonia, although separate coinages continue.
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Many of the words were inspired directly by French or Russian. Others, such as "elir" for life, were a priori coinages by Rosenfelder. There are also words based on political humor, e.g. 'fanaticism' is sunmünmún and 'terror' is arhafát.
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Branford, Jean & Branford, William. A Dictionary of South African English. Oxford University Press 1992 Among other coinages, neutral section and central nature strip occurs in Australian English. Additionally, different terminology is used to identify traffic lanes in a multi-lane roadway.
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There was a mint in the new capital. Silver tetradrachms and drachms of the Attic weight are known. Nicomedes I is known to have struck some bronze coinage too. Both Bithynian and Cappadocian coinages were started with minor series of bronze coins.
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Ian Carradice is an authority on the coinages of ancient Greece, Rome, Persia and Carthage, and the history of museums. He is the former professor of ancient numismatics at the University of St Andrews and the director of the museums of that university.
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The three Presidencies established by the British East India Company (Bengal, Bombay and Madras) each issued their own coinages until 1835. All three issued rupees and fractions thereof down to - and -rupee in silver. Madras also issued two-rupee coins. Copper denominations were more varied.
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The name "Da-Qing Tongbi" (大清銅幣) can be translated as "Copper currency of the Great Qing" and was used to indicate that this series was supposed to be the standard coinage of the entire empire as opposed to provincial coinages. The Qing dynasty had a bimetallic coinage system, and similar titles were also used for other standardised metal coinages such as the silver Da-Qing Yinbi (大清銀幣) and the gold Da-Qing Jinbi (大清金幣).平景賢; 王金谷. 中國錢幣珍品系列紀念章介紹 (一). 中國錢幣.
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Gooch, M.L. (2012). Money and Power in the Viking Kingdom of York, c. 895-954, University of Durham unpublished PhD thesis, 2012. Pp.43-109 The coinages of Cnut and Siefred also rely on regal and Christian imagery as well as influences from the Byzantine coins.
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It also has the task of linguistically deriving such words from existing Persian roots if no such equivalents exist, and actively promoting the adoption of these new coinages instead of their English equivalents in the daily lives of the Persian-speaking people in Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan.
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The collection of coins contains Anglo-Viking, Anglo-Saxon, Islamic and Frankish coins as well as those from Northumbria representing the wide-ranging cultural contacts of the Vikings and the influences of their coinages. The other items of jewellery form a basis for trading within a bullion economy.
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As such, it became expedient to introduce British sterling coinage to all the colonies. Sterling coinage was introduced following an imperial order-in-council of 1825 which set ratings for sterling in relation to the Spanish dollar and some other major coinages which were in circulation at the time.
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As the people weren't used to fiduciary coinages they weren't accepted on the marked with their intended value. The Datang Tongbao () cash coins which have their inscriptions written in li script were produced in the year 959.Chester L. Krause and Clifford Mishler. Standard Catalog of World Coins.
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In the British Isles, aureation has often been most associated with Scottish renaissance makars, especially William Dunbar or Gavin Douglas, who commonly drew on the rhetoric and diction of classical antiquity in their work. In the context of language development, aureation can be seen as an extension of processes in which historically vernacular languages are expanded through loan words. In Europe this usually meant borrowings from Latin and Greek. The medieval and renaissance periods were a fertile time for such borrowings and in Germanic languages, such as English and Scots, Greek and Latinate coinages were particularly highlighted (see classical compounds especially), though this has sometimes been decried as pretentious, these coinages being criticized as inkhorn terms.
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The new technology allowed the Qing government to cast high-quality, standardised coins with machined edges. Therefore the new technology provided a for the government of the Qing dynasty a way to mint sufficient token coins at an affordable cost without inviting forgers to debase the new coinages even further. While the new technology allowed the Qing government to mint sufficient amounts of copper-alloy coins at an affordable cost, the new technology wasn't implemented throughout China at the same time as some provinces would adopt the technology later. Initially the new machine-struck coinages were well received where they were introduced, which helped other provincial mints adopt the new technology faster.
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The Roman scutum was an oblong shield with an oval shape. Numerous shields were used by the Roman soldiers, such as the pelta, parma and clypeus. In contrast to the scutum, these shields were round. Despite these latter shields bearing a clear round shape, coinages like petalis cartilago,Columbo, R. (1559).
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Burial money was modeled after the many different types of ancient Chinese coinages, and earlier forms of burial money tended to be actual money. Graves that were dated to the Shang dynasty period have been discovered that contain thousands of cowrie shells, for example, the Fu Hao-mu, dating to about the year 1200 BCE, was discovered containing 6,900 cowry shells. Chinese graves dating to the Warring States period are found containing contemporary coinages buried as funerary objects such as spade money, knife money, ring-shaped coins, ant-nose coins, and Ban Liang cash coins. But as the presence of real money and other objects of value would attract the attention of potential grave robbers, the Chinese started to manufacture clay imitations of real money.
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Other models of modern silver coinages, which are known as ban (板), that were known to have been produced in the cities of Guangzhou, Fuzhou, Hangzhou, Suzhou, Wuxi, and Jiangxi. The models of milled silver coins produced in Wuxi are known as xiban (錫板) and the ones produced in Jiangxi are known as tuban (土板). There were also the models known as Wuzhuang (吳莊) and Xingzhuang (行莊). Another early attempt at creating a native government-produced silver Chinese coinage was made by Lin Zexu, he created a system of silver coinages known as the Yinbing (銀餅, literally "Silver cakes") which had a standard weight of 0.72 tael, but the Yinbing was eventually rejected by the Jiangsu market.
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The monetary system was complex and is still not understood (much like the late Roman coinages), and due to the absence of large numbers of coin items, it is assumed that "proto-money" was used. This included bronze items made from the early La Tène period and onwards, which were often in the shape of axeheads, rings, or bells. Due to the large number of these present in some burials, it is thought they had a relatively high monetary value, and could be used for "day to day" purchases. Low-value coinages of potin, a bronze alloy with high tin content, were minted in most Celtic areas of the continent and in South- East Britain prior to the Roman conquest of these lands.
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Joe Cribb at the Berlin symposium on the Kushans in Dec. 2013 Joe Cribb is a numismatist, specialising in Asian coinages, and in particular on coins of the Kushan Empire. His catalogues of Chinese silver currency ingots, and of ritual coins of Southeast Asia were the first detailed works on these subjects in English.
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The Japanese word () is a Sino-Japanese loanword deriving from the Chinese (; ). Its modern Japanese kanji, , is the shinjitai ("new character form") of the kyūjitai ("old character form"), . Synonyms for reishi are divided between Sino-Japanese borrowings and native Japanese coinages. Sinitic loanwords include literary terms such as (, from ; "auspicious plant") and (, from ; "immortality plant").
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" She followed the three out to the frontier, riding on a wave of jokes and coinages and hoaxes and cuttings-up. The first half of the book is a breathless bravura performance; the book as a whole sits right between William Carlos Williams's In the American Grain and Thomas Pynchon's Mason & Dixon."Link text, additional text.
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Like the coinage produced by the Greek communities in the western part of the island, it was minted solely in silver on the Attic-Euboic weight standard, and its iconography was mostly adapted from other pre-existing Sicilian coinages - principally those of Himera, Segesta, and Syracuse. This Siculo-Punic coinage probably preceded Phoenicia's own Tyrian shekels, which developed .
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Huo Quan Bingqian can have a diameter of 23.3 millimeters and a weight of 7 grams, making them heavier than the standard issue Huo Quan cash coins. Because of their distinctive shapes and designs the various Xin dynasty coinages served as inspiration for many different types of [Chinese numismatic charms for millenia after get fall of the Xin dynasty.
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Handbook of Coins of Great Britain and Ireland in the British Museum, Herbert A. Greuber, pp. 192 and 194. James VI alone had eight issues of coins before he unified the thrones, and to a large extent the coinages, of Scotland and England.Coins of Scotland Ireland and the Islands, Peter Seaby and Frank Purvey, p. 55.
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There are various kinds of Xinjiang coins produced throughout the history of Xinjiang using the styles of contemporary Chinese cash coins as well as Persian and Islamic coinages. As not many records exist from the ancient monarchies of Xinjiang the study of its coinage has determined when which rules reigned and the state of the economy based on metallurgical analyses.
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Bioneer and its derivations have also been used in relationship to biotechnology. This usage of the term appears to come from independent coinages based on a portmanteau of "biotechnology" and "engineering" and/or "pioneering". The Cambridge, Massachusetts drug-screening company Bioneering Technologies describes itself as being focused on "the fusion between biotechnology, engineering, and pioneering services (hence, Bioneering)."Bioneering Technologies. (2006-2007).
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An example of Zhou dynasty era "bridge money". There were other coinages where no contemporary historical sources mentions them. For this reason the validity of these objects as a form of currency is called into question. Because it is unknown if they were or weren't forms of ancient Chinese money, they are usually referred to as "pseudo money" or "odd shaped money" ().
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Fanspeak is the slang or jargon current in science fiction and fantasy fandom, especially those terms in use among readers and writers of science fiction fanzines. Fanspeak is made up of acronyms, blended words, obscure in-jokes, puns, coinages from science fiction novels or films, and archaic or standard English words used in specific ways relevant or amusing to the science fiction community.
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Tropenmuseum - Bij een begrafenis op Bali worden op een graf offers reisbenodigdheden geld (kèpèngs) en voedsel voor de dode geplaatst TMnr 10003255. Retrieved: 09 March 2019. (in Dutch). When the Portuguese and Dutch arrived around the 17th century to the Bali Kingdom, European influence did not suppress the circulation of Balinese cash coins but were supplanted with additional European coinages.
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Kenneth W. Harl is an American scholar, author, and classicist. He received his B.A. in Classics and History at Trinity College in 1973, and his M.A. (1975) and PhD (1978) at Yale University. He is currently a Professor of History at Tulane University in New Orleans. Harl is known for his expertise in ancient numismatics, especially on the provincial and civic coinages of the Roman East.
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The kyat was a denomination of both silver and gold coinages in Burma until 1889. It was divided into 20 pe, each of 4 pya, with the mu and mat worth 2 and 4 pe, respectively. Nominally, 16 silver kyats equal 1 gold kyat. The silver kyat was equivalent to the Indian rupee, which replaced the kyat after Burma was conquered by the British.
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Over the course of the 7th century, the gold content of Anglo- Saxon and Frankish tremisses deteriorated until, in the 660s, they were often only 10-20% pure. Around this point, there was a major shift from debased gold to silver in Merovingian Frankia. However, within a few years of c. 675 very large silver coinages were being struck in southeastern England as well.
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Although Chinese numismatic charms are not a legal form of currency, they used to circulate on the Chinese market alongside regular government-issued coinages. The charms were considered valuable, as they were often made from copper alloys and Chinese coins were valued by their weight in bronze or brass. In some cases, charms were made from precious metals or jade.Anything Anywhere China, amulets by Bob Reis.
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Christian imagery was common in coins issued in the Danelaw kingdom. This includes inscriptions such as DOMINUS DEUS REX (Lord God and King) as well as Christian imagery such as the Christian cross. Scandinavian influences on the coinages are also evident in addition to the Christian imagery, such as the hammer of the Norse god Thor and other references. The inscriptions under King Olaf demonstrate Scandinavian influence.
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Sachlich geordnete Glossare. Die Althochdeutschen Glossen, Vol. III. pp. 390-404. The text is a glossary of 1011 words in Lingua Ignota, with glosses mostly in Latin, sometimes in German; the words appear to be a priori coinages, mostly nouns with a few adjectives. Grammatically it appears to be a partial relexification of Latin, that is, a language formed by substituting new vocabulary into an existing grammar.
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The academy constantly campaigns for the use of Persian equivalents of new loanwords. If no equivalents exist, it has the task of linguistically deriving such words from existing Persian roots, and actively promoting the adoption of these new coinages in the daily lives. The Iranian law requires those equivalents to be used in the official media, governmental affairs, and product management of all companies.
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Copper dams were also issued, together with copper paisa worth 4 copper dams. The values of the copper, silver and gold coinages relative to one another were not fixed until 1903. In that year, the silver mohar became the standard currency, divided into 50 paisa. It was replaced in 1932 by the rupee, also called the mohru (Moru), at a rate of 2 mohars = 1 rupee.
