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But the four Caliphs who followed Muhammad were anything but flawless.

While earlier centuries saw a few self-declared caliphs, we are seeing more on today's horizon.

Maps trace routes through the non-existent old town, highlighting the homes of the first caliphs.

But though he earned followers, like the first Caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, their numbers were few.

Diggers flatten hills that were once dotted with the homes of the Prophet's wives, companions and first caliphs.

It led him to read about Cordoba, Spain, under the Moors; Baghdad under the Caliphs; and Istanbul under Ottoman rule.

Even further afield, they commanded the loyalties of hundreds of millions of Muslims around the world as the caliphs of Islam.

Self-appointed "Caliphs" continue to appear and disappear, suggesting that a void remains unfilled since the last sultan occupied that role.

From the 12th century onward, however, a more uniform and less rational form of Islam was imposed by despotic caliphs and sultans.

Pharaohs, caliphs, czars and maharajahs all vividly leapt to mind when I saw this clue; I even thought of kleptocrats and kakists.

They steeped their claims in Islamic history, and littered them with references to the glorious time of the Prophet Muhammad and the first four Caliphs.

It was sacked after Jerusalem fell to the Persians in the seventh century, then rebuilt and later destroyed by Muslim caliphs in the 11th century.

The Sunnis, however, regard Ali as well as the three caliphs before him as rightly guided and themselves as the true adherents to the Sunnah, or the prophet's tradition.

The Sunnis believe that he and the three caliphs before him were all rightly guided and therefore entitled to succeed the prophet; Ali is not excluded from this list.

Although Sunnis revere Ali as one of the four "rightly guided" caliphs who ruled after Mohammed's death, they do not commemorate his death or make a pilgrimage to his tomb.

But the heart of Medina and the Mosque is still the southernmost end, where behind three grills lie the tombs of Mohammed, and the first caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar.

"PEOPLE ARE of two types in relation to you," Imam Ali, the prophet Muhammad's son-in-law and one of his first caliphs, or successors, is reputed to have said.

Yet for those who believe that Muslims have suffered because they failed to keep God's ordinances, the only response is to return to the religious purity of the early caliphs.

From Byzantine emperors to Abbasid Caliphs, rulers used the morphing Alexander legend as a means of striking fear into the heart of their constituency and casting themselves as their foretold savior.

Instead, in a highly effective bit of rebranding, they call the Islamic State Kharijites, a reviled group of Muslims who killed women and children and rebelled against the caliphs in the seventh century.

ISIS supporters—and Salafists more generally, and indeed, a large number of Muslims—revere Muhammad and the first four Caliphs to such an extreme degree that it elevates them to pedestals that appear divine.

As was shown by Halil Inalcιk, an Ottoman historian who died this week aged 100, the sultan-caliphs' real power varied a lot over time; some managed to control the ulema or religious scholars, others didn't.

Samarra's Sunnis clamber up the helter-skelter of their malwiya, the towering minaret with which the Abbasid caliphs adorned their capital 1,200 years ago when they ruled the Islamic world from this little bend in the Tigris.

Between the eighth and 15th centuries a large part of the Iberian Peninsula was ruled by Muslim caliphs, and extremist websites often speak fancifully about a return to the era of Al-Andalus, as medieval Spain was known.

This ritual is meant to recreate the way in which early Muslims pledged fealty to the Prophet Muhammad, and later to the caliphs that succeeded him, said Amarnath Amarasingam, a senior research fellow at the Institute for Strategic Dialogue.

In Iraq the army backed by Shi'ite Muslim militia groups has this year recaptured Falluja and is now poised for an offensive on Mosul, where Islamic State's leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, in 2014 declared himself heir to Islam's caliphs.

Sunnis claim that the leadership passed down the line of the four rashidun (rightly guided or perfect) caliphs who had been the Prophet's companions: Abu Bakr, Omar, Uthman and only then to Ali, the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law.

In Iraq, the army and allied Shiite militia groups recaptured Falluja this year and have been ordered to begin an offensive on Mosul, where the Islamic State's leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, declared himself the heir to Islam's caliphs in 2014.

The Islamic State leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, who once spent time in a prison run by occupying American troops in Iraq, claimed to be the successor to the caliphs, the Islamic emperors who shaped the region in past centuries.

Even where they stop short of fomenting anti-Western violence, global networks of religious fundamentalism and puritanism, such as those linking preachers from say, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia, have replaced the relatively emollient tone set by the Ottoman caliphs, who were connoisseurs of Western art and music, as a colleague has written.

In the Palace of Felicity, in Constantinople, in the land of the Turks, early in the Christian year 1591, viziers to Murad the Great, third of that name, Sultan of the Ottomans, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, Caliph of Caliphs, dispatched an embassy to a far-off, sunless, primitive, sodden, heathen kingdom at the far cliffside edge of the civilized earth.

This is a list of caliphs of the Fatimid dynasty (909–1171). The caliphs were at the same time imams of the Isma'ili branch of Shi'a Islam.

The Rashidun Caliphate (, ') was the first of the four major caliphates established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs (successors) of Muhammad after his death in 632 CE (AH 11). These caliphs are collectively known in Sunni Islam as the Rashidun, or "Rightly Guided" caliphs ( '). This term is not widely used in Shia Islam as Shia Muslims do not consider the rule of the first three caliphs as legitimate.

Genealogical tree of the Abbasid family. In green, the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. In yellow, the Abbasid caliphs of Cairo. Muhammad is included (in caps) to show the kinship of the Abbasids with him.

The site was completely deserted under the Abbasid Caliphs in the ninth century.

The Caliphs of Cairo (founded in 1937) are a New Orleans, Louisiana Carnival krewe.

Near the stables are located, along the walls, the medieval Baths of the Umayyad Caliphs.

Another suggestion was that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. Eventually, Umar swore his own allegiance to Abu Bakr, citing his prominence among the companions. Others soon followed, accepting Abu Bakr near-universally as the first Caliph of Islam. Abu Bakr and the three caliphs following him are regarded as the Rashidun Caliphs (or rightly-guided caliphs) by the adherents of Sunni Islam.

During his seven-year Imamate Hasan al-Askari, the eleventh Imam, lived in taqiya. This was because the Abbasid Caliphs were afraid of the Shia, who had reached a considerable population at the time. The caliphs came to know that the leaders among the Shia believed that the eleventh Imam, according to numerous traditions cited by him and his forefathers, would have a son who was the promised Mahdi. The caliphs therefore decided to put an end to the Imamate.

According to the prophecy there will reign twelve caliphs—presumably the first being crowned upon Muhammad's death—and after which the caliphate would cease to exist and mark the beginning of the judgement day or armageddon. It is stated that all twelve caliphs will be from the tribe of Quraysh. Interpretation of the hadith varies widely among Sunni scholars; some have openly claimed that they do not know the meaning. Another interpretation is that the prophecy was fulfilled by the Rashidun Caliphs.

The Rashidun Caliphs (Rightly Guided Caliphs; '), often simply called, collectively, "the Rashidun", is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the 30-year reign (632–661) of the first four caliphs (successors) following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, namely: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali of the Rashidun Caliphate, the first caliphate. The caliphate of Hasan ibn Ali is sometimes also considered to be Rashidun as well but since it was merely a six month period it is not mentioned categorically. It is a reference to the Sunni imperative "Hold firmly to my example (sunnah) and that of the Rightly Guided Caliphs" (Ibn Majah, Abu Dawood).

Historically, "the Sunnites often applied it [Mahdi] to the four caliphs after the Prophet, who were called al- Khulafa' al-Rashidun al-Mahdiyyun, the rightly guided caliphs.' Sulayman b. Surd called al-Husayn, after his martyrdom, Mahdi b. al-Mahdi".Hussain, Jassim M. Occultation of the Twelfth Imam: A Historical Background.

The first four caliphs are particularly significant to modern intra-Islamic debates: for Sunni Muslims, they are models of righteous rule; for Shia Muslims, the first three of the four were usurpers. Accepted traditions of both Sunni and Shia Muslims detail disagreements and tensions between the four rightly guided caliphs.

Jalal al-Deen al-Suyuti. Tarikh al-Khulufa. Translated by Jarrett, H. S. (1881). History of the Caliphs, p. 200.

He contributed articles to the Encyclopedia of Islam. A notable work late in Ayalon's career was Eunuchs, Caliphs and Sultans.

Jalal al-Deen al-Suyuti. Tarikh al-Khulufa. Translated by Jarrett, H. S. (1881). History of the Caliphs, p. 200.

Ibrahim was a descendant of Sulayman ibn Ali, the uncle of the first two Abbasid caliphs al-Saffah and al-Mansur.

Amr ibn Maymun al-Awdi () was one of the AnsarHistory of the Caliphs by Suyuti companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

History of the Caliphs. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society. to the debate of Muhammad's widow Aisha.Al-Tabari, Tarikh al-Rusul wa’l-Muluk.

The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to Islamic lawyers, judiciary, or specialists individually termed as Mujtahids and collectively named the Ulema. The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, meaning the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the sunnah (example) of Muhammad in all things.

Translated by Jarrett, H. S. (1881). History of the Caliphs, p. 155. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society. Ruqayyah fell ill in March 624.

Hamilton Gibb. Studies on the civilization of Islam. Princeton University Press. 1982. p. 66 The caliphs adopted Sassanid court dress and ceremony.

Muslims have an ethical and legal obligation by their religion to rise up and depose unjust leaders including unrighteous sultans and caliphs.

A green dome was made over his tomb as well as the tomb of the early Islamic caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar.

After his death, the 4 Caliphs of the Rashidun Caliphate expanded the territory which led to victories against the Byzantine and Persian empires.

Roger Collins, Caliphs and Kings (John Wiley & Sons 2012 ) The Almohades, in the 12th century, destroyed this together with the other Andalusian sees.

Al-Baqi' is a significant cemetery in Medina where several family members of Muhammad, caliphs and scholars are known to have been buried.

However, Atikah was known as she was a relative to twelve Umayyad caliphs (out of fourteen) and this enabled her to take off her Hijab in front of them, and no other known woman that had such number of mahrams (men permitted to see her hair according to muslim sharia) between caliphs. She survived the death of her grandson Al Walid II.

Though non-political, some Sufi orders and the Ahmadiyya movement define themselves as caliphates. Their leaders are thus commonly referred to as khalifas (caliphs).

Ujayf ibn Anbasa () (died 838) was one of the senior-most military leaders of the Abbasid Caliphate under the caliphs al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tasim.

The practice was continued by his successors. The tradition was originally started by the Islamic prophet Muhammad and continued by the 4 Caliphs after him.

They were a Shia Ismaili dynasty that followed the Fatimid Caliphs based in Egypt. They were also Hafizi Ismaili as opposed to the Taiyabi Ismaili.

Enispe or the caliphs is a genus of nymphalid butterfly in the subfamily Morphinae. They are found in western China and from Sikkim to Borneo.

Abū al-Ḥasan ʿUbayd Allāh ibn Yaḥyā ibn Khāqān () was an Abbasid official who served twice as vizier, under caliphs al-Mutawakkil and al-Mu'tamid.

Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the Tahirid dynasty in Khorasan, which was founded during the caliph Al-Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties included the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.

This is the dynastic name generally given to the caliphs of Baghdad, the second of the two great Sunni dynasties of the Arab Empire. The Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad caliphs from all their lands except Spain. The Abbasids continued the policy of the Umayyads with respect to Yemen. Frequently, a member of the highest Abbasid aristocracy, including princes of the dynasty, served as governors.

After the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad presented himself as a khatib to the city in AD 630. The first four caliphs, and the Ummayads caliphs and provincial governors all delivered sermons. There were not necessarily exhortatory, but addressed practical questions of government and sometimes even included direct orders. Under the Abbasids, the caliph himself no longer preached, but assigned the task to the religious judges.

Such a framework allows the caliph to relegate, if he sees fit, most or all his secular authority to the elected representatives of the members of such a confederation. The Ahmadiyya caliphate has spanned over a century, seen five caliphs and is continuing, in the manner of the first four caliphs of Muhammad. However, the Ahmadiyya caliphate is seen as a continuation of the first Islamic caliphate of Muhammad and the Ahmadiyya caliphs as successors to Ghulam Ahmad as well as ultimately to Muhammad. Ahmadi Muslims believe God has assured them that the present caliphate will endure till the Day of Judgement, depending on their righteousness and faith in God.

At the beginning of his reign, in 788, he faced rebellions from his brothers, Suleiman and 'Abd Allah.Roger Collins, Caliphs and Kings: Spain 796-1031, 29.

Hulagu Khan's siege of Baghdad (1258). On February 13, 1258, the Mongols entered the city of the caliphs, starting a full week of pillage and destruction.

He mentions another biographic work on the caliphs, imāms and amīrs from across the Islamic world, which has not survived. He died after 1312 / 712 AH.

Arwa bint Kurayz () was the mother of Uthman ibn Affan, a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and the third of the Rashidun or "Rightly Guided Caliphs".

Along with the reality of extraterrestrial life, the Stellar Caliphs also recently developed mainframe artificial intelligence agents called djinn, who are accepted as equals in Muslim society.

This black flag was traditionally presented to the Seljuk sovereigns by the Abbasid caliphs. A yellow flag was also used to denote Seljuk sovereignty over a town.

Abdullah died in January 633, when his old wound from Ta'if flared up.Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti. History of the Caliphs. Translated by Jarrett, H. S. (1881).

The Mamluks were usually captive non-Muslim Iranian and Turkish children who had been kidnapped or bought as slaves from the Barbary coasts. The Egyptians assimilated and trained the boys and young men to become Islamic soldiers who served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. The first mamluks served the Abbasid caliphs in 9th-century Baghdad. Over time they became a powerful military caste.

Despite his Christianity, he was favored by leading Umayyad caliphs. Throughout his life, al-Akhtal was a supporter of the ruling Umayyad dynasty. He lauded in his panegyrics Yazid, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and al-Walid I and in his satires attacked all the opponents of the caliphs. Al-Akhtal became the official court poet of Abd al- Malik, to whom he dedicated a number of panegyrics.

The Dulafid or Dolafid dynasty () was an Arab dynasty that served as governors of Jibal for the Abbasid caliphs in the 9th century. During the weakening of the authority of the caliphs after 861, their rule in Jibal became increasingly independent of the central government in Samarra. In the last decade of the 9th century, however, they were defeated by the Abbasids who proceeded to reincorporate Jibal into their empire.

The History of the Khalifahs who took the Right Way is a partial translation of History of the Caliphs. Its translator, Abdassamad Clarke, chose to translate the biographies of the first four "Rightly Guided Caliphs" adding to them Imam Hasan ibn Ali, because of his action in healing the divisions in the early community and, according to Sunni Muslims' opinion, legitimately handing power over to Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan.

However, others agree with the Sunni view that this verse proves her innocent. Shi'a supported the advancement of Ali in the political world and disregarded Aisha because of her feelings towards Ali. The Shi'a preferred Ali over the first three caliphs; they never accepted Mu’awiya or any later caliphs, and Shi'a took the name shi’at Ali, or Ali's Party. Shi'a also regarded Ali to be the most judicious of the Companions.

Many Muslims call the first four caliphs the Rashidun, meaning the Rightly-Guided, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the sunnah (example) of Muhammad.

Khundmir (AH 887- 14 Shawwal AH 930; AD 1482/3 - 15 August 1524) was a companion and second of five caliphs (successor) of Mahdavi founder Syed Muhammad Jaunpuri.

Nevertheless, Irene was constantly harried by the Abbasids, and in 782 and 798 had to accept the terms of the respective Caliphs Al-Mahdi and Harun al- Rashid.

The caliphs lost their temporal power in 936–946, first to a series of military strongmen, and then to the Shi'a Buyid dynasty that seized control of Baghdad; the Buyids were in turn replaced by the Sunni Seljuk Turks in the mid-11th century, and Turkish rulers assumed the title of "Sultan" to denote their temporal authority. The Abbasid caliphs remained the generally recognized suzerains of Sunni Islam, however. In the mid-12th century, the Abbasids regained their independence from the Seljuks, but the revival of Abbasid power ended with the Sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258. Most Abbasid caliphs were born to a concubine mother, known as umm al-walad ().

Shia believe that Hasan al-Askari gained the Imamate after the death of his father—by divine command, as well as by the decrees of the previous Imams—at the age of 22. During the seven years of his Imamate, Hasan al-Askari lived in dissimulation (taqiyah), without any social contact, as the Abbasid Caliphs were afraid of the increasing popularity of Shia Islam at the time. The Caliphs also came to know that the leaders among the Shia believed that the eleventh Imam would have a son who was the promised Mahdi. Due to these fears, the Caliphs of the time had decided to put an end to the Imamate of Shi'ism once and for all.

The palaces of the Caliphs, their greatest architectural achievements, have been destroyed and are known only from written descriptions. The heartland of architectural activity and expression during Fatimid rule was at al-Qahira, on the outskirts of Cairo on the eastern side of the Nile, where many of the palaces, mosques and other buildings were built. The Caliphs competed with their rivals of the Abbasid and Byzantine empires, and were known to indulge in furnishing their palaces with "extraordinary splendor". The palaces had gold rafters to support the ceilings and Caliphs typically asked for a golden throne encased with a curtain similar to those of the rulers of the Abbasids and Byzantines.

He was also the first to openly cast aspersions upon the first three caliphs and the Sahaabah. All of these beliefs are fundamental to the view of the Raafidis.

The Abbasid Caliphate, ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, was the third of the Islamic caliphates. Under the Abbasids, the Islamic Golden Age philosophers, scientists, and engineers of the Islamic world contributed enormously to technology, both by preserving earlier traditions and by adding their own inventions and innovations. Scientific and intellectual achievements blossomed in the period. The Abbasids built their capital in Baghdad after replacing the Umayyad caliphs from all but the Iberian peninsula.

Humayd ibn Hurayth was a grandson of Bahdal ibn Unayf, the preeminent chieftain of the Banu Kalb tribe. Humayd's family and tribe had kinship ties with the early Umayyad caliphs Mu'awiya I (), Yazid I () and Mu'awiya II () and gained influential positions in the Umayyad state.Crone 1980, p. 93. Humayd's cousins Hassan ibn Malik and Sa'id ibn Malik served as the governors of various Syrian ajnad (military districts) during the reigns of the aforementioned caliphs.

Among his reforms was the introduction of what came to be known as the kolah-e Naderi. This was a hat with four peaks which symbolised the first four caliphs.

London: Elibron Classics, 2005. he mentions the birth and death of the Caliphs, Shia Imams, Fatimah (daughter of Muhammad) and Khadija (Muhammad's wife).The Chronology Of Ancient Nations, trans.Edward Sachau.

Sykes, Mark. The Caliphs' last heritage: a short history of the Turkish EmpireO'Shea, Maria. Trapped between the map and reality: geography and perceptions of Kurdistan. .Library Information and Research Service.

Sabrishoʿ II was Patriarch of the Church of the East from 831 to 835. He sat during the reigns of the caliphs al-Maʿmun (813–33) and al-Muʿtasim (833–41).

His head was displayed on a pike, severely affecting the morale of his troops. Real captured the "Great Flag of the Caliphs" and became a symbol of the victory at Lepanto.

The Church Santa Maria de Naranco was likely to originally be Ramiro I's palace and later changed into a church.Collins, Roger. Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012, p.

Following the Safavid empire's conversion to the Shia sect of Islam, the first three caliphs, whom the Shia felt usurped Ali's right to be caliph, were cursed during Friday sermons.Patrick Cockburn.

Abū Saʿīd al-Muhallab ibn Abī Ṣufra al-Azdī (; 702) was an Arab general from the Azd tribe who fought in the service of the Rashidun, Umayyad and Zubayrid caliphs between the mid-640s and his death. He served successive terms as the governor of Fars (685–686), Mosul, Arminiya and Adharbayjan (687–688) and Khurasan (698–702). Al-Muhallab's descendants, known as the Muhallabids, became a highly influential family, many of whose members held high office under various Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, or became well-known scholars. Throughout his early military career, he participated in the Arab campaigns against the Persians in Fars, Ahwaz, Sistan and Khurasan during the successive reigns of caliphs Umar (), Uthman (), Ali () and Mu'awiya I ().

The Mamluk Sultans of Egypt and Syria later appointed an Abbasid Prince as Caliph of Cairo, but these Mamluk Abbasid Caliphs were marginalized and merely symbolic Caliphs, with no temporal power and little religious influence. Even though they kept the title for about 250 years more, other than installing the Sultan in ceremonies, these Caliphs had little importance. After the Ottomans conquered Egypt in 1517, the Caliph of Cairo, Al-Mutawakkil III was transported to Constantinople. Centuries later, a tradition developed saying that at this time Al-Mutawakkil III formally surrendered the title of caliph as well as its outward emblems—the sword and mantle of Muhammad—to the Ottoman sultan Selim I, establishing the Ottoman sultans as the new caliphal line.

Caliph Umar's empire at its peak in 644 Islam was introduced to Turkmenistan during the period of Islamic conquest by the second and third Rashidun Caliphs, Umar and Uthman. Integrated within the Turkmen tribal structure is the "holy" tribe called övlat. Ethnographers consider the övlat, of which six are active, as a revitalized form of the ancestor cult injected with Sufism. According to their genealogies, each tribe descends from the Prophet Muhammad through one of the Four Caliphs.

The followers of Ali later became the Shi'a ("shiaat Ali", partisans of Ali.) minority sect of Islam and reject the legitimacy of the first 3 caliphs. The followers of all four Rāshidun Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) became the majority Sunni sect. Under the Rāshidun each region (Sultanate, Wilayah, or Emirate) of the Caliphate had its own governor (Sultan, Wāli or Emir). Muāwiyah, a relative of Uthman and governor (Wali) of Syria, succeeded Ali as Caliph.

The caliphs of Damascus (661-750) were tolerant princes who were on generally good terms with their Christian subjects. Many Christians, such as John of Damascus, held important offices at their court. The Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad (753-1242), as long as they ruled Syria, were also tolerant to Christians. Harun Abu Jaʻfar (786-809), sent the keys of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to Charlemagne, who built a hospice for Latin pilgrims near the shrine.

The corruption and tyranny of Muslim rulers (caliphs, sultans, etc.) throughout history was a central theme in Rida's criticisms. Rida, however, celebrated the rule of Muhammad and the Rightly Guided Caliphs, and leveled his attacks at subsequent rulers who could not maintain Muhammad's example. He also criticized the clergy (ulama) for compromising their integrity - and the integrity of the Islamic law (sharia) they were meant to uphold - by associating with worldly corrupt powers.Rida, Muhammad Rashid. 1934.

The second most important hilye, after Hakani's, is considered to be Cevri İbrahim Çelebi's hilye, Hilye-i Çihar-Yar-ı Güzin (1630), about the physical appearance of the first four caliphs. Another important hilye writer is Nesati Ahmed Dede (d. 1674), whose 184-verse long poem is about the physical characteristics of 14 prophets and Adam. Other notable hilyes are Dursunzâde Bakayi's Hilye'tûl-Enbiya ve Çeyar-ı Güzîn (hilye of the prophet and his four caliphs), Nahifi's (d.

Jaunpuri's declaration was ignored by the ulema of Mecca, but after he repeated his declaration in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, he gained a group of followers and established a line of caliphs who led the movement after his death. After Jaunpuri's demise in 1505, the Mahdavi movement went through a militant phase, lasting during the reign of the first five Mahdavi caliphs. The movement was persecuted under the Sultan Muzaffar Shah II (r. 1511-1526) of Gujarat Sultanate.

Ali addressed the moral characters and plots of other caliphs and his intent of becoming the Caliph. He also speaks about the people who abused the property of the early Islamic Community.

Izalat al-Khafa'an Khilafat al-Khulfa (; lit. 'Removal of Ambiguity about the Caliphate of the [Early] Caliphs') is a authentic book by the Islamic scholar Shah Waliullah Dehlawi in the Persian language.

He died in Medina in January 633 from an old battle-wound originally incurred at the Siege of Ta'if.Jalal al- Din al-Suyuti. History of the Caliphs. Translated by Jarrett, H. S. (1881).

Abu Bakr (c. 573-August 23, 634/13 AH) was the first Muslim ruler after Muhammad (632–634). Sunnis regard him as his rightful successor (caliph), the first of four righteous Caliphs (Rashidun).

Ompora has presence of two ziyarat (Asthan). There is also a large mosque known as khulfa-i-raashideen mosque, named after the four rightly guided Caliphs of Mohammed 1. Abubakar, 2. Umar, 3.

It was said they cut (Batri) the origin of the cause of Zayd's uprising. Zaydi hadith sources however do not discuss the issue of speaking ill of the two caliphs. Instead they simply state that Zayd named them Rejectors due to them not being willing to launch an uprising against the Umayyad government. It is likely that the Sunni and Shia narrations which concern speaking ill of the caliphs are a result of sectarian tensions like much of the hadith literature.

Muhammad Qasim Zaman, who characterized the chief judge as a "much maligned figure" in Sunni sources, likewise saw the portrayal of al-Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq as halfheartedly continuing the policies of al-Ma'mun as a narrative pushed by traditionalists in an attempt to de-legitimize the mihnah. By making the Inquisition the product of a subordinate official rather than of the caliphs themselves, supporters of orthodoxy hoped to prove the moral bankruptcy of the affair and mitigate the culpability of the caliphs.

The Great Palaces of the Fatimid Caliphs (or Great Fatimid Palaces, among other name variants) were a vast and lavish palace complex built in the late 10th century in Cairo, Egypt, to house the Fatimid caliphs, their households, and the administration of their state. There were two main palace complexes, the Eastern and the Western Palace. They were located in the center of the walled city of Cairo around the area still known today as Bayn al-Qasrayn ("Between the Two Palaces").

Al-Afdal Shahanshah (; ; 1066 – December 11, 1121), born Abu al-Qasim Shahanshah bin Badr al-Jamali and surnamed al-Malik al-Afdal ("the excellent king"), was a vizier of the Fatimid caliphs of Egypt.

The haras (; "the Guard") was a personal bodyguard unit of the caliphs during the Umayyad and the Abbasid Caliphate. The haras was also instituted in the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba in present-day Spain.

Abu’l-Muhannāʾ Mukhāriq ibn Yaḥyā ibn Nāwūs () (), was one of the most distinguished singers of the Abbasid period, and a protege of the Barmakids and the caliphs from Harun al-Rashid to al-Wathiq.

Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin. (1993). The Druzes: A New Study of Their History, Faith, and Society. BRILL Hugh Kennedy. (2013). The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State p.

The first Caliphs generally based their treatment upon the Quranic verses encouraging tolerance. Classical commentators viewed Muhammad's struggle with Jews as a minor episode in his career, though the emphasis has shifted in modern times.

The Banu al-Munajjim (), was an Iranian family of Abbasid officials attested in the 9th and 10th centuries. They claimed descent from the Sasanian dynasty, and were closely related to the Abbasid caliphs by marriage.

While most of the Muslim world did not take these caliphs seriously, as they were mere instruments of the sultans, they still lent a certain legitimation as well as a decorative element to their rule.

The invasion of Hispania, and then Gaul, was led by the Umayyad dynasty ( also "Umawi"), the first dynasty of Sunni caliphs of the Sunni Islamic empire after the reign of the Rashidun Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali) ended. The Umayyad Caliphate, at the time of the Battle of Tours, was perhaps the world's foremost military power. Great expansion of the Caliphate occurred under the reign of the Umayyads. Muslim armies pushed east across Persia and west across North Africa through the late 7th century.

Battle of Karbala, an oil painting by Abbas Al-Musavi Abu Bakr adopted the title of Khalifat Rasul Allah, generally translated as "Successor to the Messenger of God". This was shortened to Khalifa, from which the word "Caliph" arose. The use of this title continued with Abu Bakr's own successors, the caliphs Umar, Uthman and Ali, all of whom were non-hereditary. This was a group referred to by Sunnis as the Rashidun (rightly-guided) Caliphs, though only Ali is recognised by the Shia.

The leader of the Abna, Fayruz al-Daylami, supported the Muslim side in the so-called Ridda wars that afflicted the Arabian Peninsula in 632-633 following the death of Muhammad, confirming the inclusion of Yemen in the Caliphate. The famously known right-guided caliphs (Rashidun) sent governors to Yemen to rule over San'a, al-Janad, and Hadramawt, but they were never able control the entire country. The caliphs put quite some attention to the affairs of Yemen. Judges and Qur'an instructors were also appointed.

Mu'awiyah, the first Umayyad Caliph did not return Fadak to Fatimah's descendants. This way was continued by later Umayyad Caliphs until Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz seized power. When Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, known as Umar II, became Caliph in 717 CE, the income from the property of Fadak was 40,000 dinars.Sunan Abu Dawud, v3, p144, Dhikr Fa'y Fadak was returned to Fatima's descendants by an edict given by Umar II,Wafa al-Wafa, page 99 but this decision was renounced by later caliphs.

He continued to use the title of caliph during his remaining life in exile, until his death in 1931. Like the Fatimid caliphs, he was a descendant of Muhammad through a grandson of Hasan ibn Ali.

Qasr Ibn Hubayrah was a city of medieval Iraq, north of Hillah and Babylon. It was briefly the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, under the caliphs As-Saffah and Al-Mansur, before the construction of Baghdad.

Pieces excavated from Samarra exceed in vibrancy and beauty any from later periods. These predominantly being made for the Caliphs use. Tiles were also made using this same technique to create both monochromatic and polychromatic lusterware tiles.

Caliph Umar is said to have occasionally set up a commission to survey the taxes, to judge if they were more than the land could bear.The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects. A. S. Tritton, pg.139.

Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad al-Iyadi al-Tunisi (; died 976) was a 10th- century Maghrebi Arabic poet in the service of the Fatimid caliphs al-Qa'im, al-Mansur, and al-Mu'izz. His exact origin is unknown. The nisba "al-Tunisi" has led to suggestions that he was born in Tunis, but his other nisba of "al- Iyadi" suggests ties to the Iyad, a clan of the Arab Banu Hilal tribe settled near Msila. Pro-Shi'ite, he was court poet of the Isma'ili Shi'a caliphs al- Qa'im, al-Mansur, and al-Mu'izz.

These traditions cannot be admitted as an authentic record of Muhammad's exemplary pattern (sunnah) nor relied upon in juridical arguments, without their transmission and confirmation by these early authorities. Besides, no instrument of resolving the seemingly conflicting traditions is available to us except our reliance on their verdicts. In all the above areas, the early authorities have strictly followed the acts and utterances of these Caliphs. Also the compilation of the Qur'an and a consensus on its authentic reading was accomplished by the efforts of the early caliphs and under their supervision and guidance.

By dint of his major architectural works in Fustat and Hulwan, roughly coinciding with the period of monumental Islamic architecture's earliest stages under the caliphs Abd al- Malik and al-Walid I, Kubiak calls Abd al-Aziz perhaps "the true father of Islamic architecture". His patronage activities initiated a trend continued by later governors and caliphs. Though he spent large sums in the course of his rule, Abd al-Aziz's personal lifestyle was austere. At his death, he left the relatively small fortune of 7,000 gold dinars, according to his treasurer, and tattered clothing.

Alexander's patriarchate occurred under several Umayyad caliphs, whose positions on the Copts varied greatly. These included Abd al-Malik, Al-Walid I, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, Umar II, Yazid II, and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik. This period included the Siege of Constantinople, which had a serious economic impact on the economy of Egypt. The failure at Constantinople, coupled with the financial strains brought about by the Al-Zubayr rebellion, made the Caliphs look to Egypt as the closest source of funds from which to prop themselves up economically.

The material position of the Caliphs throughout the Buwayhid reign was at its lowest ebb. Mu'izz al-Dawla was only prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by concern for his own safety, and a fear of widespread rebellion. However, the Caliphate of Baghdad, on its spiritual side, was still recognized throughout the Muslim world wherever the orthodox (Sunni) faith prevailed, except for Umayyad Spain and Idrissid Morocco. The Fatimid caliphs, on the other hand, claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also in Syria.

Age of the Caliphs Following the death of Muhammad in 632, there was a vigorous push by the Arab Muslims to conquer Arab tribes of the East such as the mostly Christian Ghassanids. The Byzantine-Muslim Wars were a series of wars between the Arab Muslims Caliphates and the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire. These started during the initial Muslim conquests under the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphs and continued in the form of an enduring border tussle until the beginning of the Crusades. As a result, the Byzantines saw an extensive loss of territory.

He produced a report months later and his work on the report motivated him to contact a number of Indian politicians, who advocated for the idea of independence from British rule. After Amritsar, Gandhi attended the Muslim Conference being held in Delhi, where Indian Muslims discussed their fears that the British would suppress Caliphs of Turkey. Muslims considered the Caliphs as heirs of Mohammed and spiritual heads of Islam. While the British considered such suppression a necessary effort to restore order after World War I, the Muslim populations viewed it as slap in the face.

Many of the Abbasid caliphs were patrons of learning and enjoyed collecting both ancient and contemporary literature. Although some of the princes of the previous Umayyad dynasty had begun to gather and translate Greek scientific literature, the Abbasids were the first to foster Greek learning on a large scale. Many of these libraries were private collections intended only for the use of the owners and their immediate friends, but the libraries of the caliphs and other officials soon took on a public or a semi- public character.Mackensen, Ruth Stellhorn . (1932).

The Umayyads who ruled from Syria followed the Caliphs. The persecution increased in the 8th century, during the reign of the late Umayyad Caliphs, whose dynastic predecessors had conquered most of the last Zoroastrian state by 652. Jizya tax was imposed upon Zoroastrians, and the official language of Persia became Arabic instead of the local Persian. In 741, the Umayyads officially decreed that non-Muslims be excluded from governmental positions.. The Iranian Muslims at this time started a new tradition, which made Islam appear as a partly Iranian religion.

Because of this hostility, the religious Caliphs could not support scientific translations. Translators had to seek out wealthy business patrons rather than religious ones. Until Abassid rule in the 8th century, however, there was little work in translation.

These "viziers of the sword" were also commanders-in-chief of the army, effectively sidelined the caliphs and ruled in their stead, often seizing power from their predecessors. The last vizier, Saladin, abolished the Fatimid Caliphate in 1171.

The Abbasid Caliphs Harun al-Rashid and Al-Ma'mun were avid Shatranj players.Shenk, David. The immortal game, page 2006, Anchor Books. During this period Muslim chess players published several treatises on chess problems (mansubat) and chess openings (ta'biyat).

Interior of the Mezquita (Mosque), one of the finest examples of Umayyad architecture in Spain. Córdoba was the cultural centre of al- Andalus.Barton, 40–41. Mosques, such as the Great Mosque, were the focus of many caliphs' attention.

Sykes underestimated the Turks.Edwin Pears, review of 'The Caliphs Last Heritage', EHR, vol.31, no.122 (April 1916), p.300 But W Crooke's review surmised that the facts he collected would be helpful to resolve the Eastern Question.

The Mustansiriyah madrasa, which owned an exceedingly rich library, was founded by Al-Mustansir, the second last Abbasid caliph, who died in 1242. This would prove to be the last great library built by the caliphs of Baghdad.

164 During the civil war between the rival caliphs al-Musta'in and al- Mu'tazz in 865, Ahmad joined al-Musta'in after the latter fled to Baghdad, and remained in the city as it was besieged by al-Mu'tazz's army.

Tughril relegated the Abbasid Caliphs to state figureheads and took command of the caliphate's armies in military offensives against the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimid Caliphate in an effort to expand his empire's borders and unite the Islamic world.

Fletcher, 1996, p. 584 One of the earliest Umayyad palaces was known as Al-Sinnabra and served as a winter resort to Mu'awiya, Marwan I, and other caliphs in Umayyad-era Palestine (c. 650-704 AD).Whitcomb in Szuchman, 2009, p.

It is likely, given the Abbasid Caliphs' patronage of the arts and sciences, that an extensive library existed in Baghdad, and that scholars could have access to such texts, judging by the volume of work produced by scholars centered in Baghdad.

He required the first three caliphs to be ritually cursed, abolished Sunni Sufi orders, seizing their property, and gave Sunni ulama a choice of conversion, death, or exile. Shi'i scholars were brought in from other regions to take their place.

It was here that he fell in love with al-Khayzuran and had several children, including the fourth and fifth future Caliphs, al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid. Around 770 AD (153 AH), al-Mahdi was appointed as Amir al-hajj.

500-2 He even refused to give to the Caliphs moral and religious advice and when asked why, he responded "When the sea overflows, who can dam it up?".Michael Cook. (2003). Forbidding Wrong in Islam: An Introduction. p. 77.

The District has three rural districts (dehestan): Dinavar Rural District, Horr Rural District, and Kanduleh Rural District. According to History of the Caliphs Book, Muslims controlled this area in 22 Hijri in the ruling period of Omar ibn al-Khattāb.

Among the caliphs who spent time there were Harun al-Rashid, al-Ma'mun and al- Mu'tasim. When Caliph al-Wathiq dispatched Raja ibn Ayyub to put down a Qaysi tribal revolt in Damascus, Raja used Dayr Murran as his headquarters.

Umayyad clan and dynasty. Marwan and the line of caliphs descended from him are highlighted in blue, the Sufyanid caliphs in yellow and Caliph Uthman in green Marwan was born in 2 or 4 AH (623 or 626 CE/AD). His father was al-Hakam ibn Abi al-As of the Banu Umayya (Umayyads), the strongest clan of the Quraysh, a polytheistic tribe which dominated the town of Mecca in the Hejaz. The Quraysh converted to Islam en masse in circa 630 following the conquest of Mecca by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, himself a member of the Quraysh.

The Shia further believe only these A'immah have the right to be Caliphs, meaning that all other caliphs, whether elected by consensus (Ijma) or not, are usurpers of the Caliphate so those were political positions not divine positions. All Muslims believe that Muhammad had said: "To whomsoever I am Mawla, Ali is his Mawla." This hadith has been narrated in different ways by many different sources in no less than 45 hadith books of both Sunni and Shia collections. This hadith has also been narrated by the collector of hadiths, al-Tirmidhi, 3713; as well as Ibn Maajah, 121; etc.

39-40; Madelung, pp. 766-67 Beginning in 861 the Abbasid Caliphate entered a period of severe weakness, during which the central government in Samarra was paralyzed by a vicious struggle between the caliphs and the military establishment for control. Over the course of the 860s the government was repeatedly beset with financial difficulties, riots in the capital and rebel movements in multiple provinces. These problems were exacerbated in 865, when the rival caliphs al-Musta'in and al-Mu'tazz fought a civil war in central Iraq, which left thousands dead and caused major economic damage to the region.

Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad (; died August 686) was the Umayyad governor of Basra, Kufa and Khurasan during the reigns of caliphs Mu'awiya I and Yazid I, and the leading general of the Umayyad army under caliphs Marwan I and Abd al-Malik. Ubayd Allah is primarily remembered for his role in the killings of members of Ali ibn Abi Talib's family including Husayn ibn Ali, and he has become infamous in Muslim tradition. He virtually inherited the governorships from his father Ziyad ibn Abihi after the latter's death in 673. During Ubayd Allah's governorship, he suppressed Kharijite and Alid revolts.

Following the Islamic conquest in 639, Lower Egypt was ruled at first by governors acting in the name of the Rashidun Caliphs and then the Ummayad Caliphs in Damascus, but in 747 the Ummayads were overthrown. Throughout the Islamic rule, Askar was named the capital and housed the ruling administration. The conquest led to two separate provinces all under one ruler: Upper and Lower Egypt. These two very distinct regions would be heavily governed by the military and followed the demands handed down by the governor of Egypt and imposed by the heads of their communities.

During the Fatimid rule of Egypt the affairs of state governance were a prominent occupation for the Ismaili Imams as the Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt. Aside from the governance of the Fatimid Empire there were also religious and spiritual affairs pertaining to the Fatimid Ismailis of the time who accepted the Fatimid Caliphs also as their spiritual Imams. An institution of Ismaili Dawa (propagation of the Ismaili faith) was created by the Fatimid Imams and authority was delegated to Dais (spiritual teachers) for specific territories under the Fatimid Empire and even for territories beyond its borders to propagate Ismailism.

Ulugh Khan was an able general, and played an important role in Alauddin's military conquests. According to Ziauddin Barani, Alauddin once thought of establishing a new religion, and compared his four generals (Ulugh, Nusrat, Zafar and Alp) to Muhammad's four Rashidun caliphs.

26 The new Grand Vizier, Sofu Mehmed Pasha, petitioned the Sheikh ul-Islam for a fatwā sanctioning Ibrahim's execution. It was granted, with the message "if there are two Caliphs, kill one of them." Kösem also gave her consent. Two executioners were sent.

Ibrahim was buried near the famous Sufi saint Hazrat Chandah Hussaini Ashrafi in Gogi, where his father, Ismail and grandfather Yusuf were also buried. On his mausoleum is an inscription of the names of Allah, Muhammad, the Rashidun Caliphs, and other Sahaba.

It has since been converted into a Muslim shrine, Haq Char Yaar,Bharti, Vishav. "Lahore’s historical gurdwara now a Muslim shrine", The Tribune (Chandigarh), Chandigarh, 13 June 2016. Retrieved on 16 July 2016. in reference to the first four caliphs in Islam.

In the ensuing battle, Ali Pasha was slain and his head was then displayed upon a pike. This, and the capture of the Banner of the Caliphs by La Real, led to a collapse in Turkish morale, greatly contributing to their rout in the battle.

Al-Hafiz was the last Fatimid caliph who rose to the throne as an adult. The next three Fatimid imam-caliphs, until the end of the dynasty in 1171, were little more than puppet rulers, with real power lying in the hands of their viziers.

Shuraih was known for his extensive knowledge of Islamic law and respected for his good judgment. The caliphs showed deference to him. Caliph Mu`âwiyah then transferred him to Damascus. On account of this, Shuraih became known as “the Judge of the Two Great Cities”.

Ibn Sa`d, vol. 8, p. 223 Several hadiths describe Muhammad's esteem for her.Ibn Sa`d, vol. 8, p. 223-226; Al-Dhahabi, vol. 2, p. 224 He visited Umm Ayman at her house, and after him, Caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar did the same.

Ali ibn Abdallah ibn al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib () (ca. 661–ca. 736) was an ancestor of the Abbasids. He was a grandson of al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib and the grandfather of the first two Abbasid caliphs al-Saffah and al-Mansur.

Subsequent Fatimid imams and caliphs and Ismaili dai's have relied on Da'a'im-ul-Islam'. The 16th Fatimid imam - Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (996-1021) ordered his da'i, Harun bin Mohammed in Yemen, to give decisions in light of Da'a'im al-Islam only.

170-1, 178 Attorney and author Sadakat Kadri states that, "as a matter of straightforward history, torture had originally been forbidden by Islamic jurisprudence." Ibn Qayyim however, believed that "the Prophet Muhammad, the Rightly Guided Caliphs, and other Companions" would have supported his position.

They later staged a comeback during the Third Muslim Civil War, during which they rebelled against the Umayyads, and many of their members held high office under various caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty, which had overthrown the Umayyads in 750.Crone 1993, p. 358–359.

