An answer to this question that has recently come to light is expressed in terms of the catena unit, as implied above.Concerning catenae, see Osborne and Groß (2012a) and Osborne et al (2012b). The periphrastic word combinations are catenae even when they are not constituents, and individual words are also catenae. The form-meaning correspondence is therefore consistent.
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He is pulling my/her/his/someone's/etc. leg. An important caveat concerning idiom catenae is that they can be broken up in the syntax, e.g. Your leg is being pulled. The claim, however, is that these lexical items are stored as catenae in the lexicon; they do not always appear as catenae in the actual syntax.
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And also as with the particle verbs, the combinations form catenae (but not constituents) in simple declarative sentences: ::Verb-preposition combinations The verb and the preposition that it demands form a single meaning-bearing unit, whereby this unit is a catena. These meaning-bearing units can thus be stored as catenae in the mental lexicon of speakers. As catenae, they are concrete units of syntax. The final type of collocations produced here to illustrate catenae is the complex preposition, e.g.
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Periphrastic forms are an example of analytic language, whereas the absence of periphrasis is a characteristic of synthetic language. While periphrasis concerns all categories of syntax, it is most visible with verb catenae. The verb catenae of English are highly periphrastic.
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The subscripted material in the examples above all qualify as catenae. The point is illustrated with the following further examples: ::Antecedent-containment trees 2 Both the elided material (in light grey) and the antecedent (in bold) to the elided material qualify as catenae. As catenae, both are concrete units of syntactic analysis. The need for a movement-type analysis (in terms of QR or otherwise) does not occur.
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Asaphocrita catenae is a moth in the family Blastobasidae that is endemic to Costa Rica.
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AC, BD, CE, BCE, ADF, ABEF, ABDEF, etc. Observe as well that there are a mere six constituents, but 24 catenae. There are therefore four times more catenae in the tree than there are constituents. The inclusivity and flexibility of the catena unit becomes apparent.
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A theory of topicalization is then built up in part by examining the nature of these catenae for feature passing.
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25, p. 148; Ceillier, x. 343. Some fragments are collected in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, LXXXV, chiefly from the two catenae of John Antony Cramer on Romans; a few passages are found in the catena of Aecumenius, others in the catenae of Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopulus, and a few in the Vienna MS. gr. 166 (46).
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Idiosyncratic language of all sorts can be captured in terms of catenae. When meaning is constructed in such a manner that does not allow one to acknowledge meaning chunks as constituents, the catena is involved. The meaning bearing units are catenae, not constituents. This situation is illustrated here in terms of various collocations and proper idioms.
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The final example shows a dependency-based analysis of a sentence where the feature passing path is quite long: ::Long distance feature passing (dependency) Information about the topicalized such nonsense is passed along the path marked in red down to the governor of the topicalized expression spouting. The words corresponding to the nodes in red form a catena (Latin for 'chain', plural catenae).See Osborne et al. (2013) concerning catenae.
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The principle of compositionality is hence understood in terms of catenae. The catena is the basic meaning-bearing unit, not the constituent. The four Hungarian examples from above are analyzed in terms of catenae as follows: ::Separable verbs trees 2' The particle le is separated from its verb when the negation appears (trees b-d). Despite this fact, the particle still forms a catena with its verb in all four trees.
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Light-verb constructions present the same difficulty associated with idiosyncratic expressions of every sort: the meaning is not compositional in a straightforward way. This fact is evident in the examples above, inasmuch as the words that constitute a light- verb construction often do not qualify as a constituent in any sense. These constructions do, however, form catenae (= chains).Concerning the status of constructions as catenae, see Osborne and Groß (2012).
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Ellipsis mechanisms (gapping, stripping, VP- ellipsis, pseudogapping, answer fragments, sluicing, comparative deletion) are eliding catenae, whereby many of these catenae are non-constituents.The value of the catena unit for the analysis of ellipsis phenomena is established in Osborne (2005: 275-285) and Osborne et al. (2012: 379-392). The following examples illustrate gapping:For examples and discussion of the elided material of gapping as a catena, see Osborne (2005: 275-280) and Osborne et al.
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While the predicate cannot be construed as a constituent in the formal sense, it is a catena. Barring a discontinuity, predicates and their arguments are always catenae in dependency structures.