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A major difference between the Septuagint, and associated literature, and contemporary non-Jewish Koine texts is the presence of a number of pure neologisms (new coinages) or new usage of vocabulary.Katrin Hauspie, Neologisms in the Septuagint of Ezekiel. 17–37. JNSL 27/1 in Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages – Universiteit van StellenboschJohan Lust, Erik Eynikel and Katrin Hauspie. Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint 2008 PrefaceT.
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This is a list of nicknames for the traditional counties of Ireland and their inhabitants. The nicknames are mainly used with reference to the county's representative team in gaelic games organised by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). A few of the names are quite old and well-known; most are recent coinages mainly used by journalists. Some refer specifically to the Gaelic games county colours.
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Among his best-known coinages are (from Housemaster) "What do you mean, funny? Funny-peculiar or funny ha-ha?" and (from The First Hundred Thousand) "War is hell, and all that, but it has a good deal to recommend it. It wipes out all the small nuisances of peace-time." He either invented or popularised the phrase "nothing to write home about", denoting something mediocre or unexceptional.
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Many of these coinages have proven to be unstable, and have either fallen out of use or been replaced with pronunciations more in keeping with the developing norms, such as pobo for poŭpo, vato for ŭato, and maĉo for matĉo. On the other hand, the word jida ('Yiddish'), which was also sometimes criticized on phonotactical grounds but had been used by Zamenhof, is well established.
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Although the provincial coinages mostly ended in the 1920s, the provincial banks continued issuing notes until 1949, including Communist issues from 1930. Most of the banknotes issued for use throughout the country bore the words "National Currency", as did some of the provincial banks. The remaining provincial banknotes bore the words "Local Currency". These circulated at varying exchange rates to the national currency issues.
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Although not known as "holey dollars", several British colonies in the Caribbean used the same method for producing coins from Spanish dollars. They include British Guiana, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Tobago and Trinidad. The holed coins and plugs circulated alongside various other coins made by cutting Spanish and Spanish colonial coins into sections. These coinages were denominated in either shillings and pence or bits, worth nine pence.
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Seligman was of Jewish heritageJewish Encyclopedia c. 1906 Finance and born in Baiersdorf, Germany. As a small child, he worked in his mother's dry goods shop. Present-day Germany consisted of many independent states in the early 19th century, most of which issued their own, differing coinages; and young Joseph made a profit at his mother's store changing money for travelers for a small fee.
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The collection of coins, medals and paper currency consists of over 600,000 objects drawn from all periods and cultures. In many fields the ANS' collections are the most comprehensive anywhere in the world. The collection includes early numismatic items from Ancient Greece and the Roman Republic, and also has a strong representation of coins of American, European, Far Eastern, and Islamic origin. These coinages range from 700 BC to the present.
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Wickham Inheritance of Rome pp. 218–219 The various Germanic states in the west all had coinages that imitated existing Roman and Byzantine forms. Gold continued to be minted until the end of the 7th century in 693-94 when it was replaced by silver in the Merovingian kingdom. The basic Frankish silver coin was the denarius or denier, while the Anglo-Saxon version was called a penny.
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Further these coins tended to have their relation with China's older coinages (most often with cash coins) on the bottom, or their value in relation to silver coinage, and the Manchu words indicated the place of mintage. Meanwhile, the 10 wén "traditional" cash coins were discontinued as the production of these more modern coins began.Kenneth Pomeranz. The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy.
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The local Greek coinages are known as Greek Imperial coins. Apart from the Greeks and the Romans, also other peoples in the Mediterranean region issued coins. These include the Phoenicians, the Carthaginians, the Jews, the Celts and various regions in the Iberian Peninsula and the Arab Peninsula. In regions to the East of the Roman Empire, that were formerly controlled by the Hellenistic Seleucids, the Parthians created a kingdom in Persia.
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While slang terms are usually short-lived coinages and figures of speech, cool is an especially ubiquitous slang word, most notably among young people. As well as being understood throughout the English- speaking world, the word has even entered the vocabulary of several languages other than English. In this sense, cool is used as a general positive epithet or interjection, which can have a range of related adjectival meanings.
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He later used both versions in his teaching, and in 1992 posted them to the LINGUIST List. A sentence with eight consecutive buffalos is featured in Steven Pinker's 1994 book The Language Instinct as an example of a sentence that is "seemingly nonsensical" but grammatical. Pinker names his student, Annie Senghas, as the inventor of the sentence. Neither Rapaport, Pinker, nor Senghas were initially aware of the earlier coinages.
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Medieval European Coinage 1 The Early Middle Ages (5th-10th centuries), 1986. Medieval European Coinage is a book series on medieval coins published by Cambridge University Press in association with the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. The project was the idea of professor Philip Grierson (1910-2006) and Mark Blackburn (1953-2011) was the first general editor. It will cover the coinages of Europe for the period c.450-1500.
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On the earliest Chinese dollar (yuan) coins it states the words 7 mace and 2 candareens. The mace and candareen were sub-divisions of the tael unit of weight. Banknotes tended to be issued in dollars, either worded as such or as yuan. Despite the complications arising from a mixture of Chinese and Spanish coinages, there was one overwhelming unifying factor binding all the systems in use: silver.
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After Nero's adoption, "Claudius" became part of his name: Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. Claudius had gold coins issued to mark the adoption. Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution and imagery alike, showed that a new Leader was in the making." David Shotter noted that, despite events in Rome, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was more prominent in provincial coinages during the early 50s.
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The usage of Croatian > words, if necessary even in a modified meaning, or Croatian coinages, if > they're considered to be successful, represents higher merit then mere > mechanical borrowing of foreign expressive devices. That way the Croatian > word is more solemn and formal (glazba, mirovina, redarstvenik), and the > loanword is more relaxing and less demanding (muzika, penzija, policajac). > This dimension of purism is incorporated into the very foundations of > Croatian language sensitivity.
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A Tangguo Tongbao (唐國通寶) cash coin with its inscription written in regular script. The coinage of the Southern Tang kingdom (Traditional Chinese: 南唐貨幣) consisted mostly of bronze cash coins while the coinages of previous dynasties still circulated in the Southern Tang kingdom most of the cash coins issued during this period were cast in relation to these being valued as a multiple of them.
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But the quality of these cash coins varied severely depending on the mint. As many cash coins circulated in the market for a long time their quality diminished over time becoming known as Bitasen (鐚銭, "bad metal money").Masuo Tomifusa, Honpou bitasen zufu, (Anasendou 1982). (in Japanese) After the Tokugawa shogunate banned Bitasen in 1608 they started producing their own coinage and after 1859 provincial authorities were allowed to mint their own coinages.
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A lump of ancient Vietnamese cash coins in the National Museum of Vietnamese History, Hanoi. The list of coin hoards in Vietnam comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, other types of coinages (e.g. sycees) or objects related to coins discovered in Vietnam. The history of Vietnamese currency, independent from China, dates back to the Đinh dynasty period with the Thái Bình Hưng Bảo (太平興寶), produced from 970 to 979.
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Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English: mathematics, physics, astronomy, democracy, philosophy, athletics, theatre, rhetoric, baptism, evangelist, etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: anthropology, photography, telephony, isomer, biomechanics, cinematography, etc. and form, with Latin words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary like all words ending with –logy ("discourse"). There are many English words of Greek origin..
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It was minted as a shekel or didrachm on the Phoenician weight standard. Its types, a horse on the obverse and a palm tree on the reverse are very similar to those of the silver, Series I, sub-group F. Alongside these first Carthaginian issues, separate coinages continued to be produced by other cities within the Carthaginian sphere in western Sicily, notably Motya (until 398/7 BC), Ṣyṣ-Panormus, Eryx, and Segesta.
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The obverse for this denomination used Percy Metcalfe’s standard portrait of George VI for British colonial coinages and the existing Edward VII/George V reverse. The mintage figures for 1946 and 1947 are considered unofficial. The same issue occurred with the Newfoundland five cents coins of the era. Published official mint reports do not indicate any mintage of the denomination during 1946, although there appears to be 1946 coins created in 1947.
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As Greek merchants traded with Greek communities (colonies) throughout the Mediterranean Sea, the Greek coinage concept soon spread through trade to the entire Mediterranean region. These early Greek silver coins were denominated in staters or drachmas and its fractions (obols). More or less simultaneously with the development of the Lydian and Greek coinages, a coinage system was developed independently in China. The Chinese coins, however, were a different concept and they were made of bronze.
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A currency system derived from coins imported from Spain, China and neighboring countries was fraught with various difficulties. Money came in different coinages, and fractional currency in addition to the real and the cuarto also existed. Peso coins with Spanish or Mexican designs are also easily imported and exported overseas, occasionally emptying government and private coffers. Money has nearly always been scarce in Manila, and when it was abundant it was shipped to the provinces.
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During this same era provincial governments started setting up their own official banks to enhance their financial resources. The boom of financial institutions during this era meant that various forms of paper money, private banknotes, foreign banknotes, and many different kinds of local coinages circulated concurrently creating a very chaotic Chinese currency system.鹤龄. 大清银行第一套钞票 [J]. 会计之友, 2004(2):72-72.
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For the next two centuries, the continued use of a profile, as opposed to the facing portrait, was about all that distinguished Scottish coins from their English counterparts. In particular, the reverse types of Scottish coins followed the English Tealby, short cross, and long cross designs. Moreover, Scottish coins followed English weight standards, allowing the two coinages to circulate alongside one another.The Coin Atlas, J. Cribb, B. Cook, and I. Carradice, pp.
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These metrical restraints encouraged the creation of new compounds, adjectives, and coined words, and Nonnus' work has some of the greatest variety of coinages in any Greek poem. The poem is notably varied in its organization. Nonnus does not seem to arrange his poem in a linear chronology; rather, episodes are arranged by a loose chronological order and by topic, much as Ovid's Metamorphoses. The poem states as its guiding principle poikilia, diversity in narrative, form, and organization.
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Silver coins were used for midsized transactions, and as a unit of account for taxes, dues, contracts, and fealty, while copper coins represented the coinage of common transaction. This system had been used in ancient India since the time of the Mahajanapadas. In Europe, this system worked through the medieval period because there was virtually no new gold, silver, or copper introduced through mining or conquest. Thus the overall ratios of the three coinages remained roughly equivalent.
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Raphael Finkel dropped out of active participation shortly thereafter and Don Woods became the SAIL contact for the File (which was subsequently kept in duplicate at SAIL and MIT, with periodic resynchronizations). The File expanded by fits and starts until 1983. Richard Stallman was prominent among the contributors, adding many MIT and ITS-related coinages. The Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS) was named to distinguish it from another early MIT computer operating system, Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS).
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Often there will be errors in maps, dictionaries, and other publications, that are not deliberate and thus are not fictitious entries. For example, within dictionaries there are such mistakes known as ghost words, "words which have no real existence [...] being mere coinages due to the blunders of printers or scribes, or to the perfervid imaginations of ignorant or blundering editors."W. W. Skeat, The Transactions of the Philological Society 1885-7 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1885-7) Vol. II, p.351.
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Epitome of Pompeius Trogus 18.5 It was common on Greek coinages in Sicily and southern Italy to depict motifs connected to the minting city's foundation. But it is not clear whether the Carthaginians themselves knew this foundation story. The third interpretation is that the horse refers to the military purpose of the coinage. Important for this interpretation is the fact that from sub-group B onwards, the horse is accompanied by a winged female figure holding a wreath and a caduceus.
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French loanwords, once very numerous, have in part been replaced by native German coinages or more recently English loanwords. Besides , they can also contain the characteristic nasal vowels , , and (always long). However, their status as phonemes is questionable and they are often resolved into sequences either of (short) oral vowel and (in the north), or of (long or short) oral vowel and or sometimes (in the south). For example, ('balloon') may be realized as or , ('perfume') as or and ('orange') as or .
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During the early Song dynasty (Chinese: , 960–1279), China again reunited the currency system displacing coinages from ten or so independent states. Among pre-Song coins, the northern states tended to prefer copper coins. The southern states tended to use lead or iron coins with Sichuan with its own heavy iron coins which continued to circulate for a short period into the Song dynasty. By 1000 CE, unification (south of the Liao) was complete and China experienced a period of rapid economic growth.
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In 1825, an imperial order-in- council introduced British currency to Malta, replacing a system under which various coinages circulated, including that issued in Malta by the Knights of St John. The pound was valued at 12 scudi of the local currency. This exchange rate meant that the smallest Maltese coin, the grano, was worth one third of a farthing (1 scudo = 20 tari = 240 grani). Consequently, -farthing (-penny) coins were issued for use in Malta until 1913, alongside the regular British coinage.
