It sounds [like] circular reasoning: the stock is going down because nobody cares.
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At least in hindsight, the Los Angeles study seems to suffer from circular reasoning.
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You see reporters being part of the circular exchange, delivering documents as part of the circular reasoning.
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And it's extra evidence, if you'll pardon the circular reasoning, that this is the next big thing.
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He has never allowed powerful interests or the circular reasoning of the chattering classes to sway him.
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The great thing about this puzzle is the visual presentation of the CIRCULAR REASONING flaw, that actually reads, if you start from the shaded/circled letter C and proceed clockwise, "CIRCULAR REASONING MAKES NO SENSE BECAUSE …" and repeats itself ad infinitum, which is precisely what a circular argument does.
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When the Washington Post, which first reported the story, contacted Kushner for comment, his team offered a somewhat circular reasoning.
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"Boat farm" meant marina, "salad with tomatoes, mozzarella, and basil" got me caprese, and "circular reasoning where you say the same thing twice" is tautological.
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" The circle in question is not that of circular reasoning but, rather, the kind we have in mind when we talk about a "well-rounded education.
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That's why I was so entertained when I solved David Liben-Nowell's and Tom Pepper's crossword that highlights the fallacies CIRCULAR REASONING and BEGging THE QUESTION.
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She accused the Justice Department of employing "circular reasoning" since the government's own actions have prevented him or his relatives from having contact with the lawyers.
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" My favorite answer, though, is the Zen-like circular reasoning attributed to writer Robert Byrne, who put it, "The purpose of life is a life of purpose.
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Gelman also said that part of the betting markets' resilience to budging from the Brexit "remain" vote may have been "circular reasoning," whereby the markets were self-reinforcing.
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It's circular reasoning, and in politics, name recognition matters a lot, so when they starved Bernie Sanders of attention in 2015, they robbed him of an equal playing field.
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He arrives at this circular reasoning because he finds little fault in the way Republicans conducted themselves during the eight or 50 years they spent inching toward a Trumpian reckoning.
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Only a few criteria govern who can become president; one of them is that the president must be a natural-born citizen; birtherism thus emerges from circular reasoning and wishful thinking.
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Shaena Montanari, a paleontologist and member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, tweeted that Trump was using circular reasoning, comparing his thoughts on the weather to issues of starvation and poverty.
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Let's hear our constructors explain themselves, and please try not to shoot down their arguments in the comments section: We first started talking about some kind of CIRCULAR REASONING puzzle at the 2015 Minnesota Crossword Tournament (where we'd met a few years prior, after both constructing puzzles, and hitting it off both interpersonally and cruciverbally).
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1991 (589) (4). Dallas, TX: Dallas Theological Seminary. Nevertheless, even scholars sharing Thiele's religious convictions have maintained that there are weaknesses in his argument such as unfounded assumptions and assumed circular reasoning.
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Original version. Updated version here.See Survival of the fittest for a more thorough discussion. Similarly, it is argued that evolutionary theory is circular reasoning, in that evidence is interpreted as supporting evolution, but evolution is required to interpret the evidence.
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The Münchhausen trilemma, also called Agrippa's trilemma, purports that it is impossible to prove any certain truth even in fields such as logic and mathematics. According to this argument, the proof of any theory rests either on circular reasoning, infinite regress, or unproven axioms.
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Closely connected with begging the question is the fallacy of circular reasoning ('), a fallacy in which the reasoner begins with the conclusion. The individual components of a circular argument can be logically valid because if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true, and does not lack relevance. However, circular reasoning is not persuasive because a listener who doubts the conclusion also doubts the premise that leads to it. Begging the question is similar to the complex question (also known as trick question or fallacy of many questions): a question that, to be valid, requires the truth of another question that has not been established.
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92–110James Stanford. 1993. The fundamental issue is circular reasoning: embedding one's assumptions as foundational "input" axioms in a model, then proceeding to "prove" that, indeed, the model's "output" supports the validity of those assumptions. Such a model is consistent with similar models that have adopted those same assumptions.
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Jurmain demonstrates that much past inference of this type has been based on flawed or circular reasoning, and instead argues that a more rigorous approach to this sort of research is called for.Review of Stories from the Skeleton by Sarah King (2003), Journal of Biosocial Science 35: 475–476, .
