At the time of its publication, Civitates orbis terrarum was a blockbuster hit.
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Now, more than four centuries after Civitates orbis terrarum's first publication, Taschen has published a reprint of 363 of its most intricate town map engravings, making this gorgeous early cartography accessible to the digital age.
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Advertise on Hyperallergic with Nectar Ads "Kindly and most esteemed reader, we hereby place on the market the next book of the most noble cities of the entire world, of which I hope that it will please you very much, because the first book was received with such great pleasure and was so highly sought-after that not a single copy still remains nor is available to buy," wrote editor and publisher Georg Braun in the preface to the 1576 German-language edition of Civitates orbis terrarum, his sprawling atlas of cities of the world.
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Each province of the empire was divided into three types of local authority: coloniae (Roman colonies, founded by retired legionary veterans), municipia (cities with "Latin Rights", a sort of half- citizenship) and civitates peregrinae, the local authorities of the peregrini. Civitates peregrinae were based on the territories of pre-Roman city-states (in the Mediterranean) or indigenous tribes (in the northwestern European and Danubian provinces), minus lands confiscated by the Romans after the conquest of the province to provide land for legionary veterans or to become imperial estates. These civitates were grouped into three categories, according to their status: civitates foederatae, civitates liberae, and civitates stipendariae. Although the provincial governor had absolute power to intervene in civitas affairs, in practice civitates were largely autonomous, in part because the governor operated with a minimal bureaucracy and simply did not have the resources for detailed micro-management of the civitates.
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In the less urbanised interior the administration relied exclusively on the civitates. The jurisdiction of the governor of Illyricum was limited to the coastal area. The inland districts had their own governors in the form of the praefecti civitatum of the civitates. Pannonia was subdivided into 14 civitates.
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Pliny also enumerates it among the stipendiariae civitates of Sicily.H. N. iii. 8.
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A civitas stipendaria, meaning "tributary state/community", was the lowest and most common type of towns and local communities under Roman rule. Each Roman province comprised a number of communities of different status. Alongside Roman colonies or municipia, whose residents held the Roman citizenship or Latin citizenship, a province was largely formed by self-governing communities of natives (peregrini), which were distinguished according to the level of autonomy they had: the civitates stipendariae were the lowest grade, after the civitates foederatae ("allied states") which were bound to Rome by formal treaty (foedus), and the civitates liberae ("free states"), which were granted specific privileges. The civitates stipendariae were by far the most common of the three—for example, in 70 BC in Sicily there were 65 such cities, as opposed to only 5 civitates liberae and 2 foederatae—and furnished the bulk of a province's revenue.
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Polabian Slavic Tribes, green is uninhabited forested area The Bavarian Geographer, an anonymous medieval document compiled in Regensburg in 830, contains a list of the tribes in Central Europe to the east of the Elbe. Among other tribes it lists the Uuilci (Veleti) with 95 civitates, the Nortabtrezi (Obotrites) with 53 civitates, the Milzane (Milceni) with 30 civitates, and the Hehfeldi (Hevelli) with 14 civitates. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia classifies the Polabian Slavs in three main tribes, the Obotrites, the Veleti, and the Lusatian Sorbs. The main tribesHerrmann, 7 of the Obotritic confederation were the Obotrites proper (Wismar Bay to the Schweriner See); the Wagrians (eastern Holstein); the Warnabi (Warnower) (the upper Warnow and Mildenitz); and the Polabians proper (between the Trave and the Elbe).
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Lebrija (Lebrixa) as depicted in the Civitates orbis terrarum (c. 1600) Lebrija was granted city status by letters patent in 1924.
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Certain civitates groups survived as distinct tribal groupings even beyond the fall of the Roman Empire, particularly in Britain and northern Spain.
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All this activity was administered by an ordo or curia, a civitas council consisting of men of sufficient social rank to be able to stand for public office. Defensive measures were limited at the civitates, rarely more than palisaded earthworks in times of trouble, if even that. Towards the end of the empire, the civitates' own local militias, led by a decurion, likely served as the only defensive force in outlying Romanised areas threatened by barbarians. There is evidence that some civitates maintained some degree of Romanisation and served as population centres beyond the official Roman withdrawal, albeit with limited resources.
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The Sleenzane (Slenzans; Ślężanie) lived in lands near modern Wrocław and along the Ślęza river, as well as near mount Ślęża. They probably numbered 60–75,000 peopleCheck also: Ludwik Krzywicki, Primitive society and its vital statistics, the 1934 English edition (but this edition does not have the sub- chapter on Slavic tribes) and according to the Bavarian Geographer, they were divided into 15 civitates. The Opolini (Opolans; Opolanie) lived in lands near modern Opole, their population was perhaps 30–40,000 and comprised 20 civitates. The Dadodesani or Dedosize (Dyadosans; Dziadoszanie) lived in areas near modern Głogów, numbered probably 30,000 people, as well as 20 civitates.
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A civitas foederata, meaning "allied state/community", was the most elevated type of autonomous cities and local communities under Roman rule. Each Roman province comprised a number of communities of different status. Alongside Roman colonies or municipia, whose residents held the Roman citizenship or Latin citizenship, a province was largely formed by self-governing communities of natives (peregrini), which were distinguished according to the level of autonomy they had: the lowest were the civitates stipendariae ("tributary states"), followed by the civitates liberae ("free states"), which had been granted specific privileges. Unlike the latter, the civitates foederatae were individually bound to Rome by formal treaty (foedus).
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Before the Romans conquered Gaul, the Gauls lived in villages organised in wider tribes. The Romans referred to the smallest of these groups as pagi and the widest ones as civitates. These pagi and civitates were often taken as a basis for the imperial administration and would survive up to the middle-ages when their capitals became centres of bishoprics. These religious provinces would survive until the French revolution.
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We have a fairly detailed picture of the administrative arrangements of Illyricum through Pliny the Elder.Pliny, Natural History, 2.25-26, 28 The coastal area was subdivided into three regions called conventus juridicus which were named after the towns of Scardona (Skradin), Salona and Narona (near Metković). The conventus Salonitanus was subdivided into 5 civitates and 927 decuriae. The conventus Naronitianus was subdivided into 13 civitates and 540 decuriae.
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The Golensizi (Golensizians; Golęszyce) dwelled near modern Racibórz, Cieszyn and Opawa - they consisted of five civitates. The Lupiglaa (Głubczyce) probably lived on the Głubczyce Plateau, near Głubczyce, and comprised 30 civitates. The Trebouane (Tryebovians; Trzebowianie), mentioned by the Prague Document (which describes the situation as of year 973 or earlier),On the Prague Document of 1086 (jassa.org) occupied areas near modern Legnica and could number some 25–30,000 individuals.
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During his trip to England, he made drawings of royal palaces such as Windsor Castle and Nonsuch Palace, which are regarded as some of the earliest realist landscape watercolours in England. Hoefnagels made many landscape drawings during his travels in Europe. These later served as the models for engravings for Ortelius' Theatrum orbis terrarum (1570) and Braun's Civitates orbis terrarum (Cologne, 1572–1618). The Civitates orbis terrarum was with its six volumes the most extensive atlas of its time.
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The symbols of the city are the four Civitas (pl. civitates) statues, installed in 1991 at the Gateway corridor on Dave Lyle Boulevard. Columns at the Gateway Intersection Each holds a disc that symbolizes the four drivers of the city's economy – Gears of Industry, Flames of Knowledge, Stars of Inspiration, and Bolts of Energy. The ribbons in the Civitates' clothing and hair transform into wings, inferring the textile industry as the foundation of the city's growth.
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Gallic people of modern Brittany : The Riedones (also Redones or Rhedones) were a Gallic tribe, dwelling around their capital Condate (modern Rennes). Caesar mentions the Redones among the civitates maritimae or Aremoricae.
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In 805, Charles the Younger, the son of Charlemagne, was sent to fight the Bohemians, who were ruled by Lech. The late 9th-century Bavarian Geographer mentions them as Beheimare, having 15 civitates.
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A basic street grid would be surveyed in but the development of the civitas from there was left to the inhabitants although occasional imperial grants for new public buildings would be made. Tacitus describes how the Romanised Britons embraced the new urban centres: > They spoke of such novelties as 'civilisation', when this was really only a > feature of their slavery (Agricola, 21) The civitates differed from the less well-planned vici that grew up haphazardly around military garrisons; coloniae, which were settlements of retired troops; and municipia, formal political entities created from existing settlements. The civitates were regional market towns complete with a basilica and forum complex providing an administrative and economic focus. Civitates had a primary purpose of stimulating the local economy in order to raise taxes and produce raw materials.
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In the case of Ptolemy's Dacia, most of the tribal names are similar to those on the list of civitates, with few exceptions. Georgiev counts the Triballi, the Moesians and the Dardanians as Daco-Moesians.
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830, contain a list of 28 or 33 "civitates", originally used to describe British tribal centres under Roman rule but here translated as Old Welsh ' () and probably indicating "fortified cities". Among these settlements is '.Nennius (). Theodor Mommsen ().
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"Cassovia: Superioris Hungariae Civitas Primaria",Kniha (Matica slovenská) , 2008: p. 16. the prospect from Civitates orbis terrarum. Cassovia (Slovak: Košice, German: Kaschau, Hungarian: Kassa), the "capital" of Upper Hungary in 1617. Upper Hungary is the usual English translation of Felvidék (lit.
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As the empire grew, inhabitants of the outlying Roman provinces would either be classed as dediticii, meaning "capitulants", or be treated as client kingdoms with some independence guaranteed through treaties. There were three categories of autonomous native communities under Roman rule: the highest, civitates foederatae ("allied states"), were formed with formally independent and equal cities, and sealed by a common treaty (foedus); next came the civitates liberae ("free states"), which indicated communities that had been granted specific privileges by Rome, often in the form of tax immunity (hence liberae et immunes); the final, and by far most common group, were the civitates stipendariae ("tributary states"), which while retaining their internal legal autonomy were obliged to pay tax. Prestigious and economically important settlements such as Massilia and Messana are examples of occupied regions granted semi-autonomy during the Roman Republic. The island of Malta was granted this status as a reward for loyalty to Rome during the Second Punic War.
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Life of Patrick (vita Patricii) (§50-55); IV. Arthuriana (§ 56); V. Genealogies (regum genealogiae cum computo) (§c. 57—66); VI. Cities of Britain (civitates Britanniae) (§66a); VII. Wonders of Britain (de mirabilibus Britanniae) (§67—76). The Historia Brittonum can be dated to about 829.
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During the 7th century the first Gaue or pagi were created in the Flemish territories. Gaue were administrative subdivisions of the civitates. The Gaue from the 7th and 8th century would form the basis of the county of Flanders. The pagus Tornacensis dates from ca.
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Floyer Hayes, detail from a 1617 map of the City of Exeter in the 6th volume of Civitates Orbis Terrarum by Georg Braun (1541-1622) Floyer Hayes shown (bottom right) on 1617 map of the City of Exeter in the 6th volume of Civitates Orbis Terrarum by Georg Braun (1541-1622). St Thomas's Church at left (west) Alphington road on the south side of the River Exe Floyer Hayes was an historic manor in the parish of St ThomasRisdon, p.116 on the southern side of the City of Exeter in Devon, England, from which city it is separated by the River Exe.Risdon, 1811 Additions, p.