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An important collection of Lombard coinages is found in the civic collections of Milan, at the Sforza Castle, and a catalogue of this collection was published in 1978 by Ermanno Arslan. This work is generally referenced as "Arslan", followed by the index number. Less commonly used internationally, but equally relevant, is CNI (Corpus Nummorum Italicorum), which illustrates the collection of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. Lombard coins are covered by volumes IV (Pavia and other minor mints of Lombardy), V (Milan) and XI (Tuscany).
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Urquhart's prose style is unique. His sentences are long and elaborate and his love of the odd and recondite word seems boundless . At its worst his style can descend into almost unintelligible pretension and pedantry ("a pedantry which is gigantesque and almost incredible", in the words of George Saintsbury), but at its best it can be rich, rapid and vivid, with arresting and original imagery. He coined words constantly, although none of Urquhart's coinages have fared as well as those of his contemporary Browne.
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In the Indian subcontinent, Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545), introduced a silver coin called a rupiya, weighing 178 grams. Its use was continued by the Mughal Empire. The history of the rupee traces back to Ancient India circa 3rd century BC. Ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Lydian staters, several other Middle Eastern coinages and the Chinese wen. The term is from rūpya, a Sanskrit term for silver coin, from Sanskrit rūpa, beautiful form.
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In the Indian subcontinent, Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545), introduced a silver coin called a rupiya, weighing 178 grams. Its use was continued by the Mughal rulers. The history of the rupee traces back to Ancient India circa 3rd century BC. Ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Lydian staters, several other Middle Eastern coinages and the Chinese wen. The term is from rūpya, a Sanskrit term for silver coin, from Sanskrit rūpa, beautiful form.
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In 1759 the Qing dynasty had conquered most of what would become the Xinjiang province, as native coinages of the old Khanates were being deprecated in favour of Chinese cash coins, new cash coins made of (nearly) pure copper to reflect local pūl (ﭘول) coins were minted that were red in colour and weighed 2 qián.The Náprstek museum "Xinjiang Cast Cash in the Collection of the Náprstek Museum, Prague". by Ondřej Klimeš (Annals of the Náprstek Museum 25 • Prague 2004). Retrieved 3 July 2017.
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In the early nineteenth century, the most common currency used in the East Indies was the Spanish dollar, including issues both from Spain and from the new world Spanish colonies, most significantly Mexico. Locally issued coinages included the Kelantan and Trengganu keping, and the Penang dollar. In 1826, the Indian rupee was made the sole official currency in the Straits Settlements, as it was administered as part of India. However, the Indian Rupee was unsuitable for trade and Spanish dollars continued to be used for trade.
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Germanic leaders became the rulers of parts of the Roman Empire that they conquered, and words from their languages were freely imported into the vocabulary of law. Other more ordinary words were replaced by coinages from Vulgar Latin or Germanic sources because the classical words had fallen into disuse. An illuminated manuscript of a Book of Hours contains prayers in medieval Latin. Latin was also spread to areas such as Ireland and Germany, where Romance languages were not spoken, and which had never known Roman rule.
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A markland or merkland () is an old Scottish unit of land measurement. There was some local variation in the equivalences, for example, in some places eight ouncelands were equal to one markland, but in others, such as Islay, a markland was twelve ouncelands. The markland derived its name from the old coin, the Merk Scots (cognate with German mark and various other European coinages, see Mark (money)), which was the annual rent paid on it. It was based on this, rather than its actual area.
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It is the earliest systematic work of rhetoric and literary criticism existing in the English language. The Arte of Rhetorique gives Wilson a place among the earliest exponents of English style. He was opposed to pedantry of phrase, and above all to a revival of uncouth medieval forms of speech, and encouraged a simpler manner of prose writing than was generally appreciated in the middle of the 16th century. He was also opposed to "inkhorn terms"—borrowings and coinages from Greek and Latin—which he found affected.
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Lowick was educated at Clifton College, and Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he earned a First in French and German. He joined the Department of Coins and Medals at the British Museum in 1962, working with John Walker. From 1964, he began a prolific series of articles on the medieval coinages of Central Asia, India, Iran, the Persian Gulf, the Yemen and the near East, and was part of the team working on Siraf. On the strength of his publications he was promoted to Deputy Keeper in 1979.
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Manide is the most divergent out of the three other Negrito languages in Southern Luzon, namely Inagta Rinconada, Inagta Partido, and Alabat. In a survey of 1000 lexical items, 285 appeared to be unique, including new coinages which are forms that experienced semantic and or phonological shifts over time. In comparison, other Negrito languages such as Batak, Inagta Rinconada/ Partido, Mamanwa, or Inati have a cognate rate of over 90% with neighboring non-Negrito languages. Katabangan may have also been related according to Zubiri.
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Klempen is a constructed word from the German plenken (meaning "to add inappropriate spaces", itself a borrowing from the English blank) and klemmen ("to wedge", possibly a reference to Linotype machine operators' slang term wedges for the spacebands used to implement justified spacing), exchanging the k and p in such a way as to suggest both phonetically and orthographically its relationship and opposite meaning. Both are internet coinages, dating from Johannes "Jödel" Leckebusch's introduction of plenken on MausNet in 1988 and now widely used on German newsgroups.
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In November 1879 the official value of 6 copper phần was equal to 6 sapèques of zinc. However the foreign cash coinages as well as imitation (counterfeit) Vietnamese cash coins made of inferior alloys that circulated in Vietnam at the time were exchanged for only 3 cash coins of zinc.Art-Hanoi CURRENCY TYPES AND THEIR FACE VALUES DURING THE TỰ ĐỨC ERA. This is a translation of the article “Monnaies et circulation monetairé au Vietnam dans l’ère Tự Đức (1848-1883) by Francois Thierry Published in Revue Numismatique 1999 (volume # 154).
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A large number of Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coins on display at the "Dazzling Life: Archaeological Finds of the Marquis of Haihun State in Han Dynasty. March 2, 2016 to June 2, 2016." (五色炫耀——南昌汉代海昏侯国考古成果展。2016年3月2日至6月2日，首都博物馆。) exhibition at the Capital Museum, Beijing. The list of coin hoards in China () lists significant archaeological hoards of coins, other types of coinages (e.g.
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When Louis IX took the throne, France still used small silver deniers, which had circulated since the time of Charlemagne to the exclusion of larger silver or gold coins. Over the years, French kings had granted numerous nobles and bishops the right to strike coins and their “feudal” coinages competed with the royal coinage. Venice and Florence had already shown that there was demand for larger silver and gold coins and in 1266 Louis IX sought an advantage for the royal coinage by expanding it in these areas.Coins In History, John Porteous, page 89.
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Challis (1978), p. 322 As is recorded in John Stow's Survey of London, a crisis arose when coins minted under Lonyson's direction were found to be consistently underweight and of less fineness than was prescribed. Lonyson responded that the variances were within the tolerances specified in his indenture and therefore allowable. The purity of the Elizabethan coinage was a matter of great pride to the government after the debased coinages and consequent inflation of the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI, and the matter was taken up at the highest levels of the government.
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A different etymology, however, explains mudang as stemming directly from the Siberian term for female shamans, utagan or utakan. Mudang is used mostly, but not exclusively, for female shamans. Male shamans are called by a variety of names, including sana mudang (literally "male mudang") in the Seoul area, or baksu mudang, also shortened baksu ("doctor", "healer"), in the Pyongyang area. According to some scholars, baksu is an ancient authentic designation of male shamans, and locutions like sana mudang or baksu mudang are recent coinages due to the prevalence of female shamans in recent centuries.
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Higher-value coinages, suitable for use in trade, were minted in gold, silver, and high- quality bronze. Gold coinage was much more common than silver coinage, despite being worth substantially more, as while there were around 100 mines in Southern Britain and Central France, silver was more rarely mined. This was due partly to the relative sparsity of mines and the amount of effort needed for extraction compared to the profit gained. As the Roman civilisation grew in importance and expanded its trade with the Celtic world, silver and bronze coinage became more common.
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Burebista suppressed the indigenous minting of coinages by four major tribal groups, adopting imported or copied Roman denarii as a monetary standard During his reign, Burebista transferred Geto-Dacians capital from Argedava to Sarmizegetusa Regia. For at least one and a half centuries, Sarmizegetusa was the Dacians' capital and reached its peak under King Decebalus. The Dacians appeared so formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against them, which his death in 44 BC prevented. In the same year Burebista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into four (later five) parts under separate rulers.
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In the Mediterranean region, the silver and other precious metal coins were later supplemented with local bronze coinages, that served as small change, useful for transactions where small sums were involved. The coins of the Greeks were issued by a great number of city-states, and each coin carried an indication of its place of origin. The coinage systems were not entirely the same from one place to another. However, the so-called Attic standard, Corinthian standard, Aiginetic standard and other standards defined the proper weight of each coin.
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New characters can in principle be coined at any time, just as new words can be, but they may not be adopted. Significant historically recent coinages date to scientific terms of the 19th century. Specifically, Chinese coined new characters for chemical elements – see chemical elements in East Asian languages – which continue to be used and taught in schools in China and Taiwan. In Japan, in the Meiji era (specifically, late 19th century), new characters were coined for some (but not all) SI units, such as ( "meter" + "thousand, kilo-") for kilometer.
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Until 1940, the Indian rupee and the Maria Theresa thaler (known locally as the rial - adopted from the Portuguese "real") were the main currencies circulating in Muscat and Oman, as the state was then known, with Indian rupees circulating on the coast and thaler in the interior. Maria Theresa thaler were valued at 230 paisa, with 64 paisa = 1 rupee. In 1940, coins were introduced for use in Dhofar, followed, in 1946, by coins for use in Oman. Both coinages were denominated in baisa (equivalent to the paisa), with 200 baisa = 1 rial.
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The Tamil inscriptions from the Pallava & Chola period dating from 9th century CE link the word with toddy, toddy tapper's quarters (Eelat-cheri), tax on toddy tapping (Eelap-poodchi), a class of toddy tappers (Eelath-chanran). Eelavar is a caste of toddy tappers found in the southern parts of Kerala. Eela-kaasu and Eela-karung-kaasu are refers to coinages found in the Chola inscriptions of Parantaka I. The Tamil lexicons Thivaakaram, Pingkalam and Choodaamani, dating from c. 8th century CE, equate the word with the Sinhala language and with gold.
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Spivak played a major role in Soviet Yiddish language planning. He sought to compromise between Russification of Yiddish and the purported nationalism of the use of words of Hebrew-Aramaic origin, and wrote in favour of a partial de-Hebraization of Soviet Yiddish. Spivak opposed new coinages based on Hebraic elements not present in pre- revolutionary Yiddish, promoting instead the introduction of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian internationalisms. While at the Institute for Jewish Proletarian Culture, Spivak put forward the idea of compiling a comprehensive Russian-Yiddish dictionary, a project which began in 1935.
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Later swimsuit designs like the tankini and trikini were also named based on the erroneous assumption that the "bi-" in bikini denotes a two-piece swimsuit. These new coinages falsely presumed that the back-formation [bi + kini] was purposeful. The "-kini family" (as dubbed by author William SafireWilliam Safire, No Uncertain Terms, page 291, Simon & Schuster, 2003, ), including the "-ini sisters" (as dubbed by designer Anne ColeTrish Donnally, ""Inis" Are In", San Francisco Chronicle, 1999-05-18) has grown to include a large number of subsequent variations, often with a hilarious lexicon.
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Adams was a prolific numismatic author who coauthored, with William H. Woodin United States Pattern, Trial, and Experimental Pieces, but is probably best known for the reference volume Private Gold Coinages of California, 1849-1855: Its History and Its Issues, originally published serially (1911-1912) in the American Journal of Numismatics. He wrote a numismatics column for the New York Sun. From 1912 to 1915 he served as editor of the American Numismatic Association journal The Numismatist. He was inducted into the Numismatic Hall of Fame in 1969.
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Mudang is used mostly, but not exclusively, for female shamans. Male shamans are called by a variety of names, including sana mudang (literally "male mudang") in the Seoul area, or baksu mudang, also shortened baksu ("doctor", "healer"), in the Pyongyang area. According to some scholars, baksu is an ancient authentic designation of male shamans, and locutions like sana mudang or baksu mudang are recent coinages due to the prevalence of female shamans in recent centuries. Baksu may be a Korean adaptation of terms loaned from Siberian languages, such as baksi, balsi or bahsih.