In 1055, Tughrul conquered Baghdad, the seat of the caliphate, and ousted the last of the Buyid rulers.André Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. 2, (Brill, 2002), 9. Like the Buyids, the Seljuqs kept the Abbasid caliphs as figureheads.

Furthermore, he does not unconditionally approve any ʿAlid revolt and seems somewhat lukewarm towards the group he refers to as Zaydīs. Taken together, al-Iṣfahānī’s Shīʿī conviction is better characterised as moderate love for ʿAlī without impugning the dignity of the caliphs before him.

The early Rashidun Caliphs, notably Caliph Omar, set down regulatory guidelines for what could and could not be regarded as war spoils, and assigned the fifth for welfare distribution. The 'fifth' eventually became an important source of financing for the Caliphal administration and army.

She was an immigrant to Fustat and acquired a strong reputation for baraka before her death in 824 CE, and her tomb is still highly important and popular today. Behind (east of) her mosque stand the Tombs of the Abbasid Caliphs, a mausoleum which holds the remains of the successors of the Abbasid Caliphs of Baghdad. The latter were re-established in Cairo in 1261 by Sultan Baybars following the Mongols' destruction of Baghdad, but they were subsequently restricted to a strictly ceremonial role within the Mamluk Sultanate. North of the Sayyida Nafisa Mosque, the tombs and cemeteries blend into the dense urban fabric of the city.

At this time, al-Jazira was one of the highest tax- yielding provinces of the Abbasid Empire. During the early history of Islam, al-Jazira became a center for the Kharijite movement and had to be constantly subdued by various caliphs. In the 920s, the local Hamdanid dynasty established an autonomous state with two branches in al-Jazira (under Nasir al-Dawla) and Northern Syria (under Sayf al-Dawla). The demise of the Hamdanid power put the region back under the nominal rule of the Caliphs of Baghdad, while actual control was in the hands of the Buyid brothers who had conquered Baghdad itself.

The Age of the Caliphs Islam came to Yemen around 630 during Muhammad's lifetime and the rule of the Persian governor Badhan. Thereafter, Yemen was ruled as part of Arab-Islamic caliphates, and became a province in the Islamic empire. Regimes affiliated to the Egyptian Fatimid caliphs occupied much of northern and southern Yemen throughout the 11th century, including the Sulayhids and Zurayids, but the country was rarely unified for any long period of time. Local control in the Middle Ages was exerted by a succession of families which included the Ziyadids (818–1018), the Najahids (1022–1158), the Egyptian Ayyubids (1174–1229) and the Turkoman Rasulids (1229–1454).

One allegation commonly leveled against the Twelvers is that they disrespect the Sunni Caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman who supported Mohammad, as per Sunni belief,Nicholas Schmidle. To Live Or to Perish Forever: Two Tumultuous Years in Pakistan. Macmillan, 2010. , . Pg 23 during the early days of the Islamic Ummah but later turned enemies of his household (Ahl al Bayt), as per Shi'ite belief.The History of al- Tabari, Volume IX, The Last Years of the Prophet, p186-187, SUNY Press Such Shi'ite practices include the recited Dua Sanamain Quraish, which calls God's curse on the first two Sunni caliphs following Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr and Umar.

The Imams and the Shiite scholars of the 2nd/8th century AH rejected the idea of alteration of the text of the Quran. The evidence for this is that in their many complaints against the first three caliphs they never accused them of changing the text; instead they stated that the caliphs and their followers "preserved the text of Scripture but distorted its message". There are many narrations from the Imams that shows their belief in the authenticity of the text of the Qur'an as preserved in the Uthmanic codex. The only point of disagreement with the Uthmanic codex was on the arrangement of suras 93, 94, 105 and 106.

The empire grew to include Sicily and to stretch across North Africa from the Atlantic to Libya. The Fatimid caliphs built three capital cities, which they occupied in sequential order: Mahdia (921–948) and al-Mansuriya (948–973) in Ifriqiya and Cairo (973–1169) in Egypt.

By a Yemenite princess named Zahra bint Mishrah, Ibn Abbas had seven children. # Al-Abbas, the first born, who was childless. # Ali ibn Abdullah (died 736), who was the grandfather of the first two Abbasid caliphs, who replaced the Umayyads in 750. # Muhammad, who was childless.

Family tree of the descendants of al-Mu'tasim. Al-Mu'tasim was the forefather of all subsequent Abbasid caliphs. Al-Tabari states that al- Mu'tasim fell ill on 21October 841. His regular physician, Salmawayh ibn Bunan, whom the Caliph had trusted implicitly, had died the previous year.

A minor member of the Abbasid dynasty, being a second cousin of the caliphs al-Hadi (r. 785–786) and Harun al-Rashid (r. 789–809), Abdallah was appointed governor of the Yemen by al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833), and he arrived in Sana'a in ca. 832.

Medieval monarchs and caliphs could persecute most kind of dissent which did not suit them: ibn Taymiyya was jailed six times in the early 14th century when he wandered from then a popular saying "Sixty years of unjust ruler are better than one night without a ruler".

Caliphate coins came to use immediately after Azerbaijan was occupied by the Arabic Caliphate. Mints were located in al-Yazidiyye, Bailakan, Ganja and al-Mutavakkiliye. Names of cities and names of Caliphs appeared in the eighth century. The youngest Caliphate coin is dated to the eighth century.

It was a fateful decision that they soon regretted, for the Umayyads, the sons and grandsons of caliphs, had a more legitimate claim to rule than the Fihrids themselves. Rebellious-minded local lords, disenchanted with the autocratic rule of the Fihrids, conspired with the arriving Umayyad exiles.

Dayr Murrān was a monastery and village in the western outskirts of Damascus, on the lower slopes of Mount Qasioun, that had been a favored seasonal residence of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs in the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries. Its exact location has not been identified.

Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Malik, better known as Ibn al-Zayyāt (), was a wealthy merchant who became a court official and served as vizier of the Abbasid caliphs al-Mu'tasim, al-Wathiq, and al-Mutawakkil, from 836 until his downfall and death by torture in 847.

Diwan of a Mughal Vizier. The office of vizier arose under the first Abbasid caliphs, and spread across the Muslim world. The vizier stood between sovereign and subjects, representing the former in all matters touching the latter."vizier", Encyclopædia Britannica 2010, Retrieved on 2010-06-17.

The reliably correct opinion is that this practice is invalid and those who devised it should be refuted. It is not related that the Prophet or any of the rightly-guided caliphs did any such thing when collecting the jizya.» And he repeated this warning and this negation on those innovators, in his famous book al-Minhāj." (online) Ibn Qudamah also rejected this practice and noted that Muhammad and the Rashidun caliphs encouraged that jizya be collected with gentleness and kindness. Quote: «ونقل إبن قدامة في مغنيه بعض هذه المخترعات الباطلة، ثم أوضح أن عمل رسول الله ﷺ وأصحابه والخلفاء الراشدين كان على خلاف ذلك، وأنهم كانوا يتواصون باستحصال هذا الحق بالرفق وإتباع اللطف في ذلك.» Translation: "And Ibn Qudāmah mentioned in his Mughni (encyclopedic book on fiqh) some of these flawed innovations [in the collection of this tax], and he clarified that the way of the Prophet of God - Peace be upon him -, his companions, and the rightly-guided caliphs was contrary to that, and that they encouraged that jizya be collected with gentleness and kindness.

With the death of Muhammad in 632 AD, the Muslim world began a period of rapid expansion. Under the rule of the first caliphs, the Rashidun, Muslim armies began assaulting the borders of both Sassanid Persia and the Byzantine Empire.James Lindsay. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World.

Qutb, Milestones, 1981: pp. 16–20 Nor do Islamists agree on when true and original Islam was in existence. Abul Ala Maududi indicates it was the era of the Prophet and the 30-year reign of the four "rightly guided caliphs" (Rashidun).Mawdudi, Islamic Law and Constitution, (1955), p.

Genealogical tree of the Sufyanids. The names in red indicate caliphs. Umayyad Caliphate coin imitating the coinage of Sasanid Empire ruler Khosrau II. Coin of the time of Mu'awiya I ibn Abi Sufyan (Muawiyah I). BCRA (Basra) mint; "Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, governor". Dated AH 56 = AD 675/6.

It is established that Sindhi was the first eastern language into which the Quran was translated, in the 8th or 9th century. There is evidence of Sindhi poets reciting their verses before the Muslim Caliphs in Baghdad.Schimmel, A.M. (1983). Makli Hill: A Center of Islamic Culture in Sindh.

There, the new Abbasid dynasty, having overthrown the Umayyad caliphs, was establishing a new capital.Gordon D. Newby, The Making of the Last Prophet (University of South Carolina 1989) at 6–7, 12. Ibn Isḥaq moved to the capital and found patrons in the new regime.Robinson 2003, p. 27.

Born in AH 138 (757/8 CE), Fadl was the son of al-Rabi ibn Yunus.Sourdel (1965), p. 730 Rabi was a former slave who had risen to occupy the influential post of chamberlain (hadjib) under caliphs al-Mansur (r. 754–775) and al-Mahdi (r. 775–785).

The use of regnal names (in Arabic, ' (sing.) ' (pl.)) was uncommon in the Medieval Islamic era until the Abbasid Caliphate, when the first Abbasid caliph, Abu al-Abbas Abdullah ibn Muhammad, who overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate, used the laḳab as-Saffah ("the Generous"). This name carried a messianic association, a theme that would be continued by as-Saffah's successors. The use of regnal names among the caliphs lasted throughout the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, until the institution was deposed after the defeat of the Mamluk Sultanate and the capture of Caliph Al-Mutawakkil III by the Ottoman Army in 1517. The Fatimid caliphs adopted the Abbasid use of alḳāb to assert their claims of authority.

The doctrine came to exclude the commission of any sin or inadvertence on their part, either before or after their assumption of office. Regarding the concept of Ismah in the Shi‘i doctrine, Imams have a more central role compared to the caliph in Sunni political theory. Perhaps the evolution of this doctrine, as Donaldson suggests, caused Shi‘ite scholars to establish the claims of the Imamah against the claims of Sunni caliphs, so the doctrine was expanded and elaborated upon. According to Francis Robinson, though Shi'ism initially began as a movement of political opposition to the Caliphs, the belief that eventually developed was that the Imams possessed superhuman qualities of sinlessness and infallibility.

Badr and his successors, who were mostly drawn from the military, combined the vizierate with the post of "commander of the armies" and held full powers in the caliph's stead. These "viziers of the sword" were at the same time chief ministers in charge of all civil administration, heads of the army, responsible for all judicial matters as chief qāḍī, and even for all religious matters of the Isma'ili community as head missionary (dāʿī al-duʿāt). As the viziers' power grew to eclipse the caliphs', they even assumed the title of "king" (al-malik) followed by an epithet. Any remaining power the caliphs may have had was shattered when the last adult caliph, al-Hafiz, died in 1149.

Of his sons, three—al-Muktafi, al-Muqtadir, and al- Qahir—would rule as caliphs in turn and only one, Harun, did not become caliph. Al-Mu'tadid was the first Abbasid caliph to be buried within the city of Baghdad. Like his sons after him, he was buried in the former Tahirid palace in the western part of the city, which was now used by the caliphs as a secondary residence. According to the Orientalist Karl Vilhelm Zetterstéen, al-Mu'tadid "had inherited his father's gifts as a ruler and was distinguished alike for his economy and his military ability", becoming "one of the greatest of the Abbasids in spite of his strictness and cruelty".

42–45 their only child who lived to adulthood, and therefore part of Muhammad's household. Her husband was Ali, the last of the Rightly Guided Caliphs and the first Shia Imam, and her children include Hasan and Husayn, the second and third Imams, respectively."Fatimah", Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill Online.

During the 11th century the Druze faith emerged from a branch of Islam. The new faith gained followers in the southern portion of Lebanon. The Maronites and the Druze divided Lebanon until the modern era. The major cities on the coast, Acre, Beirut, and others, were directly administered by Muslim Caliphs.

99, No.4 (Oct.- Dec., 1979), pp. 677-679 The term is used contemporarily in a derogatory manner by some Sunni Muslims to refer to Shia Muslims on the grounds that Shia do not recognize the first three caliphs — Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman — as the legitimate successors of Muhammad.

After the breakdown of the Ummayad caliphate it was essentially annexed to Egypt, although still under the same name, first under the Fatimid caliphs and later under the Ayyubid and Mamluk sultanates. Ultimately, it was annexed by the Turkish Ottoman Empire in 1517 when it was part of the Tripolitania Vilayet.

Islamic extremism has its roots in a sect of Islam called Kharijism, which came about around 600 CE when the third and fourth caliphs were murdered during the first civil war.Kenney, Jeffery T. Muslim Rebels: Kharijites and the Politics of Extremism in Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. Print. pg 4.

The hadith of the twelve successors, or twelve caliphs () is an Islamic prophecy, attributed to Muhammad. It is most popular among Twelver Shi'ites, as they interpret the prophecy was fulfilled by the Twelve Imams. The hadith (classified as Sahih) is widely accepted by all Muslims, but its interpretation varies heavily.

He was a master of the Koran and Hadith texts in addition to being well versed in the particular school of Shafi'i and theological practices of the Ash'arite persuasion.Hallaq, Wael B.. "Caliphs, Jurists and the Saljuqs in the Political Thought of Juwayni." The Muslim World 74, no. 1 (1984): 26-41.

These seem to be the Fatimid caliphs, and the work should therefore be dated to the crusader period. However it has been dated as early as the 8th century. The author of the work is supposedly the 7th century monk Samuel of Kalamoun.Georg Graf, Geschichte der christliche arabische Literatur vol.

During the reign of its first seven caliphs, Baghdad became a center of power where Arab and Iranian cultures mingled to produce a blaze of philosophical, scientific, and literary glory. This era is remembered throughout the Muslim world, and by Iraqis in particular, as the pinnacle of the Islamic past.

Elad 2016, p. 332. Under the Abbasid caliphs al-Mahdi (r. 775–785) and Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), several descendants of Ibn al-Zubayr attained senior administrative posts, including his great-grandson Abd Allah ibn Mus'ab and the latter's son Bakkar ibn Abd Allah, who successively served as governors of Medina.

Inān was born a muwallada (daughter of an Arab father and slave mother) to Abd-Allāh.Ibn al-Sāī, Consorts of the Caliphs: Women and the Court of Baghdad, ed. by Shawkat M. Toorawa, trans. by the Editors of the Library of Arabic Literature (New York: New York University Press, 2015), p. 11.

Masawaiyh, Patriarch Eutychius, and Jabril ibn BukhtishuAnna Contadini, 'A Bestiary Tale: Text and Image of the Unicorn in the Kitāb naʿt al-hayawān (British Library, or. 2784)', Muqarnas, 20 (2003), 17–33 (p. 17), .) and theology. For a long period of time the personal physicians of the Abbasid Caliphs were often Assyrian Christians.

By this, Marwan abrogated the arrangement reached at the Jabiya summit in 684, re-instituting the principle of direct hereditary succession. Abd al-Malik acceded to the caliphate without opposition from the previously designated successors, Khalid ibn Yazid and Amr ibn Sa'id. Thereafter, hereditary succession became the standard practice of the Umayyad caliphs.

The new grand vizier, Ṣofu Meḥmed Pasha, petitioned the sheikh ul-Islam for a fatwā sanctioning Ibrahim's execution. It was granted, with the message "if there are two caliphs, kill one of them." Kösem also gave her consent. Two executioners were sent for; one being the chief executioner who served under Ibrahim.

The city or village was inhabited in the Hellenistic, Roman- Byzantine, and early Islamic periods. An Arab Islamic palatial complex or qasr located there was also known as al-Sinnabra and served as a winter resort to caliphs in Umayyad-era Palestine (c. 650-704 AD).Whitcomb in Schuzman, 2009, p. 241.

Ahmad, like several other officials in the Abbasid bureaucracy, came from a family of Nestorian Christian origin.Sourdel, pp. 295–96, 304 He embarked on a career in the civil service and became a secretary (katib), serving under the Abbasid caliphs in Samarra. In 843-4, during the caliphate of al-Wathiq (r.

The son of Ali ibn Abdallah ibn al-Abbas, Sulayman was a paternal uncle of the first two Abbasid caliphs al-Saffah (r. 750–754) and al-Mansur (r. 754–775),; . making him one of the "uncles" ('umumah) that held a high degree of influence during the early years following the Abbasid Revolution.

Following the execution of al-Afshin in 841, al- Matira was granted to the Turkish general Wasif by al-Wathiq. During the reign of al-Mutawakkil, his son al-Mu'ayyad took up residence there.; Al-Matira survived the abandonment of Samarra by the caliphs, and remained occupied at least until the 13th century.

The Yufirids (بنو يعفر, Banū Yuʿfir) were a local Islamic Himyarite dynasty that held power in the highlands of Yemen from 847 to 997. The name of the family is often incorrectly rendered as "Yafurids". They nominally acknowledged the suzerainty of the Abbasid caliphs. Their centres of power were San'a and Shibam.

The mausoleum consists of underground (vault) and aboveground parts. The aboveground part of the mausoleum is decagonal from the exterior (it was bordered with the Kufic inscriptions on either side), but its interior is round formed. There are four round medallions in which the names of the Caliphs were written inside the dome.

St. John Damascene) held important offices at their court. The Abbasid caliphs at Baghdad (753–1242), as long as they ruled Syria, were also tolerant of the Christians. Harun Abu- Ja-'afar, (786–809) sent the keys of the Holy Sepulchre to Charlemagne, who built a hospice for Latin pilgrims near the shrine.

Al-Qa'im died in 1075 at the age of 73–74. He was succeeded by his grandson Al-Muqtadi as the twenty-seventh Abbasid Caliph. Al-Muqtadi was born to Muhammad Dhakirat Ibn Al-Qa'im, and an Armenian slave girl.Bennison, Amira K. (2009) The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the 'Abbasid Empire.

Among these well-wishers were the later caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, as well as Ibn Abbas. The poet Hassan ibn Thabit was also said to have composed, with Muhammad's approval, a poem in honour of Ali's nomination. Muhammad then commemorated the day by declaring it to be the "Greatest Eid" of Islam.

Tughril, the founder of the Seljuk Empire, captured Baghdad in 1055. In spite of having lost all governance, the Abbasid caliphs nevertheless maintained a highly ritualized court in Baghdad and remained influential in religious matters, maintaining the orthodoxy of their Sunni sect in opposition to the Ismaili and Shia sects of Islam.

However, al-Walid was unable to secure this change before his death and Sulayman succeeded without opposition. The latter dismissed nearly all of al-Walid's governors, and though he maintained the militarist policies of al-Walid and Abd al-Malik, expansion of the caliphate largely ground to a halt under Sulayman (). Two of al-Walid's sons, Yazid III and Ibrahim, successively served as caliphs for less than a year in 744. By virtue of the conquests of Hispania, Sind and Transoxiana during his reign, his patronage of the great mosques of Damascus and Medina and his charitable works, al-Walid's Syrian contemporaries viewed him as "the worthiest of their caliphs", according to the report of Umar ibn Shabba (died 878).

Age of the Caliphs While the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires were both weakened by warfare (602–628), a new power in the form of Islam grew in the Middle East. In a series of rapid Muslim conquests, Arab armies, led by the Caliphs and skilled military commanders such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, swept through most of the Middle East, taking more than half of Byzantine territory and completely engulfing the Persian lands. In Anatolia, they were stopped in the Siege of Constantinople (717–718) by the Byzantines, who were helped by the Bulgarians. The Byzantine provinces of Roman Syria, North Africa, and Sicily, however, could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through those regions.

Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan was the son of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb and Zaynab bint Nawfal, hence a paternal half-brother of Muawiya I. He was born after Umar, the second Rashidun caliph and the overall second caliph of Islam, but before Muawiya I, his paternal brother. Umar was his distant relative through his marriage to Ali's daughter, Umm Kulthoom, and his daughter, Hafsa's marriage to Muhammad. Both Muhammad and Ali were cousins and Ali eventually married his daughter, Fatima, becoming his son-in-law. Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali were all Rashidun caliphs and relatives of Muhammad (even in-law), becoming them relatives of Abu Sufyan, Yazid and Muawiya I. They were also the Caliphs before Muawiya I and his son, Yazid ibn Muawiya.

Sunni sources attribute the desertion to Zayd's refusal to speak ill of the first two Caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, who most Shi'a don't follow and instead force their own point of view opposing their own Imams. Zaydi sources on the other hand attribute it to Zayd's refusal to acknowledge the authority of his nephew, Ja'far al-Sadiq (the sixth Imam according to the Twelver Shi'ites). In both accounts, Zayd bitterly scolds the "rejectors" (Rāfiḍah) who desert him, an appellation used by some Sunnis to describe non- Zaydi Shi'ites to this day. Twelver Shia sources such as al-Kashi's al-Rijal state the opposite, that Zayd called the rejectors Batriyyah as they apparently refused to speak ill of the two caliphs.

Ibn Hazm lived among the circle of the ruling hierarchy of the Umayyad government. His experiences produced an eager and observant attitude, and he gained an excellent education at Córdoba. His talent gained him fame and allowed him to enter service under the Caliphs of Córdoba and Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir, Grand Vizier to the last of the Umayyad caliphs, Hisham III. He was also a colleague of Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo. After the death of the grand vizier, al-Muzaffar, in 1008, the Umayyad Caliphate of Iberia became embroiled in a civil war that lasted until 1031 and resulted in its collapse of the central authority of Córdoba and the emergence of many smaller incompetent states, the taifas.

One of Abdallah's sons, Umayya, was married to Ziyad's daughter Ramla. Abdallah married two daughters of Caliph Uthman (), Umm Khalid and Umm Sa'id, though not concurrently. He married off one of his daughters to a grandson of Uthman, Abdallah ibn Amr, who became the parents of four sons and two daughters, one of whom, Umm Abdallah, married Caliph al-Walid I () and bore him his son Abd al-Rahman. Another of his daughters, Umm al-Julas, was married to al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, the practical viceroy of Iraq and the eastern Caliphate for caliphs Abd al- Malik () and al-Walid I. Abdallah's sons Khalid, Abd al-Rahman and Abd al-Aziz served terms as governors of Mecca under later Umayyad caliphs.

The Alcázar of the Caliphs or Caliphal Alcázar, also known as the Umayyad Alcázar and the Andalusian Alcazar of Cordoba, was a fortress-palace (alcázar) located in Córdoba, in present-day Spain. It was the seat of the government of Al-Andalus and the residence of the emirs and caliphs of Córdoba from the 8th century until the 11th century and the residence of local Muslim governors from the 11th century until the Christian conquest in 1236. The site was composed of heterogeneous constructions ranging from the private residences of the rulers and their households to the government offices and administrative areas. Today, only minor remains of the palace have survived, including the Caliphal Baths which have been converted into a museum.

The gate of the Metwalis, or Bab Zuweyleh, Cairo. 218\. The minarets at the Bab Zuweyleh, and entrance to the mosque of the Metwalis 219\. Ruined Mosques in the desert, west of the Citadel. 220\. Interior of the Mosque of the Sultan Hassan. 221\. One of the Tombs of the Caliphs, Cairo. 222\. The Silk-Mercer's Bazaar or El- Ghatreshyeh, Cairo. 223\. Tombs of the Caliphs, Cairo. The Citadel in the distance. 224\. Mosque of the Sultan Kaitbey, Cairo. 225\. Minaret of the Mosque El-Khomree. 226\. General view of Cairo from the West. 227\. The Holy Tree of Metereeah. 228\. The entrance to the Citadel of Cairo. 229\. Mosque of Ayed Bey in the desert of Suez. 230\. Bazaar of the Coppersmiths, Cairo. 231\.

The bay'ah of Rizwan, a collective initiation of thousands of Muslims at the hand of Muhammad, is mentioned in the Qur'an. The tradition was continued by the caliphs. In subsequent ages, it was associated with Sufi orders, and spiritual masters would initiate their followers. The practice still exists in Sufi orders around the world.

Jesus' rule is said to be around forty years, after which he will die. Muslims will then perform the funeral prayer for him and then bury him in the city of Medina in a grave left vacant beside Muhammad, Abu Bakr, and Umar (companions of Muhammad and the first and second Sunni caliphs (Rashidun) respectively.

The flag design is a green field charged with a yellow coin containing white text. Green represents peace, gold represents prosperity, and white represents purity. The Arabic text on the coin is the shahada surrounded by the names of the Four Righteous Caliphs of Islam: Abu Bakar (top), Omar (bottom), Othman (left), and Ali (right).

After the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258, a practice known to the Turks and Mongols transformed itself into qanun, which gave power to caliphs, governors, and sultans alike to "make their own regulations for activities not addressed by the sharia."Berg, Herbert. "Islamic Law." Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 3 (2005): 1030.

Local Yemeni dynasties began to appear, either opposed to the Abbasids or acknowledging them. Yemeni textiles, long recognized for their fine quality, maintained their reputation and were exported for use by the Abbasid elite, including the caliphs themselves. The products of San'a and Aden have been particularly important in the East-West textile trade.

Anbasah ibn Isḥāq al-Ḍabbi (; died c. 860) was a provincial governor for the Abbasid Caliphate in the ninth century, serving as governor of Raqqa (833), al-Sind (c. 840s) and Egypt (852-856). He was the last Arab to hold the governorship of Egypt under the Abbasid caliphs, his successors thereafter being Turks.

The caliphs of Fatimid dynasty in Egypt were known to be Judeophiles, according to Leon Poliakov. They paid regularly to support the Jewish institutions (such as the rabbinical academy of Jerusalem). A significant number of their ministers and counselors were Jews. The Abbasids too similarly were respectful and tolerant towards the Jews under their rule.

In 17th-century Ottoman Turkey, hilyes developed into an art form with a standard layout, often framed and used as a wall decoration. 19th-century hilye on gilded and framed panel. Later hilyes were also written for the first four Caliphs, the companions of Muhammad, Muhammad's grandchildren (Hasan and Hussein) and Islamic saints (walis).

Under caliphs Yazid II (r. 720–724) and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724–743), Sa'id led a number of summer campaigns against the Byzantines in Anatolia. In one of the campaigns, he commanded the left flank of the Umayyad army during the summer expedition of 724, but his forces incurred heavy losses.

Stilt 2011, pp. 30–31. In addition, the caliph recognized the sultan's authority over Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Diyarbakir, the Hejaz and Yemen and any territory conquered from the Crusaders or Mongols.Holt 2005, p. 243. Al-Mustansir's Abbasid successors continued in their official capacity as caliphs, but virtually held no power in the Mamluk government.

The office then formed the basis for the Buyid control over the Abbasid caliphs and over Iraq after 946. The title continued in use by Muslim states in the Middle East, but was mostly restricted to senior military leaders. It was also used in Norman Sicily for a few of the king's chief ministers.

Conquests of Muhammad (green lines) and the Rashidun caliphs (black lines). Shown: Byzantine empire (North and West) & Sassanid-Persian empire (Northeast). Following the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were raising an army double the size of Muhammad's. The Banu Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans.

During his reign, Abu Bakr established the Bayt al-Mal (state treasury). Umar expanded the treasury and established a government building to administer the state finances.Nadvi (2000), pg. 411 Upon conquest, in almost all cases, the caliphs were burdened with the maintenance and construction of roads and bridges in return for the conquered nation's political loyalty.

Arab Muslim forces had appeared on the southern borders even before the death of prophet Muhammad in 632, resulting in the Battle of Mu'tah in 629, but the real conquest began in 634 under his successors, the Rashidun Caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar ibn Khattab, with Khalid ibn al-Walid as their most important military leader.

862–866), al- Mu'tazz (866–869) and al-Muhtadi (r. 869–870). In addition, al-Muntasir (r. 861–862) died under mysterious circumstances, possibly due to poison. With the Turks exercising unprecedented control over the empire while the finances of the caliphate were increasingly unable to support them, the prestige of the caliphs reached its lowest point thus far.

After the fall of Baghdad in 1258, a few of Abbasid princes fled to Syria and Egypt. There, the Abbasids still maintained a feeble show of authority, confined to religious matters, under the Mamluks. But their authority was limited to being figureheads. First of the Caliphs in Cairo, Al- Mustansir II was dispatched to Mesopotamia by Baibars.

Revered as the Noble Sanctuary, the location of Muhammad's journey to Jerusalem and ascent to heaven, the site is also associated with Jewish biblical prophets who are also venerated in Islam.Quran 2:4, 34:13–14. Umayyad Caliphs commissioned the construction of the al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock on the site.Nicolle, David (1994).

Mulla Meetan was an eminent scholar (Aalim) and renowned Sufi of the Aurangzeb Era. Mulla Meetan's Masjid is a unique example of the architectural expertise of that era. This is the place which enjoys the privilege of being Munim Pak's place of worship. Makhdoom Pak used to teach his caliphs the lessons of meditation and penance here.

After Hakeem Noor-ud-Din, the first caliph, the title of the Ahmadiyya caliph continued under Mirza Mahmud Ahmad, who led the community for over 50 years. Following him were Mirza Nasir Ahmad and then Mirza Tahir Ahmad who were the third and fourth caliphs respectively. The current caliph is Mirza Masroor Ahmad, who lives in London.

The Kharijite rebellion spanned the reigns of four caliphs, from al-Mu'tazz to al- Mu'tadid Beginning in 867, the Abbasid government in Samarra undertook a series of military campaigns in an effort to suppress the Kharijite rebellion. These operations began under the caliph al-Mu'tazz (r. 866–869), whose forces however had little success against the rebels.Al-Ya'qubi, p.

The castle could be seen at the peak between fog. The castle from the camp. In 755, Abu Muslim was murdered. Although he had helped the Abbasids to defeat the former Caliphs, the Umayyad dynasty, the ruling Caliph had given the order to kill him, probably because of his increasing popularity among Iranians and non-Muslims.

Compared with Roman armies—or, indeed, later medieval Muslim armies—the range of visual representation is very small, often imprecise and difficult to date. Physically very little material evidence has survived and again, much of it is difficult to date.The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. Contributors: Hugh Kennedy - author.

The Umayyad caliphs are well-remembered for sponsoring a cultural "golden age" in Islamic history--for example, by building the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, and for making Damascus into the capital of a "superpower" that stretched from Portugal to Central Asia, covering the vast territory from the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of China.

Ulayya married Musa ibn Isa, a prominent member of a cadet branch of the Abbasid dynasty. He had an extended relation with Abbasid dynasty, Musa was a great-nephew of its first two caliphs al-Saffah () and al-Mansur (); he was also connected to the ruling line by his marriage to Ulayya, daughter of the third caliph al-Mahdi.; .

The town was the home of the Abbasid, or Banu Abbas family, around AD 700, who eventually overthrew the Umayyad dynasty and took over the title of caliph, and as such it was the birthplace of the first three Abbasid caliphs: As-Saffah (r. 750–754), Al-Mansur (r. 754–775) and Al-Mahdi (r. 775–785).

Al- Mu'tasim therefore resolved in ca. 835 to depart from Baghdad, the usual seat of the Abbasid caliphs since 762,Al-Mu'tasim's move from Baghdad was not without precedent; Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809) had moved to Raqqa and formed a new administrative complex there, known as al-Rafiqah. and create a new capital city of his choosing.

Muawiyah also declared his son, Yazid, as his successor in breach of a treaty with Hassan, Muhammad's grandson. Another of Muhammad's grandsons, Husayn ibn Ali, would be killed by Yazid in the Battle of Karbala. Further Shia Imams, such as Muhammad's great-grandson, Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al- Abidin would be killed at the hands of ruling Umayyad caliphs.

As a caliph, Abu Bakr was not a monarch and never claimed such a title; nor did any of his three successors. Rather, their election and leadership were based upon merit. Notably, according to Sunnis, all four Rashidun Caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage, were early converts to Islam,Catharina Raudvere, Islam: An Introduction (I.B.Tauris, 2015), 51–54.

Its proximity to the ancient city of Baalbek made Anjar suitable to become an alternative administrative centre for the strategic Beqaa area, but following the death of al-Walid I in late 715 and Abbas' consequent falling out of favour with the new caliphs, Abbas' patronage of the city ended and further construction came to a permanent halt thereafter.

He introduced Mamluk forces into his army in order to hold off the crusaders. This decision would be one he regretted. The Ayyubids were overthrown by their bodyguards, known as the Mamluks in 1252. The Mamluks ruled under the suzerainty of Abbasid Caliphs until 1517, when Egypt became part of the Ottoman Empire as Eyālet-i Mıṣr province.

Another common criticism was that Al-Kawakibi disregarded Islam as the focal point of one's life and marginalized the religion because he believed that Caliphs should have no real political power, but be a spiritual guide. However, that criticism seems to have been unfounded, as Al-Kawakibi was, in writing and action, a very religious man.

Abdal's son Aref published his father's poems; the first part of the work contains his Persian poems, about the Islamic prophet, the first four caliphs, and the Islamic saints. The last part of the work contains material about the Battle of Karbala, condemnation of Yazid, and other such texts (e.g. an "elegy for the martyrs of Karbala").

In the East the spiritual dominance varied, but, except Persia and Daylam, the balance clearly favored orthodoxy. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. The Great Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, always held a friendly attitude towards the Caliphs, and his victories in India were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms.

Family tree of the Abbasid caliphs of the ninth century Al-Muhtadi's mother was Qurb, a Greek slave. After the death of his father, Caliph al- Wathiq () in August 847, there were some officials who wanted to elect the young al-Muhtadi as caliph, but in the end, their choice fell on his uncle, al-Mutawakkil ().

Over the next 40 years, the Caliphate would face a succession of power struggles, and lose its outlying provinces to ambitious local dynasts; with the rise of Ibn Ra'iq to the post of amir al-umara in 936, the caliphs became mere puppet rulers, and Baghdad itself would finally be captured by the Shi'a Buyids in 946.

Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun sends an envoy to Byzantine Emperor Theophilos Unlike their Umayyad predecessors, the Abbasid caliphs did not pursue active expansion: in general terms, they were content with the territorial limits achieved, and whatever external campaigns they waged were retaliatory or preemptive, meant to preserve their frontier and impress Abbasid might upon their neighbours.

The term wazīr originally meant "helper", and appears in this sense in the Quran. It was later adopted as a title, in the form of wazīr āl Muḥammad ("Helper of the Family of Muhammad") by the proto-Shi'a leaders al-Mukhtar and Abu Salama. Under the Abbasid caliphs, the term acquired the meaning of "representative" or "deputy".

Caskel writes that the "Bahila developed an abundance of talents of all kinds".Caskel 1960, pp. 920–921. A companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Abu Umamah, hailed from the tribe. Two brothers from the tribe, Salman ibn Rabi'ah and Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'ah, both served as generals under caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar in the 630s–640s.

Illustrations published in Richard Gottheil, "An Illustrated Copy of the Koran," Revue des Études Islamiques, 1931, pp. 21-24. Folio 158a represents Muḥammad riding the Buraq and folio 256a shows him splitting the moon. and, in a Spanish Muslim manuscript from the 16th century, five Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs. Iblis (the Devil) also is present in various illustrated manuscripts.

The subject of the book is concerned with proofs for the superiority of Ali ibn Abi Talib. The book give about 100 cases of citation in which Caliphs and some Sahaba opposed the Qur'an and explicit words of the Muhammad. The author only cites them from the main Sunni sources and he do not evaluate these oppositions.

He also refutes many political and theological doctrines of the Shi'ah by adducing traditional and rational arguments and controverts their assertions that belittle the status of these companions and successors of Muhammad. Shah Wali Allah also presents, in the second part of Izalat al-Khafa', various authentic reports contained in the collections of traditions and in the annals of Islamic history. He supplements these reports with his profound analytical comments that go to prove the extraordinarily high moral, ethical and spiritual conduct of the early Caliphs like Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali- the four great caliphs of Khulafa-e-Rashida (see Rashidun Caliphate). Further, he highlights their singular role in the reformation and guidance of the society and the expansion and promotion of the universal mission of Islam in their times.

Map of Jerusalem as it appeared in the years 958–1052, according to Arab geographers such as al-Muqaddasi. The history of Jerusalem during the Early Muslim period deals with the period between the conquest of the Christian Byzantine city by the Muslim armies of the newly-established Arab Muslim Rashidun caliphate in 637/38 CE, and its conquest by the European Catholic Christian armies of the First Crusade in 1099. In the meantime, Jerusalem remained part of the Muslim realm and was successively part of several Muslim states, ruled by the Rashidun caliphs, the Umayyads of Damascus, the Abbasids of Baghdad, the Fatimid Shia caliphs of Cairo, who struggled over it wit the Turkic Seljuks and different other regional powers, only to finally lose it to the Crusaders.

The palace was built on the site of a vast, previously-existing garden called al-Bustan al-Kafur (or al-Bustan al- Kafuri), which was originally established here by the Ikhshidid ruler Abu'l-Misk Kafur, who ruled Egypt before the Fatimids. The western part of the garden was retained for the Fatimids' pleasure and was initially reserved for the caliph's family. The Eastern and Western Palaces, as well as these gardens to the west, were all connected by large tunnels that allowed the caliphs to get from one to the other by horse. The Western Palace was refurbished in 1064 by Caliph al-Mustansir who had hoped to house the Abbasid caliphs, his Sunni rivals, after having briefly deposed them in Baghdad for a year (in 1058-59); however, this purpose was never served.

He established a separate Sunni Imambargah at Phul Katora and asked Sunnis to wear red or yellow dress instead of black, and carry a decorated charyari flag instead of the traditional black alam-e-Abbas. Instead of honouring the Sahaba on their birthdays, he started to arrange public meetings under the banner of bazm-e-siddiqi, bazm-e-farooqi and bazm-e-usmani, in the first ten days of Muharram to revere the first three Caliphs and named it Madh-e-Sahaba. He would discuss the lives of the first three Caliphs and attack Shia beliefs. Shias saw it an attempt to sabotage the remembrance of the tragedy of Karbala and started to recite tabarra in response.J. Jones, "Shi’a Islam in Colonial India", pp. 100 – 105, Cambridge University Press, (2012).

This process culminated in the capture of Baghdad in 946 by the Buyids, who put an end to caliphal independence even in name. After 946, the Abbasid caliphs continued to have their own viziers, but it was the viziers of the new dynasties that dominated Iraq, the Buyids and later the Seljuqs, that exercised real power. These produced a number of illustrious figures like Abu'l-Fadl ibn al-Amid and Nizam al-Mulk. It was only after the decline of the Seljuqs at the turn of the 12th century and the modest revival of the temporal power of the Abbasid caliphs, who once again came to rule over Iraq, that the Abbasid vizierate also experienced a renaissance, with men like Awn al-Din ibn Hubayra and his son Izz al-Din.

He and Prue head back to the Impassable Wilderness to carry out the wishes of the Great Tree and try to bring Alexei back to life again. Leaving Esben hiding in the woods, Prue goes to South Wood to ask the government for help. She is shocked to find that people are being executed in the name of the "Bicycle Maiden" and her coup, and that a new set of Caliphs who worship the Blighted Tree of South Wood are gaining control (they feed the substance that is covering the Blighted Tree – Spongiform - to people, and it makes them obedient to the Tree's wishes). It turns out that the mysterious Roger Swindon himself is the head of these Caliphs, and that they have assimilated all of the Wildwood Bandits into their number.

See Khalid ibn Barmak. Khalid al-Barmaki (705–782) occupied distinguished positions under first two Abbasid Caliphs, al-Saffah (722–754) and al-Mansur (714–775). He had risen to be the vizier, following death of Abu Salma and Abul Jahm. Khalid was on such intimate terms with al-Saffah that his daughter was nursed by the wife of the Caliph.

Umar is said to have occasionally set up commissions to survey tax burdens in order to ensure that they wouldn't be more than the land could bear.The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects. By A. S. Tritton, pg.139. It is reported that Zoroastrians were subjected to humiliation and ridicule when paying the jizya in order to make them feel inferior.

Unfortunately for him, the discontent generated by the new tax caused a new revolution and his eventual fall, as the measure devastated the population. Three more Caliphs, two Umayyad and one Hammudi, reigned until the year 1031, when the Cordoban elite abolished the caliphate and established an independent state (taifa). However, various pretenders from different taifas claimed to be the caliph.

The Chronicle of 819, also called the Chronicle of Qarṭmin, is a chronological table of important events and people from the birth of Jesus down to the year AD 819 written in Syriac by an anonymous Miaphysite monk from the monastery of Qarṭmin. It contains lists of the Abbasid caliphs for 785–813 and the Syriac Orthodox patriarchs for 788–819.

The historical tomb of Al-Baqi' was destroyed in 1926. Ja'far al-Sadiq was one of four Shi'ite imams buried here. Al-Sadiq was arrested several times by Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs Hisham, As-Saffah, and Al-Mansur. He was particularly seen as a threat by the newly minted Abbasids who felt challenge by his strong claim to the title of caliph.

The caliphs accorded the Kanz al-Dawla responsibility for regulating Fatimid diplomatic ties and commerce with Nubia, tax collection in the frontier villages, protecting the mines of Wadi Allaqi and travelers and caravans passing through the principality. The Maris-based Nubian counterparts of the Kanz al-Dawla played a similar role and also belonged to a minor branch of the Rabi'ah-Hadariba confederation.

Omar ((), also spelled Umar ; , "Umar, Son of Al-Khattab"; c. 584 CE3 November 644 CE), was one of the most powerful and influential Muslim caliphs in history.Ahmed, Nazeer, Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammad to the First World War, American Institute of Islamic History and Cul, 2001, p. 34. . He was a senior companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

A Mamluk cavalryman, drawn in 1810 Mamluks were slave soldiers who were converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. Over time, they became a powerful military caste, often defeating the Crusaders and, on more than one occasion, they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling Egypt in the Mamluk Sultanate from 1250–1517.

Medina Azahara Guide The complex was extended during the reign of Abd ar-Rahman III's son Al-Hakam II (r. 961–976), but after his death soon ceased to be the main residence of the Caliphs. In 1010 it was sacked in a civil war, and thereafter abandoned, with many elements re-used elsewhere. Its ruins were excavated starting from the 1910s.

Her first husband was Muhammad ibn Sulayman, a prominent member of a cadet branch of the Abbasid dynasty, who was a long-time governor of Kufa and Basra. Her second marriage was with Ibrahim ibn Salih, a member of another cadet branch of the Abbasid dynasty: he was a first cousin to the first two Abbasid caliphs al-Saffah () and al-Mansur ().; ; .

His famous student Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi has darkened his fame. He wrote the first encyclopedic work on medicine. He lived for over 70 years and interacted with important figures of the time, such as Muslim caliphs, governors, and eminent scholars. Because of his family's religious history, as well as his religious work, al-Tabarī was one of the most controversial scholars.

03 April 1980, E2-3. Saddam also accused Iranians of "murdering the second (Umar), third (Uthman) and fourth (Ali) Caliphs of Islam", invading the three islands of Abu Musa and Greater and Lesser Tunbs in the Persian Gulf and attempting to destroy the Arabic language and civilization.Tallal Etrisi طلال عتریسی in: Arab-Iranian Relations, edited by: Khair El-Din Haseeb. 1998.