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Furthermore, South-east Wales was the most Romanised part of the country. It is possible that Roman estates in the area survived as recognisable units into the eighth century: the kingdom of Gwent is likely to have been founded by direct descendants of the (romanised) Silurian ruling class Roman Wales on the RCAHMW website: early Medioeval times' The best indicators of Romanising acculturation is the presence of urban sites (areas with towns, coloniae, and tribal civitates) and villas in the countryside. In Wales, this can be said only of the southeasternmost coastal region of South Wales. The only civitates in Wales were at Carmarthen and Caerwent.
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She whips her husband with a string of garlic. Behind them is a crier who heralds the crime of the couple. He has a trumpet and a stalk with which he punishes the couple. Hoefnagel reprised this scene in his View of Seville from 'Civitates orbis terrarium'.
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These became enclosed and fortified between the end of the 9th and the 10th centuries. A medieval document from the mid-9th century, called the Bavarian Geographer after its anonymous creator, mentions the Slavic tribe of Wolinians who had 70 strongholds at that time (Uelunzani civitates LXX).
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The tribal territory was later organised as the civitates (administrative districts within a Roman province) of the Atrebates, Regnenses and possibly the Belgae. However it is possible that the Atrebates were a family of rulers (dynasty), as there is no evidence for a major migration from Belgium to Britain.
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The Cambridge Ancient History, New Ed., Vol. 10 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. 469. Successive Roman emperors struck a balance between Romanizing the people of Gallia Belgica and allowing pre-existing culture to survive. The Romans divided the province into four "civitates" corresponding generally to ancient tribal boundaries.
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He did use counts (Latin comites, singular comes) to govern major cities (civitates, sing. civitas) in the Frankish manner. At least Bourges, Poitiers and the Auvergne had Aquitainian counts. In the case of Thouars, which was merely a castle (castra), a count was appointed to command the garrison (custodes).
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Burton (1987) 426, 434 Provided that the civitates collected and delivered their assessed annual tributum (poll and land taxes) and carried out required services such as maintaining trunk Roman roads that crossed their territory, they were largely left to run their own affairs by the central provincial administration. The civitates peregrinae were often ruled by the descendants of the aristocracies that dominated them when they were independent entities in the pre-conquest era, although many of these may have suffered severe diminution of their lands during the invasion period.Mattingly (2006) 454 These elites would dominate the civitas council and executive magistracies, which would be based on traditional institutions. They would decide disputes according to tribal customary law.
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Later, the executive was an annually-elected magistrate. Among the Aedui tribe the executive held the title of "Vergobret", a position much like a king, but its powers were held in check by rules laid down by the council. The tribal groups, or pagi as the Romans called them (singular: pagus; the French word pays, "country", comes from this term) were organised into larger super-tribal groups that the Romans called civitates. These administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses, which would remain in place—with slight changes—until the French Revolution.
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The Romans, aside from committing atrocitiesWilkes (1992), page 208. during the war, split up Illyrian tribes into different groups from the ones they had previously composed. The administrative civitates of the Osseriates, Colapiani, and Varciani were probably created from the Breuci.J. J. Wilkes, 'The Danubian Provinces', in Alan Bowman (ed.
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It was probably in his time a mere dependency of Syracuse, though it is found in Pliny's list of the "stipendiariae civitates," so that it must then have possessed a separate municipal existence, and is noted by the geographer Ptolemy. The city continued to be under Roman rule into the Byzantine period.
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The two leaders of uprising were Bato the Breucian and Bato the Daesitiate. After 9 AD, the remnants of Illyrian tribes moved to new coastal cities and larger and more capable civitates. The prefecture of Illyricum was established in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), existing between 376 and the 7th century.
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His son Jacob reworked in 1617 designs of his father for the sixth volume of the Civitates, which was published in Cologne in 1618. Volume 6 contains a homogeneous series of images of cities in Central Europe (in Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary and Transylvania), which are very consistent in their graphics. The views are in perspective, and only in a few cases, isometric and stand out through the accuracy of the information, the particular attention to the faithful representation of the territory, the landscape, the road conditions and the power of observation and refinement of interpretation.Irina Baldescu, Joris e Jacob Hoefnagel - Artisti e Viaggiatori: Territorio e vedute di città in Civitates Orbis Terrarum, Liber Sextus, (Köln 1617-1618), in: Studia Patzinika, 6, 2008, p.
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The mid-9th century Bavarian Geographer mentioned the Surbi having 50 civitates (Iuxta illos est regio, que vocatur Surbi, in qua regione plures sunt, que habent civitates L). Alfred the Great in his Geography of Europe (888–893) relying on Orosius, recorded the Servians; "To the north-east of the Moravians are the Dalamensae; east of the Dalamensians are the Horithi, and north of the Dalamensians are the Servians; to the west also are the Silesians. To the north of the Horiti is Mazovia, and north of Mazovia are the Sarmatians, as far as the Riphean Mountains". It is considered that in the second-half of the 9th century, Svatopluk I of Moravia (r. 871–894) may have incorporated the Sorbs into Great Moravia.
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Historical view of Trier, Germany, published in Civitates Orbis Terrarum with Frans Hogenberg Braun was born and died in Cologne. His principal profession was as a Catholic cleric. However, he spent thirty-seven years as canon and dean at the church, St. Maria ad Gradus, in Cologne. His six-volume work was inspired by Sebastian Münster's Cosmographia.
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Historical view of Trier by Georg Braun & Frans Hogenberg: Civitates Orbis Terrarum, vol. 1, 1572. Engraving of Trier by Eberhard Kieser, from the Thesaurus philopoliticus (1625) by Daniel Meisner In 1473, Emperor Frederick III and Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy convened in Trier. In this same year, the University of Trier was founded in the city.
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The altarpiece is referred to in a number of other records. It was repaired and re-gilded in 1568, and mentioned in Georg Braun's Civitates Orbis Terrarum in 1572.Chapuis, 37 German Gothic art underwent a revival in the early 19th-century Romantic period when the work was seen as a climax of the late Gothic period.
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The Theatrum Orbis Terrarum inspired a six-volume work titled Civitates orbis terrarum, edited by Georg Braun and illustrated by Frans Hogenberg with the assistance of Ortelius himself, who visited England to see his friend John Dee in Mortlake in 1577, and Braun tells of Ortelius putting pebbles in cracks in Temple Church, Bristol, being crushed by the vibration of the bells.
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They are mentioned by Caesar with the Veneti, Unelli, Osismi, and others that Caesar calls maritimae civitates, "maritime cities", and border on the Atlantic Ocean.Caesar, B. G. ii. 34. In another place he describes the position of the Curiosolitae on the ocean in the same terms, and includes them among the Armoric states, a name equivalent to maritimae.Caesar, B. G. vii. 75.
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The conventus Scardonitanus was subdivided into 14 civitates. There is no information for its decuriae. In the more urbanised coastal area towns with large Greek-speaking populations and may inhabitants from Italy were organised as municipia (self-governing towns) or coloniae (Italian settlements) and had their own council. Some of the local communities enjoyed some privileges and some Librunian ones enjoyed Italian rights.
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Cambridge University Press, 1995, 1999, p. 61. Urbanization in Roman Africa expanded on Greek and Punic cities along the coast. Aquae Sulis in Bath, England: architectural features above the level of the pillar bases are a later reconstruction. The network of cities throughout the Empire (coloniae, municipia, civitates or in Greek terms poleis) was a primary cohesive force during the Pax Romana.
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Roman coloniae were of two kinds, Roman and Latin:Lendering, Jona. Coloniae. section: Roman Coloniae-Latin Coloniae the first and most important were the Roman Coloniae that characterized by full rights of Roman citizenship. Then there were the "Municipia" and finally the "Civitates peregrinae" (meaning foreign cities or not Roman populated cities). Romans called "municipia" their normal administrative entities in their empire.
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In 614 and 615, he carried out two massive expeditions against them and conquered Málaga before 619, when its bishop appears at the Second Council of Seville. He conquered as far as the Mediterranean coast and razed many cities to the ground, enough even to catch the attention of the Frankish chronicler Fredegar: > . . . et plures civitates ab imperio Romano Sisebodus litore maris abstulit > et usque fundamentum destruxit. > . . .
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The Wolinians (, ) were a Lechitic tribe in Early Middle Age Pomerania. They were first mentioned as "Velunzani" with 70 civitates by the Bavarian Geographer, ca. 845.Johannes Hoops, Herbert Jankuhn, Heinrich Beck, Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde Band 23, Walter de Gruyter, 2003, p.261, Associated with both the Veleti (later Lutici) and the Pomeranians, they were based on the island of Wolin and the adjacent mainland.
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Both Caerwent and Carmarthen, also in southern Wales, would become Roman civitates., An Atlas of Roman Britain, The Development of the Provinces. During the occupation both the region that would become Wales and its people were a mostly autonomous part of Roman Britain. By AD 47 Rome had invaded and conquered all of southernmost and southeastern Britain under the first Roman governor of Britain.
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A 1st century inscription found in Chichester supplies his Latin names, indicating he was given Roman citizenship by Claudius or Nero. Cogidubnus may have been a relative of Verica, the Atrebatian king whose overthrow was the excuse for the conquest. After Cogidubnus's death, the kingdom would have been incorporated into the directly ruled Roman province and divided into several civitates, including the Atrebates, Belgae, and Regnenses.
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Norwich, from the Civitates Orbis Terrarum (1572-1617). The western edge of Mousehold Heath is depicted at the top of the map. In the Tudor period the heath, then almost treeless, was continuously open countryside that extended from Norwich to the edge of the Broads. The local population was free to collect wood from the heath, and to allow their stock to graze there.
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The town was founded by the ancient Umbri, an Italic tribe, on the left bank of the Tiber River. The town may have come into conflict with the nearby Etruscans. Beginning in the third century BC it became a civitates federata of Rome and was subsequently inserted into the Sexta Regio of Roman Italy. The Romans knew it as Tifernum Tiberinum ("Tifernum on the Tiber").
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In order to further make it more difficult for the enemy to reach Stadsholmens, ships were sunk inside the perimeter of the pile drivers during the Danes' siege in 1520.Dahlbäck (1995), p. 44 This defense works can be seen on many older designs, such as Hogenbergs 1500-century Civitates orbis terrarum engravings of Stockholm, the Blodbadsplanschen from 1524 and on the Vädersolstavlan from 1535.
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Among the Aedui, a clan of Gaul, the executive held the title of Vergobret, a position much like a king, but his powers were held in check by rules laid down by the council. The regional ethnic groups, or pagi as the Romans called them (singular: pagus; the French word pays, "region" [a more accurate translation is 'country'], comes from this term), were organized into larger multi-clan groups, which the Romans called civitates. These administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses, which would remain in place—with slight changes—until the French Revolution. Although the individual clans were moderately stable political entities, Gaul as a whole tended to be politically divided, there being virtually no unity among the various clans.