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N. Roymans, "The Lower Rhine Triquetrum Coinages and the Ethnogenesis of the Batavians", in: T. Grünewald & H.-J. Schalles (eds.), Germania Inferior: Besiedlung, Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft an der Grenze der römisch-germanischen Welt (2000), 93-145, esp. 94. The strategic position, to wit the high bank of the Waal offering an unimpeded view far into Germania Transrhenana (Germania Beyond the Rhine), was recognized first by Drusus, who built a massive fortress (castra) and a headquarters (praetorium) in imperial style. The latter was in use until the Batavian revolt.
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Captain James Cook's map of New Zealand, using a mixture of English and Māori place-names. From the anglicisation of the Dutch appellation Nieuw Zeeland onward, historical ties with the United Kingdom have contributed substantially to New Zealand's toponymy. James Cook's early map combined local Māori place-names with a number of his own coinages. Subsequent settlers added references to places in United Kingdom, aristocratic sponsors, early British explorers, the Royal Family, battles in which the United Kingdom was involved and notable institutions such as Christ Church, Oxford.
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Guangxu era red cash coin with a nominal value of 10 wén. China's Qing (Manchu) dynasty began casting coins in the far-Western region of Xinjiang (Chinese for "The New Frontier", sometimes transliterated as Sinkiang) in 1760, only one year after the Qianlong Emperor's generals conquered the region's capitols of Kashgar and Yarkand. Not only did this primarily Muslim and Turkic-speaking region represent a distinct cultural landscape for the empire, but also a special economic environment. The many differences between the coinages of Xinjiang and the rest of China reflected the special demands of governing this area.
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The press's classic YA reprints have been praised by The Boston Globe, The New York Times many other publications and organizations. The press's first original book, Isabel's War, published in 2014, received praise from The Wall Street Journal and other critical outlets and the Association of Jewish Libraries named it a Sydney Taylor Honor Book (second to the first prize winner). Skurnick's "That Should Be a Word" column appeared weekly in The New York Times Magazine's One Page Magazine from 2011 to 2014. Her coinages have been praised and/or used by Bust Magazine, Salon, and ABC affiliates, among others.
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During the late nineteenth century China started producing its own machine-struck coinages. In Chinese culture coins are often used as burial objects and it's not uncommon for coins to be discovered in tombs and graves. Occasionally foreign coins are also found in China, which were brought there through international trade routes such as the silk road, overseas trade with foreign countries, and colonialism. And because of trade with other countries large quantities of Chinese coins have also been found in neighbouring countries like Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, as well as far away places like Elcho Island, Kenya, and Yukon.
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In the year 1893, large brass Thành Thái Thông Bảo cash coins with a denomination of 10 văn (十文, thập văn), or 10 zinc cash coins, started being produced by the Huế Mint. The production of Thành Thái Thông Bảo cash coins were resumed at the Thanh Hóa Mint between the years 1894 and 1899. Under Emperor Thành Thái gold and silver coinages were also produced. In the year 1902 the French ceased production of machine-struck cash coins at the Paris Mint and completely deferred the production of cash coins back to the government of the Nguyễn dynasty.
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One common feature of Pama–Nyungan languages, the largest family of Australian Aboriginal languages, is the notion of conjugation classes, which are a set of groups into which each lexical verb falls. They determine how a verb is conjugated for Tense–aspect–mood. The classes can but do not universally correspond to the transitivity or valency of the verb in question. Generally, of the two to six conjugation classes in a Pama-Nyungan language, two classes are open with a large membership and allow for new coinages, and the remainder are closed and of limited membership.
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Chinese numismatist Ma Dingxiang (馬定祥), in his book "The coins of Xianfeng" (咸豐泉匯), claims that the style of this vault protector coin is consistent to the styles of other Xianfeng era cash coinages. Furthermore, Ma Dingxiang claims that there exists only a single other specimen of a "companion vault protector coin" that was produced simultaneously by the Ministry of Revenue Mint in Beijing. In 2009 a Baoyuan Juzao vault protector coin was sold at an auction in Tokyo, Japan. This same coin was sold at auction in the year 2013 for $408,279 (RMB 2,530,000).
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This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean. Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages. Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages.
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This was followed by a fan letter from H. P. Lovecraft, which was the beginning of 15 years of friendship and correspondence. With studied playfulness, Smith and Lovecraft borrowed each other's coinages of place names and the names of strange gods for their stories, though so different is Smith's treatment of the Lovecraft theme that it has been dubbed the "Clark Ashton Smythos."Murray 1990 In 1925 Smith published Sandalwood, which was partly funded by a gift of $50 from Donald Wandrei. He wrote little fiction in this period with the exception of some imaginative vignettes or prose poems.
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The earliest Illyrian coins were probably minted by the Tyntenoi north of Lake Ohrid minted coins around 540 BC with the Greek legend Tynteni. Their silver coins reached Italy, Egypt and many parts of Asia. They belonged to the group of 'Thraco-Macedonian' coinages of this period, and they bore the same emblems as the coins of Ichnae at the head of the Thermaic Gulf. Production ceased in the early 5th century BC, most likely in 475 BC when this period was one of comparative poverty, during which contacts were lost with mainland Greece and relations with Ionia via the Danube valley slackened.
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It was the first dictionary that included illustrations (two woodcuts of heraldic devices) and etymologies, and the first that cited sources for definitions. It contained many unusual words that had not previously been included in dictionaries, and others not included in any later dictionary. While some of these were neologisms, Blount did not coin any words himself, but rather reported on the rather inventive culture of classically inspired coinages of the period. Unfortunately for Blount, his Glossographia was surpassed in popularity with the publication in 1658 of The New World of Words by Edward Phillips (1630-1696), whose uncle was John Milton.
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MUD1, an early multi-user game MMORPG is a term coined by Richard Garriott to refer to massive multiplayer online role-playing games and their social communities., p.97 Previous to this and related coinages, these games were generally called graphical MUDs; the history of MMORPGs traces back directly through the MUD genre. Through this connection, MMORPGs can be seen to have roots in the earliest multi-user games such as Mazewar (1974) and MUD1 (1978). 1985 saw the release of a roguelike (pseudo-graphical) MUD called Island of Kesmai on CompuServe and Lucasfilm's graphical MUD Habitat.
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Morrisson, Byzantine Money, 933-934 By the end of the 12th century, especially from 1204 on, the political fragmentation of the empire resulted in the creation of coinages that were either "national" (e.g. in Trebizond in 1222, in Bulgaria in 1218, and in Serbia in 1228), colonial or feudal. Venetian coins soon penetrated the monetary circulation in Byzantium.Morrisson, Byzantine Money, 961 This situation stands in contrast with the monopoly that Byzantine currency had enjoyed until the 12th century, within its own frontiers, and through its diffusion in the lands beyond — a measure of its political and economic influence.
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Bronze mostly replaced silver in mints between 173 BC and 171 BC. When the Seleucid Empire began to decline, and its rule on parts of the empire weakened since the last decades of the second century BC, local cities began producing their own silver coinages to show their autonomy from the central bureaucracy. Despite seemingly enforcing some regulations, Seleucid policy was still somewhat free compared to the Ptolemaic Kingdom which imposed an exclusive royal currency. In coin making process there were similarities with the Ptolemaic coinage. For instance, the Seleucid coins often have a central depression from the coin making process.
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Barnes had a strong interest in linguistics; he was fluent in Greek, Latin, French, Hebrew, Hindi, Italian, Russian, Welsh, and Old English. He called for the purification of English by removal of Greek, Latin and foreign influences so that it might be better understood by those without a classical education. His coinages included such words as sun-print for photograph, wortlore for botany, and welkinfire for meteor. His strain of purism resembles the later "blue-eyed English" of composer Percy Grainger, and in certain instances the terms in David Cowley's How We'd Talk if the English had WON in 1066.
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Subsequently, the coinages of the three major Epirote tribal groups came to an end, and a new coinage was issued with the legend Epirotes.. The Molossians briefly sided with the anti-Roman Macedonian-Illyrian pact in the Third Macedonian War. After the Roman victory, a total of 150,000 Epirotes, mostly Molossians, were enslaved and sent to Italy, by decision of the Roman Senate. This decision is the only such act of the Roman senate and the largest, single, slave-hunting operation in Roman history. In the following years, Epirote slaves in Italy outnumbered slaves of other origins and the majority of slave marriages were between Epirotes.
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The Vietnamese produced cash coins similar to the ones produced in China and circulated alongside Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Ryukyuan cash coins brought into the country through international trade. Cash coins continued to be produced in Vietnam until the 1940s under the Nguyễn dynasty. Through international trade foreign currencies such as Spanish dollars and Mexican reals were brought into the country by merchants and these coins would continue to circulate in Vietnam until the French colonial administration outlawed their usage on 1 January 1906 in favour of their own coinage, while Vietnamese cash coins were permitted to continue circulating. Despite the presence of coinages barter persisted until the 20th century.
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Meanwhile, during this same period the traditional cast copper-alloy cash coins made up only 17.78% of the total Chinese currency stock; the percentage representing cash coins would only decrease from this point onwards. Meanwhile, Peng estimated that foreign trade dollars circulating in China (which mostly included the silver Mexican peso) made up 25% of the total Chinese currency stock by the 1900s. This trend was actually the opposite in the Western world and Japan where the global introduction of government steam-minted coinages halted the spread of Mexican-mined silver pesos. This effect was most notable in North and South America as well as the Philippines.
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J.F. Bishop. Published by Charles L. Bowman & Co. (1900) Retrieved: 5 July 2017. This was one of the many different factors leading Chinese people to more readily accept the modernisation of the currency. When comparing the contemporary Chinese monetary system of the Qing dynasty period with that of medieval Europe it shows that in both cases the chronic shortage of low-denomination coinages seems to be more an aspect of economic theory than actual history, as the gap that emerges between the legal tender (or nominal) value and the intrinsic metallic value will always be followed either by counterfeiting or by melting the currency down.
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Edward Stanley Robinson challenged this interpretation, on the grounds that a Greek pun would be surprising on a Punic coin. However, Greek was widely known and spoken in the Carthaginian-controlled portion of Sicily; on several earlier Siculo-Punic coinages, the coin legends are in Greek. An alternative explanation is that the palm was a symbol of the sun god Baal Hammon - if he was a sun-god - but there is not much evidence for this, except that the palm was a symbol of the Greek sun god, Apollo, at Delos. On sub-group E, two unusual double-tiered pots appear on the obverse in between the letters of the legend.
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The Azilian was named by Édouard Piette, who excavated the Mas d'Azil type-site in 1887. Unlike other coinages by Piette, the name was generally accepted, indeed in the early 20th century used for much greater areas than it is today. Henry Fairfield Osborn, president of the American Museum of Natural History and a palaeontologist rather than an archaeologist, was taken around the sites by leading excavators such as Hugo Obermaier. The popularizing book he published in 1916, Men of the Old Stone Age talks happily of Azilian sites as far north as Oban in Scotland, wherever flattened barbed "harpoon" points of deer antler are found.
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Estonian language planners such as Ado Grenzstein (a journalist active in Estonia in the 1870s–90s) tried to use formation ex nihilo, Urschöpfung,See p. 149 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2003, Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, (Palgrave Studies in Language History and Language Change, Series editor: Charles Jones). . i.e. they created new words out of nothing. Examples are Ado Grenzstein's coinages kabe ‘draughts, chequers’ and male ‘chess’. The most famous reformer of Estonian, Johannes Aavik (1880–1973), also used creations ex nihilo (cf. ‘free constructions’, Tauli 1977), along with other sources of lexical enrichment such as derivations, compositions and loanwords (often from Finnish; cf.
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1 Paisa coupon issued by Sayla state The British settlements in Western India, South India, and the Eastern Province of Bengal (Calcutta) independently developed different coinages in consonance with the local acceptability of the coins for the purposes of trade. Half anna (2 paisa) coin; an anna = 4 paisa, George VI series, 1945 There are many fake coins of East India Company, with Indian gods depicted on the obverse side as shown in side-bar. Original East India Company coins show only the coat of arms of the East India Company. The coins of Bengal were developed in the Mughal style and those of Madras mostly in a South Indian style.
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These kokuji (Japanese-coinages) have found use in China as well – see Chinese characters for SI units for details. While new characters can be easily coined by writing on paper, they are difficult to represent on a computer – they must generally be represented as a picture, rather than as text – which presents a significant barrier to their use or widespread adoption. Compare this with the use of symbols as names in 20th century musical albums such as Led Zeppelin IV (1971) and Love Symbol Album (1993); an album cover may potentially contain any graphics, but in writing and other computation these symbols are difficult to use.