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Ford circles. This list of circle topics includes things related to the geometric shape, either abstractly, as in idealizations studied by geometers, or concretely in physical space. It does not include metaphors like "inner circle" or "circular reasoning" in which the word does not refer literally to the geometric shape.
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"Psychological Egoism." In > Reason & Responsibility: Readings in Some Basic Problems of Philosophy, > edited by Joel Feinberg and Russ Shafer-Landau, 520-532. California: Thomson > Wadsworth, 2008. The circular reasoning evidenced by Feinberg's quote exemplifies how this view can be thought of as the need for others to have incessant personal desires and satisfaction.
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Fallacies of definition are the various ways in which definitions can fail to explain terms. The phrase is used to suggest an analogy with an informal fallacy. Definitions may fail to have merit, because they: are overly broad, use obscure or ambiguous language, or contain circular reasoning; those are called fallacies of definition.Gibbon, Guy (2013).
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Sigbjørn Sønnesyn considered Christensen's theories suspiciously similar to circular reasoning. Michael Whitby dismissed Christensen's work as extreme and a mere footnote to what has already been written on the subject. Dick Harrison considered Christensen's book interesting, although he criticized its rejection of archaeological evidence and refusal to respond to the views of dissenting scholars.
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Prentice- Hall. "Using in the definition itself the word to be defined or a close synonym of it." If one concept is defined by another, and the other is defined by the first, this is known as a circular definition, akin to circular reasoning: neither offers enlightenment about what one wanted to know. Accessed September 2, 2014.
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Newcomb's paradox is related to logical fatalism in that they both suppose absolute certainty of the future. In logical fatalism, this assumption of certainty creates circular reasoning ("a future event is certain to happen, therefore it is certain to happen"), while Newcomb's paradox considers whether the participants of its game are able to affect a predestined outcome.
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Andrew Von Hendy claims that Neumann's theories are based on circular reasoning, whereby a Eurocentric view of world mythology is used as evidence for a universal model of individual psychological development which mirrors a sociocultural evolutionary model derived from European mythology.Von Hendy, Andrew (2002). The Modern Construction of Myth, 2nd edition. Indiana University Press. pp.186–187.
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"With Liberty and Justice for Some". In Zimmerman, Michael; Callicott, Baird; Warren, Karen; Klaver, Irene; Clark, John. Environmental Philosophy: From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology (4th ed.). Pearson. . The NAP has been criticized as circular reasoning and a rhetorical obfuscation of the coercive nature of right-libertarian property law enforcement because the principle redefines aggression in their own terms.
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According to this view none of the ways in which one might attempt to justify a claim are adequate. One can justify a claim based on other claims, but this leads to an infinite regress of justifications. One can use a dogmatic assertion, but this is not a justification. One can use circular reasoning, but this fails to justify the conclusion.
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Robin Blumenthal. "Circular Reasoning: A Market for Pi in the Sky?", Barron's, June 25, 2011 According to an editorial in The Guardian, Armstrong INcorrectly predicted that a sovereign debt crisis, or "Big Bang" as he called it, would begin on 1 October 2015. On his public blog, Armstrong predicted a drop of bitcoin to $775 if year 2018 closes below 4150.
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In any event, it does not do to argue as follows: # To advocate relativism, even some sophisticated relativism, is to commit the relativist fallacy. # If one commits a fallacy, one says something false or not worth serious consideration. # Therefore, to advocate relativism, even some sophisticated relativism, is to say something false or not worth serious consideration. This is an example of circular reasoning.
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While the principle has been used rhetorically to oppose policies such as military drafts, taxation and victimless crime laws, use of the NAP as a justification for right-libertarianism has been criticized as circular reasoning and as a rhetorical obfuscation of the coercive nature of right- libertarian property law enforcement because the principle redefines aggression in their own terms.Friedman, Jeffrey (1993). "What's Wrong with Libertarianism". Critical Review.
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Some run an unordered analysis, and order characters that show a clear order of transition in the resulting tree (which practice might be accused of circular reasoning). Some authorities refuse to order characters at all, suggesting that it biases an analysis to require evolutionary transitions to follow a particular path. It is also possible to apply differential weighting to individual characters. This is usually done relative to a "cost" of 1.