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The power of the prince and his governors was often restricted by the river towns, known to chroniclers as civitates, especially within the territory of the Veleti. Polabian towns were centered on small earthworks arranged in circles or ovals. The gord was situated at the highest altitude of the town and held a barracks, citadel, and princely residence. It was often protected by a moat, walls, and wooden towers.
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In return, they received their royal insignia, including red shoes, from the emperor.Hovannisian (2004), p. 104 The situation remained unchanged for near a century, until a large-scale revolt by the satraps in 485 against Emperor Zeno (r. 474–491). In its aftermath, the satraps were stripped of their sovereignty and their rights of hereditary succession, being in effect reduced to the status of tax-paying and imperially-administered civitates stipendariae.
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The Ślężanie, and some of the sub tribes are shown in the south west.Koemer and Szwedek, pg. 133 The Bavarian Geographer, which refers to them as the Sleenzane, states that they had 15 settlements, or gords (civitates), and lists them as one of several tribes located in Silesia. The Prague charter (description of borders of the Prague bishopric) from 1086 refers to them with the alternative name of Zlasane.
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Amantini (Greek: Ἄμαντες) was the name of a PannonianJ. J. Wilkes, Dalmatia, Tome 2 of History of the Provinces of the Roman Empire, 1969, page 534 Illyrian tribe.Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians, 1992, , page 218, "Except for the Latobici and Varciani, whose names are Celtic, the civitates of Colapiani, Jasi, Breuci, Amantini and Scordisci were Illyrian." They greatly resisted the Romans but were sold as slaves after their defeat.
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The West Frankish Annales Bertiniani describe the extent of Louis's lands: "at the assigning of portions, Louis obtained all the land beyond the Rhine river, but on this side of the Rhine also the cities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz with their counties".AB a. 843: ubi distributis portionibus, Hludowicus ultra Rhenum omnia, citra Rhenum vero Nemetum, Vangium et Moguntiam civitates pagosque sortitus est. The cities are Speyer, Worms and Mainz.
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When King Sigurd I Magnusson returned to Norway in 1111 following his crusade, he made his capital in Konghelle. Konghelle appears in writings by the English chronicler, Orderic Vitalis, who named the city as one of six Norwegian civitates. During August 1135, the city was attacked and sacked by the Pomeranians. After the destruction, the city was moved to a site slightly to the west of the original site.
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A 1581 bird's-eye etching of Zürich, published by Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg. Georg Braun (also Brunus, Bruin; 1541 - 10 March 1622) was a topo- geographer.Neue Deutsche Biographie From 1572 to 1617 he edited the Civitates orbis terrarum, which contains 546 prospects, bird's-eye views and maps of cities from all around the world. He was the principal editor of the work, he acquired the tables, hired the artists, and wrote the texts.
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The Satrapies () in the south on the other hand, which had been under Roman influence already since 298, were a group of six fully autonomous principalities allied to the Empire (civitates foederatae): Ingilene, Sophene, Antzitene, Asthianene, Sophanene and Balabitene.Kazhdan (1991), p. 1846 The local Armenian nakharar were fully sovereign in their territories, and were merely required to provide soldiers upon request and to dispatch a golden crown to the emperor, as a token of submission.
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When Frans Hogenberg and Georg Braun compiled their Civitates Orbis Terrarum, a collection of important scenes and locales, they included Hogenberg's engraving of its destruction as not only an important sight, but an important event (see Info Box, top). Hogenberg lived in Bonn and Cologne in 1583, and likely saw the site himself. J. J. Merlo: "Hogenberg, Franz". In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB). Band 12, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1880, pp. 650–652.
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According to Strabo, the Aquitani were a wealthy people. Luerius, the King of the Arverni and the father of Bituitus who warred against Maximus Aemilianus and Dometius, is said to have been so exceptionally rich and extravagant that he once rode on a carriage through a plain, scattering gold and silver coins here and there. The Romans called the tribal groups pagi. These were organized into larger super-tribal groups that the Romans called civitates.
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Schloss Plön auf geschichte-s-h.de . The old Plön Castle around 1595 on an engraving by Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg, section from Civitates orbis terrarum The garden, etching 1749, Schloss Plön in the background In the course of the Count's Feud between Lübeck and Denmark, the castle was burned down in 1534 during a raid by Lübeck. Following that a new, larger, building was built on the still partly Romanesque castle grounds.
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Both Caerwent and Carmarthen, also in southern Wales, became Roman civitates. Wales had a rich mineral wealth. The Romans used their engineering technology to extract large amounts of gold, copper and lead, as well as lesser amounts of zinc and silver. No significant industries were located in Wales in this time; this was largely a matter of circumstance as Wales had none of the necessary materials in suitable combination, and the forested, mountainous countryside was not amenable to industrialisation.
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Milsieni lands in the March of Meissen, Gustav Droysen, 1886 The Milceni or Milzeni (; ; ) were a West Slavic tribe, who settled in the present-day Upper Lusatia region. They were first mentioned in the middle of the 9th century AD by the Bavarian Geographer, who wrote of 30 civitates which possibly had fortifications. They were gradually conquered by Germans during the 10th century. Modern descendants of the Milceni are the Sorbs of the Free State of Saxony, Germany.
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Hoefnagel worked intermittently on the Civitates his whole life and may have acted as an agent for the project, by commissioning views from other artists. He also completed more than 60 illustrations himself, including various views in Bavaria, Italy and Bohemia. He enlivened the finished engravings with a Mannerist sense of fantasy and wit by using dramatic perspectives and ornamental cartouches. Due to the topographical accuracy he heralded the realist trend in 17th-century Netherlandish landscape art.
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The rewriter could have omitted the number L in the year MCCLXXXII (1282), making it MCCXXXII (1232).I. Panic, 2005, p. 84 If the document was indeed a fake, then the first mentioning of Skoczów as oppidum Scocoviense is from 1327 when Duke Casimir I became a vassal of the King of Bohemia. The term oppidum (used also for Jamnica preceding Frýdek) was used in contrary to civitates ruling themselves under German rights of Cieszyn, Bielsko and Frysztat.
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Thrust back to their lands on the mountain ranges of the upper Ebro north of the Arlanzón valley around the 3rd-2nd Centuries BC, the Autrigones allied themselves with the Berones and evolved into a tribal society similar to the peoples of the north-west. By the 1st century BC, they were organized into a federation of ten autonomous mountain-top fortified towns (Civitates), chiefly among them their new capital Virovesca in the Oca river valley.
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It reads: postea Nortmanni anno 1054 ceperunt Tranum, Canusium et alias civitates, expugnantes Graecos et Saracenos qui dominabantur iis. In 1059 he legislated laws for his new principality. In 1057 he began receiving those Normans disaffected by the rise of Robert Guiscard after the death of Count Humphrey, whose young sons, Abelard and Herman, were pushed aside. According to William of Apulia, Peter began strengthening the walls of Trani and preparing the city to resist an attack.
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A 1596 sketch of a performance in progress at The Swan Hoefnagel's map of London, 1572, from Civitates Orbis Terrarum John Norden's map of Westminster, 1593. The coronation of Queen Elizabeth in 1558 ushered in the Elizabethan era. This is often considered the high point of the English Renaissance and Tudor culture. The late 16th century, when William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived and worked in London, was one of the most notable periods in the city's cultural history.
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Toledo as depicted in the Civitates orbis terrarum (1572). After the crushing of the Revolt of the Comuneros, Charles V's court was installed in Toledo, with the monarch choosing the city as his residence at least 15 times from 1525 on. Charles granted the city a coat of arms. From 1528 to 1561 the population increased from 31,930 to 56,270. In 1561, during the first years of his son Philip II's reign, the Royal Court was set in Madrid.
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Indian vessel as shown in the Fra Mauro map (1460). Ma Huan (1413–51) reached Cochin and noted that Indian coins, known as fanam, were issued in Cochin and weighed a total of one fen and one li according to the Chinese standards.Chaudhuri, 223 They were of fine quality and could be exchanged in China for 15 silver coins of four-li weight each. Image of Calicut, India from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572.
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The name of Pandosia is again mentioned by Livyxxix. 38 in the Second Punic War, among the Bruttian towns retaken by the consul P. Sempronius, in 204 BCE; and it is there noticed, together with Consentia, as opposed to the ignobiles aliae civitates. It was therefore at this time still a place of some consequence; and Strabo seems to imply that it still existed in his timeStrab. l. c., but there are no subsequent traces of it.
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The continuator of Fredegar: Videns praedictus Waiofarius princeps Aquitanicum quod castro Claremonte rex bellando ceperat et Bitoricas caput Aquitaniae munitissimam urbem cum machinis capuisset, et inpetum eius ferre non potuisset, omnes civitates quas in Aquitania provintia dictioni sue erant, id est Pectavia, Lemovicas, Sanctonis, Petrecors, Equolisma vel reliquis quam plures civitates et castella, omnes muros eorum in terra prostravit ("The aforementioned Waiofar, the Aquitainian prince—seeing that the castle of Clermont was taken by the warring king, and that Bourges, the head of Aquitaine, a most well fortified city, had been captured with [siege] machines, and that he could not bear [the king's] attack—laid to the ground all the walls of all the cities that belonged to him in the province of Aquitaine, that is, Poitiers, Limoges, Saintes, Périgueux, Angoulême and many other cities and castles.") This final phase of the war was fought with increasing brutality, and the chroniclers record that Pepin burnt villas, despoiled vineyards and depopulated monasteries. During this period (763–66) the fortress of Berry was held by a Frankish garrison.
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The former Merovingian kingdom of Aquitaine was re-established by Charlemagne for his son Louis the Pious; in the 9th century, a palace was constructed or reconstructedPoitiers had been a Visigothic seat of power; for general context see Carlrichard Brühl, Palatium und Civitas: Studien zur Profantopographie spätantiker Civitates vom 3. bis zum 13. Jahrhundert, i: Gallien (Cologne/Vienna) 1975. for him, one among many, above a Roman wall datable to the late 3rd century, at the highest spot of the town.
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Gildas never addresses Vortigern as the king of Britain. He is termed a usurper (tyrannus), but not solely responsible for inviting the Saxons. To the contrary, he is portrayed as being aided by or aiding a "Council", which may be a government based on the representatives of all the "cities" (civitates) or a part thereof. Gildas also does not consider Vortigern as bad; he simply qualifies him as "unlucky" (infaustus) and lacking judgement, which is understandable, as these mercenaries proved to be faithless.
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300 AD) or Nemetaco (365), with the same root nemet- ('sacred wood' > 'sanctuary') attached to the Gaulish suffix -acos. Before 54 BC, an offshoot of the Gallic tribe probably settled in Britain. After the Roman invasion of Britain, three civitates were created in the late 1st c. BC: one of the Atrebates, with a capital in Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester); one of the Belgae with its capital at Venta (Winchester); and one of the Reg(i)ni, with a capital at Noviomagus (Chichester).