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The contribution of Greek to the English vocabulary can be quantified in two ways, type and token frequencies: type frequency is the proportion of distinct words; token frequency is the proportion of words in actual texts. Since most words of Greek origin are specialized technical and scientific coinages, the type frequency is considerably higher than the token frequency. And the type frequency in a large word list will be larger than that in a small word list. In a typical English dictionary of 80,000 words, which corresponds very roughly to the vocabulary of an educated English speaker, about 5% of the words are borrowed from Greek.
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Tukey coined many statistical terms that have become part of common usage, but the two most famous coinages attributed to him were related to computer science. While working with John von Neumann on early computer designs, Tukey introduced the word "bit" as a contraction of "binary digit". The term "bit" was first used in an article by Claude Shannon in 1948. In 2000, Fred Shapiro, a librarian at the Yale Law School, published a letter revealing that Tukey's 1958 paper "The Teaching of Concrete Mathematics" contained the earliest known usage of the term "software" found in a search of JSTOR's electronic archives, predating the OED's citation by two years.
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Since then, many words have been borrowed from other languages, primarily those of Western Europe. In recent decades, most of the new borrowings or coinages have been technical or scientific terms; terms in everyday use are more likely to be derived from existing words (for example komputilo [a computer], from komputi [to compute]), or extending them to cover new meanings (for example muso [a mouse], now also signifies a computer input device, as in English). There are frequent debates among Esperanto speakers about whether a particular borrowing is justified or whether the need can be met by derivation or extending the meaning of existing words.
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Soon that name too is changed for the Mosa river, through whose > vast mouth it empties itself into the same ocean.Tacitus, The Annals, II.6 Modern archaeologists disagree with Tacitus, noting that that island had a pre-Roman and pre-Germanic population, apparently already called the Batavians. Caesar indeed had not only implied the existence of pre-Roman Batavians, but also mentioned that the Belgic Menapii of the Flemish coast had settlements stretching as far as the beginning of the delta, near the modern border with Germany.N. Roymans, "The Lower Rhine Triquetrum Coinages and the Ethnogenesis of the Batavians", in: T. Grünewald & H.-J.
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He also spoke out for women's rights and against child prostitution, but his belief that HIV did not lead to AIDS brought him considerable criticism and may have contributed to the demise of his column. Trink's columns were known for his "Trinkisms", neologisms or coded references that circumvented the restrictions imposed on writers of a family newspaper. Some of his coinages—such as "TIT" ('This is Thailand'), "...which expats still use to explain away anything that baffles them about the country." Trink is the subject of an unauthorized biography by Jennifer Bliss, called But, I Don't Give a Hoot, published by Post Books in 2000.
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In the early nineteenth century, the most common currency used in the East Indies was the Spanish dollar, including issues both from Spain and from the new world Spanish colonies, most significantly Mexico. Locally issued coinages included the Kelantan and Trengganu keping, and the Penang dollar. In 1837, the Indian rupee was made the sole official currency in the Straits Settlements, as it was administered as part of India. However, Spanish dollars continued to circulate and 1845 saw the introduction of coinage for the Straits Settlements using a system of 100 cents = 1 Straits dollar, with the dollar equal to the Spanish dollar or Mexican peso.
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His verse is important in the development of later Latin literature, largely because he wrote at a time when Latin prosody was moving away from the quantitative verse of classical Latin and towards the accentual meters of medieval Latin. His style sometimes suggests the influence of Hiberno-Latin, in learned Greek coinages that occasionally appear in his poems. Fortunatus' other major work was Vita S. Martini Michael Lapidge Anglo-Latin literature, 600-899, p 399. It is a long narrative poem, reminiscent of the classical epics of Greek and Roman cultures but replete with Christian references and allusions, depicting the life of Saint Martin.
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In 1604, the year after the Union of the Crowns, the Council ordered Scotland to use the same coinage standards as England. A new gold coin, called a Unit in Scotland or Unite in England, was valued at £12 Scots or £1 sterling. Gold and fine silver coins now had the same sizes and compositions in Scotland and England, but Scotland did maintain its own copper coinage. The Scottish and English coinages both used the same royal title, king of Great Britain, France and Ireland, and when they specified a denomination it was a Roman numeral which could be interpreted as Scottish shillings or English pence.
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The motto "In God We Trust" was omitted from the initial design, as Roosevelt felt that putting the name of God on money that could be used for immoral purposes was inappropriate. By act of Congress, the motto was added in mid-1908. The design of the Saint- Gaudens coin was slightly changed once more when New Mexico and Arizona became states in 1912, and the number of stars along the rim was accordingly increased from 46 to 48. Double eagles were routinely minted through 1933, although few of the very last years' coinages were released before the gold recall legislation of that year.
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In the Hellenistic Jewish Septuagint the term was rendered hilasterion ("thing that atones"), following the secondary meaning of the Hebrew root verb "cover" ( kaphar) in pi'el and pu'al as "to cover sins," "to atone" found also in kippurim. The term hilasterion is unknown in classical Greek texts and appears to be one of several Jewish Greek coinages found in the Septuagint translation. The Jewish Greek hilasterion was later rendered literally into Latin as propitiatorium in the Christian Latin Vulgate. In Jewish Greek texts the concept of a hilasterion also occurs in Josephus' Antiquities of the Jews 16,7,1 mnema hilasterion ("monument to ask for atonement").
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And since Turkish was the source of all languages, loanwords could further on persist and french loanwords were adopted more frequently. Recently however, the attention of the institution has been turned towards the persistent infiltration of Turkish, like many other languages, with English words, as a result of the globalization process. Since the 1980s, TDK campaigns for the use of Turkish equivalents of these new English loanwords. It also has the task of coining such words from existing Turkish roots if no such equivalents exist, and actively promoting the adoption of these new coinages instead of their English equivalents in the daily lives of the Turkish population.
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Following its declaration of independence in 1945 the Democratic Republic of Vietnam started issuing its own currency in 1946, while allowing cash coins to circulate until 1948. In 1952 the piastre was abolished and replaced with the South Vietnamese đồng in the south in 1953. Following Vietnamese reunification in 1976 the North Vietnamese đồng and Liberation đồng would continue to circulate in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam until May 2, 1978, when they were replaced by a new national currency. The coins uncovered in Vietnam includes both native coinages as well as Chinese cash coins in large numbers as Vietnam was a part of China as well as through historical trade with China.
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The government of the Qing dynasty had issued a new law on currency known as the "Currency Regulations" (幣制則例) in the year 1910 to regulate and standardise the entire Chinese national currency system. In the year 1911, the government of the Qing dynasty had issued the "Xuantong third year" series of copper-alloy coins, but these did not comply with the earlier set national regulations for coinages in China.『体系金融大辞典』（東洋経済新報社、1971年） 第XII 貨幣金融制度（各国） 7.中国 a通貨制度 （執筆者:宮下忠雄）.
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The period also saw the development of a stable linguistic border between French and German. The surviving OHG texts were all written in monastic scriptoria and, as a result, the overwhelming majority of them are religious in nature or, when secular, belong to the Latinate literary culture of Christianity. The earliest written texts in Old High German, glosses and interlinear translations for Latin texts, appear in the latter half of the 8th century. The importance of the church in the production of texts and the extensive missionary activity of the period have left their mark on the OHG vocabulary, with many new loans and new coinages to represent the Latin vocabulary of the church.
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Coin of Guthrum (Athelstan II), Viking king of East Anglia, 880 Viking settlers in England found themselves in a more sophisticated coin-using economy than they were accustomed to at home;Richard Hall, Viking Age Archaeology (series Shire Archaeology), 2010:23. consequently it is unsurprising that the first coins that can be associated with the Vikings in England are imitations of Alfred's coinage, particularly the 'London monogram' and 'two-line' types. These are very numerous today, and for a long time caused great difficulty for numismatists working on Alfred's coinage, who could not always tell them from the genuine issues. However, before the end of the 9th century new silver coinages had begun in East Anglia and at York.
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His activities often drew him to conflict with Croatian Vukovians who advocated pure folk language and derisively called his neologisms and borrowings šulekizmi ("Šulekisms"). Despite their initial unpopularity, most of Šulek's new vocabulary slowly entered into common parlance of Croatian upper classes throughout the 20th century; many of these words are nowadays considered standard Croatian expressions for various concepts. Most of his coinages used in modern Croatian include words in chemistry (kisik "oxygen", vodik "hydrogen", dušik "nitrogen") and other technical fields (plin "gas", plinomjer "gas meter", narječje "dialect", glazba "music", skladba, obrazac "template; form", sustav "system", tlak "pressure", tlakomjer "barometer", zemljovid "map", uzor "role model", pojam "concept", tvrtka "company", uradak "piece of work", zdravstvo "healthcare").
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During the 1880s and 1890s the Korean government had experimented with several holed machine-struck coin designs, it is unknown if some of these coins entered circulation.Standard Catalog of World Coins - 1801–1900, 6th Edition, publication date 2009, Krause Publications, Pages: 879-880. While it would be in the year 1892 that the over 250 year production of the Sangpyeong Tongbo series of cash coins would come to an end, a decade earlier in 1882 (or Gojong 19), the Korean government had experimented with creating machine-struck coinage based on Western designs and design patterns. The first issues were made from silver and lacked the iconic square centre hole designs of earlier and contemporary Korean coinages.
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Some examples read LVNDEN or LVNDE instead of LVND. The gold penny was not popular. Thomas Carte, in his A general history of England, says that the citizens of London made a representation against them on 24 November 1257, and that "the King was so willing to oblige them, that he published a proclamation, declaring that nobody was obliged to take it [the gold penny], and whoever did, might bring it to his exchange, and receive there the value at which it had been made current, one halfpenny only being deducted from each, most probably for the expense of coinages".Gold Penny Article with picture Compared to its bullion weight, the coin was undervalued.
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Pornophobia, from Greek roots pornē, "whore" and phobia, literally means fear of prostitutes. It may also refer to fear of sexual expression, in particular, fear of pornography. Nadine Strossen, former president of the American Civil Liberties Union, uses the coinages "pornophobia" and "pornophobes" when referring to attitudes of pro- censorship and conservatives to the imagery of nudity, which they often refer to as "pornography". :Adapted from: Strossen states that incidents have occurred at several colleges such as the University of Arizona and the University of Michigan Law School where feminist students have physically attacked exhibits of photographic self-portraits claiming that they must be taken down because these exhibits had sexual themes.
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The foundation publishes an eponymous quarterly in Latin. The foundation also published a 15,000-word Italian-Latin Lexicon Recentis Latinitatis (Dictionary of Recent Latin), which provides Latin coinages for modern concepts, such as a bicycle (birota), a cigarette (fistula nicotiana), a computer (instrumentum computatorium), a cowboy (armentarius), a motel (deversorium autocineticum), shampoo (capitilavium), a strike (operistitium), a terrorist (tromocrates), a trademark (ergasterii nota), an unemployed person (invite otiosus), a waltz (chorea Vindobonensis), and even a miniskirt (tunicula minima) and hot pants (brevissimae bracae femineae). Some 600 such terms extracted from the book appear on a page of the Vatican website. The Latinitas Foundation was superseded by the Pontifical Academy for Latin () in 2012.
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A Xianfeng Yuanbao (咸豐元寶) vault protector coin was cast at the Ministry of Public Works mint with a reverse inscription that reads "鎮庫 " (Zhen Ku Boo Ciowan). This vault protector coin a diameter of 117.43 millimeters and a weight of 902.1 grams. Chinese numismatist Ma Dingxiang (馬定祥), in his book "The coins of Xianfeng" (咸豐泉匯), claims that the style of this vault protector coin is consistent to the styles of other Xianfeng era cash coinages. Furthermore, Ma Dingxiang claims that there exists only a single other specimen of a "companion vault protector coin" that was produced simultaneously by the Ministry of Revenue Mint in Beijing.
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Instead, he coined the word , which he claimed was the word spoken Greek would have evolved for the concept of evolution if it had been free of the corrupting influence of katharevousa. He created many such words on the same principle; his declared aim was to set up a revitalized, scientifically derived demotic as a new written standard based entirely on the spoken language, isolated from katharevousa and independent of it. Some found the new coinages ugly and unnatural: "Psycharis' versions sounded like mispronunciations of learned words by uneducated people, who would be unlikely to be familiar with many of these words in the first place." Others were inspired by Psycharis' vision and became enthusiastic supporters of his version of demotic.