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Sentence structure is conceived of as existing in two dimensions. Combinations organized along the horizontal dimension (in terms of precedence) are called strings, whereas combinations organized along the vertical dimension (in terms of dominance) are catenae. In terms of a cartesian coordinate system, strings exist along the x-axis, and catenae along the y-axis. :Catena (informal graph- theoretic definition) :Any single word or any combination of words that are continuous in the vertical dimension, that is, with respect to dominance (y-axis).
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Theodoret's last exegetical works were the interpretations of difficult passages in the Octateuch and Quaestiones dealing with the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, written about 452 to 453. Excepting the commentary on Isaiah (fragments preserved in the catenae) and on Galatians ii.6-13, the exegetical writings of Theodoret are extant. Exegetical material on the Gospels under his name in the catenae may have come from his other works, and foreign interpolations occur in his comments on the Octateuch.
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The earliest Greek catena is ascribed to Procopius of Gaza, in the first part of the sixth century. Between the seventh and the tenth centuries Andreas Presbyter and Johannes Drungarius are the compilers of catenas to various Books of Scripture. Towards the end of the eleventh century Nicetas of Heraclea produces a great number of catenae. Both before and after, however, the makers of catenae were numerous in the Greek Orient, mostly anonymous, and offering no other indication of their personality than the manuscripts of their excerpts.
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In this manner, the ability of eat to subcategorize for a direct object NP is acknowledged. By examining the nature of catenae like the one in red here, the locality constraints on discontinuities can be identified.
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He was imitated by Rhabanus Maurus (d. 865), Paschasius Radbertus, and Walafrid Strabo, later by Remigius of Auxerre (d. 900), and by Lanfranc of Canterbury (d. 1089). The Western catenae have had less importance attached to them.
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It contains pictures. The biblical text is surrounded by a (Catenae). In the Gospel of Mark, the commentary is by Victorinus of Pettau. There are rich blue and gold illuminations and pictures of Saint Mark and Luke.
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The capital letters serve to abbreviate the words: :::::Catena illustration All of the distinct strings, catenae, components, and constituents in this tree are listed here:The enumeration of distinct strings, catena, components, and constituents as done here is a frequent means of establishing an understanding of the catena unit (e.g. Osborne and Groß 2016: 117-118; Osborne and Groß 2018: 167). ::Distinct strings ::A, B, C, D, E, F, AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, ABC, BCD, CDE, DEF, ABCD, BCDE, CDEF, ABCDE, BCDEF, and ABCDEF ::Distinct catenae ::A, B, C, D, E, F, AB, BC, CF, DF, EF, ABC, BCF, CDF, CEF, DEF, ABCF, BCDF, BCEF, CDEF, ABCDF, ABCEF, BCDEF, and ABCDEF. ::Distinct components ::A, B, C, D, E, F, AB, BC, EF, ABC, DEF, CDEF, BCDEF, and ABCDEF ::Distinct constituents ::A, D, E, AB, DEF, ABCDEF Noteworthy is the fact that the tree contains 39 distinct word combinations that are not catenae, e.g.
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The manuscript was added to the list of New Testament manuscripts by Scholz (1794-1852). It was collated by Scholz. It was examined and described by John Anthony Cramer,John Antony Cramer, Catenae Graecorum patrum in Novum Testamentum (Oxford 1844), Vol. 1, p. XXVII.
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Finally, in response to homiletic and practical needs, there appeared, previous to the tenth century, a number of collections of moral sentences and paraenetic fragments, partly from Scripture and partly from the more famous ecclesiastical writers; sometimes one writer (e.g. Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, especially John Chrysostom whom all the catenae- makers pillage freely) furnishes the material. Such collections are not so numerous as the Scriptural or even the dogmatic catenae. They seem all to depend on an ancient Christian "Florilegium" of the sixth century, that treated, in three books, of God, Man, the Virtues and Vices, and was known as τα ιερά (Sacred Things).
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Several biblical commentaries and other theological texts based upon the Samaritan Pentateuch have been composed by members of the Samaritan community from the fourth century CE onwards.Montgomery 1907, pp. 293–297. Samaritans also employ liturgical texts containing catenae extracted from their Pentateuch.Montgomery 1907, pp. 297–298.