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The term Thraco-Roman describes the Romanized culture of Thracians under the rule of the Roman Empire. The Odrysian kingdom of Thrace became a Roman client kingdom c. 20 BC, while the Greek city-states on the Black Sea coast came under Roman control, first as civitates foederatae ("allied" cities with internal autonomy). After the death of the Thracian king Rhoemetalces III in 46 AD and an unsuccessful anti-Roman revolt, the kingdom was annexed as the Roman province of Thracia.
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According to this source, which is actually a list of the tribes inhabiting the lands east of the Carolingian Empire around 840, the Merehani, who had 30 civitates, or fortified centers, lived along the southernmost parts of the empire's eastern frontiers. Their land also bordered on Bulgaria. According to an alternative theory of the location of Moravia, which is primarily based on the Bavarian Geographer and Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus's report of "great Moravia, the unbaptized",Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (ch. 40), p. 177.
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This was the case of the commander of the Roman auxiliaries who arrested St Paul the Apostle in AD 60. He confessed to Paul: "I became a Roman citizen by paying a large amount of money."Acts of the Apostles 22 Inhabitants of cities that were granted municipium status (as were many capital cities of civitates peregrinae) acquired Latin rights, which included connubium, the right to marry a Roman citizen. The children of such a union would inherit citizenship, providing it was the father who held citizenship.
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The extension of temporal episcopal authority in the civitates (cities) and their comitati (counties) became a trend in the 10th century. Wibod was also a recipient of Charles' largess. Charles granted Wibod land around Susinate and Vigonzone.MacLean, 94 and n64, indicates that the land near Susinate was granted to the church of Fontana Broccola in the reign of Berengar I. These lands probably served as country homes for the bishop when conferring with Charles while the latter was breaking from royal duties in Pavia.
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Surviving Roman city walls in Tongeren, the former city of Atuatuca Tongrorum The Menapii and Nervii flourished within the Roman province of Gallia Belgica, along with the southern Belgae and the Treveri. These Roman provinces were broken into civitates, each with a capital city, and each representing one of the major tribal groups named by Caesar. At first, only one, Tongeren capital of the Tungri, was in modern Belgium. Later, the capital of the Menapii was moved from Cassel in modern France to Tournai in Belgium.
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Penner, p. 134Potter (2009), p. 353Duncan Fishwick, "The Sixty Gallic Tribes and the Altar of the Three Gauls," Historia 38.1 (1989) 111–112, thinks the 60 Gallic civitates at Lugdunum were represented by inscriptions rather than sculpture. Although the figures from Pompey's theater have not survived, relief panels from Aphrodisias include scenes such as a heroically nude Claudius forcing the submission of Britannia, whose right breast is bare, and Nero dragging away a dead Armenia, a composition that recalls the defeat of the Amazon Penthesilea by Achilles.
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The area corresponds to the central portion of the east-west flowing Loir valley. Before the French Revolution the area depended administratively on Vendôme and was part of the Orléanais province, but ecclesiastically on the Diocese of Le Mans in the Tours province. The division thus corresponds to that between the late Roman provinces of Tertia Lugdunensis (Tours) and Quarta Lugdunensis (Sens) and the civitates of the Cenomani and of the Carnutes respectively. The Bas-Vendômois was part of the Frankish kingdom of Neustria.
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Between 763 and 766, Waiofar withdrew his garrisons from the cities (civitates) of Poitiers, Limoges, Saintes, Périgueux and Angoulême. Most of these fortifications were restored after the cities were occupied by Pepin's forces. Archibald Lewis believes it was Pepin who destroyed the walls after he had conquered the cities if he judged he could not hold them. His interpretation is contradicted by Bernard Bachrach, who believes it was Waiofar who, before abandoning his cities, destroyed their defences and walls to prevent Pepin from using them against him.
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The fortified site served as a place of refuge during attack and also as an administrative centre for tax collection, the Church, and the court system. It was given a garrison of cavalry, usually Slavic. The first burgwards (civitates or Burgen) were Merovingian and Carolingian constructions, mostly built to defend against the Saxons. An important line of burgwards lay along the Unstrut west of Merseburg, but it declined in importance in the early ninth century after the integration of the Saxons into the Frankish state.
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Along with Kent and Surrey, Sussex is one of the most ancient surviving territories in Europe. The Sussex-Surrey border follows ridges and a trackway whereas the Sussex-Kent border follows a series of streams and rivers, including Kent Water, the River Teise, the River Bewl, Kent Ditch and the eastern River Rother. According to Mark Gardiner, the different nature of Sussex's borders with Kent and with Surrey indicate two separate and larger- scale agreements and may represent boundaries of Roman civitates or Iron Age kingdoms.
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In this city, a Roman theatre was built, which was probably closely associated with the funerary games held in honour of Drusus. From 9 BC, military parades (decursio militum) were held in honour of Drusus at his cenotaph, the Drususstein, which was only 340 metres away from the theatre. Accordingly, the Roman theatre may have been used for the thanksgiving ceremony (supplicatio) by the representations of the sixty local Gallic communities (Galliarum civitates) in honour of Drusus. Suetonius mentions a theatre at Mogontiacum in his account of events in AD 39.
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In Cologne he published ‘Gulielmi Sooni Vantesdeni Auditor sive Pomponius Mela disputator de Situ Orbis’. Part of this rare book, the ‘Novi incolæ orbis terrarum,’ is copied from that of Arnold Mylius and published by Ortelius in the 1570 edition of the ‘Theatrum.’ Accordingly Ortelius complained, and Soone offered explanations dated from Cologne, 31 August 1572. Soone also copied the map of Cambridge which Richard Lyne had drawn for John Caius's ‘History of the University’ (1574), and published his copy in Georg Braun and Hogenberg's ‘Civitates Orbis terrarum’ (1575?).
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However the population was subject to large fluctuations due to fires, floods and outbreaks of disease. At the end of the 16th century Poznań was a major centre for the fur and leather trade, particularly in skins coming from Lithuania and Russia. View of Poznań from the north, with the cathedral island to the left and the walled city, surrounded by suburban settlements, to the right (Civitates Orbis Terrarum, Cologne 1618) During the free election period in Poland, Poznań, as one of the most influential cities of the state, enjoyed voting rights.
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St. Patrick By the early fifth century the religion had spread to Ireland, which had never been part of the Roman Empire. There were Christians in Ireland before Palladius arrived in 431 as the first missionary bishop sent by Rome. His mission does not seem to have been entirely successful. The subsequent mission of Saint Patrick established churches in conjunction with civitates like his own in Armagh; small enclosures in which groups of Christians, often of both sexes and including the married, lived together, served in various roles and ministered to the local population.
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The capital cities of these districts included modern Cassel (replaced by Tournai as Menapian civitas), Bavay (replaced by Cambrai as Nervian civitas), Thérouanne, Arras, St. Quentin, Soissons, Reims, Beauvais, Amiens, Tongeren, Triers, Toul and Metz. These civitates were in turn were divided into smaller units, pagi, a term that became the French word "pays". Roman government was run by Concilia in Reims or Trier. Additionally, local notables from Gallia Belgica were required to participate in a festival in Lugdunum (modern Lyon) which typically celebrated or worshiped the emperor’s genius.
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It was completed by his successor, Robert II, in the 1370s. The tower stood on the site of the present Half Moon Battery and was connected by a section of curtain wall to the smaller Constable's Tower, a round tower built between 1375 and 1379 where the Portcullis Gate now stands.McWilliam, et al. pp.85–89 Civitates orbis terrarum, showing David's Tower at the centre In the early 15th century, another English invasion, this time under Henry IV, reached Edinburgh Castle and began a siege, but eventually withdrew due to lack of supplies.
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But because of the mix, the settlers did not hold citizenship (the Romans among them lost their full citizenship). Instead, they were granted the iura Latina ("Latin rights") held by original Latins before their incorporation into the citizen body. In essence, these rights were similar to the civitates sine suffragio, except that the Latin colonists were technically not citizens, but peregrini ("foreigners"), although they could recover their citizenship by returning to Roman territory.Cornell (1995) 351-2 The question arises as to why the Latin colonists were not simply accorded citizenship sine suffragio.
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For an exact etymology, see Cenabum, Aurelianis, Orléans de Jacques Debal (Coll. Galliae civitates, Lyon, PUL, 1996) In 442 Flavius Aetius, the Roman commander in Gaul, requested Goar, head of the Iranian tribe of Alans in the region to come to Orleans and control the rebellious natives and the Visigoths. Accompanying the Vandals, the Alans crossed the Loire in 408. One of their groups, under Goar, joined the Roman forces of Flavius Aetius to fight Attila when he invaded Gaul in 451, taking part in the Battle of Châlons under their king Sangiban.
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A similar, though less pronounced, development occurred in the East, where the Roman administrative apparatus was largely retained by the Byzantine Empire. In modern times, many dioceses, though later subdivided, have preserved the boundaries of a long-vanished Roman administrative division. For Gaul, Bruce Eagles has observed that "it has long been an academic commonplace in France that the medieval dioceses, and their constituent pagi, were the direct territorial successors of the Roman civitates.", noting for instance Modern usage of 'diocese' tends to refer to the sphere of a bishop's jurisdiction.
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The Autrigones were culturally related to the early Iron Age "Monte Bernorio-Miraveche" cultural group of northern Burgos and Palencia provinces. Additional archeological evidence indicates that by the 2nd Iron Age they came under the influence of the Celtiberians. By the 1st century BC they were organized into a federation of autonomous mountain-top fortified towns (Civitates) on the mountain ranges of the upper Ebro, protected by stout adobe walls of the "Numantine" type. More archeological evidence have been found, emphasizing their celtiberian culture, such as the hospitality tesserae.
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Calicut, India, c.1572 (from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum) Portuguese and other European settlements in India. Plan of Fort St George and the city of Madras in 1726,Shows b.Jews Burying Place, Four Brothers Garden and Bartolomeo Rodrigues Tomb Rabbi Salomon Halevi(Last Rabbi of Madras Synagogue) and his wife Rebecca Cohen, Paradesi Jews of Madras In the 16th Century, a thousand years after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Portuguese became the first European power to begin trading in the Indian Ocean.
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Map of Marseille in 1575, with Notre-Dame de la Garde fort in the foreground. Braun and Hogenberg, Civitates Orbis Terrarum, II-12 In 1585 , chief of the Catholic League of Provence, sought to seize Marseille and combine forces with , the second consul of Marseille, and Claude Boniface, captain of the Blanquerie neighborhood. On the night of April 9, 1585 Dariès occupied La Garde, from which his guns could fire on the city. But the attack on Marseille failed, leading to the execution of Dariès and his accomplice, Boniface.
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The same separation was retained also in the later divisions of Italy under the Roman Empire, according to which Samnium, in the more confined sense, formed a small separate province, while Beneventum and the greater part, if not all other towns of the Hirpini, were included in the province of Campania. The Liber Coloniarum includes all the towns of Samnium, as well as those of the Hirpini, among the "Civitates Campaniae", but this is probably a mistake.Lib. Col. pp. 229--239; Mommsen, ad Lib. Col. pp. 159,205, 206; Marquardt, Handb. d. Röm. Alterthümer. vol.