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American socialite Paris Hilton was one of the first celebrities to be described as 'famous for being famous', she has since expanded her brand into a multibillion-dollar empire Famous for being famous, in popular culture terminology, refers to someone who attains celebrity status for no particular identifiable reason, or who achieves fame through association with a celebrity. The term is a pejorative, suggesting that the individual has no particular talents or abilities. Even when their fame arises from a particular talent or action on their part, the term will sometimes still apply if their fame is perceived as disproportionate to what they earned through their own talent or work. The coinages "famesque" and "celebutante" are of similar pejorative gist.
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Copper halfpenny coins followed in the reign of Charles I. During the English Civil War, a number of siege coinages were produced, often in unusual denominations. Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the coinage was reformed, with the ending of production of hammered coins in 1662. The guinea was introduced in 1663, soon followed by the , 2 and 5 guinea coins. The silver coinage consisted of denominations of 1d, 2d, 3d, 4d and 6d, 1/-, 2/6 and 5/-. Due to the widespread export of silver in the 18th century, the production of silver coins gradually came to a halt, with the half crown and crown not issued after the 1750s, the 6d and 1/- stopping production in the 1780s.
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Words for new technologies and the political realities of belonging to the Thai state arrived from Thai, including words of English and Chinese (primarily Teochew) origin, as well as neologisms created from Sanskrit roots. Laos, still under French rule, turned to French, Vietnamese, repurposing of old Lao vocabulary as well as Sanskrit-derived coinages that were generally the same, although not always, as those that developed in Thai. For example, the word or aeroplane (UK)/airplane (US) in Isan was huea bin ( ) 'flying boat', but was generally replaced by Thai-influenced khrueang bin ( ) 'flying machine' , whereas Lao retained hua bin ( ) RTSG huea bin. Similarly, a game of billiards in Isan is ( from English via Thai; whereas on the left bank, people play biya ( ) from French billard .
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King Henry VIII (1509–1547) issued farthings struck at the London mint, in all three of his coinages, although they are all extremely rare. The obverse of the first coinage (1509–1526) has the inscription HENRIC DI GRA REX around a portcullis; while the second coinage (1526–1544) has the legend RUTILANS ROSA—a dazzling rose—around the portcullis, and the reverse has the legend DEO GRACIAS around a long cross. Farthings of the second coinage were also struck at Canterbury (distinguished by a Catherine wheel mintmark). The third coinage (1544–1547) was produced in base silver and has the legend h D G RUTIL ROSA around a rose, and the reverse legend DEO GRACIAS around a long cross with one pellet in each quarter.
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Numismatic evidence suggests a division of royal authority, with several coinages being struck, and that Achila II remained king of the Tarraconsense (the Ebro basin) and Septimania until circa 713. The nearly contemporary Chronicle of 754 describes Roderic as a usurper who earned the allegiance of other Goths by deception, while the less reliable late-ninth century Chronicle of Alfonso III shows a clear hostility towards Oppa, bishop of Seville (or Toledo) and probably a brother of Wittiza, who appears in an unlikely heroic dialogue with Pelagius. There is also a story of one Julian, count of Ceuta, whose wife or daughter was raped by Roderic and who sought help from Tangier. However, these stories are not included in the earliest accounts of the conquest.
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The Edward VIII farthing is a pattern which was awaiting royal approval at the time of the abdication in December 1936. There was a movement afoot for more modern coinage designs; the Irish Free State had in 1927 adopted a series of coins depicting animals and some of the colonies had redesigned their coinages. King Edward was also interested in a move away from the heraldry that marked British coinage, showing foreign coins on his watch chain to the Deputy Master of the Mint, Robert Johnson, and asking for more like those. King Edward eventually gave in on the question, fearing that such designs would be unacceptable to the British people, but non-heraldic themes for the halfpenny (a sailing ship) and farthing survived.
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A superstratum (plural: superstrata) or superstrate offers the counterpart to a substratum. When one language succeeds another, linguists label the succeeding language a superstratum and the earlier language a substratum. A superstrate may also represent an imposed linguistic element akin to what occurred with English and Norman after the Norman Conquest of 1066 when use of the English language carried low prestige. The international scientific vocabulary coinages from Greek and Latin roots adopted by European languages (and subsequently by other languages) to describe scientific topics (sociology, zoology, philosophy, botany, medicine, all "-logy" words, etc.) can also be termed a superstratum, although for this last case, "adstratum" might be a better designation (despite the prestige of science and of its language).
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Her celebratedTrésors de monnaies phéniciennes et circulation monétaire (Ve-IVe siècles avant J.-C.) [Treasures of Phoenician coins and monetary circulation (5th-4th centuries B.C.)] showcases 75 Phoenician coin treasure troves among which 20 that were unpublished. The work highlights aspects of the economic and political history of Phoenician and ancient Near-Eastern cities in the 4th and 5th centuries BC; it delves into and adds new chronological data to the political and economic context of the first bronze coins production, circulation, control and production workshops. This research was followed up by her 2016 Phoenician Coinages, a body of knowledge completely dedicated to mainland Phoenicia numismatics under the Persian hegemony.Mainland Phoenicia is the area located around coastal modern Lebanon and parts of the Syrian littoral.
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Clay replicas of Jinbing (金餅) at the Mawangdui archaeological site that located in Changsha, Hunan. During the Western Han Dynasty period it is estimated that over 1,000,000 catties (斤), which is over 248 metric tons, of gold currencies and coinages was in circulation in China at the time. Among the gold currencies that circulated during the Western Han dynasty period was the Jinbing (), which was shaped as a "cake" or "cookie" and are variously referred to in English as a "gold pie", "gold cake", "gold biscuit", "gold bing ingot", "gold button ingot", etc. These Jinbing tend to weigh between 210 grams and 250 grams with most weighing about 248 grams or one Han dynasty period catty and had a gold content of between 97 to 99% gold.
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The first reason was that if paper took the place of copper and copper-alloys would stop used in casting cash coins, the copper saved could be used in the production of weapons for the imperial Chinese and provincial armies. The second reason was that in the case replacing of silver coinages, if the mercantile (merchants) and commercial (business owners) classes could be brought to the persuasion to accept paper banknotes in lieu of silver, then the silver saved could be stored up in the government coffers.Du Puy, William A.: “The Geography of Money”, The National Geographic Magazine, National Geographic Society, Washington D.C., Vol LII, December, 1927. Eventually, the arguments for reintroduction of paper money prevailed and the Da-Qing Baochao and Da-Qing Hubu Guanpiao were introduced in the year Xianfeng 3 (1853).
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The historian and numismatist Rory Naismith comments that Æthelred :took the important step of adopting a new coin-type based not on local tradition, but on the Lunettes-type current in contemporary Mercia. The year 865 thus saw not only the arrival of the Viking great army that would dismantle most of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, but also the beginning of the end for separate coinages in separate kingdoms. Lyons and Mackay see the change as even more crucial: :The developments of the late 860s can thus be viewed as an essential precursor that eventually led to the unified reform coinage of Edgar. This convergence of the coinage is also tangible evidence for a growing collaboration between Mercia and Wessex which foreshadowed the eventual creation of a unified England.
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Muraoka A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint 2009 Preface to the 3rd Edition However hapax legomena may not always indicate neologisms, given the specialist subject matter of the Septuagint.The Greek and Hebrew Bible: Collected Essays on the Septuagint – Volume 72 – Page 140 ed. Emanuel Tov "There is another reason for a cautious use of the label 'neologism': a word described as a neologism on the basis of our present knowledge may, in fact, be contained in an as yet unpublished papyrus fragment or the word may never have been used in written language." Also some of the "neologisms" of the Septuagint are not totally new coinages and may be combinations of existing terms as Neubildungen in German, such as the large number of compound words representing two or more Hebrew words.
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The process of appropriating and applying such a pre-existing phrase or concept to describe new theatrical works provides a critical means of "categorizing" or "labelling", and some critics have stated, "pigeonholing", or "domesticating" ("taming") them.Susan Hollis Merritt, Pinter in Play: Critical Strategies and the Plays of Harold Pinter (1990; Durham and London: Duke UP, 1995) 5, 9, 225–28, 326, citing Wardle. The creation of in-yer-face theatre parallels the history of more-prevalently accepted literary-critical coinages by critics like Martin Esslin (Theatre of the Absurd), who extended the existential philosophical concept of the Absurd to drama and theatre in his 1961 book of that title,Martin Esslin, The Theatre of the Absurd, 3rd ed. With a new foreword by the author (1961; New York: Vintage [Knopf], 2004).
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Many modern languages have an appreciable adstratum from English due to the cultural influence and economic preponderance of the United States on international markets and previously colonization by the British Empire which made English a global lingua franca. The Greek and Latin coinages adopted by European languages (including English and now languages worldwide) to describe scientific topics (sociology, medicine, anatomy, biology, all the '-logy' words, etc.) are also justifiably called adstrata. Another example is found in Spanish and Portuguese, which contain a heavy Semitic (particularly Arabic) adstratum; and Yiddish, which is a linguistic variety of High German with adstrata from Hebrew and Aramaic, mostly in the sphere of religion, and Slavic languages, by reason of the geopolitical contexts Yiddish speaking villages lived through for centuries before disappearing during the Holocaust.
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Between 1335 and 1343 he compiled the work for which he is famous, the Book of Descriptions of Countries and of Measures Employed in Business (), commonly known as the Practice of Commerce ('). Beginning with a glossary of Italian and foreign terms then in use in trade, the Practice next describes nearly all the major trading cities then known to Italian merchants; the imports and exports of various regions; the business customs prevalent in each of those regions; and the comparative value of coinages, weights and measures. The most distant trade route described by Pegolotti is that from Azov via Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar and Kulja to Beijing. He also details the route from Ayas on the Cilician coast of Turkey via Sivas, Erzingan and Erzerum to Tabriz in Persia.
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Jonah Goldberg, an American National Review journalist, used it in the title of an April 1999 column on the "Top Ten Reasons to Hate the French". In the run up to and during the Iraq War, Goldberg reprised it to criticize European nations and France in particular for not joining the Coalition of the Willing, the United States-led invasion and occupation of Iraq. Ben Macintyre of The Times wrote in August 2007 that it is "perhaps the most famous" of the coinages from The Simpsons and it "has gone on to become a journalistic cliché". The New York Post used it (as "Surrender Monkeys") as the headline for its December 7, 2006, front page, referring to the Iraq Study Group, and its recommendation that American soldiers be withdrawn from Iraq by January 2008.
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Zhuangpiao were privately produced notes issued by qianzhuang private banks (or "native banks"). There were several differences between zhuangpiao and modern banknotes, the credit of modern banknotes come from the power of the state, but zhuangpiao served purely to convert metal coinages into paper money. An advantage which the zhuangpiao had for the Chinese economy as it would save the amount of money that was circulating and help facilitate more cross- regional trade across China. There issues associated with the zhuangpiao as faraway qianzhuang couldn't always verify them, it was more convenient for qianzhuang to let a zhuangpiao circulate in different places or in the same city and only be accepted and admitted by local qianzhuang there and these local qianzhuang needed a local place for exchange and debit within the city or region.
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In the Meiji era, the Japanese also coined many neologisms using Chinese roots and morphology to translate European concepts; these are known as wasei kango (Japanese-made Chinese words). Many of these were then imported into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese via their kanji in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For example, , and are words derived from Chinese roots that were first created and used by the Japanese, and only later borrowed into Chinese and other East Asian languages. As a result, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese share a large common corpus of vocabulary in the same way many Greek- and Latin-derived words – both inherited or borrowed into European languages, or modern coinages from Greek or Latin roots – are shared among modern European languages – see classical compound.
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At the bottom the 10 wén Da-Qing Tongbi coins contained the inscription "文十錢制當" ("Worth 10 wén in standard cash coins") written from right to left indicating its nominal value. The reverse side of the Da-Qing Tongbi coin, like the Guangxu Yuanbao provincial coinages, also had the design of a Chinese dragon on it, but these dragons have much fewer variations in comparison to those on the Guangxu Yuanbao milled coins because of the imperial governments efforts in standardising designs. Near the upper part of the outer rim were the Traditional Chinese characters Guangxu Nianzao (造年緒光) written from right to left, which could be translated into English as "minted during the Guangxu years". Near the lower part of the outer rim was the text, written in English, "Tai-Ching-Ti-Kuo Copper Coin".