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New York: Doubleday. In response to the "circular reasoning" argument, Kenneth Strand has pointed out several archaeological finds that were published after Thiele produced his chronology, and which verified Thiele's assumptions or conclusions vs. the chronological systems of other scholars such as Albright that were posited before Thiele's work.Kenneth A. Strand, "Thiele's Biblical Chronology As a Corrective for Extrabiblical Dates," Andrews University Seminary Studies 34 (1996) 295-317.
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The focus upon the gap between the premises and conclusion present in the above passage appears different from Hume's focus upon the circular reasoning of induction. However, Weintraub claims in The Philosophical QuarterlyWeintraub, R. (1995). What was Hume's Contribution to the Problem of Induction? The Philosophical Quarterly 45(181):460–470 that although Sextus's approach to the problem appears different, Hume's approach was actually an application of another argument raised by Sextus:Sextus Empiricus.
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There is no consensus on the pronunciation of the syllables distinguished by man'yōgana. One difficulty is that the Middle Chinese pronunciations of the characters used are also disputed, and since the reconstruction of their phonetic values is partly based on later Sino-Japanese pronunciations, there is a danger of circular reasoning. Additional evidence has been drawn from phonological typology, subsequent developments in the Japanese pronunciation, and the comparative study of the Ryukyuan languages.
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Ward & Brownlee's Rare Earth Hypothesis has been further popularised in books along the same theme. It was not without its critics, however. While initially declaring it a "must read", the geoscientist James Kasting wrote a highly critical reply in the journal Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, challenging its restrictive criteria. Several books were written in reply including Evolving the Alien by Jack Cohen, who described Ward and Brownlee's assumption as restrictive and unimaginative; and a form of circular reasoning.
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In terms of mental processing, a self-reference is used in psychology to establish identification with a mental state during self-analysis. This seeks to allow the individual to develop own frames of reference in a greater state of immediate awareness. However, it can also lead to circular reasoning, preventing evolution of thought. According to Perceptual Control Theory (PCT), a reference condition is the state toward which a control system's output tends to alter a controlled quantity.
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Luigi Cremona objected to perceived circular reasoning, which even forced Beltrami to delay the publication of the "Essay" by one year. Subsequently, Felix Klein failed to acknowledge Beltrami's priority in construction of the projective disk model of the non-Euclidean geometry. This reaction can be attributed in part to the novelty of Beltrami's reasoning, which was similar to the ideas of Riemann concerning abstract manifolds. J. Hoüel published Beltrami's proof in his French translation of works of Lobachevsky and Bolyai.
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From the beginning various scholars criticised the discipline, saying it inherently was too focused on static equilibrium which ignored change, that it used circular reasoning, and that it oversimplified systems. One of the current criticisms is that, in its original form, ecological anthropology relies upon cultural relativism as the norm. However, in today's world, there are few cultures that are isolated enough to live in a true culturally relative state. Instead, cultures are being influenced and changed by media, governments, NGOs, businesses, etc.
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It is sometimes proposed that this traditional kind of presentation necessarily rests on "circular reasoning"; against this proposal, there stands the rigorously logical mathematical development of the theory presented by Truesdell and Bharatha (1977).Truesdell, C., Bharatha, S. (1977). This alternative approach to the definition of quantity of energy transferred as heat differs in logical structure from that of Carathéodory, recounted just above. This alternative approach admits calorimetry as a primary or direct way to measure quantity of energy transferred as heat.
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Robles, which was decided on July 6, 2006. The four justices that dissented accused the majority of relying upon "circular reasoning" in formulating their opinion. In the principal dissenting opinion, signed by Justices Tom Chambers, Susan Owens, and Bobbe J. Bridge, Justice Mary Fairhurst asked: "Would giving same-sex couples the same right that opposite-sex couples enjoy injure the state's interest in procreation and healthy child rearing?" Justice Tom Chambers issued a separate dissenting opinion signed by Justice Susan Owens, while Justice Bobbe J. Bridge issued another dissenting opinion.
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The Foundation Center lists in their website the following aspects to consider when writing the statement of need: what facts and/or statistics best support the project, give the reader hope, decide if the project should be showcased as a model, determine whether the need should be portrayed as acute, decide if it can be demonstrated that the proposed project or program addresses the need differently or better than other projects that preceded it, avoid presenting the absence of the proposed solution as the actual problem (circular reasoning).