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Modern excavations have begun to uncover the remains of another Roman baths structure associated with a hot spring in Largo do Arrabalde consisting of large pavement slabs and a block of opus caementicium associated with a thermal spring. These are the first known thermal remains known to be located within Chaves. Further, within the civitates there are many complicated votive epigraphs which seem to relate to thermal worship. There are two inscriptions dedicated to nymphs, a lost inscription dedicated to Tutela and another to Isis, that suggest a thermal cult.
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The first mention of a tribe named Veltae is found in Ptolemy's Geography where, writing in the second century, Ptolemy states in Book III, chapter V: "Back from the Ocean, near the Venedicus Bay [Baltic Sea], the Veltae dwell, above whom are the Ossi." The Bavarian Geographer's anonymous medieval document compiled in Regensburg in 830 contains a list of the tribes in Central Europe east of the Elbe. Among other tribes it also lists the Uuilci (Veleti), featuring 95 civitates. The Veleti did not remain a unified tribe for long.
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Celtiberian culture was increasingly influenced by Rome in the two final centuries BC. From the 3rd century, the clan was superseded as the basic Celtiberian political unit by the oppidum, a fortified organized city with a defined territory that included the castros as subsidiary settlements. These civitates as the Roman historians called them, could make and break alliances, as surviving inscribed hospitality pacts attest, and minted coinage. The old clan structures lasted in the formation of the Celtiberian armies, organized along clan-structure lines, with consequent losses of strategic and tactical control.
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Roman ruins in Bavay (Bagacum) Bagacum Roman bronze statuette of Hermes found in Bavay, now in the British MuseumBritish Museum Collection The birth of Bavay after the conquest was the result of the reorganization of the territory by Augustus (probably between 16BC and 13BC). The parts of Gaul conquered by Caesar were then divided into three provinces. The region between the Seine and the Rhine was Gallia Belgica and its capital was at Reims. It was divided into "cities" (civitates)—administrative districts which were headed by a chief town.
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Atlas It was made in 1574, when Mercator was 62, by the engraver Frans Hogenberg who contributed many of the topographical images in Civitates Orbis Terrarum. See the German wikipedia and commons. The Mercator world map of 1569 is titled (Renaissance Latin for "New and more complete representation of the terrestrial globe properly adapted for use in navigation"). The title shows that Gerardus Mercator aimed to present contemporary knowledge of the geography of the world and at the same time 'correct' the chart to be more useful to sailors.
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A 1572 depiction of the city of Kilwa from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum. German East Africa colony stamp used in 1898. A document written around 1200 CE called al-Maqama al Kilwiyya, discovered in Oman, gives details of a mission to reconvert Kilwa to Ibadism, as it had recently been affected by the Ghurabiyya Shia doctrine from southern Iraq. According to local oral tradition, in the 11th century the island of Kilwa Kisiwani was sold to Ali bin Hasan, son of the "King" of Shiraz, in Persia.
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The temple of Mars in Corseul The region became part of the Roman Republic in 51 BC. It was included in the province of Gallia Lugdunensis in 13 BC. Gallic towns and villages were redeveloped according to Roman standards, and several cities were created. These cities are Condate (Rennes), Vorgium (Carhaix), Darioritum (Vannes) and Condevincum or Condevicnum (Nantes). Together with Fanum Martis (Corseul), they were the capitals of the local civitates. They all had a grid plan and a forum, and sometimes a temple, a basilica, thermae or an aqueduct, like Carhaix.
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There are no absolute dates given, and some of the details, such as those regarding the Hadrian's and Antonine Walls are clearly wrong. Nevertheless, Gildas does provide us with an insight into some of the kingdoms that existed when he was writing, and how an educated monk perceived the situation that had developed between the Anglo- Saxons and the Britons. There are more continental contemporary sources that mention Britain, though these are highly problematic. The most famous is the so-called Rescript of Honorius, in which the Western Emperor Honorius tells the British civitates to look to their own defence.
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Roman Towns of Britain, Guy de la Bedoyere. p 146 Initially ephemeral, many vici were transitory sites that followed a mobile unit; once a permanent garrison was established they grew into larger townships. Often the number of official civitates and coloniæ were not enough to settle everyone who wished to live in a town and so vici also attracted a wider range of residents, with some becoming chartered towns where no other existed nearby. Some, such as that at Vercovicium (Housesteads), outgrew their forts altogether, especially in the 3rd century once soldiers were permitted to marry.
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If the chief town of a civitas was granted municipium status, the elected leaders of the civitas, and, later, the entire council (as many as 100 men), were automatically granted citizenship. The Romans counted on the native elites to keep their civitates orderly and submissive. They ensured the loyalty of those elites by substantial favours: grants of land, citizenship and even enrollment in the highest class in Roman society, the senatorial order, for those who met the property threshold. These privileges would further entrench the wealth and power of native aristocracies, at the expense of the mass of their fellow peregrini.
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Toeput drew many biblical and mythological scenes, but was primarily a draftsman of cityscapes and panoramic landscapes. Landscape with Heracles and the Ox-Driver Toeput's drawings show his interest in topography. His Panorama of Treviso and View of Aquapendente were engraved and included in volume V (1598) of Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's six-volume atlas, the Civitates orbis terrarum (Cologne, 1572–1618). He also created imaginary landscapes, such as the Landscape with St John on Patmos (New York, Pierpont Morgan Library), showing his characteristic trees with windswept foliage framing a finely detailed panorama depicted from a high viewpoint.
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In the document from 1327 when Duke Casimir I became a vassal of the King of Bohemia it is listed as one of three civitates in the Duchy (the other two being Cieszyn and Bielsko), so it was then a town under German town law. In the process of location a parish church was also built. It mentioned in the register of Peter's Pence payment from 1447 among 50 parishes of Teschen deanery as Freyenstat. After the 1540s Protestant Reformation prevailed in the Duchy of Teschen and a local Catholic church was taken over by Lutherans.
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The pagus survived the collapse of the Empire of the West, retained to designate the territory controlled by a Merovingian or Carolingian count (comes). Within its boundaries, the smaller subdivision of the pagus was the manor. The majority of modern French pays are roughly coextensive with the old counties (e.g., county of Comminges, county of Ponthieu, etc.) For instance, at the beginning of the 5th century, when the Notitia provinciarum et civitatum Galliae was drawn up, the Provincia Gallia Lugdunensis Secunda formed the ecclesiastical province of Rouen, with six suffragan sees; it contained seven cities (civitates).
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Calicut, India from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572 During the Sangam period (3rd4thcenturyBC), the land where Kozhikode now stands was an uninhabited region of the Chera Empire. This land, part of the larger Tamilakam partly fell within the Kudanad (Western land; west of Kongunad) to the south and partly within Puzhinad (marshy tract) to the north. The dominion of the Cheras extended as far as present-day Vatakara, beyond which lay the kingdom of Eli (Ezhi). The ports of the Chera empire played an important role in fostering trade relations between Kerala and the outside world.
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He was allowed the honor of celebrating a triumph, the last recorded Roman triumph against the Sardinians. From then on, the Sardinians living on the coastal areas and the lowlands definitely ceased to revolt, but the highland populations continued to rebel from time to time, coming to be known as civitates Barbariae. In the late Republic, Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix settled their veterans on Corsica and used the islands' grain supply to support their war efforts. Julius Caesar had his delegates capture the islands from Pompey and gained control of the grain supply in the process.
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The Woodcut map is a slightly smaller-scale, cruder and lightly modified copy of the so- called "Copperplate" map, surveyed between 1553 and 1559, which, however, survives only in part. It also bears a close relationship to the map of London included in Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's Civitates Orbis Terrarum, published in Cologne and Amsterdam in 1572, although this is on a greatly reduced scale.Reproduced in Prockter, Taylor and Fisher 1979, p. 32. The Woodcut map was traditionally attributed to the surveyor and cartographer Ralph Agas, but this attribution is now considered to be erroneous.
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After the end of Roman rule in Britain around 410, the settlement continued to be known as ' ("Fort Seiont") and as ' ("Fort Constantius or Constantine"),Stevenson's 1838 edition, P. 20. of the History of the Britons, cited by James Ussher in Newman's life of Germanus of Auxerre, both of whose names appear among the 28 civitates of sub-Roman Britain in the Historia Brittonum traditionally ascribed to Nennius. The work states that the inscribed tomb of "Constantius the Emperor" (presumably Constantius Chlorus, father of Constantine the Great) was still present in the 9th century.Newman, John Henry & al.
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Algiers by Antonio Salamanca, circa 1540, published in Civitates Orbis Terrarum Abraham Duquesne delivering Christian captives in Algiers after the bombing in 1683. In 1516, the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the corsair brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa to expel the Spaniards. Aruj came to Algiers, ordered the assassination of Selim, and seized the town and ousted the Spanish in the Capture of Algiers (1516). Hayreddin, succeeding Aruj after the latter was killed in battle against the Spaniards in the Fall of Tlemcen (1517), was the founder of the pashaluk, which subsequently became the beylik, of Algeria.
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In many cases infrastructure to sustain them sprang up around the mansio, but also the villas of provincial officials; forts and ultimately even cities. Ox-drawn carts could travel about 30 km per day; pedestrians a little farther, so each mansio was about 25 to 30 km from the next. At each mansio cisiarii kept gigs for hire and for conveying government dispatches (Cisium; Essedum). The Itinerarium Burdigalense, which is a road book drawn up in 333, mentions in order the mansiones from Bordeaux to Jerusalem with the intervening mutationes, and other, more considerable places, which are called either civitates, vici, or castella.
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It is also located in a strategic place between the Roman cities of Bracara and Asturica, as well as the mining districts of Três Minas and Jales, located southwest of the civitates. Little is known of the urban fabric although there are some important points: an aqueduct supplied water from a reservoir and dam in Abobeleira, there was a theatre/amphitheatre, vestiges of a necropolis and sections of a wall.Diana Fonseca Sorribas (2012), p.520 With respect to the thermal activity, the lack of archaeological excavations means that little is known as of the alleged ancient Roman baths.
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Architecturally, the most notable feature of this city, is the bridge of Trajan over the Tâmega River, whose existence marked a period of exceptional development of the city. Functioning as a crossroads, it controlled the routes to the mining districts. The remains of two epigraphic inscriptions are located on the bridge, commemorating the construction or remodelling by Emperor Trajan, as well as another that aroused various interpretations, the Padrão dos Povos. The Padrão dos Povos mentions the civitates dependant of Aquae Flaviae: Aquiflavienses, Avobrigenses, Bibali, Coelerni, Equaesi, Interamici, Limici, Naebisoci, Querquerni and Tamagani, as well as the Roman Legio VII Gemina Felix legion.
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In 1818, a new concordat with the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies committed the pope to the suppression of more than fifty small dioceses in the kingdom. Pope Pius VII, in the bull "De Utiliori" of 27 June 1818, suppressed the dioceses of Massa Lubrense, Vico Equense (Vicana), and Capri, and their territories were added to Sorrento. Sorrento was left with only one suffragan, the diocese of Castellamare.Archiepiscopalis ecclesia Sorrentina suffraganeam habebit episcopalem ecclesiam Castri Maris (Castellamare); ecclesias vero episcopales Massalubrensem , Vicanam , et Capritanam actu vacantes perpetuo supprimimus , earumque civitates , totumque dioecesanum territorium archiepiscopali Sùrrentinae unimus et assignamus.