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Campaigns of Pyrrhus of Epirus in Italy. In 330 BC, upon Alexander the Molossian's death, the term "Epirus" appears as a single political unit in the ancient Greek records for the first time, under the leadership of the Molossian dynasty. Subsequently, the coinages of the three major Epirote tribal groups came to an end, and a new coinage was issued with the legend Epirotes.. After Alexander's I death, Aeacides of Epirus, who succeeded him, espoused the cause of Olympias against Cassander, but was dethroned in 313 BC. Aeacides's son Pyrrhus came to the throne in 295 BC. Pyrrhus, being a skillful general, was encouraged to aid the Greeks of Tarentum and decided to initiate a major offensive in the Italian peninsula and Sicily. Due to its superior martial abilities, the Epirote army defeated the Romans in the Battle of Heraclea (280 BC).
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The reintroduction of paper money was specifically denominated in copper-alloy cash coins to allow it to be trusted by the general Chinese populace, comparatively the paper money used by the Ming dynasty could not be converted into coinages of any kind which proved to be an extremely calamitous decision as it had effectively discouraged the reintroduction of paper money in China up until this point. However, the Taiping Rebellion brought both extensive devastation and high defense costs to the point that within 3 years the Xianfeng administration felt forced to re-adopt paper currency. At the same time, mints across China started releasing a substantial amount of new Daqian coins, whose nominal value vastly exceeded their intrinsic copper value. Both currencies would prove to become exceedingly inflationary as time passed by, this disrupted the market exchange rate of copper to silver and lead to unrest among the people.
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The Essays were praised by his contemporaries and have remained in high repute ever since; 19th-century literary historian Henry Hallam wrote that "They are deeper and more discriminating than any earlier, or almost any later, work in the English language".... Bacon's coinages such as "hostages to fortune" and "jesting Pilate" have survived into modern English, with 91 quotations from the Essays in the 1999 edition of The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, and the statue of Philosophy in the U.S. Library of Congress, in Washington, D.C., is labelled with quotation "the inquiry, knowledge, and belief of truth is the sovereign good of human nature" from Of Truth.. The 1625 essay Of Gardens, in which Bacon says that "God Almighty first planted a Garden; and it is indeed the purest of human pleasures [...], the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man", was influential upon the imagination of subsequent garden owners in England..
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The name has spawned two other coinages: Munchausen syndrome by proxy, in which illness is feigned by caretakers rather than patients, and Munchausen by Internet, in which illness is feigned online. In 1968, Hans Albert coined the term Münchhausen trilemma to describe the philosophical problem inherent in having to derive conclusions from premises; those premises have to be derived from still other premises, and so on forever, leading to an infinite regress interruptible only by circular logic or dogmatism. The problem is named after the similarly paradoxical story in which the Baron saves himself from being drowned in a swamp by pulling on his own hair. The same story also inspired the mathematical term Munchausen number, coined by Daan van Berkel in 2009 to describe numbers whose digits, when raised to their own powers, can be added together to form the number itself (for example, 3435 = 33 + 44 + 33 + 55).
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The partially deciphered Khitan small script may be another. In addition, various phonetic scripts descend from Chinese characters, of which the best known are the various kana syllabaries, the zhuyin semi-syllabary, nüshu, and some influence on hangul. The Chinese scripts are written in various calligraphic hands, principally seal script, clerical script, regular script, semi-cursive script, and cursive script. (See Chinese calligraphy and Chinese script styles.) Adaptations range from the conservative, as in Korean, which used Chinese characters in their standard form with only a few local coinages, and relatively conservative Japanese, which has coined a few hundred new characters and used traditional character forms until the mid-20th century, to the extensive adaptations of Zhuang and Vietnamese, each coining over 10,000 new characters by Chinese formation principles, to the highly divergent Tangut script, which formed over 5,000 new characters by its own principles.
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As Chinese archaeologists frequently unearth ancient Chinese cash coins and other forms of historical currency at tomb sites, these unearthed bronze coinages are often severely corroded because they have been buried for hundreds or thousands of years, this sometimes means that the inscriptions on them can't be read. While archaeologists working at a site tend to do everything very slowly and do it as methodically as possible in order to avoid doing any damage to the buried cultural relics, this approach isn't taken with cash coins because they are often vital in order to date the tombs or ruins. With ancient Chinese cash coins archaeologists tend to be less concerned about their preservation and clean them in order to identify them. To clean bronze cash coins Chinese archaeologists will simply put them in a mild acid like vinegar to soak for a period of 2 or 3 days, after this process is done the surface dirt and some of the corrosion will be removed.
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When Elizabeth died unmarried and childless in 1603, the throne passed to James VI of Scotland, a great-grandson of Henry VII, who ruled in England as James I. James's silver coinage changed little from that of Elizabeth in production and style. The most notable feature was the introduction of a copper farthing to help with the problem of small change. With inflation, the penny continued to become a less important denomination. The first coinage, of 1603–4, shows a bust of the king facing right with the inscription I D G ROSA SINE SPINA on the obverse, and a shield including the Scottish coat of arms on the reverse. The second (1604–1619) and third coinages show a rose instead of the king's bust on the obverse, with the I D G ROSA SINE SPINA inscription, while the reverse contains a thistle surrounded by the inscription TUETUR UNITA DEUS — May God guard these united (kingdoms).
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The money stock was also affected as the amount of silver coinages in circulation kept increasing, while the stock of copper-alloy cash coins was surely decreasing, leading to even greater deflation in copper-based markets. As a result, the mints operated by the government of the Qing dynasty saw less motivation to produce more copper- alloy cash coins as they were now more expensive to make, as it now cost more silver to import sufficient amounts of copper for their production.Kishimoto, "Foreign Silver and China's Domestic Economy During the First Half of the 19th Century," Page 30. The imperial government would continue to try to maintain the official exchange rate between copper-alloy cash coins and silver, but this only made copper-alloy cash coins into an "undervalued currency" and further discouraged it from circulating as people would hoard the coins driving them out of the market, further increasing their relative scarcity to silver (as is described by Gresham's law).
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As the government didn't produce enough money for the Vietnamese market it permitted the private production of cash coins and deliberately dissolved its own monopoly on the creation of zinc and brass Tự Đức Thông Bảo cash coins as a measure to increase the national money supply. The government also made it illegal for coins with an older Niên Hiệu to circulate but allowed for coins with what they consider to be "pseudo-Niên Hiệu's" (those with inscriptions from the Tây Sơn dynasty, as the Nguyễn didn't regard them as a legitimate dynasty) to continue circulating. Despite the fact that the government greatly encouraged private mints and laws guaranteeing that the coinage they cast were up to code, they were rarely audited and the mints operated by the Chinese became a dispensary for fraudulent coinage. Chinese mining companies were also authorised to cast zinc coinages if they would also pay their taxes to the government of Đại Nam in zinc.
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As manually filing and chiseling cash coins was both an additional expense as well as time-consuming it is likely that the creation of "flower holes" and "turtle shell holes" was ordered by the manufacturer. However, as the quality of Tang and Song dynasty coinages was quite high it's unlikely that the supervisors would have allowed for a large number of these variant coins to be produced, pass quality control or be allowed to enter circulation. Cash coins with "flower holes" were produced in significant numbers by the Northern Song dynasty, Southern Song dynasty, and Khitan Liao dynasty. Until 1180 the Northern Song dynasty produced "matched cash coins" (對錢, duì qián) which were cash coins with identical inscriptions written in different styles of Chinese calligraphy, after these coins were superseded by cash coins that included the year of production on their reverse sides the practice of casting cash coins with "flower holes" also seems to have drastically decreased.
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Isan speakers are almost universally bilingual, as Thai is the language of education, state, media and used in formal conversation. Isan speakers are able to read, write and understand spoken Thai, but their ability to speak Thai varies, with some from more remote regions unable to speak Thai very well, such as many children before schooling age and older speakers, but competence in Thai is based on factors such as age, distance from urban districts and education access. Thai speakers often have difficulty with some of the unique Lao features of Isan, such as very different tonal patterns, distinct vowel qualities and numerous common words with no Thai equivalent, as well as local names for many plants that are based on local coinages or older Mon-Khmer borrowings. A large number of Isan words and usages in Lao of Laos are cognates with old Thai usages no longer found in the modern language, or through drift, evolved to mean somewhat different things.
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English has derivational morphology that parallels ergativity in that it operates on intransitive verbs and objects of transitive verbs. With certain intransitive verbs, adding the suffix "-ee" to the verb produces a label for the person performing the action: :"John has retired" → "John is a retiree" :"John has escaped" → "John is an escapee" However, with a transitive verb, adding "-ee" does not produce a label for the person doing the action. Instead, it gives us a label for the person to whom the action is done: :"Susie employs Mike" → "Mike is an employee" :"Mike has appointed Susie" → "Susie is an appointee" Etymologically, the sense in which "-ee" denotes the object of a transitive verb is the original one, arising from French past participles in "-é". This is still the prevalent sense in British English: the intransitive uses are all 19th-century American coinages and all except "escapee" are still marked as "chiefly U.S." by the Oxford English Dictionary.
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The Batavi (Germanic tribe) were one of the initial tribes to settle in Gaul specifically in the middle Rhine region which has been evidenced by numismatic evidence that was found as coins can be traced back to the Chatti tribe who consisted of the Batavi (Germanic tribe) specifically the silver triquetrum coins. The migration of the Batavi occurred somewhere between 50-40 B.C., which was after the Gallic Wars.Roymans, Nico (2004), "The Lower Rhine triquetrum coinages and the formation of a Batavian polity", Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power, The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire, Amsterdam University Press, pp. 67–102, , retrieved 2019-05-16 The coinage evidence further positions that the Batavi were a combination of the Eburones who were victims of corrective action led by Julius Caesar in 53 and 51 BC and that the immigration from the central Rhine region caused a mixing of various populations, hence creating the Batavi as a new tribal group.Roymans, Nico (2001).
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Three halfpence coin Three halfpence coin The English three halfpence, a silver coin worth d, was introduced in Elizabeth I of England's third and fourth coinages (1561-1582) as part of a plan to produce large quantities of coins of varying denominations and high silver content. The obverse shows a left-facing bust of the queen, with a rose behind her, with the legend E D G ROSA SINE SPINA – Elizabeth by the grace of God a rose without a thorn – while the reverse shows the royal arms with the date above the arms and a mintmark at the beginning of the legend CIVITAS LONDON – City of London, the Tower Mint. The three-halfpence coin closely resembles the English Three Farthing coin and the Threepence coin, which differed only in the diameter. This is 16 millimetres in an unclipped coin, compared to 14 mm for the three-farthings, and 19 mm for the three pence (except 1561, which was 21 mm).
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In contrast to the ancient Near Eastern and American objects that Greene donated to the RISD Museum, his collection of Greek coins was carefully built up over the years. Ancient Greek coinage has been a popular category of artefacts for collectors since the Age of Enlightenment, and continues to be so today. Greene devoted his most of his collecting energies towards ancient Greek coins and by the end of his life his collection numbered 361 specimens. The collection was intricately tied to the RISD Museum, exhibited there on loan from 1909 until 1940. The Providence Sunday Journal announced the exhibition of these coins on 7 February 1909, stating that "it is a collection not excelled in some respects outside the great museums, and it may be doubted that there is in a private collection in this country a finer or more representative display of the most important coinages struck in European Greece than this of Mr. Greene’s".
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The silver three-farthing (d) coin was introduced in Queen Elizabeth I's third and fourth coinages (1561–1582), as part of a plan to produce large quantities of coins of varying denominations and high metal content. The obverse shows a left-facing bust of the queen, with a rose behind her and the legend E D G ROSA SINE SPINA – Elizabeth, by the grace of God a rose without a thorn – while the reverse shows the royal arms with the date above the arms and a mint mark at the beginning of the legend reading CIVITAS LONDON – City of London, the Tower Mint. The three-farthings coin closely resembles the three-halfpence coin, differing only in the diameter, which is 14 millimetres for an unclipped coin, compared to 16 mm for the three-halfpence. All the coins are hammered, except for the extremely rare milled three-farthings of 1563, of which only three examples are known to exist.
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The Qing dynasty used a bimetallic currency system based on silver sycees and cast copper-alloy cash coins and during the 19th century modern machine-struck coinage from the Western world inspired the local production of milled coinages by provincial governments. The first of these being provincial issues of the Guangxu Yuanbao (光緒元寶) which would later inspire the government of the Qing dynasty to standardise its currency nationwide due to the different weights and standards being used across China. During the later years of the Manchu Qing dynasty, the coinage system was scattered with central government-made coins, local coins and some foreign currencies circulating together in the private sector of China, resulting in a great deal of currency confusion, this has made both fiscal and financial management in China quite difficult. In an attempt to bring order to this chaos some people such as Chen Zhi started advocating for China to place its currency on the gold standard.Peng Xinwei (彭信威). 中國貨幣史. 1958-11.