Sa'd ibn Abi Waqas withdrew in favor of Uthman. Out of the three remaining candidates Abdur Rahman decided to withdraw, leaving Uthman and Ali. Abdur Rahman was appointed as the arbitrator to choose between the remaining two candidates. Contacting the two candidates separately, he put to them the question whether they would follow in the footsteps of the previous caliphs.

Hisham I or Hisham Al-Reda () was the second Umayyad Emir of Cordoba, ruling from 788 to 796 in al-Andalus.Roger Collins, Caliphs and Kings: Spain 796-1031, (Blackwell Publishing, 2012), 23. Hisham was born April 26, 757 in Cordoba. He was the first son of Abd al-Rahman I and his wife, Halul, and the younger half brother of Suleiman.

Ibn Qalaqis's poetry was collected in a dīwān (collection of short poems), which has been edited and published. His poems praise many important rulers and officials of Egypt, Sicily and Yemen. He praises the last Fatimid caliphs and their viziers, such as Ibn Masal and Shawar.Farhad Daftary, Ismaili Literature: A Bibliography of Sources and Studies (London: I. B. Tauris, 2004), p. 183.

They were divided into two categories, namely: # Those who formed the regular standing army; and #Those that lived in their homes, but were liable to be called to the colors whenever needed. The pay was given in the beginning of the month of Muharram. The allowances were paid during the harvesting season. The armies of the Caliphs were mostly paid in cash salaries.

The main motif is a calligraphic pattern formed from the names of God, the prophet Muhammad and the first four caliphs, Abu Bakr, 'Umar, ‘Uthman and 'Ali written in Arabic. The combination indicates an allegiance to Sunni Islam. Ceramic tile, Constantinople, c. 1727, Islamic Middle East Gallery His was born Muṣṭafa ibn 'Abd Allāh () in Istanbul in February 1609 (Dhu’l-Qa‘da 1017 AH).

They were divided into two categories, namely: # Those who formed the regular standing army; and #Those that lived in their homes, but were liable to be called to the colors whenever needed. The pay was paid in the beginning of the month of Muharram. The allowances were paid during the harvesting season. The armies of the Caliphs were mostly paid in cash salaries.

Donner 1981, p. 201. Jarir became an effective Muslim commander under caliphs Abu Bakr (632–634) and Umar (r. 634–644). During the latter's rule, the Bajila under Jarir were a powerful component of the Muslim army that conquered Iraq (Lower Mesopotamia), accounting for 700 to over 1,500 warriors, and were accorded a fourth of the lands of its agriculturally rich Sawad region.

Salam was the editor of The Pakistan Observer from 1949 to 1972. There was a break in the distribution of the newspaper from 1952 to 1954, when it was banned by the government. Salam wrote an editorial in 1952 comparing the nepotism of one of the early caliphs with that of Prime Minister Khawaja Nazimuddin. The article was interpreted as blasphemous.

Ibn al-Fuja'a led an uprising against the Umayyad caliphs for more than twenty years. In 750, discontent in the caliphate had reached a critical level due to the treatment of non-Arab citizens in the Empire. The Abbasid Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate, ushering in the Abbasid period.Paul Rivlin, Arab Economies in the Twenty-First Century, p. 86.

After his accession, there was a flurry of translating and compiling activity where old Persian, Arab, and Anatolian epics were translated into Turkish so Murad II could uncover the ghazi king legends. He drew from the noble behavior of the nameless Caliphs in the Battalname, an epic about a fictional Arab warrior who fought against the Byzantines, and modelled his actions on theirs.

Direct rule by the Caliphs over Ifriqiya became untenable, even following the rapid establishment of the new Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad in 750. Also, after several generations a local Arabic-speaking aristocracy emerged, which became resentful of the distant caliphate's interference in local matters.Especially after the rise of the Persianizing 'Abbasids and the move of the capital further to the east, to Baghdad.

Unconnected with the political churning in India during this period, they were capitalising on the waning political power of the caliphs of Baghdad. Under the Samanids, Central Asia prospered with notable expansion of industry and commerce. As in the case of India, the ninth and tenth centuries were a period of great prosperity for Central Asia also. And there was a common link.

Thus all Hausa states, parts of Nupe and Fulani outposts in Bauchi and Adamawa were all ruled by a single politico-religious system. By 1830 the jihad had engulfed most of what are now northern Nigeria and the northern Cameroons. From the time of Usman dan Fodio to the British conquest at the beginning of the twentieth century there were twelve caliphs.

He escaped and sought asylum in the Sultanate of Delhi. Iltumish however denied this to him in deference to the relationship with the Abbasid caliphs. Returning to Persia, he gathered an army and re-established a kingdom. He never consolidated his power, however, spending the rest of his days struggling against the Mongols, the Seljuks of Rum, and pretenders to his own throne.

He was born to Muhammad Dhakirat, the son of caliph Al-Qa'im, and an Armenian slave girl.Bennison, Amira K. (2009) The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the 'Abbasid Empire. Princeton: Yale University Press, p. 47. He was honored by the Seljuk sultan Malik-Shah I, during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuk conquest.

Malik ibn Tawk ibn Malik ibn 'Attab at-Taghlibi () (died 873) was an Arab Abbasid official during the reigns of caliphs al-Wathiq (r. 842–847) and al- Mutawakkil (r. 847–861). He is best known as the founder of the fortress town of al-Rahba on the western banks of the Euphrates, part of the modern-day Syrian town of Mayadin.

The Yuʿfirids () were an Islamic Himyarite dynasty that held power in the highlands of Yemen from 847 to 997.G. Rex Smith, "Politische Geschichte des islamischen Jemen bis zur ersten türkischen Invasion" in Werner Daum, Jemen, Frankfurt am Main, p. 137. The name of the family is often incorrectly rendered as "Yafurids". They nominally acknowledged the suzerainty of the Abbasid caliphs.

The Yemeni Hamdanids () was a series of three families descended from the Arab Banū Hamdān tribe, who ruled in northern Yemen between 1099 and 1174. They were expelled from power when the Ayyubids conquered Yemen in 1174. They were a Shia Ismaili dynasty that followed the Fatimid Caliphs based in Egypt. They were also Hafizi Ismaili as opposed to the Taiyabi Ismaili.

52; Bengio & Litvak (2014), p. 61; Mitchell (2009), p. 178 A clause was included in the treaty that stipulated that the Safavids would have to stop cursing the first three caliphs, as was common ever since the first major Ottoman-Safavid treaty, namely the Peace of Amasya (1555). The Persians also agreed to pay obeisance to religious leaders of the Sunni faith.

After the conquest, they were given land grants by the Fatimid caliphs. The Hawwara tribe became dominant in al-Buhayra in Egypt. In 1380/1381, Barquq, Sultan of the Mamluks, established some Hawwara groups in Upper Egypt and granted the Iqta' of Girga to the Hawwari chief, Isma'il ibn Mazin. Isma'il was succeeded by Umar, the eponymous of the Banu Umar clan.

Other Arab countries continued to have normal relations with Iran. Another aspect of tension between Iran and Arab countries has been sectarianism. During the early days of the Iranian Revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini endeavored to bridge the gap between Shias and Sunnis by forbidding criticizing the Caliphs who preceded Ali. He also declared it permissible for Shiites to pray behind Sunni imams.

There were now two supposedly universal orthodox Christian realms. Where the principle line of division was between a heathen North and a Christian South, now it was between the Catholic West and an Orthodox East. It was the enmity between the Abbasids and Fatimids that prevented any concerted response to Christian invasion. Power theoretically rested with the respective caliphs in Baghdad and Cairo.

His arbitrary and erratic behavior, however, did not diminish his popularity in Ta'izz. While governor he razed the tomb of Ibn Alwan without any protest from Shafi'i clerics. He was not a doctrinaire Zaidi, however. In 1952 he imprisoned in the notorious Hajjah dungeons Zaidis who attacked a cleric in Ibb for a sermon praising the three caliphs before Ali.

Abbas brought his severed head back to Cairo as a token of victory. His vizierate had lasted only about 50 days. This was the last time a Fatimid caliph would exercise that right, as with Ibn al-Sallar's coup the vizierate became the object of fierce contest between rival strongmen, and the last Fatimid caliphs were reduced to mere figureheads.

There is some evidence that it, for at least a time, was used as a mosque. Architecturally, it appears to be different from other buildings along the coast, resembling buildings constructed under the Caliphs of the Umayyad at around 661-750 CE. However, whether or not the structure is related or even dates to the Arabic buildings remains uncertain, though it seems unlikely.

Founded in 1913 in Qadian, the newspaper was initially published weekly, then three times a week and then daily as of 1935. Until 1947 it was published from Qadian and then from Lahore up to 1954. Since then it is published from Rabwah. The newspaper has been publishing the sermons, sayings and announcements of all the Caliphs for nearly a century.

The Abbasids established the position of vizier like Barmakids in their administration, which was the equivalent of a "vice- caliph", or second-in-command. Eventually, this change meant that many caliphs under the Abbasids ended up in a much more ceremonial role than ever before, with the vizier in real power. A new Persian bureaucracy began to replace the old Arab aristocracy, and the entire administration reflected these changes, demonstrating that the new dynasty was different in many ways to the Umayyads. By the 9th century, Abbasid control began to wane as regional leaders sprang up in the far corners of the empire to challenge the central authority of the Abbasid caliphate. The Abbasid caliphs began enlisting mamluks, Turkic- speaking warriors, who had been moving out of Central Asia into Transoxiana as slave warriors as early as the 9th century.

Therefore, this constitutes a rare period in history in which the descendants of Ali (hence the name Fatimid, referring to Ali's wife Fatima) and the Caliphate were united to any degree, excepting the final period of the Rashidun Caliphate under Ali himself. The caliphate was reputed to exercise a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Copts. The Shiʻa Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah of the Fatimid dynasty, who claimed descent from Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially controlling Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine, before the Abbasid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt.

Cairo itself was originally founded in 969 CE as a royal city and capital for the Fatimid Caliphate, an empire which by then covered much of North Africa, parts of the Levant and Hijaz. Al-Qaid Jawhar Al-Siqilli, the general who had just conquered Egypt for the Fatimids, was ordered to construct a great palace complex to house the caliphs, their household, and the state's institutions. Two palaces were eventually completed: an eastern one (the largest of the two) and a western one, between which was an important plaza known as Bayn al- Qasrayn ("Between the Two Palaces"). The site of Khan el-Khalili today was originally the southern end of the eastern Great Fatimid Palace, as well as the location of the burial site of the Fatimid caliphs: a mausoleum known as Turbat az-Za'faraan ("the Saffron Tomb").

From 1219 to 1335, Mongols under Genghis Khan and then his grandson Hulegu invaded from the steppes to the east of the Iranian plateau, reaching Palestine before they were stopped. Baghdad, the rich and fabled capital of the Abbasid caliphs, fell in 1258. The Middle Eastern Mongol Ilkhanate sustained itself for a century and then disintegrated. Much of Khuzestan was destroyed and left in ruins.

Bayt al-mal () is an Arabic term that is translated as "House of money" or "House of Wealth." Historically, it was a financial institution responsible for the administration of taxes in Islamic states, particularly in the early Islamic Caliphate. It served as a royal treasury for the caliphs and sultans, managing personal finances and government expenditures. Further, it administered distributions of zakat revenues for public works.

He married Umm Murrah bint Abi Qays ibn Abd Wud, and had two sons, named Abdallah, Ubayd-Allah, and three daughters named Murrah, Rabi'a, and Fakhita. By Natīlah bint Khubāb: #al-'Abbas, ancestor of the Abbasid caliphs. #Ḍirār, who died before Islam. #Jahl, died before Islam #Imran, died before Islam By Mumanna'a bint 'Amr: #Musab, who, according to Ibn Saad, was the one known as al-Ghaydāq.

The area was the setting for the Armenian epic Sasna Tsrer (Daredevils of Sassoun), which was rediscovered and first partly written down in 1873. It is better known as Sasuntsi Davit ("David of Sasun"). This epic dates from the time of the invasion of Armenia by the Caliphs of Egypt (about 670), in which the Armenian folk hero of the same name drives foreign invaders from Armenia.

Yahya is known to have been active during the reigns of the caliphs al-Mahdi () and Harun al- Rashid (). During that period he was posted to several provincial governorships, including over Isfahan (780), Tabaristan, Ruyan, and Jurjan (781–784), and the Jibal ().; . In 779 he was appointed by al-Mahdi as governor of Egypt, with authority over both prayers/security (salah) and taxation (kharaj).

Ibn Ziri's Berber Zirid dynasty ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids, and recognised the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs. In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from mainly two Arab Qaisi tribes, the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal to North Africa. This act drastically altered the fabric of the Libyan countryside, and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region.

The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs tried to prevent construction of the shrines and discouraged pilgrimage to the sites.al Musawi, 2006, p.51. The tomb and its annexes were destroyed by the Abbasid caliph Al-Mutawakkil in 850–851 and Shia pilgrimage was prohibited, but shrines in Karbala and Najaf were built by the Buwayhid emir 'Adud al-Daula in 979–80.Litvak, 1998, p. 16.

After the death of Mohammed in 632, the state was governed by caliphs, thus named 'the Caliphate'. As the caliphate expanded into Byzantine territories to the Northwest and conquered the Sassanian (Persian) Empire to the Northeast, the question of a caliphal coinage became imminent. The caliphate adapted the Sassanian drachm as their silver coin. Initially, Arabic inscriptions were added to the Sassanian coin type.

The siege is considered to mark the end of the Islamic Golden Age, during which the caliphs had extended their rule from the Iberian Peninsula to Sindh, and which was also marked by many cultural achievements in diverse fields.Matthew E. Falagas, Effie A. Zarkadoulia, George Samonis (2006). "Arab science in the golden age (750–1258 C.E.) and today", The FASEB Journal 20, pp. 1581–1586.

Harthama ibn A'yan () (died June 816) was a Khurasan-born general and governor of the early Abbasid Caliphate, serving under the caliphs al-Hadi, Harun al- Rashid and al-Ma'mun. He played an important role in the victory of al-Ma'mun in the Abbasid civil war, but was executed at his orders when he protested against the power of the Sahlid family that dominated his court.

Thus then were these things done. The bridge has been restored many times over the centuries. After a restoration in 742, during the Umayyad period, it was renamed Jisr al-Walid after the ruling caliph, al-Walid II. There was another restoration in 840, during the reign of Caliph al-Mu'tasim. Other sources report work undertaken under caliphs Harun al-Rashid and al-Ma'mun.

Pope John V of Alexandria, 72nd Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark. He was initially a monk in the Monastery of Saint John the Dwarf in Scetes. He was enthroned as a Pope of Alexandria on the second day of Pi Kogi Enavot, 863 A.M. (25 August 1147). During his papacy, the Copts were persecuted by the Muslim governors and Caliphs.

Under previous caliphs, the vast region had been experimentally divided into separate provinces under the leadership of Arab tribal chiefs. Governance was largely left to local princes. Fearing a Persian resurgence, which a fragmentary division of Khurasan could afford, Ziyad centralized the administration of the province in the small Arab garrison at Merv. To relieve Basra's fiscal pressures, Ziyad recommenced the Muslim conquests in Central Asia.

By the beginning of the eighth century, conversions became a policy issue for the caliphate. They were favored by religious activists, and many Arabs accepted the equality of Arabs and non-Arabs. However, conversion was associated with economic and political advantages, and Muslim elites were reluctant to see their privileges diluted. Public policy towards converts varied depending on the region and was changed by successive Umayyad caliphs.

Mulhid ( ', plural ' and ') is an Islamic religious term meaning apostate, heretic, or atheist. In pre-Islamic times the term was used in the literal sense of the root l-ḥ-d: "incline, deviate". Its religious meaning is based on the Quranic verses 7:180, 22:25, and 41:40. Under the Umayyad caliphate it denoted desertion of the ummah and rebellion against legitimate caliphs.

Two series of silver coins of mixed Christian-Islamic design stuck under Kvirike III were found in 2012 and 2013 at Çuxur Qəbələ in Azerbaijan and Sisian in Armenia. The coins bear the name of Kvirike in Arabic (as Abu-l'Fadl Quriqi b. Da'ud), the Islamic symbol of faith (shahada), and the names of Abbasid caliphs — Al-Qadir (r. 991–1031) and Al-Qa'im (r.

To the first belong the saved and luminous beings, whose receptive sardars are Benyamin and Sayyid Muhammad (in his Avatar of Buzurg-sawar). To the other category belong beings of fire and darkness whose respective sardars are Iblis and Khannas, with whom are associated the first three caliphs, Mu’awiya, Aisha, etc. The intermixture of the two categories of beings produces combinations which may be externally recognized.

The first four caliphs created a stable administration for the empire, following the practices and administrative institutions of the Byzantine Empire which had ruled the same region previously.Neal Robinson, Islam: A Concise Introduction, (RoutledgeCurzon, 1999), 22. These consisted of four main governmental branches: political affairs, military affairs, tax collection, and religious administration. Each of these was further subdivided into more branches, offices, and departments.

In the early period of Islam, justice was administered by Muhammad and the orthodox Caliphs in person. After the expansion of the Islamic State, Umar al-Faruq had to separate judiciary from the general administration and appointed the first qadi in Egypt as early as AD 643/23 AH. After 661, a series of judges served in Egypt during the caliphates of Hisham and Walid II.

Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20 Dhimmis were also required to pay the jizya.Cl. Cahen in Encyclopedia of Islam – Jizya The Rashidun caliphs had placed special emphasis on relatively fair and just treatment of the dhimmis, which were also provided 'protection' by the Caliphate and were not expected to fight. Sometimes, particularly when there were not enough qualified Muslims, dhimmis were given important positions in the government.

He became vizir to three Abbasid caliphs and is credited with developing the first script to obey strict proportional rules. Ibn Muqla's system was used in the development and standardization of the Quranic script, and his calligraphic work became the standard way of writing the Quran. However it was later perfected by Ibn al-Bawwab (d. 1022), the master calligrapher who continued Muqla's tradition.

Ismail was eventually victorious in the dynastic struggle and took control of the Samanid state. However, Nasr had been the one who had been invested with Transoxiana, and the Abbasid caliphs continued to recognize him as the rightful ruler. Because of this, Ismail continued to recognize his brother as well, but Nasr was completely powerless, a situation that would continue until his death in August 892.

The son of Ja'far ibn Sulayman ibn Ali al-Hashimi, Abd al-Rahim was a minor member of the Abbasid dynasty, being a second nephew of the caliphs al-Saffah (r. 750–754) and al-Mansur (r. 754–775). He was appointed governor of the Yemen by the caliph al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842), and he arrived in Sana'a near the beginning of 836.

To Crone and Hinds, the Sunni pattern represents the outcome of a conflict between the caliphs and early scholars who, as spokesmen of the community, assumed religious leadership for themselves. Many Islamicists have assumed the Shi`i concept of the imamate to be a deviant development. In contrast, this book argues that it is an archaism preserving the concept of religious authority with which all Muslims began.

He served the Umayyad caliphs al-Walid I and Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik as their overseer of the kharaj (land tax) in Egypt and Yazid II and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik as their kātib "scribe".Shahid, encyc., p. 982. Otherwise, the Salihids' staunch Christianity rendered them isolated in the Islamic era, unlike the Tanukhids and Ghassanids, whose members and clans continued to flourish.

Sunni–Shia clashes also occurred occasionally in the 20th century in India. There were many between 1904 and 1908. These clashes revolved around the public cursing of the first three caliphs by Shias and the praising of them by Sunnis. To put a stop to the violence, public demonstrations were banned in 1909 on the three most sensitive days: Ashura, Chehlum and Ali's death on 21 Ramadan.

As Seville was established as the capital of Al-Andalus, the Almohade caliphs made the Alcazar their main residence. With the exception of the walls, the previous buildings were demolished, and were carried out up to a total of twelve palaces. There are few remnants of constructions of that period. Archaeological remains of the Al Mubarak palace are currently preserved under Patio de la Monteria.

Ishaq was a minor member of the Abbasid dynasty, being a nephew of the caliphs al-Saffah (r. 750–754) and al-Mansur (r. 754–775). He is mentioned as being in Iraq in 817, when he played a small role in supporting the anti-caliph Ibrahim ibn al- Mahdi. In 824 Ishaq was appointed governor of the Yemen for the caliph al- Ma'mun (r.

Hazer Tarkhan's army was annihilated at Itil in 737 AD, and the Umayyad Caliphate imposed Islam upon the Khazars. Nevertheless, the Caliphs could not adequately garrison Khazaria, and within a few years the Khazars were once again independent. The famous conversion to Judaism seems to have occurred about this time. The date of the actual conversion to Judaism is a matter of some controversy.

The first Islamic State was the political entity established by Muhammad in Medina in 622 CE, under the Constitution of Medina. It represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah (nation). It was subsequently transformed into the caliphate by Muhammad's disciples, who were known as the Rightly Guided (Rashidun) Caliphs (632–661 CE). The Islamic State significantly expanded under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) and consequently the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258).

Rayhanat al- adab, (3rd ed.), vol. 1, p. 181.Encyclopædia Britannica, "Seljuq", Online Edition, (LINK) As the power of the Abbasid caliphs diminished, a series of dynasties rose in various parts of Iran, some with considerable influence and power. Among the most important of these overlapping dynasties were the Tahirids in Khorasan (820-72); the Saffarids in Sistan (867-903); and the Samanids (875-1005), originally at Bokhara.

Baba Tajuddin had several caliphs whom he had appointed to serve others over the course of his lifetime. However, his key successor was Molana Abdul Kareem Shah, who Baba Tajuddin named "Yousuf Shah" and called him his son. The name Yousuf, gives an indication to his life story being similar to that of Prophet Yousuf. This is also the point where Yousufi Silsila (Sufi Chain) came into existence.

26: p. 31; al-Baladhuri, pp. 190, 203 After the Abbasids came to power in 750, the princes of Ushrusana made submissions to the caliphs during the reigns of al-Mahdi (r. 775–785) and Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), but these appear to have been nominal actsAl-Ya'qubi, Historiae, p. 479; al- Tabari, v. 30: p. 143 and the people of the region continued to resist Muslim rule.

Harees is documented in Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq's 10th-century cookbook Kitab Al Tabikh.,Charles Perry, "Cooking with the Caliphs", Saudi Aramco World 57:4 (July/August 2006) full text as well as in al-Baghdadi's 13th-century cookbook Kitab Al Tabikh and ibn Razin al-Tujibi's 13th-century Andalusian cookbook Kitab Fadalat al-khiwan fi tayyibat al-ta'am w'al-alwan. Harees is also the origin of Haleem.

Between the names of the four caliphs, there were some empty frames with traces of a missing outer layer. The missing parts are believed to be with some inscriptions on the history of the building and be removed in the later time for unknown reasons. Another reconstruction of Dayahatyn was held in the 15th and 16th centuries. The high arched portal at the entrance was the product of that time.

The currency bore the names of the 13 successive Sultans of Mogadishu. The oldest pieces date back to 923-24 and on the front bear the name of Imsail ibn Muhahamad, the then Sultan of Mogadishu. On the back of the coins, the names of the four Caliphs of the Rashidun Caliphate are inscribed. Other coins were also minted in the style of the extant Fatimid and the Ottoman currencies.

Aghlabids dynasty at the beginning of 9th century. In 750 the Abbasid dynasty overthrew the Ummayad caliph and shifted the capital to Baghdad, with emirs retaining nominal control over the Libyan coast on behalf of the far-distant caliph. In 800 Caliph Harun ar-Rashid appointed Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab as his governor. The Aghlabids dynasty effectively became independent of the Baghdad caliphs, who continued to retain spiritual authority.

Ever since the assassination of the caliph al-Mutawakkil in 861, the Abbasid Caliphate had been in a state of turmoil (the "Anarchy at Samarra"). The Turkish military establishment, in an effort to preserve the power of its leaders, began to overthrow any caliph whom they considered unsatisfactory. Between the death of al-Mutawakkil and the ascension of al- Mu'tamid in 870, three caliphs met violent ends.Al-Musta'in (r.

Supported by the Berbers, Sulayman was able to capture Muhammad II and became the Caliph in 1009. This chain of events, in turn, incited the Hammudid Dynasty, a powerful family from Ceuta and Algeciras, to proclaim themselves the rightful Caliphs and march on the city of Córdoba. They dethroned Sulaiman and ruled until the year 1023. In that year a new Umayyad claimant, Abd ar-Rahman V, became Caliph.

The Quraysh (, ) are a mercantile Arab tribe that historically inhabited and controlled Mecca and its Ka'aba. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born into the Hashemite clan of the tribe. Despite this, many of the Quraysh staunchly opposed Muhammad, until converting to Islam en masse in AD. Afterward, leadership of the Muslim community traditionally passed to a member of the Quraysh, as was the case with the Rashidun, Umayyad, and Abbasid caliphs.

The village gained importance under the rule of the Umayyad empire, A qasr (Arab Islamic palatial complex) located in al-Sinnabra and known by the same name, served as a winter resort to Mu'awiya, Marwan I, and other caliphs in Umayyad- era Palestine (c. 650-704 AD). Mu'awiya (602-680), the first caliph, settled in al-Sinnabra, dividing his time in Palestine between his residence there and Jerusalem.Gil, 1997, p. 78.

Under the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "golden age". Commerce and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Revolution) and the arts and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific Revolution) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754–775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786–809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809–813) and their immediate successors.

His most prominent son was Muhammad, who became one of the leading figures of the Abbasid cause and the father of the future caliphs al-Saffah and al-Mansur. Other of his offspring, including Isa,. Dawud, Sulayman, Abd al-Samad, Salih,. Isma'il, and Abdallah, were active participants in the Abbasid Revolution, and several of them continued to play a prominent role in the first decades of the Abbasid Caliphate.

In 1261, following the Mongol conquest of Baghdad, the Mamluk rulers of Egypt tried to gain legitimacy for their rule by declaring the re-establishment of the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo. The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt had little political power; they continued to maintain the symbols of authority, but their sway was confined to religious matters. The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al-Mustansir (r. June–November 1261).

The use of the title does not necessarily signify a claim to caliphate as it is usually taken to be, but described a certain form of activist leadership which may have been attached to a caliph but also could signify a level of authority beneath that. The Ottoman sultans, in particular, made scant use of it. Moreover, the term was used by men who made no claim to be caliphs.

Shia imams frequently had to deal with persecution and sometimes - in order to protect themselves - resorted to the practice of taqiya, a form of religious dissimulation. Because of the critical situation of the imams in this era, they were looking for a way to connect with Shia Islam. Often deputies acted secretly on behalf of the Abbasid Caliphs and, in some cases, it was not known that they were imam's deputies.

Certainly during his rule Umar strictly followed the policy of banning the hadith and he prohibited reporting and transmission of hadith altogether. Whenever he sent a group to a city, he would prohibit them from narrating hadith. This ban continued through the caliphate of the Rashidun caliphs into the Umayyad period and did not cease until the period of Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz, who ruled from 717 to 720 CE.

Averroes also accepted Plato's ideas of the deterioration of the ideal state. He cites examples from Islamic history when the Rashidun caliphate—which in Sunni tradition represented the ideal state led by "rightly guided caliphs"—became a dynastic state under Muawiyah, founder of the Umayyad dynasty. He also says the Almoravid and the Almohad empires started as ideal, shariah-based states but then deteriorated into timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny.

The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al-Mustansir. The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt continued to maintain the presence of authority, but it was confined to religious matters. The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al- Mutawakkil III, who was taken away as a prisoner by Selim I to Constantinople where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo.

The grounds also included extensive gardens, of which one was the Rawda, the royal cemetery or necropolis, located near the Bab al-Jinan ("Gate of the Garden"). This garden was encompassed by the Dar al-Rawda ("Garden Palace") a palace built by Abd ar-Rahman I (if not by Abd ar-Rahman III). The emirs and caliphs buried here included Abd ar-Rahman I (d. 788), Hisham I (d.

The Yemeni Hamdanids (Yemen) were a series of three families descended from the Arab Banū Hamdān tribe, who ruled in northern Yemen between 1099 and 1174. They must not be confused with the Hamdanids who ruled in al-Jazira and northern Syria in 906-1004. They were expelled from power when the Ayyubids conquered Yemen in 1174. They were a Shia Ismaili dynasty that followed the Fatimid Caliphs based in Egypt.

When he was twenty-eight, his uncle Shaykh Mansur requested that he led the dervish lodge and Caliphs after him. He also instructed him to live in the dervish lodge of Shaykh Yahya en- Neccari, who was his grandfather from his mother's side. Ahmad ar- Rifâi took up his post (shaykhship) there as an enlightened master and began teaching in this dervish lodge. His uncle died in the same year.

Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended. Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an ummah (, community) of which he was the new head. The result of this situation was the Ridda wars. Tombstone of caliphs: Abu Bakr and Umar (right), Medina, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Abu Bakr planned his strategy accordingly.

His peaceful reign continued the policies of his predecessors. Rapprochement with the Alids in the Caliphate occurred under al-Mahdi's reign. The powerful Barmakid family, which had advised the Caliphs since the days of Abu al-‘Abbās as viziers, gained even greater powers under al-Mahdi's rule, and worked closely with the caliph to ensure the prosperity of the Abbasid state. Dirham of Al-Mahdi, 166 AH, Kirman, silver 2.95 g.

Nowruz, along with the mid-winter celebration Sadeh, survived the Muslim conquest of Persia of 650 CE. Other celebrations such as the Gahambars and Mehrgan were eventually side-lined or only observed by Zoroastrians. Nowruz became the main royal holiday during the Abbasid period. Much like their predecessors in the Sasanian period, Dehqans would offer gifts to the caliphs and local rulers at the Nowruz and Mehragan festivals.DEHQĀN iranicaonline.

Sunni Muslims believe that Abu Bakr is the best man of all the human beings after the prophets. They also consider Abu Bakr as one of The Ten Promised Paradise (al-‘Ashara al-Mubashshara) whom Muhammad had testified were destined for Paradise. He is regarded as the "Successor of Allah's Messenger" (Khalifa Rasulullah), and first of the Rightly Guided Caliphs – i.e. Rashidun—and as the rightful successor to Muhammad.

Ali was a son of Sulayman ibn Ali, an early Abbasid personage who had held the governorship of Basra for several years in the aftermath of the Abbasid Revolution. He himself was an extended relative of the ruling dynasty, being a first cousin of the first two Abbasid caliphs al- Saffah () and al-Mansur ().; ; . During the caliphate of al-Mahdi () Ali served as governor of the Yemen (777–778); ; ; ; .

The city was named al- Mu'izziyya al-Qaahirah, the "Victorious City of al-Mu'izz", later simply called "al-Qahira", which gave us the modern name of Cairo. The city was located northeast of Fustat and of the previous administrative capitals built by Ibn Tulun and the Abbasids. Jawhar organized the new city so that at its center were the Great Palaces that housed the caliphs, their household, and the state's institutions.

On one occasion they went so far as to post upon the various mosques sheets inscribed with curses against the early Caliphs, and even against Aisha. The city was incensed by the insult, and the placards torn down by the infuriated mob. Fals (Copper Coin) minted with minted with names of Mansur I ibn Nuh and Al-Muti. (22mm, 2.12 g, 4h). Citing ‘Abbasid caliph al- Muti as overlord.

Family tree of the Abbasid caliphs of the ninth century Al-Muntasir's mother was Hubshiya, a Greek slave. Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari records that in A.H. 236 (850 –851) al-Muntasir led a pilgrimage. The previous year al-Mutawakkil had named his three sons as heirs and seemed to favour al-Muntasir. However, afterwards this seemed to change and al-Muntasir feared his father was going to move against him.

Al-Shāfi‘ī belonged to the Qurayshi clan of Banu Muttalib, which was the sister clan of the Banu Hashim, to which the Prophet Muhammad and the 'Abbasid caliphs belonged. This lineage may have given him prestige, arising from his belonging to the tribe of Muhammad, and his great-grandfather's kinship to him. However, al-Shāfi‘ī grew up in poverty, in spite of his connections in the highest social circles.

As a boy, Ali Muhammad Khan was adopted by the chief of the Barech Tribe, Sardar Daud Khan Rohilla. The term Rohilla refers to Pashtun settlers of India and was adopted by the family in consequence to their election as chiefs of the Rohilla. He was a member of the Barha Dynasty by birth. The Barha dynasty arrived from Arabia, where constant rebellions against various Caliphs had led to heavy persecution.

4 From the ascension of al-Mu'tamid in 870, he was the de facto ruler of the empire with the title of al-Muwaffaq, although he never formally became caliph.Kennedy, "Muwaffak," p. 801 Thanks to his close ties to the Turks, he became the chief military commander of the state. His son al-Mu'tadid actually did become caliph in 892, and all subsequent Abbasid caliphs were descended from him.

The vizier () was the senior minister of the Abbasid Caliphate, and set a model that was widely emulated in the Muslim world. Many viziers came to enjoy considerable power, even at times eclipsing the Abbasid caliphs and using them as puppets. The majority of the viziers were of non-Arab origin, and several were also notable patrons of poets and scholars, sponsoring the Translation Movement as well as religious works.

The barīd (, often translated as "the postal service") was the state-run courier service of the Umayyad and later Abbasid Caliphates. A major institution in the early Islamic states, the barid was not only responsible for the overland delivery of official correspondence throughout the empire, but it additionally functioned as a domestic intelligence agency, which informed the caliphs on events in the provinces and the activities of government officials.

By the 10th century, domed tombs had been built for Abbasid caliphs and Shiite martyrs. Pilgrimage to these sites may have helped to spread the form. The earliest surviving example in Islamic architecture, the Qubbat-al Sulaibiya, was an octagonal structure with a central dome on a drum built around 892 in Samarra on the Tigris. Free-standing domed pavilions are known from Shiraz and Bukhara in the tenth century.

Borrull's reason was that during the reign of these two Caliphs was an era of complete peace on the Iberian peninsula, and therefore it must have been founded then. In fact, the millennial anniversary of the founding of the Water Tribunal took place in 1960, led by Vicente Giner Boira, legal adviser to the Tribunal at the time, and leading proponent of this theory in the twentieth century.

He cursed all the three caliphs preceding Ali, declaring them infidels, and claimed that angel Gabriel visited Mukhtar although the latter could only hear Gabriel's voice and could not see him. He is alleged to have asserted that Ali had designated Muhammad ibn al- Hanafiyyah as his successor as Imam, and that Hasan and Husayn were usurpers. According to Wilferd Madelung, this claim is likely to be a later fabrication.

31; al-Baladhuri, pp. 190, 203 After the Abbasids came to power in 750, the princes of Ushrusana made submissions to the caliphs during the reigns of al-Mahdi (r. 775–785) and Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), but these appear to have been nominal actsAl-Ya'qubi, Historiae, p. 479; al-Tabari, v. 30: p. 143 and the people of the region continued to resist Muslim rule.

No campaigning, speeches or speculation of any kind are permitted. Thus the caliph is designated neither necessarily by right (i.e. the rightful or competent one in the eyes of the people at that time) nor merely by election but primarily by God. The caliphs are thought to be chosen by God through the agency of pious believers and are considered to be guided by God after their election to this office.

Henry Corbin in contrast believed that the question of historicity is irrelevant admitting that the idea of the hidden Imam was shaped by the person of twelfth and considering the extensive body of literature about him, saw the birth and his occultation as archetypal and symbolic, describing it as "sacred history". In his History of Islamic Philosophy He writes: "The simultaneity of these (birth and occultation) is rich in meanings from the mystical point of view… here above all, our approach should be that of the phenomenological: we must discover the aims of Shi’ite awareness...". There was a hadith that was already present in orthodox Sunni collections wherein Muhammad declares that he will be followed by twelve caliphs (alternative versions have qayyims) from his descendants all from his tribe, the Quraysh. The hadith appears in both Bukhari (as amirs Bab al- istakhlaf, 7062) and Muslim (as "caliphs", Bab al-nas taba l-Quraysh, 4667).

Instead of honouring the Sahaba on their birthdays, he started to arrange public meetings under the banner of bazm-e-siddiqi, bazm-e-farooqi and bazm-e-usmani, in the first ten days of Muharram to revere the first three Caliphs and named it Madh-e-Sahaba. He would discuss the lives of the first three Caliphs and attack Shia beliefs. Shias saw it an attempt to sabotage the remembrance of the tragedy of Karbala and started to recite tabarra in response.J. Jones, "Shi’a Islam in Colonial India", pp. 100 – 105, Cambridge University Press, (2012). After the failure of the Khilafat movement in the 1920s, the political ulema had lost their support in public and Muslims started to follow modern minds like Muhammad Ali Jinnah. To keep themselves relevant, the ulema established a militant Deobandi organisation, Majlis Ahrar-e-Islam, in 1931. They came from neighbouring Malihabad, Kanpur, Delhi, Meerut and from as far as Peshawar.

Cairo can thus be considered the capital of Fatimid cultural production. Though the original Fatimid palace complex, including administrative buildings and royal residents, no longer exists, modern scholars can glean a good idea of the original structure based on the Mamluk-era account of al-Maqrīzī. Perhaps the most important of Fatimid monuments outside the palace complex is the mosque of al-Azhar (359-61 AH/970-72 CE) which still stands today, though little of the building is original to its first Fatimid construction. Likewise the important Fatimid mosque of al-Ḥākim, built from 380-403 AH/990-1012 CE under two Fatimid caliphs, has been rebuilt under subsequent dynasties. Cairo remained the capital for, including al-Muʿizz, eleven generations of caliphs, after which the Fatimid Caliphate finally fell to Ayyubid forces in 567 AH/1171 CE.Rogers, J.M., J. M. Rogers and J. Jomier, “al-Ḳāhira”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.

Ira M. Lapidus, an Emeritus Professor of Middle Eastern and Islamic History at The University of California at Berkeley, notes that religious and political power was united while the Prophet Muhammad was leading the ummah, resulting in a non-secular state. But Lapidus states that by the 10th century, some governments in the Muslim world had developed an effective separation of religion and politics, due to political control passing "into the hands of generals, administrators, governors, and local provincial lords; the Caliphs had lost all effective political power". These governments were still officially Islamic and committed to the religion, but religious authorities had developed their own hierarchies and bases of power separate from the political institutions governing them: Lapidus argues that the religious and political aspects of Muslim communal life came to be separated by Arab rebellions against the Caliphate, the emergence of religious activity independent of the actual authority of the Caliphs, and the emergence of the Hanbali school of law.Ira M. Lapidus.

The Arab–Byzantine wars were a series of wars between the mostly Arab Muslims and the Byzantine Empire between the 7th and 11th centuries AD, started during the initial Muslim conquests under the expansionist Rashidun and Umayyad caliphs in the 7th century and continued by their successors until the mid-11th century. The emergence of Muslim Arabs from Arabia in the 630s resulted in the rapid loss of Byzantium's southern provinces (Syria and Egypt) to the Arab Caliphate. Over the next fifty years, under the Umayyad caliphs, the Arabs would launch repeated raids into still-Byzantine Asia Minor, twice besiege the Byzantine capital of Constantinople, and conquer the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa. The situation did not stabilize until after the failure of the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople in 718, when the Taurus Mountains on the eastern rim of Asia Minor became established as the mutual, heavily fortified and largely depopulated frontier.

From the time of the Umayyad conquest of Hispania and throughout the Reconquista, marriage between Spanish and Umayyad royals was not uncommon. Early marriages, such as that of Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa and Egilona at the turn of the 8th century, was thought to help establish the legitimacy of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula.Schaus, p.593 Later instances of intermarriage were often made to seal trade treaties between Christian kings and Muslim caliphs.

John of Ephesus' biography of Jacob Baradaeus was also used as a source. The Chronicle's coverage of political affairs, including military encounters between the Abbasids and the Romans (Byzantines), between 762 and 819 is especially valuable. The chronicle is unique among Syriac histories in completely ignoring the reign of the Roman emperor Heraclius. From the 7th century on it does not document the succession of Roman emperors and focuses exclusively on the caliphs.

It does not mention the caliphs Yazīd III and Ibrāhīm ibn al-Walīd, who ruled briefly in 744, because they were not recognized in Upper Mesopotamia. The last event recorded is the consecration as patriarch of Dionysius of Tel Maḥre, which is dated to 819 although it actually took place in August 818. The chronicle was probably completed shortly after this at Qarṭmin, as it contains more information about that monastery than any other chronicle.

Another contemporary famous name from Abivard is Ali born Muhammad Anvari-Abivardi (died c. 1191), one of the great classical poets of Iran. After the Mongol invasion of Iran and Iraq, Husam al-Din Abivardi (died after 1324) is mentioned as one of the theologians attending the court of the Abbasid caliphs of Egypt. Most of the city population are descendants of Azerbaijanis fleeing the Soviet annexation of what is now the Republic of Azerbaijan.

Nader's other primary aim in his religious reforms was to weaken the Safavids further since Shi'a Islam had always been a major element in support for the dynasty. He had the chief mullah of Iran strangled after he was heard expressing support for the Safavids. Among his reforms was the introduction of what came to be known as the kolah-e Naderi. This was a hat with four peaks which symbolised the first four caliphs.

892) and Yaqut al-Hamawi (d. 1226) also suggest that Ajlan was located in the area of Bayt Jibrin. Amr had likely become owner of the estate through a caliphal grant, though he possibly could have taken possession of it in the course of his conquest of Palestine and his ownership had been confirmed by the caliphs. He lived on the estate, where he derived agricultural revenue, with his sons Muhammad and Abd Allah.

Zubaidah's birthdate is unknown; it is known that she was at least a year younger than Harun. Her father, Ja'far was a half-brother of the Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi. Her mother, Salsal, was an elder sister of al-Khayzuran, second and most powerful wife of al-Mahdi, and mother of the future caliphs Musa al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid. Gold Dinar of Harun al-Rashid mint in Baghdad Dated AH 184 (800 AD).

Abu'l-Barakāt, famed as Awḥad al-Zamān (Unique One of his Time), was born in Balad, a town on the Tigris above Mosul in modern-day Iraq. As a renowned physician, he served at the courts of the caliphs of Baghdad and the Seljuk sultans. He converted to Islam later in his life. Abu'l Barakat does not refer to his conversion in his writings, and the historical sources give contradictory episodes of his conversion.

The two towns were united for the first time in 670 AD, when the caliph Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan gave control of both to Ziyad ibn Abihi.Shaban, p. 87; Morony, pp. 72-73 After Ziyad's death the two towns were again separately administered, but subsequent caliphs were to repeat the combination and from the reign of 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan on, Iraq was usually in the hands of a single governor.

The Caliphs of Cairo do not parade, but they do hold an annual ball in which the season's debutantes are presented as maids and as queen of the court. This is typically held on a Saturday evening a little more than four weeks prior to Mardi Gras. It is one of the first balls of the Carnival season. Members are masked for the ball and the king's identity is kept a secret.