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Convictolitavis (fl. mid-1st century BC) was a prominent member of the Celtic civitas of the Haedui during the Gallic Wars. He played a significant role in the pan-Gallic rebellion of 52 BC, as narrated by Julius Caesar in Book 7 of his Commentarii de Bello Gallico. In the seventh year of the war, Caesar was surprised by the scope and strength of the resistance mounted by Vercingetorix, a leader of the neighboring Arverni, who was able to rally a number of Gallic civitates and tribes in a united effort to halt the Roman conquest of Gaul.
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In the 4th century, the Salian Franks were allowed to settle permitted by the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate, just north of the Hesbaye in Texandria. He met them in Tongeren, the Roman capital of the Civitas Tungrorum, which is today a part of the Dutch-speaking part of the Hesbaye (or Haspengouw). During the following centuries, the southern more-Romanized population sent missionaries north to convert the Franks to Christianity. The Franks, for their part, contributed heavily to the Roman military, and according to Gregory of Tours, they established small kingdoms in each of the old Roman civitates.
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The colonies of Nyon, Aventicum and Augusta Raurica were governed under republican constitutions similar to that of Rome. Most governmental powers were exercised by a pair of magistrates, the duoviri, elected annually first by all citizens older than 25, and in later times by the city council or ordo decurionum. The 100 members of this council, which corresponded to the Roman Senate, were selected by the duomviri among former officials or priests according to their wealth, and held office for life. Augusta Raurica and Aventicum were also the civitates, or capitals, of the non-Roman tribes of the Rauraci and Helvetii, respectively.
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These vici differed from the planned civilian towns (civitates), which were laid out as official, local economic and administrative centres, the coloniae, which were settlements of retired troops, or the formal political entities created from existing settlements, the municipia. Unplanned, and originally lacking any public administrative buildings, vici had no specific legal status (unlike other settlements) and often developed in order to profit from the presence of Roman troops. As with most garrison towns, they provided entertainment and supplies for the troops, but many also developed significant industries, especially metal and glass working. Some vici seem not to have had direct connections to troop placement (e.g.
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This area was finally brought under effective control of the French kings in the early 13th century as a result of the Albigensian Crusade after which it was assigned governors. From the end of the thirteenth century Septimania evolved into the royal province of Languedoc. The name "Septimania" may derive from part of the Roman name of the city of Béziers, Colonia Julia Septimanorum Beaterrae, which in turn alludes to the settlement of veterans of the Roman VII Legion in the city. Another possible derivation of the name is in reference to the seven cities (civitates) of the territory: Béziers, Elne, Agde, Narbonne, Lodève, Maguelonne, and Nîmes.
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1572 (from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum) The first Portuguese factory in Asia was set up in Calicut (Calecute, Kozhikode), the principal spice entrepot on the Malabar Coast of India in September 1500, but it was overrun in a riot a couple of months later. Consequently, the first lasting factory was set up in the nearby smaller city of Cochin (Cochim, Kochi) in late 1500. This was followed up by factories in Cannanore (Canonor, Kannur) (1502) and Quilon (Coulão, Kollam) (1503). Although some Portuguese factories were defended by palisades that eventually evolved into Portuguese forts garrisoned by Portuguese troops (e.g.
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After Philip II of Macedon defeated Bardylis (358 BC), the Grabaei, under Grabus, became the most powerful tribe in Illyria. 7,000 Illyrians were killed by Philip II’s army in a great victory, annexing the territory up to Lake Ohrid. He then reduced the Grabaei, targeted another Illyrian king called Pleuratus (considered by some modern scholars an Ardiaean ot Taulantian chieftain), defeated the Triballi (339 BC), and fought with Pleurias, king of the Autariatai (337 BC). After 9 AD, the remnants of Illyrian tribes moved to new coastal cities and larger and more capable civitates; the Grabaei (called Kambaioi) were among these, mentioned by Pliny the Elder.
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The site of present-day Dorchester may have originally been a small garrison fort for the Legio II Augusta established shortly after the Roman conquest. When the military moved away, around AD 70, Durnovaria became a civilian settlement, apparently"The fact is nowhere attested", C. E. Stevens noted in 1937, adding that Ptolemy, perhaps using a lost pre-occupation source, gives Durium (Geography ii.3.13) as the one town of the Durotriges,; see Stevens, "Gildas and the Civitates of Britain" The English Historical Review 52 No. 206 (April 1937:193-203) pp 202-03, note 3. the civitas Durotrigum of the tribal confederacy of the Durotriges.
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Eger in Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's Civitates orbis terrarum (1617) The origin of its name is still unknown. One suggestion is that the place was named after the alder ( in Hungarian) which grew so abundantly along the banks of the Eger Stream. This explanation seems to be correct because the name of the town reflects its ancient natural environment, and also one of its most typical plants, the alder, large areas of which could be found everywhere on the marshy banks of the Stream although they have since disappeared. The German name of the town: Erlau, from Erlen-au ('elder grove'), also speaks in favour of this supposition.
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Astures were divided in Augustani and Transmontani, comprising 22 populi: Gigurri, Tiburi, Susarri, Paesici, Lancienses, Zoelae, among others. Southern Gallaecians (Bracareses), comprising the area of the oppida, were composed of 24 civitates: Helleni, Grovi, Leuni, Surbi, Bracari, Interamnici, Limici, Querquerni, Coelerni, Tamagani, Bibali, Callaeci, Equasei, Caladuni... Each populi or civitas was composed of a number of castella, each one comprehending one or more hill-forts or oppida, by themselves an autonomous political chiefdom, probably under the direction of a chief and a senate. Under Roman influence the tribes or populi apparently ascended to a major role, at the expense of the minor entities.González García, F. J. (2007), pp. 336-337.
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An engraving of Lund in or around 1588. By Frans Hogenbergs in the pictorial work Civitates orbis terrarum (the cities of the world). Lund is sometimes mentioned as the oldest town or city in present-day Sweden, although it has only been formally established as such for 300 years of its at least thousand-year history. It is old enough that its origins are unclear, but is presumed to have existed by the end of the Viking Age. Until the 1980s, the town was thought to have been founded around 1020 by either Sweyn I Forkbeard or his son Canute the Great of Denmark.
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Brunswick in the 16th century, from the Civitates orbis terrarum by Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg. Brunswick Cathedral, St. Blasius, with lion statue Up to the 12th century, Brunswick was ruled by the Saxon noble family of the Brunonids, then, through marriage, it fell to the House of Welf. In 1142, Henry the Lion of the House of Welf became duke of Saxony and made Braunschweig the capital of his state (which, from 1156 on, also included the Duchy of Bavaria). He turned Dankwarderode Castle, the residence of the counts of Brunswick, into his own Pfalz and developed the city further to represent his authority.
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The new Romanised urban settlements of these client tribes were also called civitates and were usually re-founded close to the site of an old, pre-Roman capital. At Cirencester, for example, the Romans made use of the army base that originally oversaw the nearby tribal oppidum to create a civitas. During the later empire, the term was applied not only to friendly native tribes and their towns but also to local government divisions in peaceful provinces that carried out civil administration. Land destined to become a civitas was officially divided up, some being granted to the locals and some being owned by the civil government.
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The Coat of Arms of Normandy Normandy was a province in the North-West of France under the Ancien Régime which lasted until the latter part of the 18th century. Initially populated by Celtic tribes in the West and Belgic tribes in the North East, it was conquered in AD 98 by the Romans and integrated into the province of Gallia Lugdunensis by Augustus. In the 4th century, Gratian divided the province into the civitates that constitute the historical borders. After the fall of Rome in the 5th century, the Franks became the dominant ethnic group in the area, built several monasteries, and replaced the barbarism of the region with the civilization of the Carolingian Empire.
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Others denied any physical relation to material elements, depicting the fallen angels as purely spiritual entities.David L Bradnick Evil, Spirits, and Possession: An Emergentist Theology of the Demonic Brill 2017 page 49 But even those who believed the fallen angels had ethereal bodies did not believe that they could produce any offspring.Jeffrey Burton Russell Satan: The Early Christian Tradition Cornell University Press 1987 p. 210David L Bradnick Evil, Spirits, and Possession: An Emergentist Theology of the Demonic Brill 2017 page 45 Augustine, in his Civitas Dei describes two cities (Civitates) distinct from each other and opposed to each other like light and darkness.Christoph Horn Augustinus, De civitate dei Oldenbourg Verlag 2010 p.
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Some regiones carry evidence of continuity with earlier Roman or pre-Roman subdivisions, including that of the Brahhingas, which was based around Braughing in modern Hertfordshire, the site of both an earlier Iron Age oppidum and a large Roman town. This would suggest that regiones succeeded the Roman subdivisions of civitates known as pagi. Many small shires have been identified in the area of the south east of modern Scotland that was under Northumbrian control during the early medieval period, but many with identical features have also been identified north of the River Forth in areas that were never under Anglo-Saxon or Roman rule, suggesting that the territories may have even earlier Celtic origins.
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By 766 most of Waiofar's followers had abandoned him, but the war over Aquitaine did not end even with his death, shortly before Pepin's own, in 768. The final active phase of the war between the two (766–67) was fought mainly in the Périgord, the Angoumois and the Bordelais, all regions closer to Gascony, which if not ruled directly by Waiofar was either under his control or allied to him. The chroniclers record how Pepin destroyed fortresses and cities, castella and civitates, and so devastated the countryside that "there was no settler to work the land" (nullus colonus terram ad laborandam). Around this time, Pepin defeated the Gascons in pitched battle.
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Its "old enemy" was the Archbishopric of Mainz, one of the prince-electors, who competed with Hessen in many wars and conflicts for coveted territory, stretching over several centuries. Marburg from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572 After 1605, Marburg became just another provincial town, known mostly for the University of Marburg. It became a virtual backwater for two centuries after the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), when it was fought over by Hessen-Darmstadt and Hesse-Kassel. The Hessian territory around Marburg lost more than two-thirds of its population, which was more than in any later wars (including World War I and World War II) combined.
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The Chronica Adefonsi imperatoris, which accuses of Pedro and Beltrán of "causing much disorder in the kingdom", records that they were put in chains in prison in the city of León until they had surrendered all their castles and cities.I, §18, which reads in part: rex vero duxit comites captos in Legione et misit eos ibi in vinculis donec dederunt universa castella et civitates, et post haec dimisit eos vacuos et sine honore. Although initially disgraced, after his release he continued to subscribe royal charters down to 1133, although he was never again a resident at Alfonso VII's court.Reilly, King Alfonso VII, 165, says his name pertains to twelve of the 159 royal charters from 1127 to 1133.