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The coinage of Edward the Elder in some ways continued the types and organisation current under his father Alfred in Wessex and English Mercia, but with the expansion of West Saxon control into the Midlands and East Anglia the currency system became more complex as new regions were incorporated into Edward's kingdom. For the most part the coinage was non- portrait and simple in design, though some mints in English Mercia struck an interesting series of pictorial reverse types. Since mint names are again very rare, attributions must largely be made by working backwards from Æthelstan's reign when mint names were often found on coins of the circumscription cross and bust crowned types. These coinages, struck at about thirty named mints after the conquest of the kingdom of York in 927, reflect a renewed effort on the king's part to have a single, centrally controlled coinage spanning the kingdom: types were standardised, the royal title was expanded from the usual REX to REX SAXONUM or even REX TO(tius) BRIT(anniae), as one finds in contemporary charters.
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Regardless, Malestroit did put forth several valid claims about the price revolution that continue to hold up today, particularly his argument explaining the different price indexes and why the Spanish prices rose the least and the Brabantine the most. Spain, unlike most other European countries of this era, underwent no debasements of the gold and silver coinages during most of the period, but that all changed in 1599, when the new Spanish king Philip III (1598–1621) introduced the purely copper "vellon" coinage. Following Henry VIII of England and his infamous "Great Debasement" programme that began 1526, the Spanish King Philip III tried to cement his Spanish legacy through changes in coinage strategy. Previously, Spanish Kings (at least from 1471) issued a largely copper fractional coinage called blancas, with a nominal money-of-account value of 0.5 maravedí, but with a very small amount of silver to convince the public that it was indeed precious-metal "money". The blanca issued in 1471 had a silver fineness of 10 grains or 3.47% (weighing 1.107 g).
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A similar process occurs when a word is coined in a language based on roots from another language, and then the compound is borrowed into this other language or a modern descendant. In the West this primarily occurs with classical compounds, formed on Latin or Ancient Greek roots, which may then be borrowed into a Romance language or Modern Greek. Latin is sufficiently widespread that Latinate terms coined in a non-Romance language (such as English or German) and then borrowed by a Romance language (such as French or Spanish) are not conspicuous, but modern coinages on Ancient Greek roots borrowed into Modern Greek are, and include terms such as τηλεγράφημα telegrafíma ('telegram'). This process is particularly conspicuous in Chinese and Japanese, where in the late 19th and early 20th century many terms were coined in Japanese on Chinese roots (historically terms had often passed via Korea), known as , then borrowed into modern Chinese (and often Korean) with corresponding pronunciation; from the mid 20th century such borrowings are much rarer.
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The amount of copper-alloy cash coins produced by the Ming dynasty was higher than under the preceding Yuan dynasty (which had used paper notes, or zhibi (紙幣), extensively instead of metal coinages), but never reached the annual production outputs of the Song dynasty period. The term "Zhiqian" (制錢) was used in order to discern full-valued cash coins produced by the imperial government from older ones from the Song dynasty period, which were known as jiuqian (舊錢), and privately produced forgeries of non-standard weights and alloys that were referred to as siqian (私錢) or sizhuqian (私鑄錢). Other terms used during the Ming dynasty for various types of cash coins include yangqian (样錢, "Model coin"), also known as Beiqian (北錢, "Northern coin"), which referred to full weight (1 qián) and fine quality cash coins had were delivered to Beijing as seigniorage revenue. Fengqian (俸錢, "Stipend coin") which referred to second rate cash coins that had a weight of 0.9 qián and were distributed through the salaries of government officials and emoluments.
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It could then contain an inscription like "串錢貳百文" (Chuàn qián èrbǎi wén, "a string of 200 cash coins") that would only have to be paid out in a string of 20 cash coins of 10 wén rather than 200 cash coins of 1 wén. The reason why the issuing authorities would do this has to do with the concept of "token" money that the Chinese employed at the time. As the Qing dynasty's government starting manufacturing Daqian since the Xianfeng period that contained high nominal values but had intrinsic values that were only slightly more valuable than the low denomination coinages, the issuer of the Bamboo tally would be able to make a profit off of this situation, this was because the bamboo tally in question would be valued more than the promised redeemed value. In general, bamboo tallies in the region were not always "redeemed" and would continue to circulate in their local areas as a type of alternative currency as long as the local populace would maintain their "trust" that the bamboo token had "value" or "worth".
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These coins usually featured the reign or era title of the reigning Nguyễn monarch and were extremely poorly manufactured with bad alloys causing the strings to often break with many sapèques breaking resulting in considerable losses for their owners due to their brittleness. Charles Lemire described the heavy nature and difficult mobility of strings of sapèques as "a currency worthy of Lycurgus of Sparta" and non numerantur, sed ponderantur ("They are not counted but weighed"). To the French zinc coinage also presented a huge in inconvenience since their colonisation of Cochinchina in 1859 as the exchange between French francs and zinc Tự Đức Thông Bảo (嗣德通寶) văn meant that a large amount of zinc coins were exchanged for the French franc. Zinc cash coins often broke during transportation as the strings that kept them together would often snap the coins would fall on the ground and a great number of them would break into pieces, and these coins were also less resistant to oxidation causing them to corrode faster than other coinages.
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Over the course of Chinese history a number of monarchs had tried to introduce iron cash coins to the market, but as their subjects never took to them, most of these attempts to issue them were rather short-lived. Sometimes bronze coins that were cast had a certain amount of iron in them, but in these cases the iron was not mixed into the copper-alloy itself, as it was just not removed during the production process, for example with some Warring States period round hole coins with the inscription "Yuan" (垣) which was made of about 30% iron. The mechanical strength of the cast coinages was thus reduced, but in the case of coins this was not as important as with tools as they did not serve any practical means other than their commodity value. Iron cash coins were produced during the Han dynasty, Three Kingdoms period, Northern and Southern dynasties period, Five dynasties and Ten kingdoms period, Song dynasty, Jin dynasty (1115–1234), Western Xia dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty, but not during the Zhou dynasty, Jin dynasty (266–420), Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, Liao dynasty, and Yuan dynasty periods.
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On the other hand, in the year 221 SE (92/91BC), the city of Antioch issued civic coinage mentioning no king; Hoover noted that the civic coinage mentions Antioch as the "metropolis" but not as autonomous, and this might be explained as a reward from AntiochusX bestowed upon the city for supporting him in his struggle against his cousins. In 2007, using a methodology based on estimating the annual die usage average rate (the Esty formula), Hoover proposed the year 224 SE (89/88 BC) for the end of Antiochus X's reign. Later in 2011, Hoover noted that this date is hard to accept considering that during Antiochus X's second reign in the capital, only one or two dies were used per year, far too few for the Seleucid average rate to justify a long reign. Hoover then noted that there seem to be several indications that the coinage of Antiochus X's second reign in the capital, along with the coinages of Antiochus XI and Demetrius III, were re-coined by Philip I who eventually took Antioch , thus explaining the rarity of those kings' coins.
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Coinage was invented in Lydia around 650 BC. It was quickly adopted by Greek communities in western Asia Minor, although the older system of bullion remained in use as well. The island of Aegina began to issue its distinctive "turtle" coins before 550 BC, and from there coinage spread to Athens, Corinth and the Cycladic Islands in the 540s BC,; ; Southern Italy and Sicily before 525 BC,; and Thrace before 514 BC. Most of these coinages were very small and were mostly only used within the community that issued them, but the "turtles" of Aegina (from 530 or 520 BC) and the "owls" of Athens (from 515 BC) were issued in great quantity and exported throughout the Greek world.; The images on coins initially changed rapidly, but increasingly each community settled on a single image or set of images. Some of these were the symbol or image of an important deity in the city or visual puns on the city's name,For instance, the city of Phocaea issued coins depicting a seal (phoke, in Greek) but in many cases their meaning is obscure and may not have been chosen for any special reason.
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A Sogdian cash coin. During excavations in the historically Sogdian cities of Afrasiab (old Samarkand) and Pendjikent a large number of Sogdian coins were uncovered, the Soviet numismatist Smirnova listed in her catalogue on Sogdian coins from 1573 published in 1981 a large number of coins of which several were based on Kaiyuan Tongbao's. Sogdian coins tend to be produced independently by each city and contain tribal mint marks known as tamgha's, some cities used coins based on Persian coinages (which made up 13.2% of the known variants), while others preferred Chinese cash coins which were influenced by the Tang dynasty's western expanse during the seventh century (cash style coins also made up the majority of Sogdian coins and accounted for 86.7% of all known variants), as well as hybrid coins which feature an image based on a square hole on one side of the coin and a portrait of the King in the other side (these made up 0.7% of the known variants). A number of Sogdian coins even imitate the Kaiyuan Tongbao inscription directly, but on their reverses have added Sogdian tamgha's on the right or left side of the hole as well as the Sogdian word for "lord".
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Theoretically, "cheap silver" (a term used to denote the relatively low price of silver in international market) can be taken in a bimetallic system or a silver standard system as a sudden and exogenous currency devaluation, and this would then indicate favourable terms of trade for silver standard countries as the devaluation of silver would encourage exports as the price of goods have been reduced, thus making it more favourable for foreign merchants to purchase these goods.Jeffrey B. Nugent, "Exchange-Rate Movements and Economic Development in the Late Nineteenth Century," Journal of Political Economy 81, no. 5 (1973): Pages 1110–14.Milton Friedman, "Franklin D. Roosevelt, Silver, and China," The Journal of Political Economy 100, no. 1 (1992): Pages 62–83. The economy and monetary situation of the Qing dynasty from the 1870s onwards seem to contradict this hypothesis. During the 1870s many countries around the world replaced the silver standard with the gold standard, causing old silver coinages to be demonetised lowering the price of silver on a global scale. The demonetisation of silver in many countries not only led to a drop in the price of silver, but also increased the volatility of its price, the unstable exchange also offset some of the benefit from silver depreciation.
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Halfpennies in the reign of King Henry VII (1485-1509) were produced mostly at London, but also at Canterbury and York. Henry's coins are fairly distinct from those of the earlier Henries, with the king's front-facing portrait being different in style, and the obverse legend reading HENRIC DEI GRA REX. By the reign of King Henry VIII, the halfpenny was becoming a coin of lesser importance, and less effort was spent on producing good-quality impressions on the coin blanks, with the result that many of the inscriptions are difficult to read. The coins of his first and second coinage (1509-1526 and 1526-1544) look similar to those of his father, Henry VII, although the obverse inscriptions were changed between the two coinages, from HENRIC DI GRA REX ANGL to H DG ROSA SIE SPIA - Henry by the grace of God a rose without a thorn (Henricus Dei gratia rosa sine spina). The third (1544-1547) and posthumous (1547-1551) coinage halfpennies have a more lifelike bust, but were produced in debased silver (only 1/3 silver and 2/3 copper) and therefore are usually in a very poor condition. In the short reign (1547-1553) of King Edward VI there were several issues of halfpennies.
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In the late eighteenth century, coins were issued in copper in denominations of 1 quattrino, ½, 1, 2, 2½ and 5 baiocchi, along with billon coins for 1, 4, 8, 12, 25 and 50 baiocchi, 1 and 2 carlini, silver coins for 1 grosso, 1 and 2 giulio, 1 testone and 1 scudo, and gold coins for ½ and 1 zecchino and 1 and 2 doppia. The individual states issued similar coinages, with the exception of Bologna, which additionally issued silver 12 baiocchi, ½ scudo and 80 bolognini, and gold 2, 5 and 10 zecchini. The 1798 to 1799 Roman Republic issued copper ½, 1, 2 and 5 baiocchi and silver 1 scudo. After the restoration of the currency, billon coins were no longer issued and several other denominations disappeared. There were copper 1 quattrino, ½ and 1 baiocco, silver 1 grosso, 1 and 2 giulio and 1 scudo, and gold 1 doppia. The silver testone was reintroduced in 1830, followed by 50 baiocchi in 1832. In 1835, a new coinage was introduced which abandoned all the denomination names except for the quattrino, baiocco and scudo. Copper coins were issued in denominations of 1 quattrino, ½ and 1 baiocco, with silver 5, 10, 20, 30 and 50 baiocchi and 1 scudo, and gold 2½, 5 and 10 scudi.
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