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From the fifteenth century to the nineteenth, various catenas were published. However no modern editions exist, and there are severe textual problems in editing them. Among the editors of Greek catenae was the Jesuit Balthasar Cordier, who published (1628–47) collections of Greek patristic commentaries on St. John and St. Luke and, in conjunction with his confrère Possin, on St. Matthew; the latter scholar edited also (1673) similar collections of patristic excerpts on St. Mark and Job. The voluminous catenae known as Biblia Magna (Paris, 1643) and Biblia Maxima (Paris, 1660), edited by J. de la Haye, were followed by the nine volumes of Critici Sacri, sive clarissimorum virorum annotationes atque tractatus in biblia,Shahan (1913).
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An alternative analysis takes the catena as the fundamental unit of syntactic analysis and assumes that answer ellipsis is eliding catenae. The catena is closely associated with dependency-based theories of syntax. It is defined as any word or any combination of words that is continuous with respect to dominance.See Osborne et al.
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Idioms are lexical items, which means they are stored as catenae in the lexicon. In the actual syntax, however, some idioms can be broken up by various functional constructions. The catena-based analysis of idioms provides a basis for an understanding of meaning compositionality. The Principle of Compositionality can in fact be maintained.
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Although Mimas is heavily cratered, the cratering is not uniform. Most of the surface is covered with craters larger than in diameter, but in the south polar region, there are generally no craters larger than in diameter. Three types of geological features are officially recognized on Mimas: craters, chasmata (chasms) and catenae (crater chains).
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Amid his numerous official duties, he did not neglect his studies, which, however, he directed towards spiritual edification. Thus he wrote "Catenae in Genesin" (Paris, 1546), "In Exodum" (Paris, 1550)—both works republished at Rome in 1557; (Venice, 1553). His chief work was Sanctorum priscorum patrum vitae (8 vols., Venice, 1551–60; 2 vols.
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These verb catenae generally contain a main verb and potentially one or more auxiliary verbs. The auxiliary verbs help express functional meaning of aspect and voice. Since the auxiliary verbs contribute functional information only, they do not qualify as separate predicators, but rather each time they form the matrix predicator with the main verb.
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Among his surviving works are hymns; a commentary on the Song of Songs, which survives only in excerpts in catenae; and a biography of Severus of Antioch. His Greek hymns were often associated with the hymns of Severus. They were translated into Syriac a century later by Paul of Edessa, another monk of Qenneshre.
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Catenae Innovation (formerly Milestone Group) is a British Digital Media and Technology company. Originally a cross media proprietor with holdings in radio, publishing and television, the company now focuses on the digital media and technology sector. The company is based in London and is a constituent of the FTSE AIM All-Share Index division of the Alternative Investment Market.
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A given inflected one-word catena corresponds to a periphrastic multiple-word catena. The role of catenae for the theory of periphrasis is illustrated with the trees that follow. The first example is across French and English. Future tense/time in French is often constructed with an inflected form, whereas English typically employs a periphrastic form, e.g.
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Each of these predicates is a periphrastic form insofar at least one function word is present. The b-predicates are, however, more periphrastic than the a-predicates since they contain more words. The closely similar meaning of these predicates across the a- and b-variants is accommodated in terms of catenae, since each predicate is a catena.
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The codex contains the text of the Gospel of Matthew and Gospel of John on 377 paper leaves () with a Commentary. The text is written in one column per page, in 40-50 lines per page. The biblical text is surrounded by Nicetas catenae. Aland did not place the Greek text of the codex in any Category.
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As the first generation of Russian emigre theologians died out, the torch was taken up by Greek theologians in the postwar period. Until the 1950s, Greek theology had tended towards a scholastic approach. David Ford characterizes it as "doctrinal 'capita' with patristic catenae added". The impact of Florovsky and Lossky began to spread beyond the Slavic Orthodoxy.
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As the first generation of Russian emigre theologians died out, the torch was taken up by Greek theologians in the postwar period. Until the 1950s, Greek theology had tended towards a scholastic approach. David Ford characterizes it as "doctrinal 'capita' with patristic catenae added". The impact of Florovsky and Lossky began to spread beyond the Slavic Orthodoxy.
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However, the catena concept did not generate much interest among linguists until William O'Grady observed in his 1998 article that the words that form idioms are stored as catenae in the lexicon.O'Grady's (1998) seminal article is on the importance of the catena unit for the syntactic analysis of idioms. O'Grady called the relevant syntactic unit a chain, however, not a catena.