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The fortunes of the Catuvellauni and their kings before the conquest can be traced through ancient coins and scattered references in classical histories. They are mentioned by Cassius Dio, who implies that they led the resistance against the conquest in AD 43. They appear as one of the civitates of Roman Britain in Ptolemy's Geography in the 2nd century, occupying the town of Verlamion (modern St Albans) and the surrounding areas of Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire and southern Cambridgeshire. Their territory was bordered to the north by the Iceni and Corieltauvi, to the east by the Trinovantes, to the west by the Dobunni and Atrebates, and to the south by the Regnenses and Cantiaci.
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The site dates to the 1st century, and consists of a wall platform, that was later reoccupied by Romans. The Roman presence along the physical frontiers was a systematic implantation of their politico- administrative power in the Iberian peninsula, involving the occupation and reorganization of their territorial conquests, over a vast area. This specifically included the definition of administrative regions, the demarcation of routes that secured connections between their occupied population centers and their actions based on the changing policies of Rome. The first of these was accomplished, essentially, by the territorial definition of their civitates, the normal unit of Roman administration, which subordinated other rural sites to its political, administrative and judicial authority and imposed control.
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In this context, the development of Talabriga, one of the capitals of the three main civitates that divided the territory of Scallabis Eurobrittium until the Mondego, was important in the daily activities of the site known as Cabeço do Vouga, situated in the Lameiras do Vouga. Situated on a hilltop overlooking the River Mondego, it falls along an axis that connected Olisipo and Bracara Augusta, evident from its dominion over the landscape. The settlement was likely conquered by Celt forces sometime in 137 A.D., who reinforced the defensive system. Barbarian invaders, likely Vandalas, reconquered the site later, and sometime between the 3rd-4th century A.D., the walls were extended with counter-walls.
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Dolmens in Serra do Soajo, used by early inhabitants in the inhospitable high altitudes The Espigueiros of Soajo, used by early settlers to warehouse and protect food cropsProbably, because the Gerês mountains are an inhospitable place, the oldest signs of human presence date only from 6000 BC to 3000 BC; dolmens and other megalithic tombs remain interspersed within the region, including near Castro Laboreiro and Mourela.Vânia Andreia Malheiro Proença (2009), p.23 Human activities consisted of animal husbandry and incipient agriculture, and archaeological evidence points to the beginning of decrease in forest cover. The Roman Geira, a Roman road, crosses the region, which formerly connected the Roman civitates of Asturica Augusta and Braccara Augusta.
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Although they remained formally independent, the civitates foederatae in effect surrendered their foreign relation to Rome, to which they were bound by perpetual alliance. Nevertheless, the citizens of these cities enjoyed certain rights under Roman law, like the commercium and the conubium. In the Greek East, many of the Greek city-states (poleis) were formally liberated and granted some form of formal guarantee of their autonomy. As they had a long history and tradition of their own, most of these communities were content with this status, unlike in the Latin West, where, with their progressive Romanization, many communities sought a gradual advancement to the status of a municipium or even a colonia.
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Incorporated trades were cordiners (shoemakers), hatmakers, websters (weavers), hammermen (smiths and lorimers, i.e. leather workers), skinners, fleshers (butchers), coopers, wrights, masons, waulkers (fullers), tailors, barber-surgeons, baxters (bakers), and candlemakers.J B Barclay, Edinburgh (Adam and Charles Black, London 1965) With the rise of taxes imposed by the burgh, some of these crafts relocated to suburbs beyond the town's boundary in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.Aaron M. Allen, "Conquering the Suburbs: Politics and Work in Early Modern Edinburgh," Journal of Urban History (2011) 37#3 pp 423–443 Civitates orbis terrarum. In 1560, at a time when Scotland's total population was an estimated one million people, Edinburgh's population reached 12,000, with another 4,000 in separate jurisdictions such as Canongate and the port of Leith.
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Although Tasgetius is conventionally called a "king," Caesar uses verbal phrases in reference to his rule rather than the noun rex: his ancestors regnum obtinuerant, "had held the kingship," and Tasgetius was in his third year of ruling at the time of his murder: tertium iam hunc annum regnantem. His reign would have begun in late 57 BC, following Caesar's campaign against the Belgic civitates in northern Gaul that year; it ended with his assassination in 54 BC. The overthrow of a king appointed by Caesar was one of the precipitating events that led to the pan-Gallic rebellion of 52 BC under the Arvernian leader Vercingetorix.Stephen L. Dyson, "Native Revolts in the Roman Empire," Historia 20 (1971), p. 242.
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A tremissis of Theudebert II minted at Clermont Theudebert II () (c.585-612), King of Austrasia (595–612 AD), was the son and heir of Childebert II. He received the kingdom of Austrasia plus the cities (civitates) of Poitiers, Tours, Le Puy-en-Velay, Bordeaux, and Châteaudun, as well as the Champagne, the Auvergne, and Transjurane Alemannia. During his early years, his grandmother Brunhilda ruled for Theudebert and his brother Theuderic II, who had received the realm of Burgundy. After the two brothers reached adulthood, they were often at war, with Brunhilda siding with Theuderic. In 599, Theuderic defeated Theudebert at Sens, but then the two brothers allied against their cousin Chlothar II and defeated him at Dormelles (near Montereau), thereby laying their hands on a great portion of Neustria (600-604).
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City of Antwerp, 1572 (from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum) Realizing that the Mediterranean was saturated with spices supplied by Venetian merchants, the Portuguese decided to avoid head-to-head competition that might cut into their profits there, and focused on selling their spices in northern Europe, a market the Venetians had barely touched. To this end, the Casa da Índia set up a factory (feitoria de Flandres) in the Brabantine town of Antwerp in 1508. The factory had two purposes: firstly, to serve as a distribution center of the Portuguese spices to the rest of northern Europe; secondly, to acquire the silver bullion needed by the Portuguese India armadas to buy spices in Asia. It is in the silver trade that Portugal and Venice competed directly.
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This system frequently resulted in extortion from the common people of the provinces, as unscrupulous publicani often sought to maximise their profit by demanding a much higher rates of tax than originally set by the government. The provincial governors whose duty it was to curb illegal demands were often bribed into acquiescence by the publicani.Encyclopædia Britannica Online Publicani The system also led to political conflict between 'equites publicani and the majority of their fellow-equites, especially senators, who as large landowners wanted to minimise the tax on land outside Italy (tributum solis), which was the main source of state revenue.Talbert (1996) 341 This system was terminated by the first Roman emperor, Augustus (sole rule 30 BC – 14 AD), who transferred responsibility for tax collection from the publicani to provincial local authorities (civitates peregrinae).
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In the second decade of the 14th century the Crown of Aragon conquered Sardinia after a series of battles against the Pisans. During the siege of Castel di Castro (1324-1326), the Aragonese, led by the infant Alfonso, built a stronghold on a more southern hill, that of Bonaria. View of Cagliari from Civitates orbis terrarium (1572) by Georg Braun When the fortified city was finally conquered by the Aragonese army, Castel di Castro (Castel de Càller or simply Càller in Catalan) became the administrative capital of the newborn Kingdom of Sardinia, one of the many kingdoms forming the Crown of Aragon, which later came under the rule of the Spanish Empire. After the expulsion of the Tuscans, the Castello district was repopulated by the Aragonese settlers of Bonaria while the indigenous population was, as in the past, concentrated in Stampace and Villanova.
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Medieval town walls An anonymous medieval document of about 850, called Bavarian Geographer, mentions the tribe of Prissani having 70 strongholds (Prissani civitates LXX). In the early 12th century, the town was part of Poland, then, as a result of the fragmentation of Poland, it was part of the Duchy of Pomerania. The settlement was first mentioned in 1124 by bishop Otto von Bamberg, who baptized the first Pomeranians here.Jan M. Piskorski, Pommern im Wandel der Zeiten, 1999, pp. 36 ff., Throughout the German Ostsiedlung the oldest church was built in 1250, an Augustinian cloister in 1256 and a monastery of the Franciscan order in 1281. In 1263 the town received Magdeburg law. By the Contract of Pyritz of March 26, 1493 the Dukes of Pomerania recognized the right of succession of the House of Brandenburg.
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Another notable Germanic group were the Toxandrians who appear to have lived in the Kempen region, in the northern parts of both the Nervian and Tungrian provinces, probably stretching into the modern Netherlands. The Roman administrative districts (civitates) of the Menapii, Nervii and Tungri therefore corresponded roughly with the medieval counties of Flanders, Brabant and Loon, and the modern Flemish provinces of East and West Flanders (Menapii), Brabant and Antwerp (the northern Nervii), and Belgian Limburg (Tungri). Brabant appears to have been home to relatively unpopulated forest area, the Silva Carbonaria, forming a natural boundary between northeast and southwest Belgium. Linguistically, the tribes in this area were under Celtic influence in the south, and Germanic influence in the east, but there is disagreement about what languages were spoken locally (apart from Vulgar Latin), and there may even have been an intermediate "Nordwestblock" language related to both.
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Portuguese India Armadas trade routes (blue) since Vasco da Gama 1498 travel and its rival Manila-Acapulco galleons and Spanish treasure fleets (white) established in 1568 Calicut, India from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572. The Republic of Venice had become a formidable power, and a key player in the Eastern spice trade. Other powers, in an attempt to break the Venetian hold on spice trade, began to build up maritime capability. Until the mid-15th century, trade with the east was achieved through the Silk Road, with the Byzantine Empire and the Italian city-states of Venice and Genoa acting as a middle man. In 1453, however, the Ottoman Empire took control of the sole spice trade route that existed at the time after the fall of Constantinople, and were in a favorable position to charge hefty taxes on merchandise bound for the west.
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The screening and hiring of crews was the function of the provedor of the Armazém. Ribeira Palace in the foreground of this view of the city of Lisbon, Portugal from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572 From at least 1511 (perhaps earlier), the offices of the Casa da India were based in the ground floor of the royal Ribeira Palace, by the Terreiro do Paço in Lisbon, with the Armazém nearby. (Neither the Casa nor the Armazem should be confused with the Estado da Índia, the Portuguese colonial government in India, which was separate and reported directly to the monarch.) Ships could be and sometimes were owned and outfitted by private merchants, and these were incorporated into the India armada. However, the expenses of outfitting a ship were immense, and few native Portuguese merchants had the wherewithal to finance one, despite eager government encouragement.
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Kozhikode, India from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates Orbis terrarum, 1572 Ma Huan (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho (Zheng He)Ma Huan: Ying Yai Sheng Lan, The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores, translated by J.V.G. Mills, 1970 Hakluyt Society, reprint 1997 White Lotus Press. lauds the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. He makes note of the 20 or 30 mosques built to cater to the religious needs of the Muslims, the unique system of calculation by the merchants using their fingers and toes (followed to this day) and the matrilineal system of succession. Abdur Razzak (1442–43) the ambassador of Persian Emperor Sha-Rohk finds the city harbour perfectly secured and notices precious articles from several maritime countries especially from Abyssinia, Zirbad and Zanzibar.