In 893 Yahya entered Yemen from the Hijaz, trying to build up a Zaydiyya power base in the area. His ambition was to rid the land from bad religious practices and bring the benefits of his own version of Islam. At this time the Tihamah lowland was ruled by the Ziyadid Dynasty (819-1018), originally governors of the Abbasid caliphs. In the interior, San'a was dominated by the indigenous Yu’firid Dynasty since 847.

However, according Hugh Kennedy: "The Tahirids are sometimes considered as the first independent Iranian dynasty, but such a view is misleading. The arrangement was effectively a partnership between the Abbasids and the Tahirids." Instead, the Tahirids were loyal to the Abbasid caliphs and enjoyed considerable autonomy rather than being independent from the central authority. The tax revenue from Khorasan that was sent to the caliphal treasury was perhaps larger than those collected previously.

Favorite topics in his poetry are love and panegyrics. He made acquaintance of the governor Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan and the caliphs Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz and Yazid II.Starkey and Meisami. Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, Routledge, 1998. He is mentioned as one of the followers of the now-extinct Kaysaniyya sect of Shi'ism, which held that Ali's third son Muhammad ibn Al-Hanafiyya would return as the Mahdi.

In contrast to many post-Roman polities in Europe, grants of land, or of rights to collect taxes directly from the payers, were of only minor importance. A major consequence of this was that the army directly depended on the state for its subsistence which, in turn, meant that the military had to control the state apparatus.The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. Contributors: Hugh Kennedy - author.

The name Lamp Fall is a reference to Sheikh Ibrahima Fall, one of Bamba's most influential disciples. The mosque is frequently visited by tourists and worshippers alike. The immediate vicinity of the mosque houses the mausolea of Aamadu Bàmba's sons, the caliphs of the Mouride order. Other important institutions in the center of the holy city include a library, the Caliph's official audience hall, a sacred "Well of Mercy", and a cemetery.

Al-Rashid sent embassies to the Chinese Tang dynasty and established good relations with them. After the war, these embassies remained in China with Caliph Harun al-Rashid establishing an alliance with China. Several embassies from the Abbasid Caliphs to the Chinese court have been recorded in the T'ang Annals, the most important of these being those of Abul Abbas al-Saffah, the first Abbasid caliph; his successor Abu Jafar; and Harun al-Rashid.

Three years later, following a deadly crisis in Bizerte, negotiations ended with the French evacuation of Tunisian lands, on 15 October 1963., On 1 June 1959, the constitution was officially adopted. Thus, it was signed by President Bourguiba, during a ceremony held in Bardo. Furthermore, he addressed the nation to recall presciently Caliphs era: Unlike his Arab counterparts, Bourguiba based his priorities on education and health, to the detriment of arming and defense.

Muslims added the sentence Bismillah to it. Most historical accounts state that, among the Rashidun caliphs, Uthman was the first to strike coins; some accounts, however, state that Umar was the first to do so. When Persia was conquered, three types of coins were current there: the Baghli, of eight dang; Tabari of four dang; and Maghribi of three dang. Umar (or Uthman, according to some accounts) first struck an Islamic dirham of six dang.

Muhammad's grave is an important reason for the particular high sanctity of the mosque, as the Dome of the Prophet marks the location of the tomb. Millions visit it every year, since it is a tradition to visit the mosque after the pilgrimage to Mecca. The first two Caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar are buried next to Muhammad. Umar was given a spot next to Muhammad by Aisha, which had originally been intended for her.

Every tariqa has a silsila. Silsilas originated with the initiation of Sufi orders which dates back to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Most silsilas trace their lineage back to his cousin and son-in-law Ali bin Abi Talib such as the Qadiriyyah, the Chishtiyya, the Noorbakhshia and the Suhrawardiyyah orders. However, other silsilas owe their ancestry to other caliphs such as the Naqshbandiyyah order of South Asia is through the Caliph Abu Bakr.

The arrest and ill-treatment of the envoy of Raja Raja Chola by the king of Kulasekhara dynasty (Second Cheras), which is now part of modern India, led to the naval Kandalur War in AD 994. The Islamic prophet Muhammad sent and received envoys and strictly forbade harming them. This practice was continued by the Rashidun caliphs who exchanged diplomats with the Ethiopians and the Byzantines. This diplomatic exchange continued during the Arab–Byzantine wars.

Due to the actions of Muhammad and the Rightly Guided Caliphs, marriage between cousins is explicitly allowed in Islam and the Qur'an itself does not discourage or forbid the practice.Surah chapter 4, verse 23 Nevertheless, opinions vary on whether the phenomenon should be seen as exclusively based on Islamic practices as a 1992 study among Arabs in Jordan did not show significant differences between Christian Arabs or Muslim Arabs when comparing the occurrence of consanguinity.

In 850 Ishaq became sick, and he died on July 7 or 8, 850, having designated his son Muhammad ibn Ishaq ibn Ibrahim as his successor. During his final illness he had been visited by al- Mutawakkil's son al-Mu'tazz, the Turkish officer Bugha al-Sharabi, and a contingent of other commanders and soldiers.; . In assessing Ishaq's legacy, modern historians generally consider him as being a highly useful and trustworthy servant of the caliphs.

A History of the Peoples of Palestine (Penguin books, 1970), p. 66 Bishop Arculf, whose account of his pilgrimage to the Holy Land in the 7th century, De Locis Sanctis, written down by the monk Adamnan, described reasonably pleasant living conditions of Christians in Palestine in the first period of Muslim rule. The caliphs of Damascus (661–750) were tolerant princes who were on generally good terms with their Christian subjects. Many Christians (e.g.

Ethnographers consider the övlat, of which six are active, as a revitalized form of the ancestor cult injected with Sufism. According to their genealogies, each tribe descends from Muhammad through one of the Four Caliphs. Because of their belief in the sacred origin and spiritual powers of the övlat representatives, Turkmen accord these tribes a special, holy status. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the övlat tribes became dispersed in small, compact groups in Turkmenistan.

However, for centuries to come the focus of these actions was not conquest but pillage and tribute. In the summers of 792, 793 and 794 several Muslim attacks plundered Alava, and the heart of the Asturian kingdom, reaching up to the capital, Oviedo. In one of the retreats, Alfonso inflicted a severe defeat on the Muslims in the swampy area of Lutos, killing 70,000.Roger Collins, Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031, 65.

Mesue Born in 777 CE as the son of a pharmacist and physician from Gundishapur, he came to Baghdad and studied under Jabril ibn Bukhtishu. He became director of a hospital in Baghdad, and was personal physician to four caliphs. He composed medical treatises on a number of topics, including ophthalmology, fevers, leprosy, headache, melancholia, dietetics, the testing of physicians, and medical aphorisms. One of Masawaiyh's treatises concerns aromatics, entitled, On Simple Aromatic Substances.

When Sindh was under the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Arab Habbari dynasty was in control. The Umayyads appointed Aziz al Habbari as the governor of Sindh. Habbaris ruled Sindh until Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi defeated the Habbaris in 1024. Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi viewed the Abbasid Caliphate to be the caliphs thus he removed the remaining influence of the Umayyad Caliphate in the region and Sindh fell to Abbasid control following the defeat of the Habbaris.

People blamed the Turks that had brought disaster on the faith, murdered their Caliphs, and set up others at their pleasure. With such cries the city rose in uproar; the prisons were broken into and bridges burned. But Baghdad could no longer dictate to its rulers; it could only riot. The fighting spirit was, however, strong enough to draw men from the surrounding provinces, who flocked as free lances to fight against the infidel.

Settlement within the Hauran continued and in some cases "thrived" in the early Islamic period, with "no perceptible change in activity or cultural patterns under the Umayyad caliphs", according to historian Moshe Hartal. According to the 10th-century Muslim geographer Istakhri, the Hauran and Bathaniyya were "...two great districts of the Damascus Province. Their fields are rain-watered. The frontiers of these two districts extend down to... ...the Balqa district and Amman".

Age of the Caliphs Christianity in the 8th century was much affected by the rise of Islam in the Middle East. By the late 8th century, the Muslim empire had conquered all of Persia and parts of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) territory including Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. Suddenly parts of the Christian world were under Muslim rule. Over the coming centuries the Muslim nations became some of the most powerful in the Mediterranean basin.

Islam has a complex and mixed view on the idea of grave shrines and ancestor worship. The graves of many early Islamic figures are holy sites for Muslims, including Ali, and a cemetery with many companions and early caliphs. Many other mausoleums are major architectural, political, and cultural sites, including the National Mausoleum in Pakistan and the Taj Mahal in India. However, the religious movement of Wahhabism disputes the concept of saint veneration.

The outcome of the war did nothing to solve the problems that had been responsible for it in the first place. The revenues of the state were still massively insufficient to pay the soldiers' salaries,Saliba (1985) p. 143 causing violence to break out among the troops. The military continued to demand complete control over the affairs of the state, and met with hostility the attempts to the caliphs to reduce their authority.

433; Madeleine Schneider 1985, p. 70. He established his residence in Sa'dah. Al-Mansur was a man of learning, and 81 works by his hand are listed in one source. Among his writings are a treatise on the mutual conduct of children and parents, answers to questions about the first four caliphs, a diwan, a rajaz poem on the care and training of horses, and a four- volume work dealing with doctrinary questions, Ash-Shafi.

The office of amir al-umara (), variously rendered in English as emir of emirs,Watt (1998), p. 100 chief emir,Zetterstéen (1960), p. 446 and commander of commanders,Kennedy (2004), p. 195 was a senior military position in the 10th-century Abbasid Caliphate, whose holders in the decade after 936 came to supersede the civilian bureaucracy under the vizier and become effective regents, relegating the Abbasid caliphs to a purely ceremonial role.

The Abbasid Caliphate of circa 650 A.D. was the second of the two great Islamic caliphates. It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad (Iraq). The Abbasids had depended heavily on the support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads. Abu al-'Abbas' successor, al-Mansur, moved their capital from Damascus to the new city of Baghdad and welcomed non-Arab Muslims to their court.

Its Mediterranean and Red Sea trade increased. Egypt also minted a gold currency called the Fatimid dinar, which was used for international trade. The bulk of revenues came from taxing the fellahin (peasant farmers), and taxes were high. Tax collecting was leased to Berber overlords, who were soldiers who had taken part in the Fatimid conquest in 969 AD. The overlords paid a share to the caliphs and retained what was left.

In the absence of the prophet, Al-Farabi considered democracy as the closest to the ideal state, regarding the republican order of the Rashidun Caliphate as an example within early Muslim history. However, he also maintained that it was from democracy that imperfect states emerged, noting how the republican order of the early Islamic Caliphate of the Rashidun caliphs was later replaced by a form of government resembling a monarchy under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties.

150 Umar had liberal policies towards dhimmis, adopted to make the conquered less rebellious and more receptive to Arab colonization. Umar is reported to have issued the following instructions about the protected people: "Make it easy for him, who can not pay tribute; help him who is weak, let them keep their titles, but do not give them our kuniyat [Arabic traditional nicknames or titles]."The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects. By A. S. Tritton, pg.138.

By the ninth century, there was a rapid expansion of private pharmacies in many Muslim cities. Initially, these were unregulated and managed by personnel of inconsistent quality. Decrees by Caliphs Al-Ma'mun and Al-Mu'tasim required examinations to license pharmacists and pharmacy students were trained in a combination of classroom exercises coupled with day-to-day practical experiences with drugs. To avoid conflicts of interest, doctors were banned from owning or sharing ownership in a pharmacy.

It was a response to the growing Arabization of Islam in the earlier centuries. The most notable effect of the movement was the survival of Persian language, the language of the Persians, to the present day. The Abbasids also held a strong pro-Iranian campaign against the Ummayads in order to get support from the Persian population. After their establishment as Caliphs, holidays such as Nowruz for example were permitted after a decades- long suppression by the Ummayad rulers.

Bugha al-Sharabi ("the Cupbearer"), also known as Bugha al-Saghir ("the Younger") to distinguish him from his unrelated contemporary Bugha the Elder, was a senior Turkish military leader in the mid-9th century Abbasid Caliphate. He served under Caliph al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) in Azerbaijan, but later led the conspiracy among the Turkish troops who killed the caliph. Closely allied to another Turkish officer, Wasif, Bugha held power at court under the caliphs al-Muntasir (r.

A minor member of the Abbasid dynasty, Harun was descended from 'Isa ibn Musa, the nephew of the first two Abbasid caliphs al-Saffah and al-Mansur.; . In 878, during the reign of his fifth cousin al-Mu'tamid (r. 870–892), Harun was appointed as the leader of the hajj or annual pilgrimage to Mecca; over the next decade and a half he continuously held that position, leading all of the pilgrimages until 892 or 893.

The Khojas were Muslims who claimed descent from the prophet Muhammad or from the first four Arab caliphs. By the reign of Said in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had a strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other and they passed down their mutual hatred down to their children.

The 803 Mopsuestia earthquake took place in the vicinity of Mopsuestia and the Gulf of Alexandretta (İskenderun) in 802 or 803 CE (Hijri year 187).Antonopoulos, 1980 The main source for this earthquake is Al-Suyuti (15th century), who records both the earthquake and a related inundation of the Ceyhan River. He also records a seismic sea wave (tsunami) caused by the earthquake. Antonopoulos, 1980 Al-Suyuti omitted this earthquake in his work History of the Caliphs.

Toward the end of his life, he was subject to some harassment by the Abbasid caliphs. The governor of Medina was instructed by the Caliph to burn down his house, an event which reportedly did al-Sadiq no harm. To cut his ties with his followers, Al-Sadiq was also watched closely and occasionally imprisoned. Through these trials, Al-Sadiq appears to have continued his scholarship and remained an influential teacher in his native Medina and beyond.

It differs from other qusur (pl. of qasr) in that there are no buyūt ("houses") arranged around a central courtyard, suggesting either a more urban design, such as that found at 'Anjar, or a more palatial one, like that at Qasr ibn Wardan. It is similar to other qusur in that it exhibits characteristics associated with the pre-Islamic building techniques used by Arab chieftains of the Byzantine era. Later Umayyad caliphs also came to al- Sinnabra.

In 1075, the two holy cities, Mecca and Medina, who had for a time recognized the Abbasid caliphs, reverted to Fatimid suzerainty. In the same year, dissensions arose between Atsiz and his brothers. One of them, Mankli, made contact with Badr, and even restored the name of al-Mustansir in the Friday prayer in his territories around Acre. He did not last long against Atsiz, however, and was forced to flee to Rufaynah in the north.

In medieval Spain bullfighting was considered a noble sport and reserved for the rich, who could afford to supply and train their animals. The bull was released into a closed arena where a single fighter on horseback was armed with a lance. This spectacle was said to be enjoyed by Charlemagne, Alfonso X the Wise and the Almohad caliphs, among others. The greatest Spanish performer of this art is said to have been the knight El Cid.

After the first four caliphs, the Caliphate was claimed by dynasties such as the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, and for relatively short periods by other, competing dynasties in al-Andalus, North Africa, and Egypt. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk officially abolished the last Caliphate, the Ottoman Empire, and founded the Republic of Turkey, in 1924. The Kings of Morocco still label themselves with the title Amir al-Mu'minin for the Moroccans, but lay no claim to the Caliphate.

As one of the most senior officials during the reigns of several caliphs, Ibn Abi Du'ad's stature at the Abbasid court has been compared with that of the Barmakids at their height. Considered a leading Mu'tazilite and one of the chief architects of the mihnah, his persecution of orthodox scholars, including the famed theologian Ahmad ibn Hanbal, caused his reputation to suffer after his death, and he was made into an object of vilification by later Sunni biographers.

In contrast to many post-Roman polities in Europe, grants of land, or rights to collect taxes directly from the people within one's grant of land, were of only minor importance. A major consequence of this was that the army directly depended on the state for its subsistence which, in turn, meant that the military had to control the state apparatus.The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. Contributors: Hugh Kennedy - author.

He then defines various modes of installation of the khalifah/khilafat, his requisite qualifications, functions and duties and mutual relations between him and the people in general. Shah Wali Allah then proceeds to discuss the main ingredients of the early normative model, i.e. khilafah khassah. This term has been adopted by Shah Wali Allah to denote the textual evidence in favour of the four immediate successors of Muhammad, as distinct from the Caliphs who came after them.

Al-Abbas was a grandson of Isa ibn Musa, the nephew of the first two Abbasid caliphs as-Saffah and al-Mansur and initial heir-apparent to the latter. Shortly after the accession of Harun al-Rashid in 786 he is mentioned as serving as deputy governor of Kufa for his father Musa, and later in Harun's reign he was appointed as full governor of that same city.; . In 805 he led the annual pilgrimage,; ; ; (in corrupted form).

Among Sunni Muslims, the Temple Mount is widely considered the third holiest site in Islam. Revered as the location where Muhammad ascended to heaven, the site, known as the "Noble Sanctuary", is also associated with Jewish prophets who are venerated in Muslim religion. The Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock were constructed on the mount by Umayyad Caliphs. In 692 AD, the dome was constructed, making it one of the oldest Islamic shrines to exist.

The founder of the Tahirid dynasty was Tahir ibn Husayn, a general who had played a major role in the civil war between the rival caliphs al-Amin and al-Ma'mun. He and his ancestors had previously been awarded minor governorships in eastern Khorasan for their service to the Abbasids. In 821, Tahir was made governor of Khorasan, but he died soon afterwards. The caliph then appointed Tahir's son, Talha, whose governorship lasted from 822–828.

Khalifatul Masih V taking an international Bay'ah in 2008. Bai'at or Bay'ah (; pledge, initiation; literally a "sale" or a "transaction") is an Islamic practice of declaring on oath, one's allegiance to a particular leader. In an Islamic religious context, this oath is the standard procedure of pledging allegiance to a religious leader. It is known to have been practiced by the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his successors (caliphs) after him with those wishing to join the Islamic community.

Antoine Isaac Silvestre de Sacy (Paris, 1793); OCLC 150200240, available in full text via Google Books. The text of this section starts at p. 271. A section was translated as Mirchondi Historia Seldschukidarum (1838) by Johann August Vullers. From 1892 to 1893, a translation of the first book (up to the Rashidun caliphs) into English was prepared by the Orientalist Edward Rehatsek and edited by Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot for the Royal Asiatic Society, in two parts.

Muhammad was a cousin of the first two Abbasid caliphs, Abu'l-Abbas al-Saffah and Abu Ja'far al-Mansur. His father, Sulayman ibn Ali al-Hashimi, had long served as governor of Basra. Sulayman accumulated enormous estates in the area, which he turned into his virtual fiefdom, erecting a new governor's palace and engaging in various public works in the city. After his death in 759/60, that position was inherited by Muhammad and his brother Ja'far.

The ''''' ( , i.e., "Compendium of the languages of the Turks") is the first comprehensive dictionary of Turkic languages, compiled in 1072–74 by the Turkic scholar Mahmud Kashgari who extensively studied the Turkic languages of his time.Kemal H. Karpat, Studies on Turkish Politics and Society:Selected Articles and Essays, (Brill, 2004), 441. It is the first book written in the Turkish language, and was intended for use by the Caliphs of Baghdad, who were controlled by the Seljuk Turks.

Harun al-Rashid receiving a delegation sent by Charlemagne at his court in Baghdad. Painting by German painter (1827–1918), dated 1864. Oil on canvas. The Abbasid leadership had to work hard in the last half of the 8th century (750–800) under several competent caliphs and their viziers to usher in the administrative changes needed to keep order of the political challenges created by the far-flung nature of the empire, and the limited communication across it.

This war ended with a two-year siege of Baghdad and the eventual death of al-Amin in 813. Al-Ma'mun ruled for 20 years of relative calm interspersed with a rebellion in Azerbaijan by the Khurramites, which was supported by the Byzantines. Al-Ma'mun was also responsible for the creation of an autonomous Khorasan, and the continued repulsing of Byzantine forays. Al-Mu'tasim gained power in 833 and his rule marked the end of the strong caliphs.

In 793 the Zaydi-Shia dynasty of Idrisids set up a state from Fez in Morocco, while a family of governors under the Abbasids became increasingly independent until they founded the Aghlabid Emirate from the 830s. Al-Mu'tasim started the downward slide by utilizing non-Muslim mercenaries in his personal army. Also during this period, officers started assassinating superiors with whom they disagreed, in particular the caliphs. By the 870s, Egypt became autonomous under Ahmad ibn Tulun.

Under the fifteenth Imam, Al-Aziz Billah, the fifth Fatimid caliph, religious tolerance was given great importance. As a small Shi'i group ruling over a majority Sunni population with a Christian minority also, the Fatimid caliphs were careful to respect the sentiments of people. One of the viziers of Imam Aziz was Christian, and high offices were held by both Shia and Sunnis. Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than on heredity.

Like their Byzantine and late Sasanian predecessors, the Marwanid caliphs nominally ruled the various religious communities but allowed the communities' own appointed or elected officials to administer most internal affairs. Yet the Marwanids also depended heavily on the help of non-Arab administrative personnel and on administrative practices (e.g., a set of government bureaus). As the conquests slowed and the isolation of the fighters (muqatilah) became less necessary, it became more and more difficult to keep Arabs garrisoned.

912), Abd ar-Rahman III (d. 961), and the Hammudid caliph 'Ali (d. 1018). On the north side of the Dar al-Rawda was another hall or pavilion known as the Majlis al-Zahir ("Luminous Hall"). Lastly, the other notable buildings included the Caliphal Baths and a famous library, both created by al-Hakam II. The baths were located in the northwest area of the palace complex, near the private apartments of the emirs and caliphs whom they served.

Dawud was the son of Yazid ibn Hatim, who served as the governor of Ifriqiyah for the caliphs al-Mansur, al-Mahdi, al-Hadi, and al-Rashid. Yazid died early in the reign of al-Rashid, at which point Dawud temporarily succeeded him as governor. His leadership, however, proved to be inadequate, and the government's authority within the province began to weaken. As a result, al-Rashid appointed Dawud's uncle Rawh ibn Hatim to take control of Ifriqiyah instead.

Asín Palacio's biography shows Ibn Hazm as once vizier to the declining Umayyad caliphs before retiring to his study.Cf., Asín, Abenházam (1927-1932) at I: 136; compare, at 227. During the course of his career Ibn Hazm had become a Muslim jurist of the Zahiri (or "literalist") school of law.Asín, Abenházam (1927-1932) at I: 5; discussion in his chapter X, "Abenházam, Jurista Xafeí" at I: 121-130, and chapter XI, "Abenházam, Jurista Dahirí" at I: 131-144.

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad along with his base at Qadian came at the centre of the Islamic reformist movement known as the Ahmadiyya when he rose to prominence as an Islamic revivalist and reformer, forming the religious community in 1889. Notwithstanding Ahmadi claims that the institution of Caliphate (leadership/succession) within the movement is not necessarily inherited or confined to one particular family, all except the first of the Ahmadiyya caliphs have been elected from among Ghulam Ahmad's direct descendants.

The rule of the Caliphs over Persia ended when the Abbasid Caliphate was overthrown in the Siege of Baghdad (1258) by the Mongol Empire under Hulagu Khan. The Abbasid line of rulers recentered themselves in the Mamluk capital of Cairo in 1261. Though lacking in political power, the dynasty continued to claim authority in religious matters until after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt (1517). Under the Mamluk dynasty in Cairo, large carpets known as "Mamluk carpets" were produced.

In late 1063 al-Sulayhi led his forces into the Hejaz and challenged the Abbasids by conquering Mecca by 1064 and installing a client king there. Regarding al-Sulayhi's conquest of Mecca, Ibn al-Athir stated, "He put an end to injustice, reorganized the supply system, and increased the acts of beneficence." Al-Sulayhi brought Mecca firmly into the orbit of Shia Islam and had the name of the Fatimid caliphs pronounced in the khutba.Mernissi, pp.136-137.

Bayt al-Mal treasury dome was built under Fadl ibn Salih's orders in 789 Al- Fadl ibn Salih ibn Ali ibn Abdillah ibn Abbas () (740Tabari, Hillenbrand, 1989, p.55.–789) was the Abbasid governor of a number of different provinces in Syria during the late 8th-century CE. He was also governor of Egypt for a brief period of time. He was related to the Abbasid caliphs and was part of the Banu Salih branch of the Abbasid dynasty.

By 932, when al-Muqtadir was assassinated, the Caliphate was effectively bankrupt, and authority soon devolved on a series of military strongmen who competed for control of the caliph and the title of amīr al-umarāʾ. This process culminated in the capture of Baghdad in 946 by the Buyids, who put an end to caliphal independence even in name. Thereafter the caliphs remained as symbolic figureheads, but were divested of any military or political authority or independent financial resources.

Malik ibn Tawk served under the caliphs al-Wathiq (r. 842–847) and al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) as the governor of Jund al-Urdunn (military district of Jordan) and Jund Dimashq (military district of Damascus). Sometime in the latter half of the 9th century, Malik convinced his kinsman, Sahl ibn Bishr, a great-grandson of the 7th-century Taghlibi poet al-Akhtal, to convert to Islam from Christianity along with the other direct descendants of al-Akhtal.

The ghilman were slave-soldiers taken as prisoners of war from conquered regions or frontier zones, especially from among the Turkic people of Central Asia and the Caucasian peoples (Turkish: Kölemen). They fought in bands, and demanded high pay for their services. The use of slave soldiers in the Islamic world stretches back to 625 when African slave soldiers were mentioned serving under Mohammed and the Rashidun Caliphate. Slavs and Berbers were also used under the Umayyad Caliphs.

The main role of the haras was to act as the personal bodyguards of the caliphs. Haras members were known to guard the caliph even during private meetings, at night and during prayers at the mosque. Occasionally, they were also used by the reigning caliph to intimidate political opposition. For example, when Muawiyah demanded that individuals accept his son Yazid as his successor and pledge allegiance to him, haras members were sent to intimidate reluctant individuals.

Disagreement over where tax money should be distributed, however, caused a conflict to erupt between the brothers. Ismail eventually proved victorious, and took control of the Samanid state. However, Nasr had been the one who had been invested with Transoxiana, and the Caliphs continued to recognize him as the rightful ruler. Because of this, Ismail continued to recognize his brother as well, but Nasr was completely powerless, a situation that persisted until his death in 892.

58 Reformist Muslims, on the other hand, questioned his understanding of sharia, i.e. that it is not only perfect and complete, but completely accessible to people and thus the solution to any of their problems.Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq#ShariaAbou El Fadl, The Great Theft (2005), p. 1982 Also criticized is his dismissal of not only all non-Muslim culture, but many centuries of Muslim learning, culture and beauty following the first four caliphs as un- Islamic and thus worthless.

Husayn did not give allegiance and traveled to Mecca. The people of Kufa, an Iraqi garrison town and the center of Ali's caliphate, were averse to the Syria-based Umayyad caliphs and had a long- standing attachment to the house of Ali. They proposed Husayn overthrow the Umayyads. On Husayn's way to Kufa with a retinue of about 70 men, his caravan was intercepted by a 1,000-strong army of the caliph at some distance from Kufa.

1606–07) is considered the finest example of the genre (see section below). Hilye-i Şerif, Digitised copy of the 1898 edition at archive.org The first hilye written in prose form is Hilye-i Celile ve Şemail-i 'Aliye by Hoca Sadeddin Efendi. Although the hilye tradition started with descriptions of Muhammad, later hilyes were written about the first four Caliphs, the companions of Muhammad, Muhammad's grandchildren (Hasan and Hussein) and Islamic saints (walis) such as Mevlana.

Present day view of Mamluk- and Ottoman-period monuments in the Fatimid era al-Qahira. The Historic Cairo Restoration Project (HCRP) is an effort by the governments of Egypt and Cairo to restore and renovate historic Medieval Islamic Cairo. Al-Qahira (Cairo) was officially founded here in 969 CE by the Fatamid caliphs as an imperial capital and walled city, just to the north of the preceding capital Fustat.Worldpress.org; "Rescuing Cairo's Lost Heritage;" by Rose Aslan; May 10, 2006 .

The legend of Rijiyar Nagwamatse involves Prince Nagwamatse of the Sokoto Caliphs. The legend states that while the prince was resting beneath a tree in Kontagora he scratched the earth with his finger, causing water to gush forth miraculously. This lead to the birth of the Rijiyar Nagwamatse, and the Nagwamatse well remains a watering spot to this day. The prince also performed ablution for "Salat Asr" (Islamic Prayer) at this particular site, because the kingdom lacked drinking water.

He was also responsible for commissioning a number of other buildings, including several mosques and madrasas. His rise to power and downfall mark the beginning of the end for the Fatimid state: from al-Zafir on the caliphs were underage youths, sidelined and mere puppets at the hands of the strongmen who vied for the vizierate. This power struggle between generals and viziers dominated the last decades of the Fatimid state, until its takeover by Saladin in 1171.

Amirtamira () was a mayor or head of the large cities in feudal Georgia, that enjoyed military and administrative authority. The position was introduced after the initial Arab conquest of Georgia in the mid-7th century, when Abbasid caliphs appointed emirs of Tbilisi. The ascendancy of emirs ended in 1122 when King David IV of Georgia seized the city following his decisive victory at Didgori. Thereafter, the emirs became subordinated to the Mechurchletukhutsesi (Finance Minister) of Georgian crown.

On the base of them different dates of occupation of Afrasiyab was determined, which was mostly done by Viatkin. The found coins belonged to the Sasanids, some to the Bukhar-Khudats, and some to the Umaiyad and the Abbasid caliphs. In a large quantities the Samanid coins were found, the less common were coins of the Khwarazm Shahs, and the least frequent coins were Karakhanid's and Seljuk's ones. The coins of Mongke was the latest found coins.

During the civil war between the rival caliphs al-Amin (r. 809–813) and al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833), Yazid was appointed governor of the Yemen by al- Ma'mun's general Tahir ibn al-Husayn, with a directive to bring the province under al-Ma'mun's control. He accordingly set off for the Yemen with a large body of horsemen, and upon his arrival he convinced the Yemenis to abandon al- Amin and swear allegiance to al-Ma'mun instead.

He was also known to have connections to the former regime of Saddam Hussein since 1993. After Saddam Hussein was toppled in the U.S.-led 2003 invasion of Iraq, Abdul-Zahra's group appeared to be a legitimate political movement. Soon Abdul-Zahra, who was in his mid-30s, began telling followers that he was the reincarnation of the Ali ibn Abu Talib, the first Shia Imam as well as the last of the Rightly Guided Caliphs.

The Arabs later partially relinquished some of their territorial control though reasserted its authority approximately 50 years later in 750 when the Abbasid caliphs replaced the Ummayads.Afghanistan In A Nutshell By Amanda Roraback, pg. 9 By then, many Arabs increasingly blended with locals as the Arabic identity in the region began to undergo a significant change. Arab contingents settled throughout various parts of present-day Afghanistan including the Wardak, Logar, Kabul, Balkh and in the Sulaiman Mountains.

1, A - K, Index, 2006, p. 451 Nestorians played a prominent role in the formation of Arab culture,Britannica, Nestorian with the Jundishapur school being prominent in the late Sassanid, Umayyad and early Abbasid periods.The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 22:2 Mehmet Mahfuz Söylemez, The Jundishapur School: Its History, Structure, and Functions, p.3. Notably, eight generations of the Nestorian Bukhtishu family served as private doctors to caliphs and sultans between the 8th and 11th centuries.

The office has its origins in pre-Islamic Arabia, where doorkeeping (ḥijāba, "concealing") was one of the duties of domestic slaves or clients (mawālī, singular mawlā) of an Arab household. Modern scholars have traditionally regarded the office of hajib in a courtly setting as an innovation of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), but in reality it is widely attested in the sources for the pre-Islamic Ghassanid and Lakhmid kings, the prophet Muhammad, Sajah, various early Muslim provincial governors and political figures, including all early caliphs and anti-caliphs such as Hasan ibn Ali and Ibn al-Zubayr. However, in Arabic historiography, their existence is often obscured or euphemistically paraphrased, since the office was ill regarded in early Muslim society, with its strong egalitarian tendencies. Indeed, the formalization of the hajib is part of the consolidation and stratification process of the Muslim society after the early Muslim conquests, when the ruler began to be separated from the ruled, and surrounded by an increasingly elaborate ceremonial, borrowed in large part from Sassanid Persian practic.

There were some people who on view of some statement made by Muhammad in his lifetime believed that Ali should have taken the position, not only as a temporal head (Caliph) but also as spiritual head(Imam). According to the Sunni sources, Ali "was a valued counselor of the caliphs who preceded him"; Umar is, therefore, reported by some of the important early Sunni authors as saying: "Had there not been Ali, 'Umar would have perished." Jafri, on the other hand, quotes Veccia Vaglieri as saying "Ali was included in the council of the caliphs, but although it is probable that he was asked for advice on legal matters in view of his excellent knowledge of the Quran and the Sunnah, it is extremely doubtful whether his advice was accepted by Umar, who had been a ruling power even during the caliphate of Abu Bakr." And that is why Ali's decisions rarely find a place in the later developed Sunni schools of law, while Umar's decisions find common currency among them.

Mu'awiyah's son and successor Yazid I (r. 680–683) was a grandson of Bahdal. Meanwhile, Hassan, his brother Sa'id and another of Bahdal's grandsons, Humayd ibn Hurayth, went on to play major roles in the Umayyad administration and military, serving as governors of various Syrian provinces, commanders of military and police units and holders of high-ranking positions in the courts of caliphs Yazid I, Mu'awiyah II (r. 683–684), Marwan I (684–685) and Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705).

The Arabic word dawla comes from the root d-w-l, meaning "to turn, come around in a cyclical fashion". In the Quran, it is used to refer to the nature of human fortunes, alternating between victory and defeat (3:140). This use led Arab writers to apply the word to succession of dynasties, particularly to the overthrow of the Umayyads by the Abbasids. The first Abbasid caliphs themselves spoke of "our dawla" in the sense of "our turn/time of success".

Wafayāt al-aʿyān wa-anbāʾ abnāʾ az-zamān () ('Deaths of Eminent Men and the Sons of the Epoch').Wafayāt al-aʿyān wa-anbāʾ abnāʾ az- zamān Begun in 1256 this eight-volume biographical reference dictionary of Islamic scholarship and literature was completed in 1274. Khallikān documented the lives of notable cultural figures, the celebrated writers, scientists, religious and legal scholars. Complementary to the popular religio-political biographies of the Prophet Muhammad and of the caliphs, it is primarily a literary work.

New Mosque in Eminönü, Istanbul. Construction was begun during the time of Safiye Sultan and completed by Turhan Sultan, the mother of Sultan Mehmed IV. The first four Caliphs who ruled after the death of Muhammad are often described as the "Khulafāʾ Rāshidūn". The Rashidun were either elected by a council (see the election of Uthman and Islamic democracy) or chosen based on the wishes of their predecessor. In the order of succession, the Rāshidūn were: # Abu Bakr (632–634 CE).

Even as far as in the normal streets of Ghuangzhou during the era of Tang, the Arab-style kaftan was in fashion. It became a luxurious fashion, a richly styled robe with buttons down the front. The caliphs wore elegant kaftans made from silver or gold brocade and buttons in the front of the sleeves. The caliph al-Muqtaddir (903-932) wore a kaftan from silver brocade Tustari silk and his son one made from Byzantine silk richly decorated or ornamented with figures.

In 809, the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid fell ill and died in Tus, on his way to solve the unrest in Khorasan.The Court of the Caliphs by Hugh N Kennedy () His grave is located in the region.Hudud al-Alam translated by V. Minorsky (SBN 7189 -2-1 7) In 1220, Tus was sacked by the Mongol general, Subutai, and a year later Tolui would kill most of its populace,Tus, Gisela Helmecke, Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Vol. I, ed.

Churchill p. 29 The Mahdi also legitimized his movement by drawing deliberate parallels to the life of the Prophet Muhammad. He called his followers Ansar, after the people who greeted the Prophet in Medina, and he called his flight from the British, the hijrah, after the Prophet's flight from the Quraysh. The Mahdi also appointed commanders to represent three of the four Righteous Caliphs; for example, he announced that Abdullahi ibn Muhammad, his eventual successor, represented Abu Bakr Al Sidiq, the Prophet's successor.

The Fatimid caliphs competed with the rulers of the Abbasid and Byzantine empires, and indulged in luxurious palace building. Their palaces, their greatest architectural achievements, are known only by written descriptions, however. Several surviving tombs, mosques, gates and walls, mainly in Cairo, retain original elements, although they have been extensively modified or rebuilt in later periods. Notable extant examples of Fatimid architecture include the Great Mosque of Mahdiya, and the Al-Azhar Mosque, Al-Hakim Mosque, Juyushi and Lulua of Cairo.

Minor alterations were made by the caliphs al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in 1009 and al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah in 1125. The caliph al-Hafiz (1129–1149) made significant further changes, adding a fourth arcade with keel arches, and a dome with elaborate carved stucco decorations in front of the transept. Since then, the mosque has been greatly enlarged and modified over the years. Of the original building little remains other than the arcades and some of the stucco decoration.

On both sides of the entrance, the names of first successors to Prophet Mohammed (Ali, Omar, Osman and Abu Bakr) were found in kufic made by brickwork. By mentioning the names of four important caliphs, Dayahatyn, certainly, was not simply a caravanserai for caravans. It was indeed also served as a royal stopover for elites during the long trips across the expanses of their powers Rooms with unusual layout and exceptionally inventive design are believed to be for the elites.

The mosque has five minarets and three large domes. The central minaret is 87-metre (285 ft) tall, and is called Lamp Fall after Sheikh Ibrahima Fall, one of the most influential disciples of the mosque's founder Bamba. The immediate vicinity of the mosque houses the mausoleum of Amadou Bamba’s sons, the caliphs of the Mouride order. Other important institutions in the center of the holy city include a library, the Caliph’s official audience hall, a sacred “Well of Mercy”, and a cemetery.

Traditional kunafa maker in Cairo A common story is that the dish was created, and prescribed by doctors, to satisfy the hunger of caliphs during Ramadan. The story is variously said to have happened in Fatimid Egypt, or in the Umayyad Caliphate in Syria. It is also reported to have been mentioned in writing as early as the 10th century, and to be of Fatimid origin. However, dishes mentioned in historical texts are not necessarily the same as the modern versions of kanafeh.

During the civil war, Nur ad-Din had been busy consolidating his control of Damascus following the death of Mu'in ad-Din. With Syria united under one ruler, Jerusalem could only expand its influence to the south, towards Egypt. Egypt was weakened by civil wars as well, after the succession of a series of young Fatimid caliphs. Around 1150 Baldwin refortified Gaza to place some pressure on the nearby Egyptian outpost of Ascalon, and in 1153 Baldwin successfully besieged and captured Ascalon itself.

Both cities had mosques named el-Azhar after the prophet Muhammad's daughter, Fatima el-Azhar, and both had gates named Bab el-Futuh and Bab Zuwaila. Both cities had two palaces, for the caliph and for his heir, opposite each other. After the Fatimid caliphs moved to Egypt, el-Mansuriya remained the capital of the Zirids, who became the local rulers, for the next eighty-five years. The Zirid ruler el-Mansur bin Buluqqin built a palace for himself at el-Mansuriya.

The first period of transmission during 8th and 9th centuries was preceded by a period of conquest, as Arabs took control of previously Hellenized areas such as Egypt and the Levant in the 7th century.Rosenthal 2 At this point they first began to encounter Greek ideas, though from the beginning, many Arabs were hostile to classical learning. Because of this hostility, the religious Caliphs could not support scientific translations. Translators had to seek out wealthy business patrons rather than religious ones.

In 836 the caliph al-Mu'tasim transferred the capital to Samarra. The Abbasids began to lose control over the outlying parts of the empire, with local dynasties gaining effective independence in Khorasan (Samanids) in eastern Iran, Egypt (Tulunids) and Ifriqiya (Aghlabids). The caliph al-Mu'tamid, by now the effective ruler only of Iraq, moved his capital back to Baghdad in 889. In 945 the Buyids, followers of Shia Islam, became effective rulers as amirs, while the Abbasid caliphs retained their nominal title.

Little is known of the early history of the sect, but it was firmly established by the end of the ninth century. From 969 to 1171, an Ismaili dynasty, the Fatimids, ruled as caliphs in Egypt. The Ismaili power in Syria was stamped out by the Mamluk dynasty of Egypt, after the former offered the Crusaders their allegiance and conversion to Christianity – which were rejected by the Knights Templar. Ismailis are divided into two major groups: the Mustali and the Nizari.

Ishaq was a member of a collateral branch of the Abbasid royal dynasty, being a first cousin of the first two Abbasid caliphs al-Saffah () and al-Mansur (). His father, Sulayman ibn Ali, had been a senior member of the family during his lifetime and had held the important governorship of Basra during the initial years following the Abbasid Revolution. He was also connected to the ruling line by his marriage to Aliyah, the daughter of al- Mansur and an Umayyad woman.; .

Yazid was a member of the Banu Sulaym tribe, which had participated in the Muslim conquest of Armenia and been settled by the caliphs in the western Armenian borderlands with the Byzantine Empire.Ter-Ghevondyan (1976), pp. 29–30 Yazid's father, Asid (or Usayd) ibn Zafir al-Sulami, had been a general in the service of the Umayyads, and served under the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan ibn Muhammad, and his father, Muhammad ibn Marwan, in their campaigns in the region.Crone (1980), p.

This part deals with those aspects of the lives of the four early caliphs which point to the singularly excellent virtues (fada'il) that make their political conduct an exemplary pattern in statecraft. Thus this work adopts a dual approach, one that combines the juridical and historical treatment of the subject. Further, it sets out to refute the political doctrines of the Shi'ah. This is not only the central theme of the book, but also the main motive of this study.

Islamic geography was patronized by the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. An important influence in the development of cartography was the patronage of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun, who reigned from 813 to 833. He commissioned several geographers to remeasure the distance on earth that corresponds to one degree of celestial meridian. Thus his patronage resulted in the refinement of the definition of the mile used by Arabs (mīl in Arabic) in comparison to the stadion used in the Hellenistic world.

In 591, the Byzantine Emperor Maurice defeated the Persians and recovered much of the remaining territory of Armenia into the empire. The conquest was completed by the Emperor Heraclius, himself ethnically Armenian, in 629. In 645, the Muslim Arab armies of the Caliphate had attacked and conquered the country. Armenia, which once had its own rulers and was at other times under Persian and Byzantine control, passed largely into the power of the Caliphs, and established the province of Arminiya.

Map of the Byzantine-Arab frontier zone in southeastern Asia Minor, with the major fortresses As his nisba indicates, Ali was of Armenian descent.Canard, Cahen & Deny (1960), p. 638: "There were Armenians, too, in the Muslim territories, serving the Caliphs, but converted to Islam, like the celebrated amir Ali al-Armani who died in 863, not long after he had been named governor of Armenia and Adharbaydjan." In 840, he was sent to Egypt as its governor, replacing Malik ibn Kaydur.