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An axiomatization of propositional calculus is a set of tautologies called axioms and one or more inference rules for producing new tautologies from old. A proof in an axiom system A is a finite nonempty sequence of propositions each of which is either an instance of an axiom of A or follows by some rule of A from propositions appearing earlier in the proof (thereby disallowing circular reasoning). The last proposition is the theorem proved by the proof. Every nonempty initial segment of a proof is itself a proof, whence every proposition in a proof is itself a theorem.
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The psychologist Jim McKnight stated that while the idea that bisexuality is a form of sexual orientation intermediate between homosexuality and heterosexuality is implicit in the Kinsey scale, that view was brought into question by the publication of Homosexualities. The philosopher Michael Levin criticized Bell and Weinberg for using a non-random sample. He also accused them of being credulous about their informants' reports, employing special pleading and circular reasoning, seeking to demonstrate preferred conclusions, and making misleading use of statistics. In his view, despite their intentions, their data suggests that homosexuality inevitably leads to unhappiness.
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Cladistics, either generally or in specific applications, has been criticized from its beginnings. Decisions as to whether particular character states are homologous, a precondition of their being synapomorphies, have been challenged as involving circular reasoning and subjective judgements. Transformed cladistics arose in the late 1970s in an attempt to resolve some of these problems by removing phylogeny from cladistic analysis, but it has remained unpopular. However, homology is usually determined from analysis of the results that are evaluated with homology measures, mainly the consistency index (CI) and retention index (RI), which, it has been claimed - makes the process objective.
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The hypothesis concludes, more or less, that complex life is rare because it can evolve only on the surface of an Earth- like planet or on a suitable satellite of a planet. Some biologists, such as Jack Cohen, believe this assumption too restrictive and unimaginative; they see it as a form of circular reasoning. According to David Darling, the Rare Earth hypothesis is neither hypothesis nor prediction, but merely a description of how life arose on Earth. In his view, Ward and Brownlee have done nothing more than select the factors that best suit their case.
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In these cases, the character itself is often downweighted so that small changes in allele frequencies count less than major changes in other characters. Also, the third codon position in a coding nucleotide sequence is particularly labile, and is sometimes downweighted, or given a weight of 0, on the assumption that it is more likely to exhibit homoplasy. In some cases, repeated analyses are run, with characters reweighted in inverse proportion to the degree of homoplasy discovered in the previous analysis (termed successive weighting); this is another technique that might be considered circular reasoning. Character state changes can also be weighted individually.
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Bolton sees violations of scientific logic in the form of immunity to falsification, the assumption of supernatural causation, a lack of independent evaluations of evidence, circular reasoning, and the false equivalence of biblical creationism (faith-based) and human evolution (evidence-based) as scientific explanations. The RTB claim that all current humans are descended from a specially created couple that lived about 50,000 years ago and that there is no common ancestor between humans and other primates is disputed in a scholarly essay by evangelical geneticist Dennis Venema. There is strong genetic and fossil evidence suggesting a common ape- man ancestor as well.
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Scholarly method describes the different approaches or methods which may be taken to apply intellectual rigour on an institutional level to ensure the quality of information published. An example of intellectual rigour assisted by a methodical approach is the scientific method, in which a person will produce a hypothesis based on what they believe to be true, then construct experiments in order to prove that hypothesis wrong. This method, when followed correctly, helps to prevent against circular reasoning and other fallacies which frequently plague conclusions within academia. Other disciplines, such as philosophy and mathematics, employ their own structures to ensure intellectual rigour.
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The 1951 novel The Troubled Air by Irwin Shaw tells the story of the director of a (fictional) radio show, broadcast live at the time, who is given a deadline to investigate his cast for alleged links to communism. The novel recounts the devastating effects on all concerned. The 1952 Arthur Miller play The Crucible used the Salem witch trials as a metaphor for McCarthyism, suggesting that the process of McCarthyism-style persecution can occur at any time or place. The play focused on the fact that once accused, a person had little chance of exoneration, given the irrational and circular reasoning of both the courts and the public.