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The many individual Treveri attested epigraphically in other civitates may attest to the development of a Treveran commercial network within the western parts of the Empire. During the early 2nd century CE, Augusta Treverorum was an important centre for the production of samian ware (along with Lezoux and Rheinzabern), supplying the Rhineland with high-quality glossy red pottery which was often elaborately decorated with moulded designs. Treveran villa architecture shows both coexistence and mixture of typically Gallic and Germanic traits. In some villas, such as at Otrang and Echternach, small rooms opened onto a large central hall, rather than onto the front verandah as in most places in Gaul; this arrangement has been considered typically ‘Germanic’, and may reflect a social structure in which extended families and clients all lived in a patron's home. On the other hand, typically ‘Gaulish’ villas are also found in Treveran territory.
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Based on the origins of the name of the kingdom as meaning (Kingdom of the Swedes), some historians have argued that Sweden was unified when the Swedes first solidified their control over the regions they were living in. The earliest date for this is based on a brief section in the Roman historian Tacitus discussing the Suiones tribe."Suionum hinc civitates", Germania 44, 45 This would imply that a Swedish kingdom would have existed in the first to second centuries AD. However, with the increased rigour of historical method advanced in 20th century historical research, in Sweden as elsewhere, historians such as Curt Weibull and his brother Lauritz maintained that these perspectives have become obsolete. Modern historians noted that a millennium had passed between Tacitus and more in-depth and reliable documented accounts (or notices of contemporary events relating to Sweden by Frankish and German writers) of Swedish history.
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Silver jewellery uncovered in graves show that some of the burial sites are not necessarily native Dacian in origin, but are equally likely to have belonged to the Carpi or Free Dacians who are thought to have moved into Dacia sometime before 200 AD. Some scholars have used the lack of civitates peregrinae in Roman Dacia, where indigenous peoples were organised into native townships, as evidence for the Roman depopulation of Dacia. Prior to its incorporation into the empire, Dacia was a kingdom ruled by one king, and did not possess a regional tribal structure that could easily be turned into the Roman civitas system as used successfully in other provinces of the empire. Dacian tribes mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography may represent indigenous administrative structures, similar to those from Moesia, Pannonia, Dalmatia, or Noricum. Few local Dacians were interested in the use of epigraphs, which were a central part of Roman cultural expression.
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The Odrysian kingdom of Thrace became a Roman client kingdom c. 20 BC, while the Greek city-states on the Black Sea coast came under Roman control as civitates foederatae ("allied" cities with internal autonomy). After the death of the Thracian king Rhoemetalces III in 46 AD and an unsuccessful anti-Roman revolt, the kingdom was annexed as the Roman province of Thracia.Soustal (1991), pp. 59–60 The new province encompassed not only the lands of the former Odrysian realm, but also the north-eastern portion of the province of Macedonia as well as the islands of Thasos, Samothrace and Imbros in the Aegean Sea. To the north, Thracia bordered the province of Moesia Inferior; initially, the provincial boundary ran at a line north of the Haeumus Mountains, including the cities of Nicopolis ad Istrum and Marcianopolis in Thracia, but by the end of the 2nd century AD the border had moved south along the Haemus.
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The Frankish realm as it was after the Treaty of Andelot in 587. The Burgundian kingdom of Guntram (pink) was inherited first by Childebert II and then by Theuderic II. Theuderic II (also Theuderich, Theoderic, or Theodoric; in French, Thierry) (587–613), king of Burgundy (595–613) and Austrasia (612–613), was the second son of Childebert II. At his father's death in 595, he received Guntram's kingdom of Burgundy, with its capital at Orléans, while his elder brother, Theudebert II, received their father's kingdom of Austrasia, with its capital at Metz. He also received the lordship of the cities (civitates) of Toulouse, Agen, Nantes, Angers, Saintes, Angoulême, Périgueux, Blois, Chartres, and Le Mans. During his minority, and later, he reigned under the guidance of his grandmother Brunhilda, evicted from Austrasia by his brother Theudebert II. In 596, Clotaire II, king of Neustria, and Fredegund, Clotaire's mother, took Paris, which was supposed to be held in common.
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Starting in 1575, Lucrezia had increasingly tense and difficult relations with her family members of the House of Este, that is, since her lover Count Ercole Contrari was killed by her brother Alfonso II after the discovery of their relationship. Lucrezia became a defensor of the interest of the Holy See against her own family and the Duchy of Ferrara, and this in a crucial political phase, after the publication, in 1567, of the Papal Bull Prohibitio alienandi et infeudandi civitates et loca Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae of Pope Pius V, in which was prohibited to illegitimate children (or the descendants) from being invested in Church fiefdoms. The death of Alfonso II in 1597 without descendants ended the main branch of the House of Este, who ruled Ferrara since the 12th century. In accordance with the Bull Prohibitio alienandi... of 1567, the Duchies of Ferrara, Modena and Reggio must returned to the Papal States.
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Meanwhile, on the other side of the world, Pedro Álvares Cabral had arrived at Brazil in 1500. Lisbon from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572 As the Portuguese merchant fleets established the ports of call of the Eastern trade route and made commercial agreements with their rulers, Lisbon gained access to the sources of products it exclusively sold to the rest of Europe for many years: in addition to African products including pepper, cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, herbs, and cotton fabrics, as well as diamonds from Malabar in India transported on the Carreira da Índia ("India Run"), it sold Moluccan spices, Ming porcelain and silk from China, slaves from Mozambique, brazilwood and Brazilian sugar. Lisbon also traded in fish (mainly salted cod from the Grand Banks), dried fruit, and wine. Other Portuguese cities, like Porto and Lagos, contributed to foreign trade only marginally, the country's commerce being practically limited to the exports and imports of Lisbon.
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The terms of the surrender, expressed in the Alhambra Decree treaty, explicitly allowed the Muslim inhabitants, known as mudéjares, to continue unmolested in the practice of their faith and customs. By 1499, however, Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros grew frustrated with the slow pace of the efforts of the first archbishop of Granada, Hernando de Talavera, to convert non-Christians and undertook a program of forced baptisms, creating the converso (convert) class for Muslims and Jews. Cisneros's new strategy, which was a direct violation of the terms of the treaty, provoked the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499–1501) centered in the rural Alpujarras region southeast of the city. 16th-century view of the city, as depicted in the Civitates orbis terrarum. The rebellion lasted Until 1500, 9 years after the conquest, the city did not formally establish its own town council, instead, merging the "Old Christians", and the converted morisco elites, a decision that resulted in strong factionalism from 1508 onwards.
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The Vaccean homeland extended throughout the center of the northern Meseta, along both banks of the Duero River. Their capital was Pallantia (either Palencia or Palenzuela) and PtolemyPtolemy, Geographia, II, 5, 6 lists in their territory some twenty towns or Civitates, including Helmantica/Salmantica (Salamanca), Arbucala (Toro), Pincia or Pintia (Padilla de Duero – Valladolid), Intercatia (Paredes de Nava – Palencia), Cauca (Coca – Segovia), Septimanca (Simancas), Rauda (Roa), Dessobriga (Oserna) and Autraca or Austraca – located at the banks of the river Autra (Odra), seized from the Autrigones in the late 4th century BC – to name but a few. Although its borders are difficult to define, and shifted from time to time, it can be said to have occupied all of the province of Valladolid, and parts of León, Palencia, Burgos, Segovia, Salamanca and Zamora. By the time of the arrival of the Romans, the Cea and Esla rivers separated the Vaccaei from the Astures in the northwest, while a line traced between the Esla and the Pisuerga rivers was the border with the Cantabri.
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Armorica, with the Seine and Loire rivers indicated in red Scholars have rarely tried to interpret Caesar's decision to send a young, relatively inexperienced officer with a single legion to secure a major geographical region inhabited by multiple civitates,The word civitas is used in the Bellum Gallicum less often to mean "citizenship" than to refer to one of the peoples or nations of Gaul as a polity, and sometimes to their major city, though "capital" might be an anachronism. See J.F. Drinkwater, Roman Gaul: The Three Provinces, 58 BC–AD 260, pp. 103–109. while the commander-in- chief himself lay siege to a single town with the remaining seven legions of his army and a full staff of senior legates and some or most of the tribunes. Crassus's Armorican mission is reported so elliptically that Caesar's chronology and veracity have been questioned, most pointedly by the contrarian scholar Michel Rambaud, who insisted that the 7th Legion must have detached for its mission prior to the Battle of the Sabis.
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No copies of the printed map itself are known to have survived; but between 1962 and 1997 three of the original engraved copper printing-plates – from a probable total of 15 – were identified. Although only a fragmentary portion of the map is known, the three plates cover the greater part of the built-up heart of the City of London. The map takes the form of a "bird's-flight view": that is to say, the street layout and other ground features are shown in plan, as if viewed directly from above; while buildings, people and other standing features are shown as if viewed from a great height to the south of the City, but without the foreshortening of more distant features that would be necessary for a true perspective view. The map is clearly the source for the slightly smaller-scale and cruder "Woodcut" map, formerly attributed to Ralph Agas, which dates from shortly after 1561; and also, directly or indirectly, for the greatly reduced map of London included in Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's Civitates Orbis Terrarum, published in Cologne and Amsterdam in 1572.
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Depiction of Goa in Civitates Orbis Terrarum by Georg Braun To secure control of Goa, it was necessary to take the fort Pulad Khan had constructed on the east side of the island, about 6 km from Goa, guarding a pontoon bridge that allowed his troops to cross over from the mainland.Sanceau, 1936, p.198 According to Albuquerque, it was garrisoned by 300 horsemen, among them many Turkic mercenaries, and 3,000 battle-ready warriors, plus another 3,000 he deemed "useless", probably levy.Costa, Rodrigues 2008 pg. 74 The pontoon bridge was protected by two river stockades, constructed on each side at some distance to prevent vessels from attacking it. Albuquerque ordered 8 ships to destroy the stockade; once this was achieved, the vessels moved on ahead of Benastarim, thus blockading it from the river side and initiated a naval bombardment.Costa, Rodrigues 2008 pg. 75-77 Before the Portuguese infantry had marched out to complete its encirclement, 200 horsemen and 3,000 footmen of the Muslim army sallied out from Benastarim, seeking to resolve the conflict by provoking the Portuguese into a pitched battle ahead of Goa.Costa, Rodrigues 2008 pg.
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In the 70s BC, following the civil war between the aristocratic faction of Sulla and the remnants of the supporters of Marius and Cinna, the Roman popularist Quintus Sertorius refused to yield Spain to the Sullan dictatorship. His secession sparked the Sertorian War, during which Celtic polities in Mediterranean Gaul were subjected to troop levies and forced requisitions to support the military efforts of Metellus Pius, Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great"), and other Roman commanders against the rebels. Some Celts, including perhaps the Helvii and Volcae Arecomici, supported Sertorius. After the renegade Roman was assassinated, Metellus and Pompeius were able to declare a victory, and the Helvii and Volcae were forced to cede a portion of their lands to the Greek city-state Massilia (present-day Marseilles), a loyal independent ally of Rome for centuries, located strategically at the mouth of the river Rhône and the staunch supporter of Pompeius.Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Civili 1.35. During Caesar's Gallic Wars, none of the Gallic civitates within the Narbonese province joined the pan-Gallic rebellion of 52 BC, nor engaged in any reported acts of hostility against Roman forces.
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