In addition to stripping al-Azhar of its status as congregational mosque, Saladin also ordered the removal from the mihrab of the mosque a silver band on which the names of the Fatimid caliphs had been inscribed. This and similar silver bands removed from other mosques totaled 5,000 dirhems. Saladin did not completely disregard the upkeep of the mosque and according to al-Mufaddal one of the mosque's minarets was raised during Saladin's rule. The teaching center at the mosque also suffered.

Justifying the attack on Iran, Saddam Hussein accused Iranians of "murdering the second (Umar), third (Uthman), and fourth (Ali) Caliphs of Islam".Tallal Etrisi طلال عتریسی in: Arab-Iranian Relations, edited by: Khair El-Din Haseeb. 1998. In March 1988, Saddam Hussein killed about 20,000 Iranian soldiers immediately using nerve-gas agents. According to Iraqi documents, assistance in developing chemical weapons was obtained from firms in many countries, including the United States, West Germany, the United Kingdom, France and China.

Abu Muslim was confirmed as governor of Khorasan, and made Nishapur the capital. He seems to have initiated a huge building programme which stimulated the growth of the city. Nishapur increased in importance, and two ‘Abbasids were governors here before becoming caliphs. It was the governor of Khurasan (‘Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan) who presented the large gift of Chinese imperial porcelains to Harun al-Rashid (see Abbasid Ceramics Section), demonstrating the strategic importance of the province on trade routes.

Some secular scholars have questioned the traditional view of the Rashidun. Robert G. Hoyland states that "writers who lived at the same time as the first four caliphs ... recorded next to nothing about them, and their names do not appear on coins, inscriptions, or documents. It is only with the fifth caliph", Muawiyah I(661–680), "that was have evidence of a functioning Arab government, since his name appears on all official state media."Hoyland, In God's Path, 2015: p.

A member of the Banu al-Abbas, Ishaq was the son of Musa ibn Isa and grandson to Isa ibn Musa. He was a third cousin of the caliphs al-Amin (), al-Ma'mun (), and al-Mu'tasim (). In 814 Ishaq was appointed to the Yemen by al-Ma'mun, and he arrived in the province that summer. He remained in the Yemen until the following year, when he learned that nearby Mecca had been occupied by the Alid rebel Hasan ibn Husayn ibn al- Aftas.

The First Fitna ( fitnat maqtal ʻUthmān "strife/sedition of the killing of Uthman") was a civil war within the Rashidun Caliphate which resulted in the overthrowing of the Rashidun caliphs and the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty. It began when the caliph Uthman was assassinated by rebels in 656 and continued through the four-year reign of Uthman's successor, Ali. It ended in 661 when Ali's heir Hasan ibn Ali concluded a treaty acknowledging the rule of Muawiyah, the first Umayyad caliph.

Al-Bakhtariyya, a daughter of Farrukhan-i Kuchak, became the concubine of al-Mahdi, and it is reported that another of al- Mahdi's concubines, Shakla, was a daughter of Khurshid. In 817, during the Fourth Fitna, the populace of Baghdad turned to their sons to make them caliphs in opposition to al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833). Al-Bakhtariyya's son al- Mansur ibn al-Mahdi refused, but his half-brother Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi accepted and ruled as anti-caliph until 819.

The failure of the mihna seriously damaged Caliphal authority and ruined the reputation of the office for succeeding caliphs. The caliph would lose much of his religious authority to the opinion of the ulema as a result of the mihna. The ulema and the major Islamic law schools became truly defined in the period of al-Ma'mun, and Sunnism—as a religion of legalism—became defined in parallel. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam began to become more pronounced.

Some of Rabat's historic gates, most notably Bab er-Rouah, also date from this time. Al-Mansur protected the philosopher Averroes and kept him as a favorite at court. Like many of the Almohad caliphs, Al-Mansur was religiously learned. He favored the Zahirite or literalist school of Muslim jurisprudence per Almohad doctrine and possessed a relatively extensive education in the Muslim prophetic tradition; he even wrote his own book on the recorded statements and actions of the prophet Muhammad.

At the time of the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad in 632, the religion that he led dominated the Hejaz (western Arabia). Under the first two caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, Islam expanded into Palestine and Mesopotamia where it respectively confronted the East Roman and Persian (Sāsānian) empires. Both were exhausted by warfare and internal dissent. With the East Roman defeat at the Battle of Yarmouk (636), the Muslim Arabs were free to turn east to the Euphrates and the Persian heartland.

The Second Crusade in 1148 had failed to conquer Damascus, which soon fell to Zengi's son Nur ad-Din. Jerusalem also lost influence to Byzantium in northern Syria when the Empire imposed its suzerainty over the Principality of Antioch. Jerusalem thus turned its attention to Egypt, where the Fatimid dynasty was suffering from a series of young caliphs and civil wars. The crusaders had wanted to conquer Egypt since the days of Baldwin I, who died during an expedition there.

Having secured control of both Mecca and Medina, the Ibadis next decided to head north to Syria, the former seat of the Umayyad caliphs.; ; ; . Marwan II was the first Umayyad caliph to rule from outside of Syria, preferring the city of Harran in the Jazriah instead; . By this time, however, the activities of the rebels had prompted Marwan to take action against them, and a Syrian force of four thousand cavalry was dispatched to dislodge the Ibadis from the Hijaz.

Azizah Y. al- Hibri, 2003 Levy concurs, adding that "cruelty to them was forbidden."Levy (1957) p. 77 Al-Hibri quotes the famous last speech of Muhammad and other hadiths emphasizing that all believers, whether free or enslaved, are siblings. Lewis explains, "the humanitarian tendency of the Quran and the early caliphs in the Islamic empire, was to some extent counteracted by other influences," notably the practice of various conquered people and countries Muslims encountered, especially in provinces previously under Roman law.

Twelver tradition holds that four deputies acted in succession to one another from 873–941 CE: 1) Abu Muhammad Uthman ibn Sa'id al-Asadi ( (873–880) : Uthman was the deputy of Hasan al-Askari. He was directly determined as deputy by al- Askari and was responsible for organizing the Shia of Samarra. Uthman brought money from the Iraqi Shia to Shia in Samarra (who were under the severe control of the Abbasid caliphs). He performed funeral of the al-Askari after his death.

However, unlike his father who had been able to teach freely in Medina, Musa al-Kadhim lived with tight restrictions set by Abbasid caliphs, such as al-Mansur and Harun al-Rashid. Musa al-Kadhim never accepted Harun's government, because he believed al- Rashid sought to destroy Islam by erasing the truth and effacing justice. Therefore, he forbade his Shi'ites from cooperating with Harun, excluding those who through their jobs could help the believers and save them from oppression.Sharif al-Qarashi2 2000, p.

Istanbul was the seat of the Islamic Caliphate, between 1517 and 1924. Some of the personal belongings of Muhammad and the earliest caliphs who followed him are today preserved in the Topkapı Palace, the Eyüp Sultan Mosque and in several other prominent mosques of Istanbul. The conquest of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1453 enabled the Ottomans to consolidate their empire in Anatolia and Thrace. The Ottomans later revived the title of caliph during the reign of Sultan Selim.

Whenever the Zirids recognized one of two rival caliphs, the Hammadids would declare their submission to the other.Amar S. Baadj, Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries) (Brill: 2013), p. 46. Buluggin ibn Muhammad, a subsequent Hammadid ruler, invaded Morocco and briefly took Fez, but was forced to retreat against the Almoravid forces of Yusuf ibn Tashfin. Almoravid conquests between 1062 and 1082 extended their lands across Morocco and western Algeria.

Jarir ibn Atiyah al-Khatfi Al-Tamimi () () was an Arab poet and satirist. He was born in the reign of the caliph Othman, and was a member of the tribe Kulaib, a part of the Banu Tamim. He was a native of al-Yamamah, but also spent time in Damascus at the court of the Umayyad caliphs. Little is known of his early life, but he succeeded in winning the favor of Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef, the governor of Iraq.

Throughout history, there have been multiple claimants to the role of Mahdi, who by their pious deeds acquired followings. One of these men, Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, was said to have judgment and character over rival caliphs; and mysteries of his death arose in the 8th century. It was believed he had in fact not died and would one day return as the Mahdi. The sect of Mahdavis arose as followers of another claimant, Muhammad Mahdi of Janpur, in the 15th century.

In 756 Abd ar-Rahman, a descendant of the fallen Omeyyad caliphs, came to Al-Andalus and initiated a revolt against Yusuf. He defeated Yusuf and forced him to reside in Cordoba, but Yusuf broke the agreement and raised a Berber army to fight Abd ar-Rahman. In this conflict, Toledo was held against Abd ar-Rahman by Yusuf's cousin Hisham ibn Urwa. Yusuf attempted to march on Seville, but was defeated and instead attempted to reach his cousin in Toledo.

The Royal House of Bahawalpur is said to be of Arabic origin and claims descent from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, progenitor of the Abbasid Caliphs of Baghdad and Cairo. Sultan Ahmad II, son of Shah Muzammil of Egypt left that country and arrived in Sindh with a large following of Arabs ca. 1370. He married a daughter of Raja Rai Dhorang Sahta, receiving a third of the country in dowry. Amir Fathu'llah Khan Abbasi, is the recognized ancestor of the dynasty.

Throughout the Fatimid period various other minor palaces and establishments were also built in the areas surrounding the caliphs' palaces. To the south of both palaces were a set of stables. The vizier's palace, the Dar al-Wizara, was located northeast of the Eastern Palace, on the site of the current Khanqah of Sultan Baybars al-Jashnakir and the Madrasa of Amir Qarasunqur. It was built by the vizier al-Afdal (son of the famous vizier Badr al-Gamali) after 1094.

The Age of the Caliphs Muslim Arabs defeated the Sassanids and Byzantines as they marched into the Caucasus region. The Arabs made Caucasian Albania a vassal state after the Christian resistance, led by Prince Javanshir, surrendered in 667.p. 71 Between the 9th and 10th centuries, Arab authors began to refer to the region between the Kura and Aras rivers as Arran.p. 20 During this time, Arabs from Basra and Kufa came to Azerbaijan and seized lands that the indigenous peoples had abandoned.

The chamber adjacent to the Rawdah holds the tombs of Prophet Muhammad and two of his companions, father-in-laws and caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab. A fourth grave is reserved for ‘Īsā (, Jesus), as Muslims believe that he will return and will be buried at the site. The site is covered by the Green Dome. It was constructed in 1817 CE during the reign of the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II and painted green in 1837 CE.

The original minbar () used by Muhammad was a block of date palm wood. This was replaced by him with a tamarisk one, which had dimensions of . In 629 CE, a three staired ladder was added to it. The first two caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, did not use the third step as a sign of respect to the Prophet, but the third caliph Uthman placed a fabric dome over it and the rest of the stairs were covered with ebony.

The campaign lasted fifteen months and Abdallah's force returned to Egypt in 648. All further Muslim conquests were soon interrupted, however, when the Kharijite dissidents murdered Caliph Uthman after holding him under house arrest in 656. He was replaced by Ali, who in turn was assassinated in 661. The Umayyad Caliphate of largely secular and hereditary Arab caliphs, then established itself at Damascus and Caliph Muawiyah I began consolidating the empire from the Aral Sea to the western border of Egypt.

In Istanbul, one of the more notable places to celebrate the iftar dinner is the Sultanahmet Square. Located near the Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque) the Sultanahmet Square hosts many activities, including mini restaurants opened during the month of Ramadan, special shows, and traditional Ottoman theatrical shows. At Topkapi Palace the Ottoman sultan-caliphs would break their fast under the gilded bower. The Tarawih prayer is mostly practised in Turkish mosques as 20 rekahs, broken into 5 groups of 4 rekahs.

Almohad dirham minted in curvilinear Maghrebi thuluth script under Abu Yaqub Yusuf. Under the Almohad dynasty, Arabic calligraphy continued to flourish and a variety of distinct styles developed. The Almohad caliphs, many of whom were themselves interested in Arabic script, sponsored professional calligraphers, inviting Andalusi scribes and calligraphers to settle in Marrakesh, Fes, Ceuta, and Rabat. The Almohad caliph Abu Hafs Umar al-Murtada established the first public manuscript transcription center at the madrasa of his mosque in Marrakesh (now the Ben Youssef Madrasa).

Although the initiation of such regulations is usually attributed to Umar I, historical evidence suggests that it was the Abbasid caliphs who pioneered this practice. In 850 the caliph al‑Mutawakkil ordered Christians and Jews to wear both a sash called a zunnah and a distinctive kind of shawl or headscarf called a taylasin (the Christians had already been required to wear the sash).Medieval Jewish History: An Encyclopedia. Edited by Norman Roth, Routledge He also required them to wear small bells in public baths.

With the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, efforts to modernise the country started. The new government analyzed the institutions and constitutions of Western states such as France, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland and adapted them to the needs and characteristics of the Turkish nation. Highlighting the public's lack of knowledge regarding Atatürk's intentions, the public cheered: "We are returning to the days of the first caliphs."Mango, Atatürk, 394 Atatürk placed Fevzi Çakmak, Kâzım Özalp, and İsmet İnönü in political positions where they could institute his reforms.

Muawiyah I (; –April 680) was the founder and first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, serving from 661 until his death. He became caliph less than 30 years following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and very shortly after the reign of the four "rightly guided" (Rashidun) caliphs. Although considered to be lacking in the justice and piety of the Rashidun, Muawiyah was also the first caliph whose name appeared on coins, inscriptions, or documents of the nascent Islamic empire.Hoyland, In God's Path, 2015: p.

In the late seventeenth century, Awbek Ashfaga of the Banū Daymān tribe, later to style himself Nāșir al-Din ("Protector of the Faith"), emerged as a leader of the Zawaya tribes in resisting the Hassān. He was widely respected for his scholarship, purity of life and healing ability. His goal was to establish an ideal Islamic society based on the original organization of the first caliphs, where ethnic and tribal differences would be ignored. Nāșir al-Din demanded strict obedience to his authority by the Zawaya.

It was founded by Salih I ibn Mansur in 710, as a client state to the Umayyad Caliphate. After the outbreak of the Berber Revolt in 739, the Berbers formed other independent states such as the Miknasa of Sijilmasa and the Barghawata. According to medieval legend, Idris ibn Abdallah had fled to Morocco after the Abbasids' massacre of his tribe in Iraq. He convinced the Awraba Berber tribes to break their allegiance to the distant Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad and he founded the Idrisid dynasty in 788.

The Rashidun caliphate expanded very quickly under Prophet Muhammad and the first three caliphs. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, marginalized as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.Hofmann (2007), p.86 As new areas joined the Islamic polity, they also benefited from free trade while trading with other areas under Islamic rule; so as to encourage commerce, Muslims taxed wealth instead of trade.

In 600, Khosrow II executed Al-Nu'man III, King of the Lakhmids of Al- Hira, presumably because of the Arab king's refusal to give him his daughter al-Ḥurqah in marriage and insulting Persian women. Afterwards the central government took over the defense of the western frontiers to the desert, and the buffer state of the Lakhmids vanished. This ultimately facilitated the Muslim Caliphs' invasion and conquest of Lower Iraq, less than a decade after Khosrow's death.Richard Nelson Frye, The History of Ancient Iran, p 330.

Ibn Abi Asim compiled numerous Prophetic traditions into two volumes, organized into chapters based on different theological and creed-related topics. He had also written about the first-generation Muslim and Umayyad caliph, Mu'awiyah, though the work is now lost. Likewise, the exact topic has eluded historians, with Al-Suyuti claiming it was a book on Mu'awiyah's dreams,Al-Suyuti, History of the Caliphs, edited by Muhammad Abu al-Fadl Ibrahim, Cairo: Dar al-Nahdat Misr li at-Tab' wa al-Nashr, 1976. Pg. 309.

Had it not been for the brothers' efforts, many of the Greek texts that they translated would have been lost and forgotten. After the death of al-Ma'mun, the Banu Musa continued to work under the Caliphs al- Mu'tasim, al-Wathiq, and al-Mutawakkil. However, during the reign of al-Wathiq and al-Mutawakkil internal rivalries arose between the scholars in the House of Wisdom. At some point the Banu Musa became enemies of al-Kindi and contributed to his persecution by al-Mutawakkil.

Avicenna (980–1037), or Ibn Sina, was a court physician to the caliphs of Baghdad and a key figure in medicine who compiled an exhaustive medical encyclopedia titled The Canon of Medicine. His account detailed the clinical features of diabetes, and termed the disease albulab ("water wheel") and zalkh el kuliah ("diarrhea of the kidneys"). He documented "the abnormal appetite and the collapse of sexual functions" and the sweet taste of diabetic urine, and further differentiated diabetes associated with emaciation from other causes of polyuria.

The term dawla originally meant "cycle, time, period of rule". It was particularly often used by the early Abbasid caliphs to signify their "time of success", i.e. reign, and soon came to be particularly associated with the reigning house and acquire the connotation of "dynasty". In modern usage, since the 19th century, it has come to mean "state", in particular a secular state of the Western type as opposed to the dynastic or religion-based state systems current until then in the Islamic world.

Da'a'im al-Islam () is an Ismaili Shia Islam Muslim book of jurisprudence. The book was written by Al-Qadi al-Nu'man. He served as da'i of four imams (from Ismaili 11th Imam Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah to 14th Imam Al-Aziz Billah the first four Fatimid caliphs of Egypt). The book emphasizes what importance Islam has given to manners and etiquette along with Ibadah, the worship of God, citing references of first four Fatimid imams and earlier Shia imams, Muhammad al-Baqir and Jafar-as-Sadiq.

Baghdad had for centuries been the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, the third caliphate, whose rulers were descendants of Abbas, an uncle of Muhammad. In 751, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads and moved the Caliph's seat from Damascus to Baghdad. At the city's peak, it was populated by approximately one million people and was defended by an army of 60,000 soldiers. By the middle of the 13th century the power of the Abbasids had declined and Turkic and Mamluk warlords often held power over the Caliphs.

The Mughal Emperor Babur issued standard Timurid currency coins known as the shahrukhi, named after Shahrukh Mirza, Timur's eldest son. The Shahrukhis were essentially thin broad-flanned coins imprinted with the Sunni kalima or credo on its obverse at the center with the names of the first four caliphs around it. The reverse had the king's name and titles along with the date in the Hijri era and the name of the minting town. Babur's successor Humayun continued the minting of Shahrukhi-styled coins.

He was sent with an army to the east to recover Baghdad, but was killed in a Mongol ambush near Hīt (modern Iraq) in 1261, and was succeeded by his rather distant Abbasid kinsman (and former rival caliph, having been proclaimed by the ruler of Aleppo) Al-Hakim I. Though he was not the direct ancestor of any of them, the line of Cairo caliphs he founded lasted until the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, but they were little more than religious figureheads for the Mamluks.

Abu Muhammad ʿAbdallah 'al-ʿAdil' ( ʿAbd Allāh; d. October 4, 1227) was an Almohad Caliph, a former governor in al-Andalus who challenged and secured the murder of his predecessor, Abd al-Wahid I. His 1224 coup ushered in a period of instability that lasted well beyond his own death in 1227. He is often regarded as one of the most disastrous of Almohad caliphs. His coup divided the Almohads and set in motion the loss of al-Andalus and the eventual collapse of the Almohad state.

Badia was born in Barcelona on April 1, 1767. After receiving a liberal education, he devoted particular attention to the Arabic language, which he learned in Vera, Almería, where his father was a military accountant, and in London. He also made a special study of the manners and customs of Arabian lands. Under the assumed name of Ali Bey el Abbassi, Badia spent the two years from 1803 to 1805 in Morocco, entertained by its king while pretending to be a descendant of the Abbasid caliphs.

His rule lasted for 60 years, the longest of all the caliphs, either in Egypt or elsewhere in Islamic states. However, Fatimid power was confined to Egypt due to conquests of Seljuks in the Levant and Normans in Sicily and Malta. Al-Mustansir was considered incapable and as such his court was dominated by military strongmen and his mother's favourite officials, while the treasury was exhausted by factional infighting. He had constructed a special mihrab at one of a pillar in the Mosque of Ibn Tulun.

Many Iranians, who had expected more freedom and more rights from the new rulers, could not believe that their hero was killed by the ruling Caliph whom they had considered a friend of Iran and Iranians.CAIS News, Restoration of Fortress of Babak Khorramdin to Continue, May 16, 2004. This incident led to many revolts, mostly by angry Khurramiyyah (Khorram-Dinān) and some Zoroastrians. This, in turn, forced the Caliphs to use more violence against the Iranian population in order to keep the eastern provinces under control.

Thomas the Presbyter (fl. 640) was a Syriac Orthodox priest from Mesopotamia who wrote the Syriac Chronicle of 640, which is also known as the Chronicle of 724 or Book of the Caliphs.. The first editor of the work labelled the manuscript Liber calipharum on account of its last folio. A modern Latin translation was published under the title Chronicon miscellaneum ad annum domini 724 pertinens ("miscellaneous chronicle up to AD 724"). The Chronicle of 640 is an idiosyncratic universal history down to the year AD 640.

Bukhtishu II was the son of Jurjis ibn Bukhtishu and the father of Jibril ibn Bukhtishu. He was left in charge of the hospital at Gondeshapur when his father was summoned to treat the stomach complaints of Caliph al- Mansur. Jurjis never intended for Bukhtishu II to go to Baghdad and tend to the caliphs and had offered to send one of his pupils in his stead. Nevertheless, Bukhtishu II was in turn called to the city to treat the Caliph al-Hadi, who was gravely ill.

Abū Dulaf al-Qāsim ibn ‘Īsā ibn Ma‘qil ibn Idrīs al-‘Ijlī () was a military general from the nobility under the successive Abbāsid caliphs al-Ma’mūn and al-Mu‘taṣim. His father had commenced construction of the city of Karaj in Persian Irāq, the tribal residence of the Banū Ijlī, and which, as governor, Abū Dulaf completed. He was an illustrious man of letters and science, a brilliant poet, a musical composer, a talented vocalist, and an expert on the Bedouin dialect. His generosity was proverbial.

398-443 (p. 399-414), DOI: 10.1163/9789004307469_018. or simply Layla al-Akhyaliyyah () was a famous Umayyad Arab poet who was renowned for her poetry, eloquence, strong personality as well as her beauty. Nearly fifty of her short poems survive. They include elegies for her lover Tawba ibn Humayyir and ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan; 'lewd satires' exchanged with the poet al- Nabigha al-Ja‘di; and panegyrics for leading Umayyad officials and caliphs: Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf, Caliph Marwan I, and Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.

With respect to the fourth of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs of Islam, Ali (d. 661), Ali Hujwiri stated: "His renown and rank in this Path were very high. He explained the principles of Divine Truth with exceeding subtlety.... Ali is a model for the Sufis in respect to the truths of outward expressions and the subtleties of inward meanings, the stripping of one's self of all property either of this world or of the next, and consideration of the Divine Providence."Hujwiri, Kashf al- Mahjub, trans.

Kemalist social content (populism) was brought against the political domination of sheiks, tribal leaders, and Islamism (Islam as a political system) of the Ottoman Empire. Initially, the declaration of the republic was perceived as "Returning to the days of the first caliphs". However, Kemalist nationalism aimed to shift the political legitimacy from autocracy (by the Ottoman dynasty), theocracy (based in the Ottoman Caliphate), and feudalism (tribal leaders) to the active participation of its citizenry, the Turks. Kemalist social content wanted to establish the value of Turkish citizenship.

Additions and renovations were carried during the reign of the remaining Fatimid caliphs. Al-Hafiz undertook a major refurbishment in 1138, which established the keel-shaped arches and carved stucco decoration seen in the courtyard today, as well as the dome at the central entrance of the prayer hall. Initially lacking a library, al-Azhar was endowed by the Fatimid caliph in 1005 with thousands of manuscripts that formed the basis of its collection. Fatimid efforts to establish Ismāʿīli practice among the population were, however largely unsuccessful.

A Qadi (Islamic judge) was also not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, gender, colour, kinship or prejudice. There were also a number of cases where caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to deliver their verdict. According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at Harvard University, the legal scholars and jurists who once upheld the rule of law were replaced by a law governed by the state due to the codification of Sharia by the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century.

The Age of the Caliphs In 639 an army of some 4,000 men were sent against Egypt by the second caliph, Umar, under the command of Amr ibn al-As. This army was joined by another 5,000 men in 640 and defeated a Byzantine army at the battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on November 8, 641. Alexandria was regained for the Byzantine Empire in 645 but was retaken by Amr in 646.

He supported the Caisites against Merwan. After being accused of mistrust, he fled to Egypt and found refuge from its governor ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan, and he changed his support in favor of the reigning caliphs. He became governor of Northern Africa in 698 and quickly extended his control all the way to Maghrib in West Africa, where he took control of the Berbers and integrated them into the Muslim army. September 714 brought an end to the Spanish conquests and the end of Musá’s career.

Until Sultan Vahdeddin the band was called Mizika-i Humayun (Mızıka-ı Humayun, the Imperial Band). In Vahdeddin's reign, it was called Makam-i Hilafet Muzikasi (The Caliphs Band). After the foundation of the Turkish Republic, the State orchestra moved to the new capital Ankara on April 27, 1924, upon the orders of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Founding President of the Republic of Turkey. Upon moving to Ankara, the Musiki Muallim Mektebi (Music Teachers School) was also formed (in 1924) with the efforts of Zeki Üngör.

861–862), when he was appointed as a commander of Wasif's campaign against the Byzantines.; Under al-Muntasir's successor al-Musta'in (r. 862–866), he led a Turkish army to quell a tribal uprising in Jordan after the local authorities proved incapable of defeating it themselves.; Following the outbreak of civil war in 865 between the rival caliphs al-Musta'in (in Baghdad) and al-Mu'tazz (in Samarra), Muzahim initially sided with the former and made his way from Raqqa to Baghdad, where he was received with honor.

Instead of an election, their leader's legitimacy came from an oath of allegiance ("Bay'ah"), in imitation of the Prophet and the first four Caliphs. On 4 April 1996, Mullah Omar had "the Cloak of the Prophet Mohammed" taken from its shrine for the first time in 60 years. Wrapping himself in the relic, he appeared on the roof of a building in the center of Kandahar while hundreds of Pashtun mullahs below shouted "Amir al-Mu'minin!" (Commander of the Faithful), in a pledge of support.

Khomeini made efforts to establish unity among Ummah. "During the early days of the Revolution, Khomeini endeavored to bridge the gap between Shiites and Sunnis by forbidding criticizing the Caliphs who preceded Ali — an issue that causes much animosity between the two sects. Also, he declared it permissible for Shiites to pray behind Sunni imams."Islamonline. Frequently Asked Questions on Iran These measures have been viewed as being legitimised by the Shia practice of taqiyya (dissimulation), in order to maintain Muslim unity and fraternity.

Under the Rashidun, or the "rightly guided caliphs," literary centers developed in the Hijaz, in cities such as Mecca and Medina; in the Levant, in Damascus; and in Iraq, in Kufa and Basra. Literary production—and poetry in particular—in this period served the spread of Islam. There was also poetry to praise brave warriors, to inspire soldiers in jihad, and rithā' to mourn those who fell in battle. Notable poets of this rite include Ka'b ibn Zuhayr, Hasan ibn Thabit, , and Nābigha al-Ja‘dī.

Instead of an election, their leader's legitimacy came from an oath of allegiance ("Bay'ah"), in imitation of the Prophet and the first four Caliphs. On 4 April 1996, Mullah Omar had "the Cloak of the Prophet Mohammed" taken from its shrine for the first time in 60 years. Wrapping himself in the relic, he appeared on the roof of a building in the center of Kandahar while hundreds of Pashtun mullahs below shouted "Amir al-Mu'minin!" (Commander of the Faithful), in a pledge of support.

Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman () was an Isma'ili missionary () and theological writer of the 10th century. Originally born and raised in Yemen, where his father Ibn Hawshab had established the Isma'ili in the late 9th century, he fled the country to the court of the Fatimid caliphs in Ifriqiya, where he remained until his death. He composed poems in praise of the Fatimids' victory over the uprising of Abu Yazid, a biography of his father, and dauthore or compiled a number of important theological treatises.

Sunni poets Jarir ibn Atiyah and Al-Farazdaq considered various Umayyads Caliphs, such as Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, Umar II, Yazid II, and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik to be the Mahdis. In Medina, among Sunni religious circles, the belief in Umar II being the Mahdi, "the just restorer of religion", was widespread. Said ibn al-Musayyib is said to identify Umar II as the Mahdi long before his reign. The Basran, Abu Qilabah, supported the view that Umar II was the Mahdi.

The Sunnis, however, were now determined to give their processions a character that was distinct to that of the Shia processions. Verses at the time known as Charyari were recited during the Sunni processions. These verses were in praise of the first four Caliphs who were portrayed as friends of the Prophet as well as friends of each other. Since some of these verses ‘were positively objectionable in that they contained abuse of Shias and of their beliefs’, their recitation was found provocative by the Shias.

Wasif al-Turki () (died October 29, 867) was a Turkic general in the service of the Abbasid Caliphate. He played a central role in the events that followed the assassination of al-Mutawakkil in 861, known as the Anarchy at Samarra. During this period he and his ally Bugha al-Sharabi were often in effective control of affairs in the capital, and were responsible for the downfall of several caliphs and rival officials. After Wasif was killed in 867, his position was inherited by his son Salih.

Sufyān ibn al-Abrad al-Kalbī al-Aṣamm (; ) was a general of the Umayyad Caliphate who served under caliphs Muawiyah II (), Marwan I () and Abd al- Malik (). He backed the latter against his own tribesmen during a coup attempt in 689. He was a key figure in securing the Umayyad hold over Iraq during the governorship of al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, helping the latter defeat the Kharijites in 696/97 and the rebellion of Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath in 700/01.

Abu Abdallah Ja'far ibn Abd al-Wahid ibn Ja'far ibn Sulayman ibn Ali al- Hashimi () (died 871/2?) was a Chief judge of the Abbasid Caliphate, from 854 to 863/4. He was a minor member of the Abbasid dynasty, being a descendant of Sulayman ibn Ali, the uncle of the caliphs al-Saffah and al-Mansur. Although his jurisdictional background is obscure,; . he was appointed as chief judge (qadi al-qudat) by al-Mutawakkil in July 854 as a replacement for Yahya ibn Aktham.

At the Battle of Siffin, Bahdal's grandson, Hassan ibn Malik, fought for Mu'awiyah and commanded the Quda'a contingent. The Umayyads would later triumph over their rivals and Mu'awiyah became caliph in 661, moving the capital of the caliphate from Medina to Damascus. By dint of his marital links with Mu'awiyah, Bahdal became "the founder of the great prosperity of the Kalbites" during Umayyad rule (661–750), according to Lammens. His household's influence with the early Umayyad caliphs was such that partisans of the Umayyads were known as the "Baḥdaliyya".

Nothing much is known for sure about 'Ali Akbar's origin and early life. While he created his book in Istanbul, he may have been born elsewhere in the Islamic World - perhaps, as Aly Mazahéri suggested, based on textual references, even as far as in Transoxania (Bukhara).Ralph Kauz, Some researchers think that ʿAlī Akbar's name may indicate his Shi'ite origin. However, his text praises the Four Righteous Caliphs (venerated by the Sunnis), so even if born and raised a Shi'ite, he must have changed his religious affiliation due to the changing political situation.

The most interesting monument in the Astara region is the stone statue which is kept in the History and Ethnography Museum. Experts of the Institute of Architecture and Art of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences have made an official statement that this stone statue is over 2000 years old. There are more than 8,000 exhibits in the Astara Regional History and Ethnography Museum. The exhibits belong to Iron, Bronze Age such as copper coins, different tools, items Most of coins belong to the IX-XII centuries to Shirvanshahs and other to the Abbasid Caliphs.

Among the most prominent Christian families to serve as physicians to the caliphs were the Bukhtishu dynasty.Rémi Brague, Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization Britannica, Nestorian The Christian physician Hunayn ibn Ishaq led the House of Wisdom. Throughout the 4th to 7th centuries, Christian scholarly work in the Greek and Syriac languages was either newly translated or had been preserved since the Hellenistic period. Among the prominent centers of learning and transmission of classical wisdom were Christian colleges such as the School of Nisibis and the School of Edessa,The School of Edessa , Nestorian.org.

In 1986, the religious authorities was alarmed by Ashaari's book Aurad which claimed that Prophet Muhammad and the four caliphs not only could be met in a dream but also could be confronted physically and consciously in the real world. The government's Islamic Developmental Department (Jakim) argued that some facts and arguments were misleading and could jeopardise the beliefs of the Malaysian Muslims. The National Fatwa Committee proscribed the book in 1998. The ban turned into a political controversy when Ashaari refused to abide by it and challenged the decision.

Hasan al-Askari lived almost his entire life under house arrest in Samarra and under the supervision of the Abbasid caliphs. He was not allowed to communicate with others and wore the Taqiyah (cap). Some say, however, that due to visits made on his traffic route, at the beginning of his imamate, he had a little freedom. According to Sachedina and Jassim M. Hussain, during his house arrest, al-Askari named a personal deputy to guide the Shia in religious thought and collect religious taxes (Khums, Zakat, etc.).

The wall of the citadel in Derbent, Russia. Built by the Sasanian kings, it was often identified with the "Gates of Alexander". The Caliph Umar, as well as later Caliphs, sent expeditions to Derbent to seek out this wall. Several historical figures, both Muslim and Christian, searched for Alexander's Gate and several different identifications were made with actual walls. During the Middle Ages, the Gates of Alexander story was included in travel literature such as the Travels of Marco Polo (1254–1324 AD) and the Travels of Sir John Mandeville.

The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia. They conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the Hejaz. Egypt held out under the Fatimid caliphs until 1169, when it too fell to the Turks. Despite massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the Christian Byzantine Empire continued to be a potent military and economic force in the Mediterranean, preventing Arab expansion into much of Europe.

Fresco from Qasr al- Hayr al-Gharbî, Syria, Ummayad caliphs Palace, built in the early 7th century Arabic music is the music of Arab people, especially those centered around the Arabian Peninsula. The world of Arab music has long been dominated by Cairo, a cultural center, though musical innovation and regional styles abound from Tunisia to Saudi Arabia. Beirut has, in recent years, also become a major center of Arabic music. Classical Arab music is extremely popular across the population, especially a small number of superstars known throughout the Arab world.

He was born in the outer district (Bīrūn) of Kath, the capital of the Afrighid dynasty of Khwarezm in Central Asia (or Chorasmia). To conduct research, Al-Biruni used different methods to tackle the various fields he studied. He lived during the Islamic Golden Age, when the Abbasid Caliphs promoted the research of astronomy. Al-Biruni spent the first twenty-five years of his life in Khwarezm where he studied Islamic jurisprudence, theology, grammar, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy and also dabbled in the field of physics and most other sciences as well.

Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā ibn al-‘Abbās al-Ṣūlī () , (b. ca. 870 Gorgan – d. 941 to 948 Basra) was a Turkic scholar and a court companion of three Abbāsid caliphs: al-Muktafī, his successor al-Muqtadir, and later, al-Rāḍī, whom he also tutored. He was a bibliophile, a brilliant man of letters, editor-poet, chronicler, and chess champion of proverbial talent. His coeval biographer Isḥāq al-Nadīm tells us he was “of manly bearing.” He wrote many books the most famous of which are Kitāb Al-Awrāq and Kitāb al- Shiṭranj.

In the meantime a third person appears on the scene, with the news that the imperial armies have obtained a glorious victory. The hope is expressed that Babel (Baghdad, the chief city of the caliphs) may soon be destroyed, Egypt subdued (that is, reconquered from the Arabs), and the attacks of the "Scythians" (Russians or Bulgarians) repulsed. The dialogue concludes with thanks to the unknown god of Athens that they have been permitted to be the subjects of such an emperor and the inhabitants of such an empire.

In Islam, learning is essentially the process of moving messages from one person to another. Learning methods are used both in boarding school or teaching in the mosques followed by the pilgrims as usual is the method used by the Prophet. So there is a movement of purification in the method of learning. In Islam, since the prophet Muhammad and the caliphs and the companions, the process of moving the messages contained in the Qur'an and Hadith through the method of reading, writing, and listening in science communication is referred to as verbal communication.

Caucasian leaders who sided with the Sasanians are branded as Persophiles, such as Stephen I of Iberia. Early Abbasid caliphs Harun al-Rashid and Al-Ma'mun are described as Persophile by the English author Percy Sykes, due to their pro-Persian policies. Admiration of Persian culture continued in Mughal Empire in South Asia; for example, Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana being the foremost Persophile of his time. One of the most prominent contemporary Persophiles was the British literary historian Edward Granville Browne, who participated in the 1906 Persian Constitutional Revolution.

The Shiite Fatimid dynasty conquered Misr (Egypt) in 972 and set up their caliphate in Cairo. The difficulty of maintaining control of Libya plagued the Fatimids, as it had almost every other authority preceding them. At the beginning of the 11th century, Bulukkin ibn Ziri was installed as the Fatimid governor but he quickly returned Libya to orthodox Sunni Islam and swore allegiance to the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad. The Fatimid anger at what they considered a gross betrayal profoundly altered the fabric and makeup of Libyan society.

Article 92 contains tables of the position of stars and astronomical calculations. Article 97 deals with mathematics. It contains three sections and each section is composed of two subsections. Article 99 also in Persian deals with medicine and the benefits and harm of various fruits, plants and breads. Articles 112 and 113 list the date of birth of Prophets, Caliphs, important scholars, pre-Islamic kings of Persia as well as post-Islamic kings, and the birth of important philosophers like those of Aristotle and Jamasp, the companion of Zoroaster.

Qatayef is believed of Fatimid origin. Some believe that qatayef are the creation of the Fatimid Dynasty, however, their history dates back to the Abbasid Caliphate, 750-1258 CE. Qatayef was mentioned in a tenth century Arabic cookbook dates back to the Abbasid Caliphate by Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq called Kitab al-Ṭabīḫ (, The Book of Dishes). The book was later translated by Nawal Nasrallah under the name Annals of the Caliphs' Kitchens. Qatayef was traditionally prepared by street vendors as well as households in the Levant and Egypt.

Tomb of al-Mahdi in Omdurman, Sudan The ashraf, who claim descent from Muhammad, were found in small groups (lineages) scattered among other Arabs. Most of these lineages had been founded by religious teachers or their descendants. A very small group of descendants of the Funj Dynasty also claimed descent from the Umayyads, an early dynasty of caliphs based in present-day Syria. That claim had little foundation, but it served to separate from other Arabs a small group living on or between the White Nile and the Blue Nile.

Despite his wide-ranging attributions in a number religious disciplines, no works penned by Ja'far himself remain extant. Al- Sadiq was born in either 700 or 702 CE. He inherited the position of imam from his father in his mid-thirties. As a Shi’a Imam, al-Sadiq stayed out of the political conflicts that embroiled the region, evading the many requests for support that he received from rebels. He was the victim of some harassment by the Abbasid caliphs, and was eventually, according to Shi’a Muslims, poisoned at the orders of the Caliph Al-Mansur.

Later, Junayd ibn Abd al- Rahman al-Murri killed Jaisiah and recaptured the territory before his successors once again struggled to hold and keep it. During the Abassid period, c. 870, the local emirs shook off all allegiance to the caliphs and by the 10th century the region was split into two weak states, Mansurah on the lower Indus and Multan on the upper Indus, which were soon captured by Ismailis who set up an independent Fatimid state.Keay, pg 186-187 These successor states did not achieve much and shrank in size.

The style of them are strikingly similar to the Barada Panel. The mausoleum of Sultan Baibars, Madrassa Zahiriyah, which was built after 1277, is also decorated with a band of golden floral and architectural mosaics, running around inside the main prayer hall.Zahiriyya Madrasa and Mausoleum of Sultan al-Zahir Baybars Non-religious Umayyad mosaic works were mainly floor panels which decorated the palaces of the caliphs and other high-ranking officials. They were closely modeled after the mosaics of the Roman country villas, once common in the Eastern Mediterranean.

The vizier () was the senior minister of the Fatimid Caliphate for most of the Egyptian period of its existence. Originally it was held by civilian officials who acted as the chief civilian ministers of the caliphs, analogous to the original Abbasid model. When a vizier was not appointed, an "intermediary" () was designated instead. The enfeeblement of the caliph's power and the crisis of the Fatimid regime under Caliph al-Mustansir, however, led to the rise of military strongmen, who dominated the post from the 1070s until the Caliphate's end.

Following this Hammad gained ever more influence in the western Zirid realm. In 1014 he adopted Sunni Islam, declared his independence from the Zirids and recognised the Sunni Abbasids in Baghdad as being the rightful Caliphs (not the Shia Fatimids in Egypt, on whose behalf the Zirids ruled). Although there was initially conflict with the Zirids, in 1016 they were forced to conclude a ceasefire, and in 1018 they recognised the independence of the Hammadids. The successor of Hammad was Qaid ibn Hammad (1028–1054), under whom relations with the Fatimids were re-established.

Apart from his work on Muhammad, al- Quḍā'ī also wrote a terse history of the prophets and caliphs. He said in the introduction that he had observed brevity, but that it was "amply sufficient for entertainment and conversation." In some cases his history of a caliph would give little more than a short character sketch, the names of his wives and children, and names of officials during his rule. Al-Quḍā'ī's history of the FatimidsMS Pococke 270, Bodleian Library, Oxford was used by al-Maqrizi and others in later works.

On account of his services for Mu'awiya, medieval Muslim historians regarded Abu al-A'war as one of Mu'awiya's senior lieutenants and part of the latter's biṭāna (inner circle). Abu al-A'war disappears from the historical record before the end of Mu'awiya's reign in 680. During his lifetime, his son Sufyan was a military chief of the Arab tribes in Jordan. His nephew or great-grandson, Ubayda ibn Abd al-Rahman, served as the provincial governor of Azerbaijan, Jordan, and Ifriqiya during the reigns of Umayyad caliphs Umar II () Hisham () and al- Walid II (), respectively.

The Quran, which Muslims believe to be the verbatim word of God, serves as the primary source of moral teachings in Islam. The Sunnah, which is the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions (or disapprovals) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, as well as various reports about Muhammad's companions, also serves as an important source for Islamic moral teachings. Besides these, the works of Islamic scholars and philosophers, and the moral examples set by important Islamic personalities (such as the four rightly guided caliphs) are other sources for Islamic ethical and moral guidance.

Then, strangely, a handsome young man appeared, snatched the musician's lute, sang a very moving piece (al-Masudi quotes it), and left. On awakening and being informed of this, Harun said Ishaq ibn Ibrahim had received a supernatural visitation. Shortly before he died, Harun is said to have been reading some lines by Abu al-Atahiya about the transitory nature of the power and pleasures of this world, an anecdote related about other caliphs as well. Every morning Harun gave one thousand dirhams to charity and made one hundred prostrations a day.