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The cartesian circle is an error in reasoning, that has made Descartes' argument circular. Descartes is guilty of circular reasoning due to the fact that a premise of his argument is included in the conclusion of his argument because the rule of truth is contingent upon God’s existence. The rule of truth is contingent on God’s existence. However, we can only know of God’s existence by being able to clearly and distinctly perceive of this. Another worry that arises from Arnauld’s rejection is the worry of how we can ever come to know of the foundational principles that are needed in order to have knowledge.
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" Joseph C. Keating, Jr.Joseph C. Keating, Jr., PhD: Biographical sketch discusses vitalism's past and present roles in chiropractic and calls vitalism "a form of bio-theology." He further explains that: : "Vitalism is that rejected tradition in biology which proposes that life is sustained and explained by an unmeasurable, intelligent force or energy. The supposed effects of vitalism are the manifestations of life itself, which in turn are the basis for inferring the concept in the first place. This circular reasoning offers pseudo-explanation, and may deceive us into believing we have explained some aspect of biology when in fact we have only labeled our ignorance.
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A textbook proof A standard textbook method is to construct the bisector of the angle at A.For example J.M. Wilson Elementary geometry (1878 Oxford) p. 20 This is simpler than Euclid's proof, but Euclid does not present the construction of an angle bisector until proposition 9. So the order of presentation of the Euclid's propositions would have to be changed to avoid the possibility of circular reasoning. The proof proceeds as follows:Following Wilson As before, let the triangle be ABC with AB = AC. Construct the angle bisector of \angle BAC and extend it to meet BC at X. AB = AC and AX is equal to itself.
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Foundationalism concerns philosophical theories of knowledge resting upon justified belief, or some secure foundation of certainty such as a conclusion inferred from a basis of sound premises.Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), p 139. The main rival of the foundationalist theory of justification is the coherence theory of justification, whereby a body of knowledge, not requiring a secure foundation, can be established by the interlocking strength of its components, like a puzzle solved without prior certainty that each small region was solved correctly. Identifying the alternatives as either circular reasoning or infinite regress, and thus exhibiting the regress problem, Aristotle made foundationalism his own clear choice, positing basic beliefs underpinning others.
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Bust of Aristotle, whose Prior Analytics contained an early discussion of this fallacy In classical rhetoric and logic, begging the question or assuming the conclusion is an informal fallacy that occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it. For example, the statement "green is the best color, because it is the greenest of all colors" claims that the color green is the best because it is the greenest - which it assumes is the best. It is a type of circular reasoning: an argument that requires that the desired conclusion be true. This often occurs in an indirect way such that the fallacy's presence is hidden, or at least not easily apparent.
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Robert J. Shiller has argued that it would be circular reasoning to consider VIX to be proof of Black-Scholes, because they both express the same implied volatility, and has found that calculating VIX retrospectively in 1929 did not predict the surpassing volatility of the Great Depression—suggesting that in the case of anomalous conditions, VIX cannot even weakly predict future severe events. An academic study from the University of Texas at Austin and Ohio State University examined potential methods of VIX manipulation. On February 12, 2018, a letter was sent to the Commodity Futures Trading Commission and Securities and Exchange Commission by a law firm representing an anonymous whistleblower alleging manipulation of the VIX.
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In dissent, Linden JA accused the other two justices of engaging in exercises of circular reasoning: ::The issue before this Court is whether the definition of spouse in the Old Age Security Act creates a distinction in the distribution of benefits which is discriminatory on the basis of sexual orientation. That issue cannot be resolved simply by stating that the distinction drawn by the Act is based on the definition of spouse rather than on sexual orientation. It is, after all, the definition of spouse that is being attacked as discriminatory. Linden concluded the definition of "spouse" under the Old Age Security Act created a distinction between heterosexuals and homosexuals which constituted discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.
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Kant pointed out that the very existence of spatially extended configurations of matter, such as particles of non-zero radius, implies the existence of some sort of binding force to hold the extended parts of the particle together. Now, that force cannot be explained by the push from the gravitational particles, because those particles too must hold together in the same way. To avoid this circular reasoning, Kant asserted that there must exist a fundamental attractive force. This was precisely the same objection that had always been raised against the impulse doctrine of Descartes in the previous century, and had led even the followers of Descartes to abandon that aspect of his philosophy.