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Scholia to the Magnificat, in the catenae of Canticles, and manuscripts at Paris and Mount Athos establish beyond doubt the fact that Hesychius left a commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke, at least on the first chapter. For evidence as to the authenticity of the "Harmony of the Gospels"P.G., XCIII, 1391-1448. the treatise on the Resurrection must first be examined.
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It is among these that Oecumenius himself is quoted. The Commentary on the Apocalypse was first edited by John Antony Cramer: "Catenae in Novum Testamentum", VIII (Oxford, 1840), 497-582; the other three (on Acts, Cath. Ep., and St. Paul) by Donatus (Verona, 1532). Morellus (Paris, 1631) re-edited these with a Latin translation; his edition is reproduced in Patrologia Graeca, vol. CXVIII-CIX.
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These idioms are also stored as catenae (but not as constituents),The insight that proper idioms are stored as catenae (and not as constituents) is the primary insight that first established the value and validity of the catena concept for syntactic analysis (e.g. O'Grady 1998; Osborne 2005: 272-275; Osborne and Groß 2012: 177-180) e.g. ::Catena: Idioms 2 The following idioms include the verb, and object, and at least one preposition. It should again be obvious that the fixed words of the idioms can in no way be viewed as forming constituents: ::Idioms 3 The following idioms include the verb and the prepositional phrase at the same time that the object is free: ::Idioms 4 And the following idioms involving a ditransitive verb include the second object at the same time that the first object is free: ::Idioms 5 Certainly sayings are also idiomatic.
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English sentence structures that grow down and to the right are easier to process. There is a consistent tendency to place heavier constituents to the right, as is evident in the a-trees. Shifting is possible when the resulting structure does not contradict this tendency, as is evident in the b-trees. Note again that the particle verb constructions (in orange) qualify as catenae in both the a- and b-trees.
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The codex contains the text of the Gospel of Matthew and Gospel of Mark on 271 parchment leaves () with a commentary. The text is written in one column per page, in 30 lines per page. The biblical text is surrounded by a catenae. The text is divided according to the (chapters), whose numbers are given at the margin, and the (titles of chapters) at the top of the pages.
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In these collocations with the various particles, however, the meaning of take shifts significantly each time depending on the particle. The particle and take convey a distinct meaning together, whereby this distinct meaning cannot be understood as a straightforward combination of the meaning of take alone and the meaning of the preposition alone. In such cases, one says that the meaning is non- compositional. Non-compositional meaning can be captured in terms of catenae.
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This greater collocation is the idiom, which consists of five words in this case. While the idiom take it on the chin can be stored as a VP constituent (and is therefore not a problem for constituent- based theories), there are many idioms that clearly cannot be stored as constituents. These idioms are a problem for constituent-based theories precisely because they do not qualify as constituents. However, they do of course qualify as catenae.
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The following examples illustrate answer ellipsis:For examples and discussion of the elided material of answer fragments as catenae, see Osborne (2005: 284-285), Osborne et al. (2012: 381-382), and Osborne and Groß (2018). ::Ellipsis picture 4 In each of the acceptable answer fragments (a–e), the elided material corresponds to a catena. In contrast, the elided material corresponds to a non-catena in each of the unacceptable answer fragments (f–h).
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The elements form a catena insofar as they are linked together by dependencies. Some dependency grammar trees containing multiple-word lexical items that are catenae but not constituents are now produced. The following trees illustrate phrasal verbs: ::Lexical item trees 1 The verb and particle (in red) in each case constitute a particle verb construction, which is a single lexical item. The two words remain a catena even as shifting changes their order of appearance.
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The verb and particle/preposition form a catena, and as such, they qualify as a concrete unit of syntax. The following dependency grammar trees illustrate the point:That constructions (including phrasal verb constructions) are catenae is a point established at length by Osborne and Groß (2012). ::Phrasal verbs tree 1 The words of each phrasal verb construction are highlighted in orange. These words form a catena because they are linked together in the vertical dimension.
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There is also another division according to the Ammonian Sections, with references to the Eusebian Canons (written below Ammonian Section numbers). It contains tables of the (tables of contents) before each of the Gospels, lectionary markings at the margin (for liturgical use), subscriptions at the end of each of the Gospels, numbers of , pictures, and catenae. It has the commentaries of (Chrysostomos in Matthew, Luke, and John, Victorinus in Mark). It contains the famous Jerusalem Colophon.