The actual reason for the anti- Uthman movement is disputed among the Shia and Sunni Muslims. According to Sunni sources, unlike his predecessor, Umar, who maintained discipline with a stern hand, Uthman was less rigorous, focusing more on economic prosperity. Under Uthman, the people became more prosperous and on the political plane they came to enjoy a larger degree of freedom. No institutions were devised to channel political activity, and, in their absence, the pre-Islamic tribal jealousies and rivalries, which had been suppressed under earlier caliphs, erupted once again.

There are some obvious problems with the text published by Houdas and Delafosse. The biographical information for Mahmud Kati (in Manuscript C only) suggests that he was born in 1468, while the other important 17th century chronicle, the Tarikh al-Sudan, gives the year of his death (or someone with the same name) as 1593. This would correspond to an age of 125 years. In addition, there are prophecies made in the initial chapter (Manuscript C only) concerning the coming of the last of the twelve caliphs predicted by Muhammad.

Abbasid Caliphate at its greatest extent, around 850 In 750 the Abbasids seized power from the Umayyad rulers of the Arab empire, who lost all their possessions apart from Spain. The Abbasid caliphs based in what is now Iraq ruled over Iran, Mesopotamia, Arabia and the lands of the eastern and southern Mediterranean. The period between 750 and 900 has been described as the Islamic Golden Age. Where the Umayyads had typically reused pre-Islamic buildings in the cities they had conquered, by the Abbasid era many of these structures required replacement.

Some historians believe the custom dates back as far as 10th century Egypt, when one of the Fatimid caliphs ordered a cannon be placed on Cairo's Muqatam Hill so all Muslims would hear the signal to break their fasts. A more popular story is that it began about two centuries ago in the rule of the Mamluk ruler, Khosh Qadam. It was said the Sultan was given a cannon and that his soldiers tested it by firing it one sunset. By coincidence, this happened at the end of the day's fasting in Ramadan.

In al-Tabari's chronicle, Isa first appears in 813, near the end of civil war between the rival caliphs al-Amin (r. 809–813) and al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833), as one of the individuals in al- Amin's entourage. Following al-Amin's execution in September 813, Isa entered into the service of al-Hasan ibn Sahl, who had been appointed by al-Ma'mun as governor of Baghdad, and over the next several years he participated in the struggle to maintain al-Ma'mun's authority in the central lands of the caliphate.

While all sects of Islam recognise the Qur'an, they differ in which other authorities they acknowledge; in particular the question of the Succession to Muhammad separates the Sunni, who acknowledge the elected Rashidun Caliphs and their descendants, from the Shia, who acknowledge the Imams or descendants of Prophet Muhammad; these two branches are then subdivided by their views on the further course of the succession. Shia fiqh differs with Sunni fiqh on not only political issues, but also important theological issues. Various attitudes towards Shias can be found among the worldwide majority Sunni community.

The nascent Muslim Caliphate regarded itself as heir to the Sassanid, and to a lesser extent, Byzantine, tradition and "civilizational consciousness". As a result, the Arab caliphs also adopted the notion that, in the words of Mako, it was their duty "to protect the settled, i.e. the civilized world from the northern barbarian". This imperative was further reinforced by the Muslim division of the world into the "House of Islam" or Dar al-Islam and the "House of War" (Dar al-Harb), to which the pagan Turkic steppe peoples like the Khazars were consigned.

Ali is quoted saying: :But good Heavens! what had I to do with this "consultation"? Where was any doubt about me with regard to the first of them (caliphs) that I was now considered akin to these ones (in this consultation)? Sermon of ash-Shiqshiqiyyah On the third day, 'Abdu 'r-Rahman ibn 'Awf withdrew his name and told 'Ali that he would make him caliph if; Ali pledged to follow the Book of Allah, the traditions of the Holy Prophet and the system of Abu Bakr and 'Umar.

He stayed in Nehr-i Dikla for a short time and after that he came back to his father's public guest-house for travelers at Hasen during which time he became very famous. When he was twenty-eight, his uncle Shaikh Mansur bequeathed him to manage the dervish lodge and Caliphs after his death. He also commanded him to live in dervish lodge of Shaikh Yahya en-Neccari who was his grandfather from his mother side. It was during this time he began to preach in this dervish lodge.

While Assassins typically refers to the entire sect, only a group of disciples known as the fida'i actually engaged in conflict. Lacking their own army, the Nizari relied on these warriors to carry out espionage and assassinations of key enemy figures. The preferred method of killing was by dagger, never poison or arrows. The Assassins posed a strategic threat to Fatimid, Abbasid and Seljuk authority and, over the course of nearly 300 years, they killed hundreds, including three caliphs, a ruler of Jerusalem and many other Muslim and Christian leaders.

Jibril ibn Bukhtishu was the son of Bukhtishu II, who served the caliphs in Baghdad from 787 CE until his death in 801 CE. In 791 CE, Bukhtishu II recommended Jibril as a physician to Jafar the Barmakid, the vizier of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid. Despite the recommendation, Jibril did not succeed his father until 805 CE, after he successfully treated one of Harun al-Rashid’s slaves, thereby winning the confidence of the caliph. During Jibril’s time in Baghdad, he advised Harun al-Rashid in the building of its first hospital.

The "Age of the Caliphs", showing Umayyad dominance stretching from the Middle East to the Iberian Peninsula, including the port of Narbonne, c. 720 The Umayyad troops, under Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani, the governor-general of al-Andalus, overran Septimania by 719, following their sweep up the Iberian Peninsula. Al- Samh set up his capital from 720 at Narbonne, which the Moors called Arbūna. With the port of Narbonne secure, the Umayyads swiftly subdued the largely unresisting cities of Alet, Béziers, Agde, Lodève, Maguelonne, and Nîmes, still controlled by their Visigothic counts.

The Ottomans were officially from Hanafi-Sunni branch of Islam, the names of two sons of Fatimah and Ali were inscribed inside all of their mosques. An example of this is the writings of Hasan and Husayn, two grandchildren of Muhammad by the calligrapher Kazasker Mustafa İzzed Effendi with Islamic calligraphy in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey. Alī ibn Abī Tālib (, 599 – 661 ACE) was an early Islamic leader. Ali is revered by Sunni Muslims as the fourth Rightly Guided Caliphs, and as a foremost religious authority on the Qur'an and Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence).

Alauddin ordered the convicts to be sawn into two. Ziauddin Barani, writing half-a- century after his death, mentions that Alauddin did not patronize the Muslim ulama, and that "his faith in Islam was firm like the faith of the illiterate and the ignorant". He further states that Alauddin once thought of establishing a new religion. Just like the Islamic prophet Muhammad's four Rashidun caliphs helped spread Islam, Alauddin believed that he too had four Khans (Ulugh, Nusrat, Zafar and Alp), with whose help he could establish a new religion.

At Granada, Catherine goes to the house of her old friend Abou-al-Khayr, the Moorish doctor. With his help, Catherine enters the Alhambra and is chosen as the new favourite of the Caliph. One night, while walking in the garden, she meets her husband, who although overjoyed to see her, is now cured and in full possession of his strength, and proves a very jealous husband, believing she has been unfaithful. The princess, realising that her prisoner and the Caliphs' new favourite "Light of Dawn" (Catherine), must know each other, tries to kill Catherine.

Explaining the significance of his endeavour in the preface of Izalat al-Khafa, Shah Wali Allah substantiates his contention that the conviction about the valid caliphal authority of the four early caliphs was one of the cardinal principles of Religion. In this connection, he argues that a large body of injunctions contained in the Qur'an was brief and summarily expressed. Their full understanding and wider ramifications compel recourse to explanations and commentaries of the early pious authorities (salaf salih). Further, for their interpretation we have to fall back on the traditions.

Sarjun ibn Mansur (; ) was a Melkite Arab Christian official of the early Umayyad Caliphate. The son of a prominent Byzantine official of Damascus, he was a favourite of the early Umayyad caliphs Mu'awiya I and Yazid I, and served as the head of the fiscal administration for Syria from the mid-7th century until the year 700, when Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan dismissed him as part of his efforts to Arabicize the administration of the Caliphate. He was the father of the theologian John of Damascus and adoptive father of Cosmas of Maiuma..

Ahmadis thus view themselves as leading the propagation and renaissance of Islam. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad established the Community (or Jamāʿat) on 23 March 1889 by formally accepting allegiance from his supporters. Since his death, the Community has been led by a number of Caliphs and has spread to 210 countries and territories of the world as of 2017 with concentrations in South Asia, West Africa, East Africa, and Indonesia. The Ahmadis have a strong missionary tradition and formed the first Muslim missionary organization to arrive in Britain and other Western countries.

Critics have noted that Islamists have claimed to uphold eternal religious/political principles but sometimes change with the times, for example embracing "far more modern and egalitarian" interpretations of social justice – including socialist ideas – than the rightly guided caliphs would ever have conceived of.Fuller, The Future of Political Islam, 2003: p. 26 Islamists in power in the Islamic Republic of Iran, have had to "quietly put aside" traditional Islamic divorce and inheritance law and replace them with statutes addressing "contemporary Iranian social needs," according to Graham Fuller.Fuller, The Future of Political Islam, 2003: p.

Towards the end of the first Islamic century, the population began resenting the cost of sustaining the Arab Caliphs, the Umayyads--who had become oppressive and corrupt. In the second Islamic century (eighth century AD), a generally Persian-led uprising, led by the Iranian national hero Abu Muslim Khorasani, brought another Arab clan, the Abbasids, to the Caliphal throne. Under the Abbasids, the Persianate customs of their Barmakid viziers became the style of the ruling elite. Politically, the Abbasids soon started losing their control, causing two major lasting consequences.

Mahmud of Ghazni ruled over southeastern extremities of Samanid territories from the city of Ghazni. Turkic political ascendancy in the Samanid period in the tenth and eleventh centuries resulted in the fall of Samanid ruling institution to its Turkic generals; and in a rise of Turkic pastoralists in the countryside. The Ghaznavids (989-1149) founded empire which became a most powerful in the east since Abbasid Caliphs at their peak, and their capital at Ghazni became second only to Baghdad in cultural elegance. It attracted many scholars and artists of the Islamic world.

However, this is not a strict requirement, given that the Ottoman Caliphs had no familial relation to the tribe. They are not viewed as infallible and can be removed from office if their actions are regarded as sinful. Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali are regarded as the most righteous of their generation, with their merit being reflected in their Caliphate. The subsequent caliphates of the Umayyads and the Abbasids, while not ideal, are seen as legitimate because they complied with the requirements of the law, kept the borders safe and the community generally united.

The first caliphs tried to maintain an original simplicity in their signs, appropriate to an ascetic and fighting religion, but soon, under Persian influence, the style evolved into one using more representative and pompous images. Like in Arabic flags, sophisticated abstract decoration, and lines of Koranic inscriptions were found on Ottoman military flags. In the Ottoman military the loss of military signs (flags, etc.) in battle was considered a disaster. Some of the signs (flags) were deliberately thrown off into the enemy's direction which signaled for attack and/or recapture.

The Islamic era at Umm el-Jimal began in 640 when the Rashidun Caliphs took control of the area. Much remodeling was done throughout the site so as to repurpose buildings to suit their own needs. The Praetorium and House XVIII are examples of buildings repurposed as dwelling places, while House 53 was possibly repurposed into a mosque. Despite all of this, the population decreased and the site was slowly abandoned with the help of an earthquake in circa 749 that destroyed many buildings and set much of the architecture off balance.

Umayyad forces conquered Carthage in 698, expelling the Byzantines, and in 703 decisively defeated Kahina's Berber coalition at the Battle of Tabarka. By 711, Umayyad forces helped by Berber converts to Islam had conquered all of North Africa. Governors appointed by the Umayyad caliphs ruled from Kairouan, capital of the new wilaya (province) of Ifriqiya, which covered Tripolitania (the western part of modern Libya), Tunisia, and eastern Algeria. The spread of Islam among the Berbers did not guarantee their support for the Arab-dominated caliphate due to the discriminatory attitude of the Arabs.

The spiral minaret of the Abu Dulaf Mosque Al-Mutawakkiliyya was the largest building project of the caliph Ja'far al-Mutawakkil, who ordered the construction of a new city on the northern border of al-Dur in 859. This city, which was built in the vicinity of the settlement of al-Mahuza, was intended to replace Samarra as the residence of the caliphs.; Al-Mutawakkiliyya consisted of an unwalled area, through the center of which ran a north-south avenue. On the western side of the avenue was the Abu Dulaf Mosque.

Zubtedu’t tevarih (The Cream of Histories) was written in 993 under the commission of Sultan Murad III, and it was written in two parts. The first part is a broader record of history, including the creation of the universe and zodiacs, stories from religious texts and the genealogical framework stretching from Adam to the prophet Muhammad, the Shi’ite imams, and different caliphs. The Second part of this text begins with the founding of the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Osman and illustrates its history until the reign of Murad III.

Some Abbasid rulers, like Al-Mutawakkil (822–861 CE) imposed strict restrictions on what dhimmis could wear in public, often yellow garments that distinguished them from Muslims. Other restrictions al-Mutawakkil imposed included limiting the role of the dhimmis in government, seizing dhimmi housing and making it harder for dhimmis to become educated. Most other Abbasid caliphs were not as strict as al-Mutawakkil, though. During the reign of Al-Mansur (714–775 CE), it was common for Jews and Christians to influence the overall culture in the Caliphate, specifically in Baghdad.

Jews and Christians did this by participating in scholarly work and Christians even influenced Islamic funeral service traditions. It was common that laws that were imposed against dhimmis during one caliph's rule were either discarded or not practiced during future caliphs' reigns. Al-Mansur and al-Mutawakkil both instituted laws that forbade non-Muslims from participating in public office. Al-Mansur did not follow his own law very closely, bringing dhimmis back to the Caliphate's treasury due to the needed expertise of dhimmis in the area of finance.

Sulayman was succeeded by his cousin, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (717–720), whose position among the Umayyad caliphs is somewhat unusual. He is the only Umayyad ruler to have been recognized by subsequent Islamic tradition as a genuine caliph (khalifa) and not merely as a worldly king (malik). Umar is honoured for his attempt to resolve the fiscal problems attendant upon conversion to Islam. During the Umayyad period, the majority of people living within the caliphate were not Muslim, but Christian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, or members of other small groups.

Byzantine Empire, 650 A.D., still with its Exarchate of Carthage, yet after its recent loss of Syria (634-636) and of Egypt (639-641) to the Arabs of Islam. After the initial period of the four rightly-guided caliphs (632-661) following the death of Muhammad (570-632), the ruling family of the Umayyads took firm control of the new Muslim state. The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) ruled from the city of Damascus; their first Caliph Mu'awiya (602-680, r.661-680) directed Muslim forces in their on-going military contest with the Byzantine Empire.

According to Ron Shaham and other scholars, the various jurisprudence systems on Sharia such as Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i, Hanbali and others differ in their interpretation of the Islamic law on slaves. Slaves were particularly numerous in Muslim armies. Slave armies were deployed by Sultans and Caliphs at various medieval era war fronts across the Islamic Empires, playing an important role in the expansion of Islam in Africa and elsewhere. Slavery of men and women in Islamic states such as the Ottoman Empire, states Ze'evi, continued through the early 20th-century.

The shah also clashed with the Ustajlu tribe and a number of Qizilbash amirs who were allied to the clerics. Thus, the public denunciation of Sunni emblems became one stage on which this power struggle between the Shah and the cleric-Qizilbash group was played out. The Shah hoped to weaken the public appeal of the Amili clerics who administered and encouraged ritual cursing of the first three Sunni Caliphs among Iranians. His Sunni flirtation was also intended to reach out to the still-strong Sunni sympathies among Persians.

After 1110 the Zurayids thus led a more than 60 years long independent rule in the city, bolstered by the international trade. The chronicles mention luxury goods such as textiles, perfume and porcelain, coming from places like North Africa, Egypt, Iraq, Oman, Kirman and China. After the demise of queen Arwa al-Sulayhi in 1138, the Fatimids in Cairo kept a representation in Aden, adding further prestige to the Zurayids. The Zurayids were sacked by the Ayyubids in 1174 AD. They were a Shia Ismaili dynasty that followed the Fatimid Caliphs based in Egypt.

In 716 AH, Humaydah presented himself at the court of the Ilkhan Uljaytu seeking military assistance against Rumaythah. Uljaytu provided Humaydah an army of several thousand Mongols and Arabs under the command of Sayyid Talib al-Dilqandi to bring the Hejaz under Ilkhanid control. Uljaytu, who was a convert to Twelver Shi'ism, also planned to exhume the bodies of the caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar from their graves in Medina. However, soon after the expedition passed Basra they received news of Uljaytu's death, and a large part of the army deserted.

This marked the permanent split of the Isma'ili movement into the rival Musta'li and Nizari branches. At least one Nizar's sons, al-Husayn, fled in 1095 with other members of the dynasty (including three of al-Mustansir's other sons, Muhammad, Isma'il, and Tahir) from Egypt to the Maghreb, where they formed a sort of opposition in exile to the new regime in Cairo. As late as 1162, descendants, or purported descendants, of Nizar appeared to challenge the Fatimid caliphs, and were able to attract considerable followings based on lingering loyalist sentiments of the population.

Al-Mutawakkil III () (died 1543) was the seventeenth Caliph of Cairo for the Mamluk Sultanate from 1508 to 1516, and again in 1517. He was the last caliph of the later Egyptian-based Caliphate. Since the Mongol sack of Baghdad and the execution of Caliph Al-Musta'sim in 1258, these Cairene Caliphs had resided in Cairo as nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. Al-Mutawakkil III was deposed briefly in 1516 by his predecessor Al-Mustamsik, but was restored to the office the following year.

Arminiya, also known as the Ostikanate of Arminiya (, Arminia vostikanut'yun), Emirate of Armenia (, imārat Arminiya), was a political and geographic designation given by the Muslim Arabs to the lands of Greater Armenia, Caucasian Iberia, and Caucasian Albania, following their conquest of these regions in the 7th century. Though the caliphs initially permitted an Armenian prince to represent the province of Arminiya in exchange for tribute and the Armenians' loyalty during times of war, Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan introduced direct Arab rule of the region, headed by an ostikan with his capital in Dvin.

Almami (Also: Almamy, Almani, Almany) is a title of West African Muslim rulers, used especially in the conquest states of the 19th century. It is a contraction of Amir al-Mu'minin (Arabic أمير المؤمنين), usually translated "Commander of the Faithful" or "Emperor of the Believers". In the Arabic world, Amir al-Mu'minin is similar to Caliphs and to other independent sovereign Muslim rulers that claim legitimacy from a community of Muslims. It has been claimed as the title of rulers in Muslim countries and empires and is still used for some Muslim leaders.

The Islamic caliphate expanded very quickly under the first three caliphs. Muawiyah I was appointed Governor of Syria by Umar in 639, after the previous Governor, Muawiyah's elder brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, died in a plague along with Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (the Governor before him) and 25,000 other people. The rapid Muslim conquest of the Levant and of Egypt and the consequent Byzantine losses in manpower and territory meant that the Eastern Roman Empire found itself struggling for survival. The Sasanian Empire had already collapsed.

Mosque built on Crusader ruins During the Abbasid Revolution in 750, which toppled the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous members of the Umayyad dynasty were deported to Qalansawe from Egypt for execution, including descendants of caliphs Umar II () and Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik ().Robinson 2010, p. 240. From the ninth century until the Crusader times, Qalansawe was a stop on the Cairo-Damascus road, between Lajjun and Ramla.Petersen, 2001, pp. 248-249, citing among others Hartmann, 1910, 675, 676 During the Crusader period, the village was known as Calanson, Calansue, Calanzon or Kalensue.

Naima M., Annals of the Turkish Empire from 1591 to 1659 of the Christian Era; Frazer, London, 1832 Among the glass bowls one could find ostrich eggs and crystal balls.Tournefort, J.P., Marquis de, Relation d'un voyage du Levant, Amsterdam, 1718 All these decorations have been removed or pillaged for museums. The great tablets on the walls are inscribed with the names of the caliphs and verses from the Quran. They were originally by the great 17th- century calligrapher Seyyid Kasim Gubari of Diyarbakır but have been repeatedly restored.

As the number of Sufi orders grew, there arose a need for legitimacy of the orders to establish each order was following the teachings of Mohammad directly; thus the idea of the Silsilat al-Dhahab. If a Sufi order is able to trace its student to master lineage back to one of the three major caliphs (and in particular Ali bin Abi Talib) who provide a straight link to Mohammad (because of their Companion status with him) then the order is considered righteous and directly following the teachings of Mohammad.

There are records of the Rashidun caliphs presiding over Nowruz celebrations and it was adopted as the main royal holiday during the Abbasid period. Following the demise of the caliphate and the subsequent re-emergence of Persian dynasties such as the Samanids and Buyyids, Nowruz was elevated to an even higher status. The Buyids revived the Sassanid traditions and restored many smaller celebrations that had been eliminated by the caliphate. Even the Turkish and Mongol invaders did not attempt to abolish Nowruz in favor of any other celebration.

The Age of the early Caliphs In 670 an Arab Muslim army under Uqba ibn Nafi, who had commanded an earlier incursion in 666, entered the region of Ifriqiya (Arabic for the Province of Africa). Arriving by land the Arabs passed by Byzantine fortified positions along the Mediterranean coast. In the more arid south, the city of Kairouan [stronghold in Arabic] was established as their base, and the building of its famous Mosque begun. From 675 to 682 Dinar ibn Abu al-Muhadjir took command of the Arab Muslim army.

From among them came the Zirid dynasty, which ruled as governors of Ifrikiya for Fatimid caliphs, after the Fatimids moved their capital to Egypt. Another well-known dynasty of this branch of the Sanhaja were the Hammadids, who established their power as Zirid emirs, first in 987 in Ashir, and from 1007/1008 around Qalaat Beni Hammad. The Kutāma also lived in north-eastern Algeria and were the principal pillar of Fatimid military power, especially in the beginnings of their caliphate. During medieval period the awareness or claims of Baranis ancestry diminished and were .

Al-Sulayhi kept his religion and his post as Chief Da'i of the Ismailis relatively secret. Starting in 1032, he served as amir al-hajj, leading and protecting the annual hajj ("pilgrimage") caravan to Mecca through Yemen and Asir's rough terrain. He continued in this capacity for 15 years, lecturing groups of pilgrims, including regional Muslim leaders of various ranks, on Ismaili thought on behalf of the Fatimid caliphs. The position, which was a prestigious one among Muslims, also provided al- Sulayhi with a steady and high income.

Ibn Tawus apparently had good relations with the Caliphs of his time like Muntansir, however he refused to be involved in any political affairs. There is not exact information about his family and number of his children. His children were known by the name of their mother. It is said that he had returned to Hilla in 641 and had gone to Najaf in 645 and then to Karbala in 649 and to Samarra in 652 and on reaching Baghdad he stayed there until Mongols captured the city.

Syed Razi was a significant figure in his time. He occupied responsible positions both secular as well as religious. Since his childhood he was a student of learning, acquiring Islamic Sciences of his time and applied his life span as a man of principle and collector of wisdom from literature. In his lifetime Abbasid rulers of Baghdad were at war with Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt and attempted to have all Sunni and Shia important figures to sign a Mahzur (public attestation decree) in favour of the legitimacy of war with the Egyptian rulers.

Together with Patricia Crone he argues in his book God's Caliph : Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam that the first Caliphs head of state as well as head of the religious community. Later religious scholars claimed power for themselves on behalf of the communities they represented, thus creating the situation in Sunni Islam where there is no centralized religious power. The Shi'ite system is therefore no deviation but represents the original order of power in early Islam. Martin Hinds adheres to the Revisionist School of Islamic Studies.

Ibadis agree with Sunnis, regarding Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab as rightly-guided caliphs. They regard the first half of Uthman ibn Affan's rule as righteous and the second half as corrupt and affected by both nepotism and heresy. They approve of the first part of Ali's caliphate and (like Shī'a) disapprove of Aisha's rebellion and Muawiyah I's revolt. However, they regard Ali's acceptance of arbitration at the Battle of Ṣiffīn as rendering him unfit for leadership, and condemn him for killing the Khawarij of an-Nahr in the Battle of Nahrawan.

During the Fatimid-era, there were numerous palm trees within the yard, and caliphs enjoyed the view of the mosque from the fleet on the Nile.Mubarak, Ali. الخطط التوفيقية The mosque was also called as Awlad 'Anan Mosque, an ode to two brothers who were experts on tasawwuf during the era of the Mamluk sultan Tuman bay II, Muhammad and Abdul Qadir bin 'Anan. The elder brother Muhammad was buried in the site in 1499, who was said to be lived until 120 years old, and this gave the mosque the name of Awlad 'Anan.

Yusuf ibn Ismail al-Kutubi known as Ibn al-Kabir (13th – 14th centuries AD) a scholar and physician worked as a doctor in the palaces of the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad. He was born in Khoy in Iran. He is known for his comprehensive pharmacology titled "Ma la Yasa'u al-Tabiba Jahlahu" (what a physician cannot afford to ignore), often referred to by its shortened title "Jam al-Baghdadi" (Baghdadi Collection), written in Arabic in 1311. Several thousand medicinal herbs, natural drugs and recipes are identified in the compendium.

Musa ibn Ja'far al-Kadhim (, '), also spelled al-Kazim, and also known as Abu al-Hasan, Abu Abd Allah or Abu Ibrahim, was the seventh Shia Imam after his father Ja'far al-Sadiq. He is regarded by Sunnis as a renowned scholar, and was a contemporary of the Abbasid caliphs Al-Mansur, Al-Hadi, Al-Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid. He was imprisoned several times; finally dying in Baghdad in the Sindi ibn Shahak prison. Ali al-Rida, the eighth Imam, and Fatemah al- Ma'sumah were among his children.

To denote his authority, he assumed an honorific name in the style of the caliphs, al- Muwaffaq bi-Allah. As one of the few vestiges of actual power, al-Mu'tamid retained the right to appoint his own viziers, originally choosing the experienced Ubayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan, who had already served al- Mutawakkil. During his caliphate, the Caliph retained some freedom of action, but after his death in 877, he was replaced by al-Muwaffaq's secretary, Sulayman ibn Wahb. Ibn Wahb was soon disgraced and replaced as vizier by Isma'il ibn Bulbul.

Many of these tribes or their clans migrated from the Arabian Peninsula and established themselves in northern Syria and Upper Mesopotamia, which long became their abode. From there they governed on behalf of the caliphs or rebelled against them. The power of the Qays as a unified group diminished with the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate which did not derive its military strength solely from the Arab tribes. Nonetheless, individual Qaysi tribes remained a potent force and some migrated to North Africa and Iberia where they carved out their own power.

Abu al-Bayan ibn al-Mudawwar (sometimes referred to simply as ibn al-Mudawwar or, erroneously, as Mudawwar) (1101–1184) was a Karaite Jew living in Cairo during the twelfth century. He served as court physician to the last Egyptian Fatimid caliphs and later to Saladin, who pensioned him when he was sixty- three years old. He was replaced in his former position by, among others, Maimonides. During the twenty years of his retirement his house was crowded with pupils; but he refused to see patients at their homes unless they were his friends.

Many coins minted by the Bengal Sultanate bore the names of both the Bengali Sultans and the Abbasid Caliphs. Chinese manuscript Tribute Giraffe with Attendant, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys to the Ming court (Philadelphia Museum of Art) Sultan Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah sponsored the construction of madrasas (Islamic theological schools) in the pilgrimage cities of Makkah and Madinah. The schools became known as the Ghiyasia Madrasa and Banjaliah Madrasa. Taqi al-Din al-Fasi, a contemporary Arab scholar, was a teacher at the madrasa in Makkah.

By the tenth century, the Fatimid Caliphate posed a dangerous threat to Abbasid hegemony. In response to this threat, the Abbasid Caliph initiated a large-scale propaganda campaign to challenge the legitimacy of Fatimid Caliphs and to present Ismailism as an un- Islamic heresy that is a danger to Muslims. For example, texts such as the Baghdad Manifesto, which was written and signed by Abbasid scholars, claimed that the Fatimid Caliph-Imams were not descendants of ‘Ali. But other texts, like The Book of the Highest Initiation, were created to appear as genuine Ismaili works.

This is reinforced in an inscription found in Garh Jaripa in Sreebardi, Sherpur, where he was ordering the construction of someone's tomb and referred to himself as Sultan al-Ahad (the first Sultan). The four corners of the person's tomb each bore the names of the Rashidun caliphs and the inscription sent blessings upon the Islamic prophet Muhammad, his daughter Fatimah and her two sons Hasan and Husayn. This inscription can now be found in the Indian Museum, Kolkata. Firuz Shah minted coins during his reign and mentions the historical town of Mahmudabad.

Soon, he established his power in Iraq, southern Arabia, the greater part of Al-Sham, and parts of Egypt. This essentially split the Islamic empire into two spheres with two different caliphs. Soon afterwards he lost Egypt and whatever he had of Al- Sham to Marwan I. This coupled with the Kharijite rebellions in Iraq reduced his domain to only the Hejaz. Ibn al-Zubayr was finally defeated and killed by Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, who was sent by Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, on the battlefield in 692.

Abū ʿAlī Muḥammad ibn ʿUbayd Allāh al-Khāqānī () was a senior official of the Abbasid Caliphate, who served as vizier in 912–913. He was the son of the distinguished, Ubayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan, who served twice as vizier, under the caliphs al-Mutawakkil and al-Mu'tamid. The famous historian al- Tabari was his tutor, reportedly being paid ten gold dinars a month. A rival of Ali ibn al-Furat, he succeeded the latter as vizier to Caliph al-Muqtadir in July 912, and remained in office until August 913.

Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk Eras III: Proceedings of the 6th, 7th and 8th International Colloquium Organized at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in May 1997, 1998, and 1999. Peeters Publishers. p. 20. Even the remains of the Fatimid caliphs in Tunisia were transferred here when the caliphate moved to Egypt. The tombs were eventually completely demolished by the Mamluk amir Jaharka al-Khalili to make way for the Khan al-Khalili in the late 14th century, which gave its name to the surrounding souq area still present today.

The routes of the barid in Yemen, according to Ibn Khurradadhbih; each dot represents a postal station. The barid provided the caliphs with the ability to communicate with their officials in the various regions under their authority. Its messengers were capable of delivering missives throughout the empire with great efficiency, with reported travel speeds as fast as almost a hundred miles per day. The barid was not a mail service, and did not normally carry private letters sent by individuals; rather it usually only carried correspondence, such as official reports and decrees, between government agents.

They also sent raids into what is now Thailand. In Japan, the Fujiwara clan dominated central politics by acting as imperial regents, controlling the actions of the Emperor of Japan, who acted merely as a 'puppet monarch' during the Heian period. In the Middle East, the Fatimid Empire of Egypt reached its zenith only to face steep decline, much like the Byzantine Empire in the first half of the century. The Seljuks came to prominence while the Abbasid caliphs held traditional titles without real, tangible authority in state affairs.

Shias claim the only possible occasion that the son of eleventh Imam is said to have made a public appearance was at the time of his death, then as a child the boy was seen no more. His birth, Shia says, like the case of the prophet Moses, was concealed due to the difficulties of the time, and because of the belief that he was the promised Mahdi, the caliphs of the time had decided definitely to put an end to the Imamate in Shi'ism once and for all.

After some initial successes, Abdur Rahman was at the end compelled to seek the protection of his Hindu ally. Sustained political intervention of the Rutbil brought the Islamic expansion to a halt and he had made Sistan an ‘ill-omened frontier’ for the Arabs. In folklore Rutbil became the hero of many Arab stories of holy wars on the frontier of Hind. Gradually, the Arabs - the ruling caliphs - ceased to be a powerful political force and Rutbils ruled in comparative peace for another one hundred and fifty years.

The Gold dinar of Umar II, also known as 'Umar ibn Abdulaziz or the Fifth of the Rightly Guided Caliphs. Following a period of unrest during the Second Fitna in 679 CE (60 AH), Husayn ibn 'Ali was martyred at Karbala and Yazid assumed unchecked control for the next three years. In 682 CE (63 AH), Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr declared himself Caliph of Mecca and the people of Medina swore allegiance to him. This led to an eight-year-long period of economic distress for the city.

In India, the Shaikh title is used by the descendants of Arab and other Muslim immigrants who settled in South Asia, and signifies Arab descent. From the beginning of Muslim rule in South Asia in 713 AD, technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, teachers, theologians and Sufis flocked from the rest of the Muslim world, to the Islamic Sultanate in South Asia and settled permanently. The descendants of these Arabs usually use the title of Shaikh. These Shaikh family often claim descent from the early Caliphs of Islam.

Like Shafi'i and al-Zahiri, Ahmad was deeply concerned with the extreme elasticity being deployed by many jurists of his time, who used their discretion to reinterpret the doctrines of Quran and Hadiths to suit the demands of Caliphs and wealthy. Ibn Hanbal advocated return to literal interpretation of Quran and Hadiths. Influenced by the debates of his time, he was known for rejecting religious rulings (Ijtihad) from the consensus of jurists of his time, which he considered to be speculative theology (Kalam). He associated them with the Mu'tazilis, whom he despised.

Jawdhar (, before 909March 973), surnamed al-Ustadh (), was a eunuch slave who served the Fatimid caliphs al-Qa'im, al-Mansur, and al-Mu'izz as chamberlain and de facto chief minister until his death. He was an extremely powerful figure in the Fatimid court, and the accession of al-Mansur was probably due to his machinations. His collected documents and letters were published after his death by his secretary as the Sirat al-Ustadh Jawdhar, and form one of the main historical sources for the governance of the Fatimid state in the period.

Tawella Madrasah, he was the Sheikh of it, placed in Tawella township of Halabja today and it had been one of the most effective Naqshbandî centers in Iraq. With Tawella Madrasah and new lodges opening depending on it, the spread of Naqshbandî was provided on the both borders of Iraq-Iran and some region of Anatolia and Middle East. Afterwards, he moved to Bahakon village and established a new lodge, settled there for a while and continued teaching. Shah Ali Hisâm-ad-Dîn has approximately 24.000 caliphs all around the world.

However, the fortunes of the Banu Abs declined considerably when Zuhayr was killed by the chieftain of the Banu 'Amir, Khalid ibn Ja'far al-Kilabi. Zuhayr's son Qays took over leadership of the tribe during the war of Dahis between the Banu Abs and the rest of the Ghatafan led by Hudhayfa ibn Badr of the Banu Fazara. A fourth-generation, direct descendant of Zuhayr, Wallada bint al-Abbas al-Absiyya, married the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705) and gave birth to the later Umayyad caliphs al-Walid I (r.

Most of the jurists believe there should be severe punishments according to the above Quranic and prophetic orders, such as death or floggings, while some others disagree. Early caliphs were known to have had both of the male partners executed in various ways. Some other jurists believe that there is no punishment that will serve as an effective purgative for this act, and therefore its immorality precludes an earthly punishment. Some jurists are so morally offended by homosexuality that just the discussion around it is cause for excommunication and anathematizing.

Tribunal de las Aguas by Bernardo Ferrándiz, 1865 The Tribunal's origin is not fully known, although it is likely to have evolved from previous Andalusian traditions. Some historians such as José Vicente Gómez Bayarri placed its origins in Roman times. The most widespread theory, but without any historical basis, is owed to Francisco Javier Borrull. His hypothesis is that there was already a precedent in Roman times, but its foundation as it operates today occurred during the reigns of the Caliphs Abd- ar-Rahman III and Al-Hakam II, specifically in 960.

Ottoman Grand Vizier A vizier (or wazir) (, rarely ; wazīr, vazīr) is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in the Muslim world. The Abbasid caliphs gave the title wazir to a minister formerly called katib (secretary), who was at first merely a helper but afterwards became the representative and successor of the dapir (official scribe or secretary) of the Sassanian kings.R. A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs, p. 257 In modern usage, the term has been used for government ministers in much of the Middle East and beyond.

Hospital Building ("darüşşifa") of Divriği Great Mosque, Seljuq period, 13th century, Turkey Many hospitals were developed during the early Islamic era. They were called Bimaristan, or Dar al-Shifa, the Persian and Arabic words meaning "house [or place] of the sick" and "house of curing," respectively. The idea of a hospital being a place for the care of sick people was taken from the early Caliphs. The bimaristan is seen as early as the time of Muhammad, and the Prophet's mosque in the city of Madinah held the first Muslim hospital service in its courtyard.

During the Ghazwah Khandaq (the Battle of the Trench), Muhammad came across wounded soldiers and he ordered a tent be assembled to provide medical care. Over time, Caliphs and rulers expanded traveling bimaristans to include doctors and pharmacists. Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik is often credited with building the first bimaristan in Damascus in 707 AD. The bimaristan had a staff of salaried physicians and a well equipped dispensary. It treated the blind, lepers and other disabled people, and also separated those patients with leprosy from the rest of the ill.

Those who remained in Arabia were largely absorbed by the Banu Harb of Yemen beginning in the 9th century, while those in Syria, Mesopotamia were expelled to Upper Egypt by the Fatimid Caliphs in the late 10th century for assisting the Qarmatians. In the mid-11th century, a prolonged famine in Egypt prompted the tribe to migrate westward with the Banu Hilal into Libya. The Sulaym and its sub-tribes established themselves mainly in Cyrenaica, Libya, where until the present day, many of the Arab tribes of that region trace their descent to the Sulaym.

Ibn Khazim was later part of a group of Arab tribal commanders that accompanied Salm ibn Ziyad to Khurasan in 681 from Basra when Salm was appointed governor of Khurasan by Caliph Yazid I (r. 680–683).Howard 1991, p. 186. Salm left Ibn Khazim in charge of the province after fleeing in the wake of the successive deaths of caliphs Yazid and his son Mu'awiya II in 683 and 684, which caused the collapse of Umayyad rule.CNG Coins Ibn Khazim gave his allegiance to the Mecca-based caliph Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr.

Their leader, Jacques, was once one of the Titans but was betrayed by his fellows, who absorbed his industry into their own. They find another unlikely ally in Joffrey Unthank, who has gone mad and is living like a hobo. Together they plan an assault on Titan Tower, where the blind Maker Carol and orphan Martha are being held captive. PART TWO: After she refuses to eat the Spongiform when the Blighted Tree Caliphs offer it to her, Prue is taken by soldiers and imprisoned on the Crag, an island fortress in the ocean.

The earliest references to Sindhi literature are contained in the writings of Arab historians; Sindhi was among the earliest Eastern languages into which the Quran was translated in the eighth or ninth century AD. Evidence exists that Sindhi poets recited verses before Muslim caliphs ruled in Baghdad. Secular treatises were also written in Sindhi about astronomy, medicine, and history during the eighth and ninth centuries. Pir Nooruddin, an Ismaili missionary who lived in Sindh in 1079, wrote Sufi poetry in the Sindhi language. His verses, known as ginans, are an example of early Sindhi poetry.

There are numerous Syeds (descendants of Muhammad) in Pakistan, who are yet another clear example of Pakistanis with Arabic heritage. Some of these Syeds first migrated to Bukhara and then to the South Asia. Others reportedly settled in Sindh to protect their lives against the atrocities of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs of Arabia. The Syed people of Pakistan are figured as the most prominent and well-established people of the country, with a number of them having become popular and well-known religious icons, political leaders and professionals.

Tahir Ahmad delivered annual commentaries on the Quran during the month of Ramadan. He incorporated lengthy discussions of previous commentators as well as the founder of Ahmadiyya and the Ahmadiyya Caliphs that came before him. In addition, he discussed the lexicon of the Quran and refuted many Orientalist ideas about the historicity of the Quran, Islam and the life of the Prophet Muhammad. His commentaries differed significantly from those offered by many of the classical Quranic commentators, placing emphasis on the logical and rational approach to the Quran.

For the first time an organised method of training members of the community for becoming missionaries was established. Addressing the Ahrari opposition Mahmood said: As well as administering proselytisation the scheme also carried the responsibility of a more internal aspect and called upon members of the Community to dedicate their lives for the teaching and moral upbringing of Ahmadis themselves in rural places within India. Later, permanent offices of this scheme were established. The scheme was to grow into international proportions during the leadership of later Caliphs of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.

Jews believe it is the site where Abraham tried to sacrifice his son, Isaac, while Muslims believe that Abraham tried to sacrifice his son, Ishmael, in Mecca. A new city, Ramlah, was built as the Muslim capital of Jund Filastin, (the name given to the province).Moshe Gil, A History of Palestine, 634–1099, Cambridge University Press 1997 page 105 – 107 In 750, Arab discrimination against Non-Arab Muslims led to the Abbasid Revolution and the Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasid Caliphs who built a new city, Baghdad, to be their capital.

The Almohad Caliphate represented a significant departure from prior religious policy, both in terms of Islamic law and the treatment of religious minorities. In matters of law, the Zahiri and Ashʿari schools were given preference, and the caliphs of the Almohad Caliphate were hostile to the Maliki school, which had been preferred by the Almoravids.Adang, "The Spread of Zahirism in al-Andalus in the Post- Caliphal Period: The evidence from the biographical dictionaries," pg. 297-346. Taken from Ideas, Images and Methods of Portrayal: Insights into Classical Arabic Literature and Islam.

Shortly after the Basran school's foundation, a rival school was established at al-Kūfah circa 670, by philologists known as the Grammarians of Kūfah. Intense competition arose between the two schools, and public disputations and adjudications between scholars were often held at the behest of the caliphal courts. Later many scholars moved to the court at Baghdad, where a third school developed which blended many ideological and theological characteristics of the two. Many language scholars carried great influence and political power as court companions, tutors, etc, to the caliphs, and many were retained on substantial pensions.

Kennedy 2004, p. 78. Ibn Bahdal supported Mu'awiya's younger half brothers' claims to succession, though their youth and inexperience generally precluded either of them from being accepted as caliphs by the ashraf (tribal nobility) of Syria. In Syria, the governor of Damascus, al- Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri, leaned toward Ibn al-Zubayr, while the governors of Jund Hims (military district of Homs) and Qinnasrin, Nu'man ibn Bashir al- Ansari and Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi, respectively, the Qaysi tribes in general, and even members of the extended Umayyad family offered their full- fledged recognition of Ibn al-Zubayr's sovereignty.Al-Tabari, ed.

Wāsiṭa ("intermediary") was a title given to the senior administrative official in Fatimid Egypt in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. The title signified the role of the chief minister as the "intermediary" between the Fatimid caliphs and the administration and the people, but was junior to the rank of vizier (wazīr), which was more common in the Islamic world. It was first given to al-Hasan ibn Ammar in 996, and continued to be held by several chief ministers during the reigns of al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (r. 996–1021) and Ali az-Zahir (r. 1021–1036).

The Quran also gave additional rights to the citizens of the state and these rights were also applied. Ali, Hassan and Hussein ibn Ali gave their allegiance to the first three caliphs because they abided by these conditions. Later Ali the fourth caliph wrote in a letter "I did not approach the people to get their oath of allegiance but they came to me with their desire to make me their Amir (ruler). I did not extend my hands towards them so that they might swear the oath of allegiance to me but they themselves extended their hands towards me".