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Nevertheless, even scholars sharing Thiele's religious convictions have maintained that there are weaknesses in his argument such as unfounded assumptions and assumed circular reasoning. > In his desire to resolve the discrepancies between the data in the Book of > Kings, Thiele was forced to make improbable suppositions ... There is no > basis for Thiele's statement that his conjectures are correct because he > succeeded in reconciling most of the data in the Book of Kings, since his > assumptions ... are derived from the chronological data themselves > ...Gershon Galil, "The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah" (Brill, > 1996) p.4'The numerous extrabiblical synchronisms he invokes do not always > reflect the latest refinements in Assyriological research (cf. E.2.f below).
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Members of the panel including Thomas Schelling and one of the two perspective paper writers Robert O. Mendelsohn (both opponents of the Kyoto protocol) criticised Cline, mainly on the issue of discount rates. (See "The opponent notes to the paper on Climate Change" ) Mendelsohn, in particular, characterizing Cline's position, said that "[i]f we use a large discount rate, they will be judged to be small effects" and called it "circular reasoning, not a justification". Cline responded to this by arguing that there is no obvious reason to use a large discount rate just because this is what is usually done in economic analysis. In other words, climate change ought to be treated differently from other, more imminent problems.
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Self-refuting ideas or self-defeating ideas are ideas or statements whose falsehood is a logical consequence of the act or situation of holding them to be true. Many ideas are called self-refuting by their detractors, and such accusations are therefore almost always controversial, with defenders stating that the idea is being misunderstood or that the argument is invalid. For these reasons, none of the ideas below are unambiguously or incontrovertibly self-refuting. These ideas are often used as axioms, which are definitions taken to be true (tautological assumptions), and cannot be used to test themselves, for doing so would lead to only two consequences: consistency (circular reasoning) or exception (self-contradiction).
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Principles of Political Economy is Ricardo's effort to fill that gap in the literature. Regardless of whether the book achieved that goal, it secured, according to Ronald Max Hartwell, Ricardo's position among the great classical economists Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, John Stuart Mill, and Karl Marx. In his book Adam's Fallacy: A Guide to Economic Theology, economist Duncan K. Foley highlights that in the Principles Ricardo criticizes Adam Smith's treatment of the theory of value and distribution for circular reasoning, in particular as far as concerns rent, and that Ricardo considers the labor theory of value, properly understood, a more logically sound basis for political economic reasoning. Foley also discusses the chapter On Machinery, which Ricardo included in his third and final (1821) version of Principles.
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In statistics, hypotheses suggested by a given dataset, when tested with the same dataset that suggested them, are likely to be accepted even when they are not true. This is because circular reasoning (double dipping) would be involved: something seems true in the limited data set; therefore we hypothesize that it is true in general; therefore we (wrongly) test it on the same limited data set, which seems to confirm that it is true. Generating hypotheses based on data already observed, in the absence of testing them on new data, is referred to as post hoc theorizing (from Latin post hoc, "after this"). The correct procedure is to test any hypothesis on a data set that was not used to generate the hypothesis.
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One of the traps in a deductive system is circular reasoning, a problem that seemed to befall projective geometry until it was resolved by Karl von Staudt. As explained by Russian historians:Laptev, B.L. & B.A. Rozenfel'd (1996) Mathematics of the 19th Century: Geometry, page 40, Birkhäuser The purely geometric approach of von Staudt was based on the complete quadrilateral to express the relation of projective harmonic conjugates. Then he created a means of expressing the familiar numeric properties with his Algebra of Throws. English language versions of this process of deducing the properties of a field can be found in either the book by Oswald Veblen and John Young, Projective Geometry (1938), or more recently in John Stillwell's Four Pillars of Geometry (2005).
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One central debate in contemporary epistemology is about the conditions required for a belief to constitute knowledge, which might include truth and justification. This debate was largely the result of attempts to solve the Gettier problem. Another common subject of contemporary debates is the regress problem, which occurs when trying to offer proof or justification for any belief, statement, or proposition. The problem is that whatever the source of justification may be, that source must either be without justification (in which case it must be treated as an arbitrary foundation for belief), or it must have some further justification (in which case justification must either be the result of circular reasoning, as in coherentism, or the result of an infinite regress, as in infinitism).