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In linguistics, the catena (English pronunciation: , plural catenas or catenae; from Latin for "chain") is a unit of syntax and morphology, closely associated with dependency grammars. It is a more flexible and inclusive unit than the constituent and may therefore be better suited than the constituent to serve as the fundamental unit of syntactic and morphosyntactic analysis.Osborne et al. (2012) develop this claim at length, namely that the catena unit should be regarded as the fundamental unit of syntax rather than the constituent.
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The word combinations that assume non-compositional meaning form catenae (but not constituents): :four take trees Both the a- and b-sentences show that while the verb and its particle do not form a constituent, they do form a catena each time. The contrast in word order across the sentences of each pair illustrates what is known as shifting. Shifting occurs to accommodate the relative weight of the constituents involved. Heavy constituents prefer to appear to the right of lighter sister constituents.
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The discussion here focuses on these idioms since they illustrate particularly well the value of the catena concept. Many idioms in English consist of a verb and a noun (and more), whereby the noun takes a possessor that co-indexed with the subject and will thus vary with subject. These idioms are stored as catenae but clearly not as constituents, e.g. ::Idioms 1 Similar idioms have a possessor that is freer insofar as it is not necessarily co-indexed with the subject.
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The catena unit is suited to an understanding of predicates and their arguments.For a discussion and many illustrations of predicates as catenae, see Osborne (2005: 260-270) \-- a predicate is a property that is assigned to an argument or as a relationship that is established between arguments. A given predicate appears in sentence structure as a catena, and so do its arguments. A standard matrix predicate in a sentence consists of a content verb and potentially one or more auxiliary verbs.
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As each additional auxiliary verb is added, the predicate grows, the predicate catena gaining links. When assessing the approach to predicate- argument structures in terms of catenae, it is important to keep in mind that the constituent unit of phrase structure grammar is much less helpful in characterizing the actual word combinations that qualify as predicates and their arguments. This fact should be evident from the examples here, where the word combinations in green would not qualify as constituents in phrase structure grammars.
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A relatively recent development in the field of syntax envisages lexical items stored in the lexicon as catenae, whereby a given catena may or may not be a constituent. William O'Grady (1998) introduced the catena unit to linguistics; others have developed the concept further. See for instance Osborne and Groß (2012). In syntax, a catena is any element or combination of elements (words or parts of words) that are continuous in the vertical dimension, that is, in the hierarchy of words.
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The codex contains the text of the four Gospels, on 217 parchment leaves (size ), with some lacunae (John 13:29-18:23; 19:24-21:25). The biblical text is surrounded by catenae. The biblical text is written in 21 lines per page, the text of the commentary in 50 lines per page. The text is divided according to the (chapters), whose numbers are given at the margin, with their (titles) at the top of the pages (with a Harmony).
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The first verb in such a combination is the finite verb, the remainder are nonfinite (although constructions in which even the leading verb is nonfinite are also possible – see below). Such combinations are sometimes called compound verbs; more technically they may be called verb catenae, since they are not generally strict grammatical constituents of the clause. As the last example shows, the words making up these combinations do not always remain consecutive. For details of the formation of such constructions, see English clause syntax.
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Multi-ring structures probably originated as a result of a post-impact concentric fracturing of the lithosphere lying on a layer of soft or liquid material, possibly an ocean. The catenae—for example Gomul Catena—are long chains of impact craters lined up in straight lines across the surface. They were probably created by objects that were tidally disrupted as they passed close to Jupiter prior to the impact on Callisto, or by very oblique impacts. A historical example of a disruption was Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9.
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Torrell, 161 ff. Similar collections of Greek patristic utterances were constructed for dogmatic purposes. They were used at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, at the Fifth General Council in 553, also apropos of Iconoclasm in the Seventh General Council in 787; and among the Greeks such compilations, like the exegetical catenae, did not cease until late in the Middle Ages. The oldest of these dogmatic compilations, attributed to the latter part of the seventh century, is the "Antiquorum Patrum doctrina de Verbi incarnatione".