In 645, the Muslim Arab armies of the Caliphate attacked the country, which fell before them. Armenia, which had at times been under the control of its own rulers and at other times been under Persian and Byzantine control, now passed into the hands of the Caliphs. After the fall of the kingdom in 1045, and the subsequent Seljuk conquest of Armenia in 1064, the Armenians established a kingdom in Cilicia, where they established cordial relations with the Europeans and prolonged their existence as an independent entity until 1375. Greater Armenia was later divided between the Ottoman Empire and Imperial Russia.

Abū al-Husayn Bajkam al-Mākānī (), referred to as Bajkam, Badjkam or Bachkam (from Bäčkäm, a Persian and Turkish word meaning a horse- or yak-tailCanard (1960), pp. 866–867), was a Turkish military commander and official of the Abbasid Caliphate. A former ghulam of the Ziyarid dynasty, Bajkam entered Abbasid service following the assassination of the Ziyarid ruler Mardavij in 935. During his five-year tenure at the Caliphate's court at Baghdad, he was granted the title of amir al-umara, consolidating his dominance over the Caliphs ar-Radi and al-Muttaqi and giving him absolute power over their domains.

According to Yaqubi the salaries and stipends charged to the central treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams. The coins were of Persian origin, and had an image of the last Persian emperor, Muslim added the sentence Bismillah to it. A separate building was constructed for the royal treasury by the name bait ul maal, which in large cities was guarded by as many as 400 guards. In most of the historical accounts, it states that among the Rashidun caliphs, Uthman ibn Affan was first to struck the coins, some accounts however states that Umar was first to do so.

Registered soldiers who were disabled in service received an invalidity pension, while similar provisions were made for the disabled and poor in general. Caliph Al-Walid I assigned payments and services to the needy, which included money for the poor, guides for the blind, and servants for the crippled, and pensions for all disabled people so that they would never need to beg. The caliphs Al-Walid II and Umar ibn Abdul-Aziz supplied money and clothes to the blind and crippled, as well as servants for the latter. This continued with the Abbasid caliph Al-Mahdi.

Ridwan's appointment thus marks the culmination of a process that made the Fatimid viziers into sultans, similar to the relationship of the Seljuk rulers vis-à- vis the Abbasid caliphs since the time of Tughril (). Now vizier, Ridwan launched an anti-Christian persecution. Christian officials were replaced with Muslims, their properties confiscated, and some were executed. Restrictive and discriminatory sumptuary laws and regulations were introduced for Christians and Jews, such as requiring them to wear specific clothes and to dismount when passing by a mosque, or prohibiting them from riding horses, but only donkeys and mules.

A few years later, the Eastern branch of the Umayyad dynasty was dethroned by the Abbasids and the Umayyad Caliphate overthrown in the Abbasid revolution (746-750). Abd al-Rahman I, who was of Arab-Berber lineage, managed to evade the Abbasids and flee to the Maghreb and then Iberia, where he founded the Emirate of Córdoba and the Andalusian branch of the Umayyad dynasty. The Moors ruled northern Africa and Al-Andalus for several centuries thereafter. Ibn Hazm, the polymath, mentions that many of the Caliphs in the Umayyad Caliphate and the Caliphate of Córdoba were blond and had light eyes.

He organized The institution of the deputyship (wikala). He criticized the rulers for appropriating the wealth of the nation and extorting the people under their rule by not communicating with or cooperating with the kings of his time. The state remained in a political crisis, as the Abbasid Caliphs were considered puppets of the Turks, who were seen as ruling through terrorism. After the death of al-Askari's father, Ali al-Hadi, the Caliph Al-Mu'tazz summoned him to Baghdad, where he was kept in prison during the short rule of the next Caliph, Al-Muhtadi.

Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those of his companions (Sahabah), the first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, and an empty one that Muslims believe awaits Jesus."Isa", Encyclopedia of Islam When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornamentation. Adherents to Wahhabism, Saud's followers, destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration, and the one of Muhammad is reported to have narrowly escaped. Similar events took place in 1925, when the Saudi militias retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.

His rise as caliph in Syria, a largely unfamiliar territory where he lacked a power-base, laid the foundations for Abd al-Malik's reign, which consolidated Umayyad rule for a further sixty-five years. In the view of Madelung, Marwan's path to the caliphate was "truly high politics", the culmination of intrigues dating from his early career. These included encouraging Uthman's empowerment of the Umayyads, becoming the "first avenger" of Uthman's assassination by murdering Talha, and privately undermining while publicly enforcing the authority of the Sufyanid caliphs of Damascus. Marwan was known to be gruff and lacking in social graces.

Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked and scraping off her skin with clamshells (some say roofing tiles). Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and modes of funding varied based primarily on scholars. It was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. Funding for translation of scientific texts in other languages was ongoing throughout the reign of certain caliphs,Abattouy, M., Renn, J. & Weinig, P., 2001.

The campaign lasted for four months and involved a 100,000-strong army derived from the garrisons of Kufa, Basra, Rayy, Merv and Syria. It marked the first deployment of Syrian troops, the elite military faction of the Caliphate, to Khurasan. In a letter, Yazid congratulated Sulayman on the conquests of the two territories, which had eluded previous caliphs until "God made this conquest on behalf" of Sulayman "in order to bestow His honor upon him, and in order to increase the blessing He has bestowed upon him". The caliph's principal military focus was the war with Byzantium.

It is unclear how Muawiya died, although jaundice and a plague have been named as causes. Since he had no children and either refused or was not given the opportunity to appoint a successor, the campaigns against Ibn al-Zubayr's revolt came to a complete stop. Umayyad power temporarily collapsed until Marwan I took back control. In his al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, Ibn Arabi claimed that Muawiyya II was a spiritual Pole (Ghawth) of his time and one of the few in history having such a spiritual degree combined with a temporal power, like the Rashidun Caliphs and Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz.

Most sources place his death in , before he was fifty years old, either in Damascus or in Armenia. One account, however, records him as being alive in 671. His reputation among later generations was impressive: tall and a successful commander, he was admired for his moral rectitude and reputed to perform miracles through prayer. According to one story, after his death the Caliph Mu'awiyah prostrated himself in thanks to God for having such a servant; Habib had demanded that he [Mu'awiyah] follow the norms of the rightly-guided caliphs Umar and Abu Bakr (), and Mu'awiyah had complied.

Syria was occupied in 1516 and Egypt in 1517, extinguishing the Mameluk line. Iraq was conquered almost in 40 years from the Iranian Safavids, who were successors of the Aq Qoyunlu. The Ottomans united the whole region under one ruler for the first time since the reign of the Abbasid caliphs of the 10th century, and they kept control of it for 400 years, despite brief intermissions created by the Iranian Safavids and Afsharids. By this time the Ottomans also held Greece, the Balkans, and most of Hungary, setting the new frontier between east and west far to the north of the Danube.

Contemporary Islamist thinker Morteza Motahhari writes: > "If we pay a little attention to the prejudice and discrimination practised > by some of the caliphs with regard to their attitude towards their Arab and > non-Arab subjects and to Ali ibn Abi Talib's defence of the criteria of > Islamic equality and impartiality concerning Arabs and non-Arabs, the truth > of the matter will become completely clear." The Arab conquerors, according to many historians, formed "a ruling aristocracy with special rights and privileges, which they emphatically did not propose to share with the mawali".Clement Daniel Dennett. Conversion and the Poll Tax in Early Islam.

His father died in a Baghdadi prison in Rajab, 183 AH (September, 799), during the caliphate of Harun al-Rashid, one of the Abbasid dynasty. Ali al-Ridha succeeded to his father's property but not fully to his title. He began to teach and issue fatwas from the mosque in Medina, where he lived, but the caliphs did not confirm his title and many of his father's trustees withheld their support (and tithes) under the pretense that his father would soon return as the Mahdi. Following Harun's death in 809, a civil war broke out between his sons Al-Amin and Al-Ma'mun.

Mudar had two sons: al-Yas or Ilyas, and Aylan al-Nas. Through his sons, Ilyas was the ancestor of the Banu Hudhayl, Banu Asad, Banu Tamim, and Banu Kinana—which includes the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad and the early caliphs—while Aylan was the ancestor of the Qays tribes). The Mudar and Rabi'a are recorded in central Arabia in the Arabic histories of the pre-Islamic period; the kings of the Kindah bore the title of "king of the Ma'ad (or Mudar) and Rabi'a", and they played a role in the conflicts with the Yemeni (southern Arab) tribes.

The Pir Bakran mausoleum is a historical mausoleum in Pir Bakran, the capital of Pir Bakran District. The mausoleum dates back to the Ilkhanid era. The names of The Rashidun Caliphs on its inscriptions show that the building belongs the early times of the conversion of mongols to islam and they were still sunnite. The courtyard of the mausoleum is surrounded by walls, small iwans and the arched portals of the main iwan and decorated by some inscriptions with Kufic scripts and stuccoes with the form of flowers and bushes, which are the works of Mohammad Naghash.

The Hintata or Hin Tata were a Berber tribal confederation belonging to the tribal group Masmuda of the High Atlas, Morocco. They were historically known for their political power in the region of Marrakesh between the twelfth century and sixteenth century. Having helped the Almohads come to power, the Hintata have always been very close to the Almohad caliphs and during the marinid period, controlled the region of Marrakesh from the Jabal Hintata, in the High Atlas, coming to reign independently on fifteenth century and early sixteenth century. The Hafsid dynasty of Tunis were a descendant of the Hintata.

Akram Khuzam angered the Muslim community in Russia in 2004 by making anti-Muslim statements. He declared to a Russian TV channel that Islam promotes terrorism and that the Qur'an incite violence, and he said that three of the Muslim Caliphs were killed in internal terrorist conflicts. Mr. Geidar Dzhemal, the head of the Islamic Committee of Russia, asked Al Jazeera to fire Mr. Khuzam.Aljazeera Moscow Chief Fired , Kommersant, September 20, 2005 Al Jazeera stated that the replacement of Akram Khuzam in September 2005 was not related to the complaints raised by the Islamic Committee and was unrelated to Mr Khuzam's statements.

The menial labor they were engaged in was difficult and the slaves appear to have been poorly treated by their masters.; ; ; Two previous attempts to rebel against these circumstances are known to have occurred in 689–90 and in 694. Both of these revolts had quickly failed and thereafter little is known about their history prior to 869. Beginning in 861, the Abbasid Caliphate was weakened by a period of severe disorder known as the Anarchy at Samarra, during which the central government in Abbasid Samarra was paralyzed by a struggle between the caliphs and the military establishment for control of the state.

Abdulmecid II is the 150th and last Caliph of Islam from Ottoman dynasty During the early period of Islam, caliphs were spiritual and temporal absolute successors of the prophet Mohammed. Various political Muslim leaders since have styled themselves Caliph and served as dynastic heads of state, sometimes in addition to another title, such as the Ottoman Sultan. Historically, some theocratic Islamic states known as imamates have been led by imams as head of state, such as in what is now Oman, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia. In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Supreme Leader, at present Ali Khamenei serves as head of state.

The Iraq theater was one of two major areas of operations during the Zanj Rebellion, the other being the neighboring province of al-Ahwaz. The revolt, which began in September 869 in southern Iraq, was initially limited to the region around the port city of Basra, as well as the southern districts of al- Ahwaz to the east. Efforts by the Abbasid caliphs in Samarra to crush the rebellion proved ineffectual, and several towns and villages were occupied or sacked. Basra itself fell in September 871 following an extended blockade, after which the city was burned and its inhabitants massacred.

They marched to Ray, but there they met, and were crushed by, an army sent by Caliph al-Mahdi, led by 'Umar ibn 'Ala, governor of Tabaristan.Frye (1975) p. 505 Between those two Khurrami insurrections, in 141 H (758–9 CE) there was another illustration of the strategic importance of Ray, when the governor of Khorasan rebelled against the Caliph al-Mansur, who sent his son Muhammad (later Caliph al-Mahdi) to restore control, using Ray as a base. In the event, the governor was defeated by some of his own subjects,Hugh Kennedy The Armies of the Caliphs, London, Routledge (2001) , p.

Abu al-A'war Amr ibn Sufyan ibn Abd Shams al-Sulami (, '), identified with the Abulathar or Aboubacharos () of the Byzantine sources (fl. 629–669), was an Arab admiral and general, serving in the armies of the Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr (), Umar () and Uthman () rejecting the fourth Rashidun caliph Ali (), instead serving Umayyad caliph Mu'awiyah (). He was one of the last prominent members of the Banu Sulaym tribe to convert to Islam, and fought against Muhammad at the Battle of Hunayn in 629. After becoming a Muslim, he took part in the conquest of Syria in the 630s and fought at Yarmouk.

Elite players such as Al-Adli, al-Suli and Ar-Razi were called aliyat or "grandees" and played at the courts of the Caliphs and wrote about the game. Al-Adli (800-870) is known for writing Kitab ash-shatranj (book of chess), a comprehensive work on the game, including history, openings, endgames and chess problems. Al-Adli also developed a system for ranking players. During the reign of the Turko-Mongol conqueror Timur (1336–1405), a variant of chess known as Tamerlane chess was developed which some sources attribute to Timur himself who was known to be a fan of the game.

As Edward G. Browne noted, the three most prominent mystical Persian poets Rumi, Sanai and Attar were all Sunni Muslims and their poetry abounds with praise for the first two caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattāb.Edward G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia from the Earliest Times Until Firdawsh, 543 pp., Adamant Media Corporation, 2002, (see p. 437) According to Annemarie Schimmel, the tendency among Shia authors to anachronistically include leading mystical poets such as Rumi and Attar among their own ranks, became stronger after the introduction of Twelver Shia as the state religion in the Safavid Empire in 1501.

Tensions were further exacerbated as the Caliphs steadily lost power, including the power to support their state religion. Into this growing void stepped Sunni Islam, which thrived in Egypt's north especially around the city of Alexandria. Already in , the military strongman Nasir al-Dawla ibn Hamdan had tried to depose the dynasty and restore Sunni rule over Egypt. The prestige of the caliphate diminished further following a series of deeply divisive schisms within the Isma'ili faith itself, over the succession to the imamate/caliphate: the Nizari schism of 1094 and the Hafizi schism of 1130/32.

In this Badr also set the tone for his successors: until the end of the Fatimid regime in 1171, the vizierate was held mostly by military strongmen, who sidelined the caliphs and were the de facto rulers of the state. Many of these strongmen were Armenian, like Badr: Badr with his son al-Afdal and grandson Kutayfat provided a "miniature dynasty" of viziers, and three more Muslim Armenian viziers would follow until the assassination of the last of them, Ruzzik ibn Tala'i, in 1163. During this "Armenian period" in the history of Fatimid Egypt, the Armenians provided the mainstay of the Fatimid dynasty.

Age of the Caliphs In the early era that inspired classical Islam (Rashidun Caliphate) and lasted less than a century, jihad spread the realm of Islam to include millions of subjects, and an area extending "from the borders of India and China to the Pyrenees and the Atlantic".Lewis, Bernard, Islam and the West, Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 4 The two empires impeding the advance of Islam were the Persian Sassanian empire and the Byzantine Empire. By 657 the Persian empire was conquered and by 661 the Byzantine empire was reduced to a fraction of its former size.

According to the historian Martin Sprengling, Sulayman was well-versed in Arabic and Greek, as evidenced by the role he was assigned by Caliph Abd al-Malik as the katib (secretary) for official correspondence. At the time of Sulayman's appointment, the head of the tax administration in Syria was Sarjun ibn Mansur al-Rumi, a native Melkite Christian who served under caliphs Mu'awiya I (), Yazid I (), Mu'awiya II () and Abd al-Malik's father, Marwan I ().Sprengling 1939, p. 182. By dint of his experience and skill, Sarjun was kept in his post by Abd al-Malik for the majority of his reign.

Mu'tazila is a school of rationalist Islamic theology known as Kalam. Practitioners, Mu'tazilîs, stress the supremacy of human reason and free-will (similar to Qadariyya) and went on to develop an epistemology, ontology and psychology which provide a basis for explaining the nature of the world, God, man and religion. According to Mu'tazilis, good and evil are easily reconciled through human reason without esoteric methods. The Mu'tazila school started in the 8th century; its iterative refinement continued from the late 10th century until mid-11th century CE. Mu'tazila was the official theology of three Abbasid caliphs in the 9th century.

Although the Mughal Empire is not recognised as a caliphate, its sixth emperor Muhammad Alamgir Aurangzeb has often been regarded as one of the few Islamic caliphs to have ruled the Indian peninsula. He received support from Ottoman Sultans such as Suleiman II and Mehmed IV. As a memorizer of Quran, Aurangzeb fully established sharia in South Asia via his Fatawa 'Alamgiri. He re- introduced jizya and banned Islamically unlawful activities. However, Aurangzeb's personal expenses were covered by his own incomes, which included the sewing of caps and trade of his written copies of the Quran.

The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent in 1683, under Sultan Mehmed IV The caliphate was claimed by the sultans of the Ottoman Empire beginning with Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389), while recognising no authority on the part of the Abbasid caliphs of the Mamluk-ruled Cairo. Hence the seat of the caliphate moved to the Ottoman capital of Edirne. In 1453, after Mehmed the Conqueror's conquest of Constantinople, the seat of the Ottomans moved to Constantinople, present-day Istanbul. In 1517, the Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated and annexed the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo into his empire.

Scholar Olivier Roy writes that "early on, Islamists replace the concept of the caliphate ... with that of the emir." There were a number of reasons including "that according to the classical authors, a caliph must be a member of the tribe of the Prophet (the Quraysh) ... moreover, caliphs ruled societies that the Islamists do not consider to have been Islamic (the Ottoman Empire)."Roy, Olivier, Failure of Islamism, Harvard University Press, (1994) p.42-3 This is not the view of the majority of Islamist groups, as both the Muslim Brotherhood and Hizb ut-Tahrir view the Ottoman state as a caliphate.

During the Umayyad period the minbar was used by the caliphs or their representative governors to make important public announcements and to deliver the Friday sermon (khutba). In the last years of the Umayyad Caliphate, before its fall in 750, the Umayyads ordered minbars to be constructed for all the Friday mosques of Egypt, and soon afterwards this practice was extended to other Muslim territories. By the early Abbasid period (after 750) it had become standard in Friday mosques across all Muslim communities. Minbars thus quickly developed into a symbol of political and religious legitimacy for Muslim authorities.

Throughout Buddhist art, Bodhidharma is depicted as a profusely bearded and wide-eyed barbarian, and he is referred as "The Blue-Eyed Barbarian" (碧眼胡, Bìyǎn hú) in Chinese Chan texts. Nava Vihara's hereditary administrators, the Iranian Barmakids, converted from Buddhism to Islam after the monastery's conquest and became powerful viziers under the Abbassid caliphs of Baghdad. The last of the family's line of viziers, Ja'far ibn Yahya, is a protagonist in many tales from the Arabian Nights. In folktales and popular culture Ja'far has been associated with a knowledge of mysticism, sorcery, and traditions lying outside the realm of Islam.

According to Sunni Muslims, the first caliph was Abu Bakr Siddique, followed by Umar ibn al-Khattāb who was the first caliph to be called Amir al-Mu'minin and the second of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib also were called by the same title, while the Shi'a consider Ali to have been the first truly legitimate caliph, although they concede that Ali accepted his predecessors because he eventually sanctioned Abu-Bakr.Lexic Orient.com The rulers preceding these first four did not receive this title by consensus, and it was turned into a monarchy thereafter.

Qusai ibn Kilab ibn Murrah (, Qusayy ibn Kilāb ibn Murrah; ca. 400–480), also spelled Qusayy, Kusayy, Kusai, or Cossai, born Zayd (), was an Ishmaelite descendant of the Prophet Abraham, orphaned early on he would rise to become King of Makkah, and leader of the Quraysh tribe. He is best known for being an ancestor of the Ummayad and Hashemite Dynasties which included Islamic Prophet Muhammad as well as the 3rd and the 4th Rashidun Caliph: Uthman and Ali, and the later Umayyad, Abasid and Fatimid Caliphs along with several of the most prominent dynasties in the orient .

In his theological thinking al-Mansur al-Qasim upheld the Shia foundations of Zaydiyyah by stressing the eighth-century Jarudi position to the imamate which considered the first two caliphs as usurpers. He emphasized the differences between Zaydiyyah and the Mu'tazila school of theology, which laid stress on reason and rational thought, whereas some previous Yemeni imams had noted the similarities. He argued that the early imams had limited their prescriptions to what could be traced to reason, the unambiguous Qur'an text, and the generally accepted Sunnah. These imams, he argued, did not follow the Mu'tazila in their speculations and fantasies.

The Bagratuni family had done its best to improve its relations with the Abbasid caliphs ever since they took power in 750. The Abbasids always treated the family's overtures with suspicion but by the early 770s, the Bagratunis had won them over and the relationship between the two drastically improved: the Bagratuni family members were soon viewed as leaders of the Armenians in the region.Bournoutian. Concise History, p. 74. Following the end of the third rebellion, which the Bagratunis had wisely chosen not to participate in, and the dispersal of several of the princely houses, the family was left without any formidable rivals.

Al-Baladhuri's ethnicity has been described as Arab and Persian, although his sympathies seem to have been strongly with the Arabs, for Masudi refers to one of his works in which he rejects Baladhuri's condemnation of non-Arab nationalism Shu'ubiyya. He lived at the court of the caliphs al- Mutawakkil and Al-Musta'in and was tutor to the son of al-Mutazz. He died in 892 as the result of a drug called baladhur (hence his name). (Baladhur is Semecarpus anacardium, known as the "marking nut"; medieval Arabic and Jewish writers describe it as a memory-enhancer).

Al-Mutawakkil's reign (r. 847–861) marked a significant break with the policies of al-Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq. The new caliph was determined to eliminate the officials who had played a dominant role in the governments of his two predecessors, and in the first years of his rule he succeeded in killing or removing from power the majority of these men, including Ibn al- Zayyat and the chamberlain Itakh. Al-Mutawakkil also decided to diverge away from the religious policies of the previous caliphs, opting instead to put a stop to the controversy over whether the Qur'an was created or uncreated.

Citizens of the Rashidun Caliphate were also free to criticize the Rashidun Caliphs, as the rule of law was binding on the head of state just as much as it was for the citizens. In a notable incident, when Umar tried to investigate a disturbance, by entering a home without permission, he was criticized for his behavior; he was also later criticized for the judgement he gave in that case. There were also numerous other situations where citizens insulted Caliph Umar, but he tolerated the insults and simply provided them explanations. Similar situations also occurred during the time of Caliph Ali.

Zuhayr ibn Qays al-Balawī () (died 688) was a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and an Arab commander who fought in the service of the Rashidun, Umayyad and Zubayrid caliphs. He played a key role in the early Muslim conquests of Egypt, Barqa (Cyrenaica) and Ifriqiya. When the latter province fell to a Byzantine–Berber alliance in 682, Zuhayr was given command of the army to restore Arab rule. During that campaign, he temporarily retook Kairouan, the Arabs' capital in Ifriqiya, and killed the Berber chief Kasila, but was slain by Byzantine raiders on his way back to Barqa.

Hisham died in 796 C.E. at the age of forty, after a rule of eight years.Roger Collins, Caliphs and Kings: Spain 796-1031, 30. He was a prototype of Umar II, and strove to establish the Islamic way of life, living simply and avoiding ostentation. He was a God-fearing man and was known for his impartial justice and sound administration. After his death, 'Abd Allah returned from exile and claimed Valencia and Suleiman claimed Tangiers against Hisham's son, al-Hakam I. Hisham was dubbed “the just.” Hisham was a model of righteousness and a loyal prince.

The first instance of murder in the effort to establish a Nizari Isma'ili state in Persia was that of Seljuk vizier Nizam al-Mulk in 1092.Willey, p. 29 Other notable victims of the Assassins include Janah ad-Dawla, emir of Homs, (1103), Mawdud ibn Altuntash, atabeg of Mosul (1113), Fatimid vizier al-Afdal Shahanshan (1121), Seljuk atabeg Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi (1126), Fatimid caliph al-Amir bi-Ahkami’l-Lah (1130), Taj al-Mulk Buri, atabeg of Damascus (1132), and Abbasid caliphs al- Mustarshid (1135) and ar-Rashid (1138). Saladin, a major foe of the Assassins, escaped assassination twice (1175-1176).

Sarjun, along with another leading Christian, Patrikios from Palestine, successfully prevented this by petitioning the Byzantine emperor, Justinian II (), to supply other columns instead. It appears thus that Sarjun remained in charge of the fiscal administration of Syria under five different caliphs—Mu'awiya I, Yazid I, Mu'awiya II, Marwan I, and Abd al-Malik—and for a period of almost half a century: his tenure may have begun as early as 650/51, and appears to have ended when Abd al-Malik decided to Arabicize the bureaucracy in 700, appointing Sulayman ibn Sa'd al-Khushani as his replacement.

In result, and somewhat surprisingly, the Islamic expansion under the first caliphs was mainly undertaken by nomads driven out of their territories by Islam itself. Thus, in its beginnings Islam was the ideology of the peasants, and only later, under the Abbasids after 750, did Islam become “the ideology of trade capital in the form of Mu’tazilism, and the ideology of the feudal classes of Persia in the form of Shi’ism.”Tomara, “Proiskhozhdenie islama”, 47. Tomara's interpretation thus does not ignore the role of nomadic Bedouins and urban traders, and even assigns them meaningful roles in the emergence and spread of Islam.

Kazhdan, pg. 501 His father raised him to the throne as joint emperor in 681 on the fall of his uncles Heraclius and Tiberius. In 685, at the age of sixteen, Justinian II succeeded his father as sole emperor.Kazhdan, pg. 1084 Due to Constantine IV's victories, the situation in the Eastern provinces of the Empire was stable when Justinian ascended the throne.Moore, Justinian II After a preliminary strike against the Arabs in Armenia,Norwich, pg. 328 Justinian managed to augment the sum paid by the Umayyad Caliphs as an annual tribute, and to regain control of part of Cyprus.

Besides their hold over Khorasan, the Tahirids also served as the military governors (ashab al-shurta) of Baghdad, beginning with Tahir's appointment to that position in 820. After he left for Khorasan, the governorship of Baghdad was given to a member of a collateral branch of the family, Ishaq ibn Ibrahim, who controlled the city for over twenty-five years. During Ishaq's term as governor, he was responsible for implementing the Mihna (inquisition) in Baghdad. His administration also witnessed the departure of the caliphs from Baghdad, as they made the recently constructed city of Samarra their new capital.

Sant Nicolau Church The Umayyad regime, despite its administrative centralisation, mercenary army and struggle to gain wider social support, could neither harmonise the various ethnic groups inside al-Andalus nor dissolve the old tribes which still organised sporadic ethnic fighting. During the 11th century, the Caliphate's control waned considerably. Provinces broke free from the central Cordoban administration, and became effectively sovereign states — taifas — under the same governors that had been named by the last Umayyad Caliphs. According to their origin, these "taifas" can be grouped under three broad categories: people of Arab, Berber or Slavic origin.

Al-Mu'ayyad (Arabic:المؤيد‎) (died 866) was an Abbasid Prince and the third son of the Abbasid caliph, al-Mutawakkil and the brother of al-Muntasir and al-Mu'tazz, who both would eventually become Caliphs as well. In 860, al- Mutawakkil had named his three sons heirs and seemed to favour al-Muntasir. However, this appeared to change and al-Muntasir feared his father was going to move against him. With the implicit support of the Turkish faction of the army, he ordered the assassination of al-Mutawakkil which was carried out by a Turkish soldier on December 11, 861.

The appellation was evidently adopted as Husayn's honorific title in the fashion of the caliphs. Whether out of the rivalry between the Hasanid and Husaynid branches, or because they thought that the uprising was doomed to failure, two of the Alids refused their support. One of them, Musa ibn Ja'far al-Kadhim, who is considered as the seventh imam by the Twelver Shi'a, reportedly warned Husayn that his actions would only result in his death. The assembled rebels were confronted by about 200 Abbasid troops from the local garrison, with al-Umari and a certain Khalid al-Barbari at their head.

Cyrenaica was conquered by Muslim Arabs during the tenure of the second caliph, Omer Bin Khattab, in 643/44, and became known as Barqah after its provincial capital, the ancient city of Barce. After the breakdown of the Ummayad caliphate it was essentially annexed to Egypt, although still under the same name, first under the Fatimid caliphs. In the middle of the 11th century, the Bedouin Banu Hilal confederation devastated the North African coast under Muslim control. Barqa was ravaged by the Hilalian invasion and left to be settled by the Banu Sulaym while the Banu Hilal marched westwards.

The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to their Christian, Indian, and Chinese peers who built societies from an agricultural landholding nobility. The Abbasids flourished for two centuries but slowly went into decline with the rise to power of the Turkish army they had created, the Mamluks. Within 150 years of gaining control of Persia, the caliphs were forced to cede power to local dynastic emirs who only nominally acknowledged their authority.

Sunnis believe that Muhammad had no appointed successor and had instead intended that the Muslim community choose a leader from among themselves. They accept the rule of Abu Bakr, who was elected at Saqifah, and that of his successors, who are together termed the Rashidun Caliphs. Conversely, Shi'ites believe that Ali had previously been nominated by Muhammad as heir, most notably during the Event of Ghadir Khumm. They primarily see the rulers who followed Muhammad as illegitimate, with the only rightful Muslim leaders being Ali and his lineal descendants, the Twelve Imams, who are viewed as divinely appointed.

He banned certain Shi'a practices which were particularly offensive to Sunnis, such as the cursing of the first three caliphs. Personally, Nader is said to have been indifferent toward religion and the French Jesuit who served as his personal physician reported that it was difficult to know which religion he followed and that many who knew him best said that he had none.Axworthy p.168 Nader hoped that "Ja'farism" would be accepted as a fifth school (mazhab) of Sunni Islam and that the Ottomans would allow its adherents to go on the hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca, which was within their territory.

The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Through commerce, Islam spread amongst the Somali population in the coastal cities. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.

In the history of the first, and perhaps so far the only authentic > Islamic order - the era of the first four caliphs, we can clearly see three > essential aspects of the republican principle of power: (1) an elective head > of state, (2) the responsibility of the head of state towards the people and > (3) the obligation of both to work on public affairs and social matters. The > latter is explicitly supported by the Qur'an (3/159, 42/38). The first four > rulers in Islamic history were neither kings or emperors. They were chosen > by the people.

Al-Khayzuran bint Atta () (died 789) was the wife of the Abbasid Caliph Al- Mahdi and mother of both Caliphs Al-Hadi and Harun al-Rashid. She ruled from 775 to 789 during the reign of her husband and sons and is known for her immense influence on state affairs. Khayzuran was the first woman in the history of Islam to rule and was the first woman in the history of Muslims to Gold coins in her name. She became one of the most powerful women of her time under the name of her husband and sons, Mahdi, Hadi and Harun.

The Abbasid caliphs were Arabs descended from Abbas ibn Abd al- Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. The Abbasids claimed to be the true successors of Prophet Muhammad in replacing the Umayyad descendants of Banu Umayya by virtue of their closer bloodline to Muhammad. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration in general. According to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Merv with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali".

Caliph al-Mansur centralised the judicial administration, and later, Harun al-Rashid established the institution of Chief Qadi to oversee it. This resulted in a more ceremonial role for many Abbasid caliphs relative to their time under the Umayyads; the viziers began to exert greater influence, and the role of the old Arab aristocracy was slowly replaced by a Persian bureaucracy. During Al-Mansur's time, control of Al-Andalus was lost, and the Shia revolted and were defeated a year later at the Battle of Bakhamra. The Abbasids had depended heavily on the support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads.

Despite the power of the Buyid amirs, the Abbasids retained a highly ritualized court in Baghdad, as described by the Buyid bureaucrat Hilal al-Sabi', and they retained a certain influence over Baghdad as well as religious life. As Buyid power waned with the rule of Baha' al- Daula, the caliphate was able to regain some measure of strength. The caliph al-Qadir, for example, led the ideological struggle against the Shia with writings such as the Baghdad Manifesto. The caliphs kept order in Baghdad itself, attempting to prevent the outbreak of fitnas in the capital, often contending with the ayyarun.

The Abbasid Caliphate ( or , ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name. They ruled as caliphs for most of the caliphate from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after having overthrown the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132 AH). The Abbasid Caliphate first centered its government in Kufa, modern-day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph Al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad, near the ancient Sasanian capital city of Ctesiphon.

The patron who commissioned the building, including the painting, was likely one of the caliphs al-Walid I (reigned 705–715), al-Walid II (743–744) or Yazid III (744). It might have been commissioned after the patron became caliph, or before, when the patron was a member of the caliph's family and held the position of governor or heir. The complex, long familiar to local nomads, was first visited by a Westerner in 1898, by the Czech scholar Alois Musil. He first arrived in the complex and saw the paintings on 8 June that year, guided by a group bedouins.

The first Shia–Sunni riot occurred in 1908, when a tazia procession of Shias was attacked by a group of militant Sunnis hiding in a Sunni mosque. After which a four-member committee under the chairmanship of Justice T. C. Piggot, an ICS officer and a judge of High Court was formed to look into the matter. The conclusion of committee was that "the attempt to transform the tazia processions in honour of first four Caliphs was an innovation. "The personal knowledge of those members of the Committee who are well acquainted with Lucknow is on the whole favourable to Shia view.

The Age of the early Caliphs In 670 an Arab Muslim army under Uqba ibn Nafi, who had commanded an earlier incursion in 666, entered the region of Ifriqiya (a newly coined Arabic word for the prior Roman Province of Africa). Marching overland the Arabs by-passed the fortified Byzantine positions along the Mediterranean coast. In the more arid south of Ifriqiya, the city of Kairouan (military outpost in Persian) was established as their base, and the building of its famous Mosque was begun. Then, from 675 to 682, Dinar ibn Abu al- Muhadjir took over direction of the Muslim invasion.

The Kharijites failed to establish strong lasting institutions, yet the small Rustamid kingdom persisted (which controlled southern Ifriqiyah); also the impact of the Berber Kharijite revolt changed the political landscape. Direct rule from the East by the Caliphs over Ifriqiya became untenable, even following the rapid establishment of the new Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad in 750. Also, after several generations a local Arab-speaking aristocracy emerged in Ifriqiya, which became resentful of the distant caliphate's interference in local matters.Especially after the rise of the Persianizing 'Abbasids and the move of the capital further to the east, to Baghdad.

The Battle of Las Babias occurred in the year 795 when the Emir of Cordoba, Hisham I of Córdoba sought to avenge his previous military incursions in 794 against the Kingdom of Asturias under the command of the brothers Abd al-Karim ibn Abd al-Walid ibn Mugaith and Abd al-Malik ibn Abd al-Walid ibn Mugaith. The previous battles resulted in devastating losses for the Emirate, most importantly at the Battle of Lutos where one of the Emir's generals was killed in action.Roger Collins, Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031, 65. The battle resulted in a Córdoban victory.

Nasser al-Din himself carried out a ceremony performed among Persian princes to mark the end of mourning of deceased relations. In addition, Nasser al-Din sent a robe of honour and the emblem of the Persian Crown studded with diamonds to Aga Ali Shah as a sign of the Shah's relationship with the Aga Khan's family. He descended from the Fatimid caliphs of Egypt. He spent his early years in Mahallat; however, his father’s attempts to regain his former position as governor of Kirman made residence there difficult, and so Aqa Ali Shah was taken to Iraq with his mother in 1840.

The different heights of the columns were made level by using bases of varying thickness. The stucco exterior shows influences from Abbasid, Coptic and Byzantine architecture. Ultimately a total of three domes were built, a common trait among early north African mosques, although none of them have survived Al-Azhar's many renovations. The historian al-Maqrizi recorded that in the original dome al-Siqilli inscribed the following: Gawhar included the honorific Amir al-Mu'minin, Commander of the Faithful, as the Caliphs title and also included his nickname "the Secretary" which he had earned serving as a secretary prior to becoming a general.

The need to cover military spending would henceforth be a fixture of caliphal government. This was at a time when government income began to decline rapidly—partly through the rise of autonomous dynasties in the provinces and partly through the decline in productivity of the lowlands of Iraq that had traditionally provided the bulk of tax revenue. Less than a century after al- Mu'tasim's death, this process would lead to the bankruptcy of the Abbasid government and the eclipse of the caliphs' political power with the rise of the Khazar officer Ibn Ra'iq to the position of amīr al-umarāʾ.

Following al-Ma'mun's experience, no further Abbasid caliphs were to marry, preferring to find their heirs in the harem. Al-Ma'mun, in an attempt to win over the Shi'a Muslims to his camp, named the eighth Imam, Ali ar-Rida, his successor, if he should outlive al-Ma'mun. Most Shi'ites realized, however, that ar-Rida was too old to survive him and saw al-Ma'mun's gesture as empty; indeed, Al-Ma'mun poisoned Ali ar-Rida who then died in 818. The incident served to further alienate the Shi'ites from the Abbasids, who had already been promised and denied the Caliphate by al-'Abbas.

Die beiden Kalifen (The Two Caliphs) is an 1813 opera in two acts by Giacomo Meyerbeer (or as he was then known, Jacob Meyerbeer), to a libretto by Johann Gottfried Wöhlbruch, based on a tale from the Arabian Nights. The opera, Meyerbeer's second attempt at this genre, was originally titled Wirt und Gast, oder Aus Scherz Ernst (Landlord and Guest, or The Joke which Became Serious).Werkbesprechung: "Alimelek, Wirt und Gast, oder Aus Scherz – Ernst" von G. Meyerbeer weber-gesamtausgabe.de Under this name it was premiered at the on 6 January 1813, conducted by Conradin Kreutzer.

They nonetheless pursued and defeated him, taking 30,000 as captives including Faraj al-Rukhkhaji, who would later become a secretary of the department of private estates of the Caliph under al-Ma'mun. Zunbil's deputy Mawand (Zunbil's son-in-law Mawld in Tarikh-e-Sistan) offered submission which was requested and he was sent with 5,000 of their soldiers to Baghdad where he was treated kindly and given pensions along with his chieftains per Baladhuri. The tribute was paid by the Zunbils to amils of caliphs al-Mahdi and ar-Rashid, though rather irregularly. When the Caliph Al- Ma'mun (r.

1915) Although named "al-Mahdi" by his father, Muhammad never claimed to be the actual Mahdi (Saviour), although he was regarded as such by some of his followers. When Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the actual Mahdi in 1881, Muhammad Idris decided to have nothing to do with him. Although Muhammad Ahmed wrote twice asking him to become one of his four great caliphs (leaders), he received no reply. In 1890, the Ansar (forces of Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi) advancing from Darfur were stopped on the frontier of the Wadai Empire, Sultan Yusuf proving firm in his adherence to the Senussi teachings.

In 930, Abd al-Rahman III, having now adopted the title of caliph, attacked Toledo. The governor of Toledo asked for help from King Ramiro II of Leon, but Ramiro was preocuppied with a civil war against his brother Alfonso IV and was unable to help. In 932, Abd al-Rahman III conquered Toledo, re-establishing control of al-Tagr al-Awsat, the Central March of the Omeyyad state. In 1009 one of the last Umayyad caliphs, Muhammad II al-Mahdi, fled to Toledo after being expelled from Cordoba by Berber forces backing the rival claimant Sulayman.

The first two have been reconstructed and published by al-ʿAtiyya, who collects and collates the passages from later works that quote from al-Iṣfahānī. The former, al-Qiyān, is a collection of the biographies of the enslaved singing girls. In it, al- Iṣfahānī provides the basic information about the biographical subjects, the men who enslaved them, and their interaction with poets, notables such as caliphs, and their admirers, with illustration of their poetic and/or musical talents. The latter, al-Diyārāt, provides information related to monasteries, with the indication of their geographical locations and, sometimes, history and topographical characteristics.

Uthman ibn Abi al-As al-Thaqafi (; died 671 or 675) was a companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad from the tribe of Banu Thaqif and the governor of Bahrayn (eastern Arabia) and Oman (southeastern Arabia) in 636–650, during the reigns of caliphs Umar () and Uthman (). During his governorship he led military campaigns against the Sasanian Persians in Fars. After his dismissal, he settled with his brothers in Basra where he was granted a large estate by the caliph. He transmitted numerous hadiths to the scholar al-Hasan al-Basri and died in the city.

Ibn Khallikan, a 13th-century Muslim scholar, states that 'Qatari' is not his given name, but instead refers to the name of the region where he hailed from. A member of the Banu Tamim tribe, he held the title of Amir al-Mu'minin, which translates to 'leader of the faithful' and was the formal title of the Caliphs. His nicknames were Na'ama (ostrich) and Abu al-Mawt (father of death). It has been asserted that he was the first Khawarji leader to promote jihadism, as his poems glorified courage, death and war in the name of Allah.

Although Raja may have functioned as a secretary of Sulayman and Umar, there is no evidence that he was ever a copyist, adhering to a specific set of stylizations of the sort visible at the Dome of the Rock, or that a group of such copyists flourished in Palestine in the time of Abd al-Malik.C. E. Bosworth, Raja' ibn Haywa al-Kindi and the Umayyad Caliphs, Islamic Quarterly 16 1972: 43 and n. 5, the sources vary There is a lack of precise information about Raja's contributions, if any, to Umar's well- documented administrative reforms.

Age of the Caliphs The Battle of Talas in 751 between the Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang dynasty for control of Central Asia was the turning point, initiating mass conversion into Islam in the region. Most of the Turkic khanates were converted to Islam in the 10th century. The arrival in Volga Bulgaria of Ahmad ibn Fadlan, ambassador of the caliph of Baghdad, on 12 May 922 is celebrated as a holiday in modern-day Tatarstan. Islamisation of the region has had a profound impact on the native cultures in the region molding them as a part of Islamic civilization.

Conversion to Islam was encouraged by the Ummayad Caliphs and Emirs of Córdoba. Many Mozarabs converted to Islam to avoid the heavy jizyah tax which they were subjected to as Dhimmis. Conversion to Islam also opened up new horizons to the Mozarabs, alleviated their social position, ensured better living conditions, and broadened scope for more technically skilled and advanced work. Apostasy, however, for one who had been raised as a Muslim or had embraced Islam, was a crime punishable by death. León Cathedral Until the mid-9th century, relations between Muslims and the majority Christian population of Al-Andalus, were relatively cordial.

Al-Mahdi then sent Firasha, who was also defeated, captured and executed by Vandad Hormozd. Vandad Hormozd continued to repel successive Arab invasions of Tabaristan until 785, when he and the other native rulers of Tabaristan were finally defeated, and once again agreed to pay tribute to the Abbasid caliphs. In 805, the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid visited Ray, where he met Vandad Hormozd and Sharwin I, who assured their submission to him and promised to pay tax. In order to ensure their loyalty, Harun took Sharwin's grandson Shahriyar I and Vandad Hormozd's son Qarin ibn Vindadhhurmuzd as hostages to Baghdad.