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An extension L which is a splitting field for a set of polynomials p(X) over K is called a normal extension of K. Given an algebraically closed field A containing K, there is a unique splitting field L of p between K and A, generated by the roots of p. If K is a subfield of the complex numbers, the existence is immediate. On the other hand, the existence of algebraic closures in general is often proved by 'passing to the limit' from the splitting field result, which therefore requires an independent proof to avoid circular reasoning. Given a separable extension K′ of K, a Galois closure L of K′ is a type of splitting field, and also a Galois extension of K containing K′ that is minimal, in an obvious sense.
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To the most wise and illustrious the Dean and Doctors of the Sacred Faculty of Theology in Paris Descartes says that he is asking the protection of the Faculty for his work, and to this end he writes the present dedication. His first consideration is that the existence of God has to be demonstrated philosophically, besides the theological reasons for belief, particularly if we consider to make a demonstration for the non- believers. Moreover, the believers could be accused of making a circular reasoning, when saying that we must believe in God because of the Scriptures, and in the authority of the Scriptures because they have been inspired by God. He further indicates how the very Scriptures say that the mind of man is sufficient to discover God.
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The principle is widely accepted as physical law, but in recent years it has been challenged for using circular reasoning and faulty assumptions, notably in Earman and Norton (1998), and subsequently in Shenker (2000)Logic and Entropy Critique by Orly Shenker (2000) and Norton (2004,Eaters of the Lotus Critique by John Norton (2004) 2011Waiting for Landauer Response by Norton (2011)), and defended by Bennett (2003), Ladyman et al. (2007),The Connection between Logical and Thermodynamic Irreversibility Defense by Ladyman et al. (2007) and by Jordan and Manikandan (2019).Some Like It Hot, Letter to the Editor in reply to Norton's article by A. Jordan and S. Manikandan (2019) On the other hand, recent advances in non-equilibrium statistical physics have established that there is no a priori relationship between logical and thermodynamic reversibility.
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In "Interest Theories, Old and New" (1914), Fetter criticized Irving Fisher for abandoning the pure time preference theory of interest that Fisher had earlier espoused in his 1907 book, The Rate of Interest, a tome which had heavily influenced Fetter. As Murray Rothbard recounts, upon further review of Fisher's earlier work, > ...Fetter discovered that the seeds of error were in Fisher's publication of > 1907. Fisher had stated that valuations of present and future goods imply a > preexisting money rate of interest, thereby suggesting that a pure time- > preference explanation of interest involves circular reasoning. By way of > contrast, and in the course of explaining his own pure time-preference, or > "capitalization," theory of interest, Fetter showed that time valuation is > prerequisite to the determination of the market rate of interest.
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Others have focused on the perception of short or rapidly varying sounds of language, positing that the core deficit is one of timing rather than of overall function. In the past two decades, the phonological deficit hypothesis has been the dominant explanation favored by researchers as to the probable cause of dyslexia, but it is only one of several competing theories. Critics of the phonological hypothesis point out that it fails to account for symptoms of dyslexia unrelated to phonetic decoding difficulties, such as problems with short-term memory, visual processing issues, or difficulties with balance and small motor coordination that are common to many dyslexic children and adults. They also argue that much of the evidence for the theory is based on circular reasoning, in that phonological weakness is seen as both a defining symptom of dyslexia and as its underlying cause.
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The original phrase used by Aristotle from which begging the question descends is: τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς (or sometimes ἐν ἀρχῇ) αἰτεῖν, "asking for the initial thing." Aristotle's intended meaning is closely tied to the type of dialectical argument he discusses in his Topics, book VIII: a formalized debate in which the defending party asserts a thesis that the attacking party must attempt to refute by asking yes-or-no questions and deducing some inconsistency between the responses and the original thesis. In this stylized form of debate, the proposition that the answerer undertakes to defend is called "the initial thing" (τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς, τὸ ἐν ἀρχῇ) and one of the rules of the debate is that the questioner cannot simply ask for it (that would be trivial and uninteresting). Aristotle discusses this in Sophistical Refutations and in Prior Analytics book II, (64b, 34–65a 9, for circular reasoning see 57b, 18–59b, 1).