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The following trees illustrate polywords: ::Lexical item trees 2 The component words of the polywords (in red) are continuous in the vertical dimension and are therefore catenae. They cannot, however, be construed as constituents since they do not form complete subtrees. The following trees illustrate idioms: ::Lexical item trees 3 The fixed words constituting the idiom (in red) build a catena each time. Note that your is not part of the idiom in the first tree (tree a) because the possessor is variable, e.g.
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Several prominent impact craters and catenae are located within Valhalla structure. At the northern margin of it Gomul Catena can be found as well as Egdir and Mimir craters. The catena consists of a linear sequence of impact craters and probably resulted from a break-up of a comet (like comet Shoemaker-Levy 9). To the south of Valhalla there are Sarakka and Nar impact craters; to the east of it (at the boundary between the inner and outer trough zones) are Sculd crater and Svol Catena.
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It is certain that Hesychius was the author of consecutive commentaries on Leviticus, the Psalms, the Canticle of Canticles, the Twelve Minor Prophets, Isaiah, and Luke (Chapter i?). His name occurs in catenae in connection with an occasional scholium to texts from other books (Genesis, 1 and 2 Samuel, Ezekiel, Daniel, Matthew, John, Acts, the Catholic Epistles), which, however, apart from the question of their authenticity, are not necessarily taken from complete commentaries on the respective books. Likewise the citations from Hesychius in ascetic florilegiaAs in Bodl. Barocc. 143, saec. 12.
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Cites: Edited by Pearson, London, 1660; Amsterdam, 1695-1701 containing selections, not only from Catholic but also from Protestant commentators. An important collection of the Greek catenae on the New Testament is that of J. A. Cramer (Oxford, 1838–44), online at archive.org. See also the twenty-eight volumes of the Migne commentary in his "Scripturae sacrae cursus completus" (Paris, 1840–45). For the Byzantine collections of ethical sentences and proverbs of (Stobaeus Maximus Confessor, Antonius Melissa, Johannes Georgides, Macarius, Michael Apostolios) partly from Christian and partly from pagan sources, see Krumbacher, pp.
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The catena unit was introduced to linguistics by William O'Grady in 1998. Any word or any combination of words that are linked together by dependencies qualifies as a catena.Osborne and Groß (2012:173ff.) The words constituting idioms are stored as catenae in the lexicon, and as such, they are concrete units of syntax. The dependency grammar trees of a few sentences containing non-constituent idioms illustrate the point: ::Idiom trees 1' The fixed words of the idiom (in orange) in each case are linked together by dependencies; they form a catena.
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Some theories of grammar seek to avoid the confusion generated by the competition between the two predicate notions by acknowledging predicators.For examples of grammars that employ the term predicator, see for instance , , , and The term predicate is employed in the traditional sense of the binary division of the clause, whereas the term predicator is used to denote the more modern understanding of matrix predicates. On this approach, the periphrastic verb catenae briefly illustrated in the previous section are predicators. Further illustrations are provided next: ::Predicate trees 3' The predicators are in blue.
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An analysis of VP-ellipsis that takes the catena to be the fundamental unit of syntactic analysis (as opposed to the constituent) is not confronted with the antecedent containment problem. The ellipsis can correspond to a non-constituent catena, which means a movement analysis in terms of QR is not needed.The extent to which the elided words of VP-ellipsis correspond to catenae is discussed and illustrated in Osborne and Groß (2012). The catena is a concrete unit of syntactic analysis associated with dependency grammar (DG); it is defined as any word or any word combination that is continuous with respect to dominance.
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Kilauea with Halemaʻumaʻu Deep pit crater on Hualalai Hawaii A pit crater (also called a subsidence crater or collapse crater) is a depression formed by a sinking or collapse of the surface lying above a void or empty chamber, rather than by the eruption of a volcano or lava vent. Pit craters are found on Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and the Moon. Pit craters are often found in a series of aligned or offset chains and in these cases, the features is called a pit crater chain. Pit crater chains are distinguished from catenae or crater chains by their origin.
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In the case of certain separate books, Hesychius has inaugurated an original stichic division of the Sacred Text—for the "citizen of the Holy City" (hagiopolites) cited in the oldest manuscripts of catenae of the Psalms, and the Canticles, is none other than Hesychius of Jerusalem. It was discovered by Giovanni Mercati that in some manuscripts the initial letter of each division according to Hesychius is indicated in colour. Hesychius must have been generally known as an authority, for he is quoted simply as Hagiopolites, or, elsewhere, by the equally laconic expression "him of Jerusalem" (tou Hierosolymon).