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Nowhere in any surviving inscription is Cyrus called the king of Media, unless it is maintained that the present inscription is interpreted that way;It would be circular reasoning to say that the Harran Stele shows that Cyrus is called the King of the Medes because the Medes are listed on the Harran Stele as the enemy of the Babylonians. this would be in contradiction to other sources where Cyrus is referred to "king of Anshan", "king of Persia", "the great king" and other similar titles. The Harran Stele therefore is evidence that just shortly before the fall of Babylon the king of the Medes, whose name is not given, not only existed, but was considered a more important enemy of the Babylonians than Cyrus and the Persians.In the Harran Stele (Pritchard, 562b), Nabonidus lists his principal enemies of the Babylonians as the Egyptians, Medes, and Arabs; the Persians are not mentioned.
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The first of these, philosopher and physician Francisco Sanches, was led by his medical training at Rome, 1571–73, to search for a true method of knowing (modus sciendi), as nothing clear can be known by the methods of Aristotle and his followers'I have sometimes seen a verbose quibbler attempting to persuade some ignorant person that white was black; to which the latter replied, "I do not understand your reasoning, since I have not studied as much as you have; yet I honestly believe that white differs from black. But pray go on refuting me for just as long as you like." '— — for example, 1) syllogism fails upon circular reasoning; 2) Aristotle's modal logic was not stated clearly enough for use in medieval times, and remains a research problem to this day.Susanne Bobzien, "Aristotle's modal logic" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Following the physician Galen's method of medicine, Sanches lists the methods of judgement and experience, which are faulty in the wrong hands,.
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He objected to Descartes' argument regarding what is referred to as The Truth Rule. Arnauld accuses Descartes of circular reasoning. He says Descartes reasons in a circle because according to Descartes since we know that God exists what we clearly and distinctly perceive is true. However, according to Descartes we are certain that God exists because we can clearly and distinctly perceive this. Arnauld states that before we can come to the conclusion of God’s existence we must be sure that whatever we clearly and distinctly perceive is true. In this objection, Arnauld is stating that God’s existence cannot be used to prove that what one clearly and distinctly perceives is true. Another worry that arises from Arnauld’s rejection is the worry of how we can ever come to know of the foundational principles that are needed in order to have knowledge. We can only know something through the foundations of knowledge so a question of interest that arises is how does one know the foundations of knowledge.
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Social strain theory, also known as value-added theory, proposes six factors that encourage social movement development:Smelser 1962 # structural conduciveness - people come to believe their society has problems # structural strain - people experience deprivation # growth and spread of a solution - a solution to the problems people are experiencing is proposed and spreads # precipitating factors - discontent usually requires a catalyst (often a specific event) to turn it into a social movement # lack of social control - the entity that is to be changed must be at least somewhat open to the change; if the social movement is quickly and powerfully repressed, it may never materialize # mobilization - this is the actual organizing and active component of the movement; people do what needs to be done This theory is also subject to circular reasoning as it incorporates, at least in part, deprivation theory and relies upon it, and social/structural strain for the underlying motivation of social movement activism. However, social movement activism is, like in the case of deprivation theory, often the only indication that there was strain or deprivation.
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Sometimes a speaker or writer uses a fallacy intentionally. In any context, including academic debate, a conversation among friends, political discourse, advertising, or for comedic purposes, the arguer may use fallacious reasoning to try to persuade the listener or reader, by means other than offering relevant evidence, that the conclusion is true. Examples of this include the speaker or writer: # Diverting the argument to unrelated issues with a red herring (Ignoratio elenchi) # Insulting someone's character (argumentum ad hominem) # Assume the conclusion of an argument, a kind of circular reasoning, also called "begging the question" (petitio principii) # Making jumps in logic (non sequitur) # Identifying a false cause and effect (post hoc ergo propter hoc) # Asserting that everyone agrees (argumentum ad populum, bandwagoning) # Creating a "false dilemma" ("either-or fallacy") in which the situation is oversimplified # Selectively using facts (card stacking) # Making false or misleading comparisons (false equivalence and false analogy) # Generalizing quickly and sloppily (hasty generalization) In humor, errors of reasoning are used for comical purposes. Groucho Marx used fallacies of amphiboly, for instance, to make ironic statements; Gary Larson and Scott Adams employed fallacious reasoning in many of their cartoons.
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