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The aspect of phrasal verb constructions that makes them difficult to learn for non-native speakers of English is that their meaning is non-compositional. That is, one cannot know what a given phrasal verb construction means based upon what the verb alone and/or the preposition and/or particle alone mean, as emphasized above. This trait of phrasal verbs is also what makes them interesting for linguists, since they appear to defy the principle of compositionality. An analysis of phrasal verbs in terms of catenae (=chains), however, is not challenged by the apparent lack of meaning compositionality.
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On Earth (and presumably Mars as well), not all of the magma produced in a large igneous province erupts at the surface as lava. Much of it stalls in the crust where it slowly cools and solidifies to produce large intrusive complexes (plutons). If the magma migrates through vertical fractures it produces swarms of dikes that may be expressed at the surface as long, linear cracks (fossae) and crater chains (catenae). Magma may also intrude the crust horizontally as large tabular bodies, such as sills and laccoliths, that can cause a general doming and fracturing of the overlying crust.
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Pierre Seguier painted by Henri Testelin (ca. 1668) The codex was probably written in the 6th century at the library in Caesarea, later coming into the possession of the monastery of the Great Lavra on Mount Athos, but its value appears to have been overlooked. Leaves of the codex were used as raw material for the production of new volumes. In 975 some leaves, now known as Fragmenta Mosquensia, were used to cover a volume of Gregory Nazianzen at Mount Athos. In the 12th century Fragmenta Taurinensia were used in Nicetas' catenae to the Psalterium, in 1218 another part, now named as Fragmenta Coisliniana, were used with the same purpose.
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Only the catena-based approach handles multiple sluicing without further elaboration. The structural movement analysis must rely on some other type of movement to evacuate the noninitial wh-phrase from the ellipsis site; proposals for this additional movement include extraposition or shifting and need to be able to account for islands in sluicing. The nonstructural analysis must add phrase-structure rules to allow an interrogative clause to consist of multiple wh-phrases and be able to account for connectivity effects. The catena-based approach, however, does not account for the locality facts; since catenae can span multiple clauses, the fact that multiply-sluiced wh-phrases must be clausemates is a mystery.
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The first flowering of ecclesiastical literature of Byzantium is Hellenistic in form and Oriental in spirit. This period falls in the 4th century and is closely associated with the names of the Greek Fathers of Alexandria, Palestine, Jerusalem, Cyrene, and Cappadocia. Their works, which cover the whole field of ecclesiastical prose literature—dogma, exegesis, and homiletics—became canonical for the whole Byzantine period; the last important work is the ecclesiastical history of Evagrius. Beyond controversial writings against sectarians and the Iconoclasts, later works consist merely of compilations and commentaries, in the form of the so-called Catenae; even the Fountain of Knowledge of John of Damascus (8th century), the fundamental manual of Greek theology, though systematically worked out by a learned and keen intellect, is merely a gigantic collection of materials.
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The elided units are catenae, and as such they are clearly defined units of syntactic analysis. Two additional complex examples further illustrate how a catena- based analysis of answer fragments works: ::Answer ellipsis 3 While the elided material shown in light gray certainly cannot be construed as a constituent, it does qualify as a catena (because it forms a subtree). The following example shows that even when the answer contains two fragments, the elided material still qualifies as a catena: ::Answer ellipsis 4 Such answers that contain two (or even more) fragments are rare in English (although they are more common in other languages) and may be less than fully acceptable. A movement analysis of this answer fragment would have to assume that both Susan and Larry have moved out of the encompassing constituent so that that constituent can be elided.
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List of geological features on Mercury is an itemization of mountains, valleys, craters and other landform features of the planet Mercury. Different types of features are named after different things: Mercurian ridges are called dorsa, and are named after astronomers who made detailed studies of the planet; valleys are called valles, and are named after ancient abandoned cities, towns, and settlements; crater chains are called catenae and are named after radio telescope facilities; plains are called planitiae, and most are named after mythological names associated with Mercury; escarpments are called rupes and are named after the ships of famous explorers; long, narrow depressions are called fossae and are named after works of architecture; bright spots are called faculae and are named after the word snake in various languages. See also list of craters on Mercury, list of albedo features on Mercury, and list of quadrangles on Mercury Longitude is west longitude.
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