747–753 Sharwin and the other rulers of Tabaristan managed to repel several Arab invasions of Tabaristan, until they were finally defeated in 785, and once again agreed to pay tribute to the Abbasid caliphs. In 805, the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid visited Ray where he met Sharwin and Vandad Hormozd, who reaffirmed their submission to him and promised to pay tax. In order to ensure their loyalty, Harun took Sharwin's grandson Shahriyar I and Vandad Hormozd's son Karin as hostages to Baghdad. The two princes were allowed to return to Tabaristan after Harun's death four years later.

His life reflects the quote he has compiled in his compilation (Nahj al- Balagha) that Muslims are our brothers in faith; those who are non-Muslims are our brethren in creation. He was a scholar, a poet and a man of cultivated taste. Al-Tha’alibi, his contemporary regarded Syed Razi as the most remarkable man among scholars of his time and the noblest amongst the Sayyids of Iraq. He was the most remarkable poet among the descendants of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, though there were many distinguished poets during Golden age of Abbasid and Fatimid caliphs.

The Count Raymond IV of Toulouse, one of the leaders of the First Crusade, founded the county in 1102 during a lengthy war with the Banu Ammar emirs of Tripoli (theoretically vassals of the Fatimid caliphs in Cairo). The county gradually grew as the crusaders seized much of their territory and besieged Banu Ammar within Tripoli itself. Raymond died in 1105, leaving his infant son Alfonso-Jordan as his heir, with a cousin, William- Jordan of Cerdenya, as Regent. William-Jordan continued the siege of Tripoli until 1109,Albert of Aix (RHC), Liber XI, Cap. IV, p. 664.

Mufid tries to distinguish between Shia and Mutazilite by describing the principle creeds of Shia. According to Mufid, the principle belief of Shia is loyalty to Ali and repudiation of other caliphs, namely Osman, Abu Bakr and Omar. The relation between revelation and reason is emphasized, such that there is such a way that the former could help the latter. Contrary to Mutazilizm, who believed in a middle position for someone who is grave sinner, Mufid believed that he is, in spite of being grave sinner, a believer, and that a Shia person will not be punished because of his belief.

During the reign of Caliph al-Mustansir (1036-1094), the longest of any Muslim ruler, the Fatimid Empire reached its peak but also began its decline. A few strong viziers, acting on behalf of the caliphs, managed to revive the empire's power on occasion. The Armenian vizier Badr al-Jamali (in office from 1073-1094) notably rebuilt the walls of Cairo in stone, with monumental gates, the remains of which still stand today and were expanded under later Ayyubid rule. The late 11th century was also a time of major events and developments in the region.

Al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib (; 1 December 624 – 1 April 670 CE), sometimes spelled Hasan or Hassan, was the eldest son of Ali and Muhammad's daughter Fatimah, and was the older brother of Husain, as well as the fifth of Rashidun, or "Rightly Guided Caliphs". Muslims respect him as a grandson of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. Among Shia Muslims, Hasan is revered as the second Imam. Hasan was elected for the caliphate after his father's death, but abdicated after six or seven months to Muawiyah I, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty to end the First Fitna.

From 784- 786 AD, Abd al-Rahman I built the Mezquita, or Great Mosque, of Córdoba, in the Umayyad style of architecture with variations inspired by indigenous Roman and Christian Visigothic structures. Later caliphs extended the mosque with more domed bays, arches, intricate mosaics and a minaret, making it one of the four wonders of the medieval Islamic world. After the Christian reconquest of Andalucía, a cathedral was built in the heart of the mosque, however much of the original structure remains. It can be found in the Historic Centre of Córdoba, a recognized World Heritage Site.

Family tree of the Abbasid caliphs of the ninth century The future al-Mu'tamid was a son of Caliph al-Mutawakkil () and a Kufan slave girl called Fityan. His full name was Ahmad ibn Abi Jaʿfar, and was also known by the patronymic Abu'l-Abbas and from his mother as Ibn Fityan. After al-Muhtadi was deposed by the Turkish commanders Bayakbak and Yarjukh, he was selected by the military as his successor and proclaimed Caliph with the regnal name al- Muʿtamid ʿAlā ’llāh on 16 or 19 June 870. On 21 June, al-Muhtadi was executed.

He quickly sidelined his cousin and heir- apparent al-Mufawwid; when al-Mu'tamid died in October 892, he succeeded to the throne. Like his father, al-Mu'tadid's power depended on his close relations with the army. These were first forged during the campaigns against the Zanj and were reinforced in later expeditions which the Caliph led in person: al-Mu'tadid would prove to be the most militarily active of all Abbasid caliphs. Through his energy and ability, he succeeded in restoring to the Abbasid state some of the power and provinces it had lost during the turmoil of the previous decades.

See: Tarikh al-Tabari v4, p191, v1, p62-63. Printed by Dar al-Maarif – Cairo. Other Sunni authors also mention Ka'b and his stories with Caliphs Umar, Uthman and Muawiyah.See: Mahmood Abu Rayyah, in his book Adhwa (lights) on AI-Sunnah AI-Muhammadiyyah, reported that Ibn Hajar Al-‘Asqalani, recorded in his book (Al-Isabah, part 5, page 323). Also, Yusuf ibn Abd-al-Barr – al- Istiab, v3, p1287 Printed in Cairo 1380 A.H On a website operated and owned by the Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs (Qatar) of the State of Qatar, one may find a fatwa on Ka’b al-Ahbar.

The conference clearly portrayed Nader Shah's ulterior motive, since it stemmed from the need to appease the anti-Shi'i hostility reflected by the Sunni's, as only the legitimacy of Shi'ism was questioned, and not Sunnism. The discussions included the vilification of the first caliphs, the legitimacy of their rule, the question of the Prophet's companions in general, and temporary marriage (mut'a). The Sunni's scholars were elated and saw this as a victory for them. However, the Shia scholars obviously did not, so they saw to the failure of the conference through an exceptional example of the 'art of mental reservation'.

On the third and last day of the conference, Nasrallah was asked to hold the Friday prayer and sermon in the mosque of Kufa. Nader believed that if the names of the four caliphs would be read in the proper Sunni order by a Shi'i Imam, it would provide a public stamp of approval to the agreement. So in his sermon, Nasrallah decided to use his exceptional literary skills when pronouncing the tardiya, i.e Radi Allahu anhu (may Allah be pleased with him), after the names of Abu Bakr and Umar, as Sunni Muslims usually do upon mentioning the names of the sahaba.

76 Map of Khurasan and Transoxiana in the 8th century The motives and nature of Harith's rebellion are debated. His public demands were phrased in religious terms, demanding the end of injustice through the "application of the Book and the sunna" by the government. Harith himself is said to have been a member of the obscure pietistic group known as Murji'a, and to have led an ascetic life. In the words of the Arabist Meir J. Kister, he apparently had "a feeling of mission" and aimed to establish a "just government resembling that of the Prophet and the first Caliphs".

The Kaaba mosque in Mecca is the largest and most important mosque in the world. Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Mosque in Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia The first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rāshidun or "Rightly-Guided Ones". Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar as the second, Uthman as the third, and Ali as the fourth. Sunnis recognised different rulers as the caliph, though they did not include anyone in the list of the rightly guided ones or Rāshidun after the murder of Ali, until the caliphate was constitutionally abolished in Turkey on 3 March, 1924.

The Age of the Caliphs The Transoxiana principalities never formed a viable confederacy. Beginning in 651, the Arabs organized periodic marauding raids deep into the territory of Transoxania, but it was not until the appointment of Ibn Qutaiba as Governor of Khorasan in 705, during the reign of Walid I, that the Caliphate adopted the policy of annexing the lands beyond the Oxus. In 715, the task of annexation was accomplished. The entire region thus came under the control of the Caliph and of Islam, but the Arabs continued to rule through local Soghdian Kings and dihqans.

Atatürk during one of his Anatolian tours With the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, efforts to modernize the country began. The institutions and constitutions of Western states such as France, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland were analyzed and adapted according to the needs and characteristics of the Turkish nation. Highlighting the public's lack of knowledge regarding the intentions of President Mustafa Kemal (later Atatürk), the public cheered: "We are returning to the days of the first caliphs".Mango, Atatürk, 394 In order to establish his reforms, Mustafa Kemal placed Fevzi Çakmak, Kâzım Özalp and İsmet İnönü in important political positions.

Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Salām ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ṭuwayr al-Qaysarānī al-Miṣrī (1130–1220) was an Egyptian official and historian. Born in 1130, he occupied high office under the last Fatimid caliphs, and continued serving the Ayyubid regime after that. It was for the Ayyubid ruler Saladin that he compiled his History of the two dynasties (Nuzhat al-muḳlatayn fī akhbār al-dawlatayn). This work is now lost, but was used by other medieval historians such as Ibn Khaldun, al-Maqrizi and al-Qalqashandi as their main source for the later Fatimid period and the institutions of the Fatimid Caliphate.

From the start of his reign, the commanders and courtiers were the ones with actual authority. Abd al-Malik appointed Abu Mansur Muhammad ibn Uzayr as his vizier, while Bakr ibn Malik al-Farghani retained the office as governor of Khurasan. At the same time, the Muhtajid prince Abu Ali Chaghani—who had lost the governorship of Khurasan at the end of Nuh's reign—fled to the domain of the Buyid ruler Rukn al-Dawla (). There he was entrusted with the governorship of Khurasan by the Abbasid caliphs through the mediation of their Buyids, who were their suzerain.

The Abbasid civil war of 865–866, sometimes known as the Fifth Fitna,Bonner, p. 310 was an armed conflict during the "Anarchy at Samarra" between the rival caliphs al-Musta'in and al-Mu'tazz, fought to determine who would gain control over the Abbasid Caliphate. The war, which lasted for about a year, largely revolved around a prolonged siege of Baghdad and ended with al-Mu'tazz as sole caliph. Al-Musta'in was abandoned by his supporters and forced to abdicate; in spite of a guarantee that his life would be spared, he was executed shortly afterward.

Family tree of the Abbasid caliphs of the ninth century The caliph al-Mutawakkil (847-861) had created a plan of succession that would allow his sons to inherit the caliphate after his death; he would be succeeded first by his eldest son, al- Muntasir, then by al-Mu'tazz and third by al-Mu'ayyad.Bosworth, "Mu'tazz," p. 793 In 861 al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a group of Turkish military officers, likely with the support of al-Muntasir. During al-Muntasir's short reign (861-862), the Turks pressured him into removing al-Mu'tazz and al- Mu'ayyad from the succession.

In 930, Abd al-Rahman III, having now adopted the title of caliph, attacked Toledo. The governor of Toledo asked for help from King Ramiro II of Leon, but Ramiro was preocuppied with a civil war against his brother Alfonso IV and was unable to help. In 932, Abd al-Rahman III conquered Toledo, re- establishing control of al-Tagr al-Awsat, the Central March of the Omeyyad state. In 1009 one of the last Umayyad caliphs, Muhammad II al-Mahdi, fled to Toledo after being expelled from Cordoba by Berber forces backing the rival claimant Sulayman.

Parsi Navjote ceremony (rites of admission into the Zoroastrian faith) India is considered to be home to the single largest Zoroastrian population in the world. When the Islamic armies, under the first caliphs, invaded Persia, those locals who were unwilling to convert to Islam sought refuge, first in the mountains of Northern Iran, then the regions of Yazd and its surrounding villages. Later, in the ninth century CE, a group sought refuge in the western coastal region of India, and also scattered to other regions of the world. Following the fall of the Sassanid Empire in 651 CE, many Zoroastrians migrated.

Hafizi Isma'ilism remained the state religion in Egypt until Saladin proclaimed the suzerainty of the Abbasid caliphs over Egypt in September 1171. Upon the death of the imam–caliph al-Adid shortly after, the members of the Fatimid family were placed under effective house arrest in the palace. Al-Adid's eldest son and designated heir, Da'ud, was recognized by the Hafizi faithful as the rightful imam, but he, like his own son and successor Sulayman Badr al-Din, lived and died in captivity. The mostly Hafizi Egyptian Isma'ilis were persecuted by the new Ayyubid regime, with many fleeing to Upper Egypt.

Nawab Muhammad Bahawal Khan Abbasi V Bahadur of Bahawalpur (1883–1907). General Nawab Sadeq Mohammad Khan V, the last ruling and perhaps the most popular Nawab of Bahawalpur State The Abbasi tribe from whom the ruling family of Bahawalpur belong, claim descent from the Abbasid Caliphs. The tribe then came to Bahawalpur in the middle of the 17th century, and assumed independence during the decline of the Durrani Empire. Upon establishment of Abbasi rule in the region around Uch, the clan's Nawab established canals as a matter of statecraft in order to help incorporate Daudpotra kinsmen.

This project included the construction of the Citadel of Cairo and of a 20 kilometer-long wall to defend both Cairo (originally the royal city of the Fatimid caliphs) and Fustat (the earlier capital of Egypt to the southwest). The entirety of the envisioned course of the wall was never quite completed, but long stretches of the wall, especially north of the Citadel, were built. Bab al- Barqiyya was one of the gates in this completed northern section, along with the gates identified as Bab al-Mahruq and Bab al-Jadid. The gate was one of the main eastern gates of the city.

According to al-Biladhuri, the main towns of the district, following its conquest by the Rashidun Caliphate, were Gaza, Sebastia, Nablus, Caesarea, Ludd, Yibna, Imwas, Jaffa, Rafah, and Bayt Jibrin. At first, under the early Umayyad caliphs, Ludd served as the district capital. After the caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik founded the nearby city of Ramla, he designated it the capital, and most of Ludd's inhabitants were forced to settle there. In the 9th century, during Abbasid rule, Jund Filastin was the most fertile of Syria's districts, and contained at least twenty mosques, despite its small size.

Originally an open-air building, the mosque served as a community center, a court of law, and a religious school. There was a raised platform or pulpit (minbar) for the people who taught the Quran and for Muhammad to give the Friday sermon (khutbah). Subsequent Islamic rulers greatly expanded and decorated the mosque, naming its walls, doors and minarets after themselves and their forefathers. After an expansion during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I, it now incorporates the final resting place of Muhammad and the first two Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar.

Unfortunately, al-Mustansir II was killed by the Mongols during an ill-advised expedition to recapture Baghdad from the Mongols later in the same year. In 1262, another Abbasid, allegedly the great-great-great grandson of the Caliph al-Mustarshid, Abu al-‘Abbas Ahmad, who had survived from the defeated expedition, was proclaimed caliph as al-Hakim I, inaugurating the line of Abbasid caliphs of Cairo that continued as long as the Mamluk sultanate, until 1517. Like his unfortunate predecessor, al-Hakim I also received the formal oath of allegiance of Baibars and provided him with legitimation.

Jahrhunderts n. Chr. = Alī ibn Rabban at-Tabarī, a Persian physician of the 9th century AD. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 85 (1931), P. 62-63 and Yūhannā ibn Māsawaiyh. The earliest known translation from the Syrian language is the Kunnāš of the scholar Ahron (who himself had translated it from the Greek), which was translated into the Arabian by Māsarĝawai al-Basrĩ in the 7th century. [Syriac-language, not Syrian, who were Nestorians] physicians also played an important role at the Academy of Gondishapur; their names were preserved because they worked at the court of the Abbasid caliphs.

Soon afterward, Mar Ukba moved to Kermanshah in the spring of 917. However, after the young Caliph moved to his summer palace in Safran, Mar Ukba devised a scheme to win the royal favour by meeting Al- Muqtadir's secretary daily in his gardens and greeting him with the recitation of beautiful verses of poetry. These pleased the Caliphs secretary so much that he wrote them down and showed them to his master, who in his turn was so delighted that he sent for Mar Ukba. When the Caliph saw Mar Ukba, he asked him to express any wish.

The Maliki school differs from the other Sunni schools of law most notably in the sources it uses for derivation of rulings. Like all Sunni schools of Sharia, the Maliki school uses the Qur'an as primary source, followed by the sayings, customs/traditions and practices of Muhammad, transmitted as hadiths. In the Mālikī school, said tradition includes not only what was recorded in hadiths, but also the legal rulings of the four rightly guided caliphs – especially Umar. Malik bin Anas himself also accepted binding consensus and analogical reasoning along with the majority of Sunni jurists, though with conditions.

Umayyad caliphs attempted to balance the powers and privileges of both factions, but the rivalry smoldered until the Third Muslim Civil War, in which the Yaman killed Caliph Walid II for his dependence on the Qays. Yamani opposition continued under Caliph Marwan II, and the Yaman ultimately defected to the Abbasids when the latter conquered the Umayyad realm in 750. The Yaman and Qays briefly joined forces against the Abbasids later that year, but were defeated. The Qays–Yaman rivalry diminished significantly under the Abbasids who, unlike the Umayyads, did not derive the bulk of their military support from either faction.

There is disagreement among historians over the basis of the Qays–Yaman conflict during and after Sulayman's reign. Medieval Arab sources describe the conflict mainly as a tribal rivalry. M. A. Shaban asserts that the Qays came to represent the policies of Islamic expansionism and Arab governmental monopolization embraced by Abd al-Malik and the powerful governor al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, while the Yaman supported stabilizing the caliphate's borders and assimilating non-Arabs into the state. The Yaman's allies and successive caliphs, Sulayman (r. 715–717) and Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (717–720), pursued such policies.

An iwan in the maristan (hospital) of Sultan Qalawun which incorporates remains from the Fatimid Western Palace which previously stood here. The Fatimids conquered Egypt in 969 C.E with a North African Kutama army under the command of the general, Jawhar al-Siqilli. In 970, Jawhar was responsible for planning, founding, and constructing a new city to serve as the residence and center of power for the Fatimid Caliphs. The city was named al-Mu'izziyya al-Qahirah, the "Victorious City of al-Mu'izz", later simply called "al-Qahira", which gave us the modern name of Cairo.

Undoubtedly he was a Shia; but he hid his belief from Abbasid Caliphs all the time as his father did. He was a close student and companion to Musa al-Kadhim and acted as Musa al-Kadhim's secret agent in the palace of Harun al-Rashid. Many Hadiths have been narrated from him in The Four Books. According to some historical evidence that have been given credence by Shia scholars, he entered the Abbasid government by the approval and guidance of Musa al-Kadhim in order to support the oppressed people and particularly assist the Shia.

According to Dawlatshah, Abdollah-ibn-Tahir, an Arabicized Persian, and governor of Khorasan for the Abbasid caliphs, banned publication in Persian and by his order all the Zoroastrians were forced to bring their religious books to be thrown in the fire. As a result, many literary works written in Pahlavi script disappeared. During the Abbasid reign the Zoroastrians, for the first time became a minority in Iran. Nevertheless, there were many cases of toleration during the Abbasid era, particularly under the reign of Al-Mu'tasim who flogged an imam and muezzin for destroying a fire-temple and replacing it with a mosque.

An instance of religious oppression is recorded when an Arab governor appointed a commissioner to supervise the destruction of shrines throughout Iran, regardless of treaty obligations. One of the Umayyad Caliphs was quoted saying, "milk the Persians and once their milk dries, suck their blood"., quoting Soleiman ibn-e Abdolmaleck Yazid-ibn-Mohalleb, a general under the Umayyads, was appointed the head of a great army to lead the Mazandaran expedition. On the way to Mazandaran, the general ordered captives to be hanged at the two sides of the road so that the victorious Arab army pass through.

As a result, in 851 the Caliph al-Mutawakkil called Muhammad ibn Abadallah from Khurasan to Iraq, where he assumed the governorships of Baghdad, the Sawad and Fars, while according to the 10th- century Egyptian scholar al-Shabushti, he also served as the caliphs' chamberlain (hajib). Shortly after the accession of al-Musta'in in 862, Tahir ibn Abdallah died. Musta'in proposed that Muhammad take up his brother's viceroyalty in the East, but he refused, and Tahir's son Muhammad was named instead. Muhammad ibn Abdallah was reconfirmed in his old offices, and received in addition the governorship of Mecca and Medina.

The Ahmadiyya Caliphate is a non-political caliphate established on May 27, 1908 following the death of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, who claimed to be the promised Messiah and Mahdi, the expected redeemer awaited by Muslims. It is believed by Ahmadis to be the re- establishment of the Rashidun Caliphate that commenced following the death of the Prophet Muhammad. The caliphs are entitled Khalīfatul Masīh (; ), sometimes simply referred to as Khalifa (or Caliph). The caliph is the elected spiritual and organizational leader of the worldwide Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and is the successor of Ghulam Ahmad.

5th Caliph taking a pledge of allegiance from Ahmadis in 2008. Fundamentally, Ahmadi Muslims believe the system of caliphate (Arabic: Khilāfah) to be an ancillary to the system of prophethood, continuing to strive for the objectives for which a prophet is sent and to carry to completion the tasks of reformation and moral training that were seeded by the prophet. The caliphs, as successors to the prophets, lead the community of believers after a prophet's death. The members of the community believe that the Ahmadiyya caliphate is the resumption of the Rightly Guided Caliphate (Arabic: Rāshidūn).

The mawali formed the majority of the rebel army, which was led by converted Iranian general Abu Muslim. The arrival of the Abbasid Caliphs saw a relative revival of Iranian culture and influence, as the role of the old Arab aristocracy was partially replaced by a Muslim Iranian bureaucracy. After two centuries of Arab rule, semi-independent and independent Iranian kingdoms—including the Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids, and Buyids—began to appear on the fringes of the declining Abbasid Caliphate. By the Samanid era in the ninth and 10th centuries, the efforts of Iranians to regain their independence had been well solidified.

The Age of the Caliphs This earthenware dish was made in 9th-century Iraq. It is housed in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. The first organized conflict between local Arab tribes and Persian forces seems to have been in 634, when the Arabs were defeated at the Battle of the Bridge. There was a force of some 5,000 Muslims under Abū `Ubayd ath-Thaqafī, which was routed by the Persians. This was followed by Khalid ibn al-Walid's successful campaign which saw all of Iraq come under Arab rule within a year, with the exception of the Persian Empire's capital, Ctesiphon.

After another heavy defeat at the Battle of Jalula in 637, Yazdegerd left Hulwan for the eastern provinces of his realm, and the town fell into the hands of the pursuing Arabs under Jarir ibn Abdallah Bajali in 640. In the early 640s, the town was of strategic importance as a frontier post between the Mesopotamian lowlands and the still Sasanian-controlled Iranian plateau, and was garrisoned by troops, including Persian defectors (the Khamra), who were settled there under the Rashidun caliphs. In the early Islamic period, until the 10th century, the town is described "as a flourishing town in a fertile district producing much fruit" (L. Lockhart).

In the tenth century the Abbasid Caliphate lost control of most of its former provinces. Most of the governors were able to establish their own dynasties, and in the meantime the central government was unable to stop independence movements within the empire, though they retained their spiritual leadership over the Muslims since the new states (the Tulunids/Ikhshidids, Hamdanids, and others) acknowledged the Caliph as the head of the state and the successor of the prophet. In 1055, Tughril captured Baghdad from the Buyids under a commission from the Abbasid Caliph al-Qa'im. Although the Seljuqs respected the Caliphs, they did not let them rule.

According to the Shia understanding, Muhammad named as his successor (as leader, with Muhammad being the final prophet), his son-in-law and cousin Ali. Therefore, the first three of the four elected "Rightly Guided" Caliphs recognized by Sunnis (Ali being the fourth), are considered usurpers, notwithstanding their having been "elected" through some sort of conciliar deliberation (which the Shia do not accept as a representative of the Muslim society of that time). The largest Shia grouping—the Twelvers branch—recognizes a series of Twelve Imams, the last of which (Muhammad al- Mahdi, the Hidden Imam) is still alive and the Shia are waiting for his reappearance.

Maslama was the son of the Umayyad caliph Abd al- Malik ibn Marwan () and half-brother of the caliphs al-Walid I (), Sulayman (), Yazid II () and Hisham (). Maslama himself was excluded from the line of succession as his mother was a slave concubine. To affirm the reconciliation with Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi, the rebel Qaysi leader of al-Qarqisiya, in the summer of 691, Abd al-Malik arranged for a marriage contract between Maslama and Zufar's daughter al-Rabab. Maslama is first mentioned as leading, along with his nephew al-'Abbas ibn al-Walid, the annual summer campaign (ṣawā'if) against the Byzantine Empire in 705.

The Khorramdin rebellion of Babak spread to the Western and Central parts of Iran and lasted more than twenty years before it was defeated when Babak was betrayed by Afshin, a senior general of the Abbasid Caliphate. As the power of the Abbasid caliphs diminished, a series of dynasties rose in various parts of Iran, some with considerable influence and power. Among the most important of these overlapping dynasties were the Tahirids in Khorasan (821–873); the Saffarids in Sistan (861–1003, their rule lasted as maliks of Sistan until 1537); and the Samanids (819–1005), originally at Bukhara. The Samanids eventually ruled an area from central Iran to Pakistan.

Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami (died 1106) was a Damascene jurist and philologist who was the first to preach jihad against the crusaders in the aftermath of the First Crusade. In 1105 al-Sulami published his treatise, Kitab al-Jihad ("Book of Struggle" or "Book of Jihad"), and preached his ideas from the Great Mosque in Damascus. He recognized the dangers of the Christian invaders connected with the ongoing Christian reconquests of Sicily and Spain. He believed that Muslims had abandoned jihad and other religious duties, and argued that the caliphs were supposed to make war on the Christians once a year, something they had not done for many years.

Royal Palace (Dar al-Makhzen) in Rabat Sultans and caliphs, as well as the more powerful and wealthy government ministers in the 19th and 20th century, were able to build extensive palaces. The Dar al-Makhzen (meaning roughly "House/Abode of the Government") referred to the royal palace and center of government in a number of cities, such as the Dar al-Makhzen in Fes, Rabat, Tangier, Meknes, or Marrakesh. These palaces are still generally off-limit to most visitors today. However, royal palaces generally had a mechouar, a large walled square which acted as a ceremonial space or parade ground at the entrance of the palace.

Anna Rita Coppola, "Swahili Oral Traditions and Chronicles", in Stephanie Wynne- Jones and Adria LaViolette (eds.), The Swahili World (Routledge, ), pp. 147–155, at 150–151. The inhabitants of the coast accepted Islam and agreed to pay the kharāj to the caliphs. The Abbasids, who took over from the Ummayads in 750, sent an emissary, Yahya ibn ʿUmar al-ʿAnazī, to the East African cities in 765–766.Mohamed Haji Mukhtar, "Islam in Somali History: Fact and Fiction", in Ali Jimale Ahmed (ed.), The Invention of Somalia (The Red Sea Press, 1995), pp. 29–42, at 3–4.Mohamed Haji Mukhtar, Historical Dictionary of Somalia, new ed.

Ibrahim was a son of Salih ibn Ali, a military commander who participated in the conquest of Syria and Egypt during the Abbasid Revolution and later became governor of both regions.On Salih ibn Ali, see . As a member of the Banu al-Abbas, he was a first cousin to the first two Abbasid caliphs al-Saffah () and al-Mansur (), and was additionally a son-in- law to the third caliph al-Mahdi () by virtue of his marriage to the latter's daughter Abbasah; ; . In 781 Ibrahim was appointed by al-Mahdi as governor of Egypt, with jurisdiction over both military and financial affairs within the province.

The Umayyad Palace on top of the Amman Citadel built around 700 AD In the 630s, the Rashidun Caliphate conquered the region from the Byzantines, beginning the Islamic era in the Levant. Philadelphia was renamed "Amman" by the Muslims and became part of the district of Jund al-Urdunn. A large part of the population already spoke Arabic, which facilitated integration into the caliphate, as well as several conversions to Islam. Under the Umayyad caliphs who began their rule in 661 AD, numerous desert castles were established as a means to govern the desert area of modern-day Jordan, several of which are still well-preserved.

In the chronological first part, in addition to reckoning by the years of the world and the Christian era, Theophanes introduces in tabular form the regnal years of the Roman emperors, of the Persian kings and Arab caliphs, and of the five ecumenical patriarchs, a system which leads to considerable confusion, and therefore of little value. The first part, though lacking in critical insight and chronological accuracy, greatly surpasses the majority of Byzantine chronicles. citing . Theophanes's Chronicle is particularly valuable beginning with the reign of Justin II (565), as in his work, he then drew upon sources that have not survived his times citing Traianus Patricius, Theophilus of Edessa.

In July 1091, at the invitation of Nizam al-Mulk, Al-Ghazali became professor of law at the Nizamiyya of Baghdad, one of the most prestigious colleges at that time. This college was intended in part to train scholars to counter the religious propaganda of the Fatimid caliphs, and Al-Ghazali's appointment at the Nizamiyya was part of it. This book was a series of four theological works that he wrote during his tenure as professor of law at the Nizamiyya. The first one was a summary of philosophical thought titled Maqāsid al-Falāsifa (Aims of the philosophers), an exposition that follows Avicenna's philosophical doctrine.

Baba Yousuf Shah's body is buried in Mewashah Darga, Karachi, Pakistan in October of 1947. And much before his own passing away, he had named one of his younger disciples, Kunwar Asghar Ali Khan as the next successor (Jaan Nasheen). Kunwar Asghar Ali Khan became known as "Albelay Shah Yousufi", and Zaheen Shah Taji was named as the caretaker (Sajjada Nasheen) to Yousuf Shah Baba's mausoleum.Times of India says Aala Hazrat Jalaluddin Mir Surkh of Meetha Neem Dargah was the desciple of Tajuddin Baba. Among the several caliphs of Hazrat Baba Tajuddin the another famous name is Hazrat Ghulam Mustafa, To whom Baba Tajuddin gave a title of”Miskeen Shah”.

The rulers of the Oshrusana or Ustrushana (Istarawshan) went by the title of "Afshin", and the most famous of whom was Khedār (Arabicised Haydar) b. Kāvūs. Our early knowledge of the ruling family of Oshrusana is derived from the accounts by the Islamic historians (Tabari, Baladhuri, and Ya'qubi) of the final subjugation of that region by the 'Abbasid caliphs and the submission of its rulers to Islam. During the time when the first Arab invasion of the country took place under Qutayba ibn Muslim (94-5/712-14), Ushrusana was inhabited by an Iranian population, ruled by its own princes who bore the traditional title of Akhshid or Afshin.Kramers, J.H. "Usrūshana".

Abdallahi ibn Muhammad Six months after the capture of Khartoum, the Mahdi died of typhus (22 June 1885). The task of establishing and maintaining a government fell to his deputies--three caliphs chosen by the Mahdi in emulation of the Prophet Muhammad. Rivalry among the three, each supported by people of his native region, continued until 1891, when Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, with the help primarily of the Baqqara Arabs, overcame the opposition of the others and emerged as unchallenged leader of the Mahdiyah. Abdallahi--called the Khalifa (successor)--purged the Mahdiyah of members of the Mahdi's family and many of his early religious disciples.

Shia also believe that this view was held by the descendants of Muhammad. Shia hold for authentic a narration attributed to Muhammad al-Baqir. He was reported to have replied to his disciple who had sought the Imam's opinion regarding Abu Bakr and Umar: In the same book, on the same page appears the following: Since Shia hold for authentic narrations where the descendants of Muhammad cursed the Sunni Caliphs, Shia also curse them (which does not literally mean using inappropriate terms for them, but rather asking God to withdraw His mercy from them) when doing tabarra. This added to the persecution of the Shias by the Sunnis.

Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman was a high-ranking Isma'ili poet, theologian and court companion active during the reigns of the first four Fatimid caliphs. Born to an accomplished Shi'a family of Kufan origins in Yemen, Ja'far was a son of the famous Isma'ili proselytizer Ibn Hawshab (d. 302AH/914CE). As a result of his pioneering work establishing the Isma'ili da‘wa of Yemen, Ibn Hawshab was commonly known by the laqab Manṣūr al-Yaman (“Conqueror of Yemen”), whence derives Ja'far's patronymic. As the only son of Ibn Hawshab to follow in his footsteps after his death, Ja'far was often at odds with his brother Abu al-Hasan.

The congregational mosque at Kızıltepe, with its well integrated dome of about 10 meters, is the masterpiece of Artuqid architecture. The largest preserved Ayyubid dome is that of the Matbakh al-'Ajami in Aleppo, resting on muqarnas pendentives. It may have been the palace residence of the al-'Ajami family. The mausoleum over the tomb of Iman Al-Shafi‘i (built in 1211) has a large wooden double dome (rebuilt in 1722) about 29 meters high and, with the tombs of al-Malik al-Silah and the so-called Tomb of the Abassid Caliphs, is one of three important Ayyubid tombs in Cairo dating from the first half of the 13th century.

Ridwan ibn Walakhshi () was the vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate in 1137–1139, under Caliph al-Hafiz li-Din Allah. He was a Sunni military commander, who rose to high offices under caliphs al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah and al-Hafiz. He participated in the coup of Kutayfat, which in 1130–1131 briefly overthrew the Fatimid dynasty, serving as gaoler of the future caliph al-Hafiz. Under al- Hafiz he rose to the powerful position of chamberlain, and emerged as the leader of the Muslim opposition during the vizierate of the Christian Bahram al-Armani in 1135–1137, when he served as governor of Ascalon and the western Nile Delta.

Its account of this period is generally independent of any other surviving source. Down to 728 it is primarily a political history, but from 734 it reverts to ecclesiastical history with caliphal notices. The final section contains a list of caliphs from 784 until the reign of al-Maʾmūn (813–833), but does not mention his death, and a list of Syriac Orthodox patriarchs of Antioch from 784 until 846. The Chronicle of 846 overlaps with certain works that depend on the same sources, such as the Chronicle of Zuqnin (775) and the works of Theophanes the Confessor (9th century), Michael the Syrian (12th century) and Bar Hebraeus (13th century).

The Druze were members of an esoteric offshoot of Isma'ili Shia Islam, the religion of the Fatimid caliphs of Egypt, and the warrior peasants who inhabited the Gharb subscribed to the faith. Shahid holds that the Tanukh entered the Gharb as Sunni Muslims and afterward adopted the Druze religion. Their leaders in the Gharb may have received and embraced the Fatimid Isma'ili da'wa (mission) as early as the late 10th century. When Beirut was captured by the Crusaders in 1110 after a three-month siege, its Muslim garrison and the Muslim tribal chiefs of the adjacent mountains who aided in its defense were massacred.

2014 p 52 and others. He wanted Iran to adopt a form of religion that would be more acceptable to Sunnis and suggested that Iran adopt a form of Shi'ism he called "Ja'fari", in honour of the sixth Shi'a imam Ja'far al- Sadiq. He banned certain Shi'a practices which were particularly offensive to Sunnis, such as the cursing of the first three caliphs. Personally, Nader is said to have been indifferent towards religion and the French Jesuit who served as his personal physician reported that it was difficult to know which religion he followed and that many who knew him best said that he had none.

In 683 the Umayyad caliph Yazid I died and was succeeded by his teenage son Mu'awiya II, who died weeks after his accession. With no suitable successors among the descendants of Yazid, Umayyad authority collapsed across the Caliphate amid the leadership vacuum in the Umayyad capital Damascus. In the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina, neither Yazid nor his son had been recognized as legitimate caliphs and after Yazid's death, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, based in Mecca, was recognized instead. Ibn al-Zubayr’s sovereignty soon extended to most of the Caliphate's provinces and he appointed his brother Mus'ab as governor of Iraq.

Although they were not made famous by their politics, they did have interests outside the world of science, mainly the oldest brother Muhammad. They were employed by the caliphs for many different projects, including the canal mentioned above, and they were also a part of a team of 20 hired to build the town of al-D̲j̲aʿfariyya for al-Mutawakkil. Taking on these types of civil projects naturally got them involved in the political scene in Baghdad. However, the height of Muhammad's political activity in the palace came towards the end of his life, during a time when Turkish commanders were starting to take control of the state.

It was only that Caliph al-Aziz Billah () gave the title of vizier to Ibn Killis, who continued as head of the administration until his death in 991. After Ibn Killis, the caliphs could choose whether to appoint a vizier, or entrust affairs to an "intermediary" () who mediated between the Caliph and his officials and subjects. In line with the Fatimids' general policy of toleration of Christians and Jews, several viziers were Christians or of Christian origin, beginning with Isa ibn Nasturus under al-Aziz. Jews, on the other hand, only appear to have held the office after converting to Islam, Ibn Killis being the most prominent example.

Several other sacred objects are on display, such as the swords of the first four Caliphs, The Staff of Moses, the turban of Joseph and a carpet of the daughter of Mohammed. Even the Sultan and his family were permitted entrance only once a year, on the 15th day of Ramadan, during the time when the palace was a residence. Now any visitor can see these items, although in very dim light to protect the relics, and many Muslims make a pilgrimage for this purpose. The Arcade of the Chamber of the Holy Mantle was added in the reign of Murad III, but was altered when the Circumcision Room was added.

Humaydah ibn Abi Numayy, arrived at Ilkhanate court in 1315, ilkhan on his part provided Humaydah an army of several thousand Mongols and Arabs under the command of Sayyid Talib al-Dilqandi to bring the Hijaz under Ilkhanid control. He also planned to exhume the bodies of the caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar from their graves in Medina. However, soon after the expedition passed Basra they received news of ilkhan's death, and a large part of the army deserted. The remainder – three hundred Mongols and four hundred Arabs – were crushed by a horde of four thousand Bedouin led Muhammad ibn Isa (brother of Muhanna ibn Isa) in March 1317.

Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.

Al-Mansur or Abu Ja'far Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mansur (; ; 95AH – 158 AH (714 AD – 6 October 775 AD))Al-Souyouti, Tarikh Al-Kholafa'a (The History of Caliphs) was the second Abbasid Caliph reigning from 136 AH to 158 AH (754 AD – 775 AD)Stanley Lane-Poole, The Coins of the Eastern Khaleefahs in the British MuseumAxworthy, Michael (2008); A History of Iran; Basic, USA; . See p. 81. and succeeding his brother Abu al-'Abbas al-Saffah. Al-Mansur is generally regarded as the real founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, one of the largest polities in world history, for his role in stabilizing and institutionalizing the dynasty.

Under the Caliphs, Khorasan was the name of one of the three political zones under their dominion (the other two being Eraq-e Arab "Arabic Iraq" and Eraq-e Ajam "Non- Arabic Iraq or Persian Iraq"). Under the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, Khorasan was divided into four major sections or quarters (rub′), each section based on a single major city: Nishapur, Merv, Herat and Balkh.DehKhoda, "Lughat Nameh DehKhoda" By the 10th-century, Ibn Khordadbeh and the Hudud al-'Alam mentions what roughly encompasses the previous regions of Abarshahr, Tokharistan and Sogdia as Khwarasan proper. They further report the southern part of the Hindu Kush, i.e.

For instance, Jarudiyya believes that Muhammad appointed Ali and believes that the denial of the Imamate of Ali after Muhammad's passing would lead to infidelity and deviation from the right path.Saberi, Tarikh Feragh Islami, Vol. 2, P. 95 The other view accepts Omar and Abu Bakr as legitimate caliphs, albeit inferior to Ali. According to al- Tabari (and Ibn A'tham), when asked about Abu Bakr and Omar, Zayd ibn Ali replied: "I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them...when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Qur'an and the Sunnah.".

The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696 AD, we learn of slave revolts of the Zanj against their Arab masters in Iraq (see below). Ancient Chinese texts also mention ambassadors from Java presenting the Chinese emperor with two Seng Chi (Zanji) slaves as gifts, and Seng Chi slaves reaching China from the Hindu kingdom of Sri Vijaya in Java. The sea off the south-eastern coast of Africa was known as the Sea of Zanj, and included the Mascarene islands and Madagascar. During the anti-apartheid struggle it was proposed that South Africa should assume the name Azania, to reflect ancient Zanj.

The Kharijite movement was a prominent religious sect in early Islamic history, known for its members' fanaticism and staunch opposition to the Muslim ruling establishment. The Kharijites' views on the nature of the caliphate caused them to reject the legitimacy of the rule of the Alids, Umayyads and Abbasids alike, and over the course of the seventh through ninth centuries they were responsible for numerous rebellions against the established government. Few of these attempts proved to be successful, but the Kharijites' continual presence in many Muslim-held regions meant that they were a near-constant source of trouble for the caliphs' governors.Levi Della Vida, pp.

Both brothers were influenced by their viziers, Fadl ibn al-Rabi and Fadl ibn Sahl respectively, into attempting to claim power. Ultimately al-Amin declared that his sons would reign as Caliphs after he had died, even going as far as to seize the documents binding the brothers to the agreement from the sacred city of Mecca. Al-Ma'mun was much angered by this and prepared for war, his vizier sending a force to defend the key frontier stronghold of Rayy, between the Zagros and Elburz mountain ranges. Meanwhile, al-Amin sent an army out to destroy his brother, which left Baghdad on March 14, 811 CE.

There were also a number of cases where Caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to take their verdict. The following hadith established the principle of rule of law in relation to nepotism and accountability:Sahih Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 56, Number 681 Various Islamic lawyers do however place multiple conditions, and stipulations e.g. the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty, before executing such a law, making it very difficult to reach such a stage. It is well known during a time of drought in the Rashidun caliphate period, capital punishments were suspended until the effects of the drought passed.

The Berber queen Dihya (or Kahina) led the indigenous resistance to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. For five years she ruled a free Berber state from the Aurès Mountains to the oasis of Gadames (695–700 CE) but finally was killed in combat near a well that still bears her name, Bir al Kahina in Aures. In 750 the caliphs centralized their command in Damascus and a coalition of Islamic forces from Medina, Damascus, Baghdad and Egypt returned in a second attempt following successive defeats in Greece. The Islamic forces in a coalition resumed their conquest of the Mediterranean Sea from the south, through North Africa.

It was not until 969, when the balance of power had shifted much more decisively in favour of the Fatimids, that another large-scale invasion was undertaken. By then, the Abbasid Caliphate, weakened by constant power struggles between rival bureaucratic, court, and military factions, and deprived of its outlying provinces to ambitious local dynasts, had ceased to exist as a political entity, with the Abbasid caliphs reduced to powerless pawns of the Buyids. At the same time, the Fatimid regime had grown stronger and far more wealthy, and now disposed of a large and disciplined army. This time the Fatimids met little resistance, and Egypt was conquered.

The main expression of his defense of religion, however, was his military campaigns against the Christian states, a method of legitimization that the caliphs had used before but which Almanzor took at an had extreme. Successive victories, despite their transient benefits to the realm, had a great propaganda effect, both in the Caliphate and in the enemy states of the north. To each crisis of his political career, he responded with corresponding large or multiple military campaigns. The campaigns also had a beneficial economic effect because of the loot - especially abundant slaves - obtained by them and because of the security they granted to the borders.

Mudrik ibn al-Muhallab ibn Abī Ṣufra () was an Arab commander of the Umayyad Caliphate during the reigns of caliphs Abd al-Malik () and Sulayman (). During the nine-month-long governorship of his brother al-Mufaddal over Khurasan, Mudrik, who was headquartered in Balkh, was appointed alongside Uthman ibn Mas'ud as joint commander of an expedition against the rebel general Musa ibn Abd Allah ibn Khazim of Tirmidh.Shaban 1970, pp. 62–63. Mudrik was assigned to ensure the loyalty of Uthman and his largely Tamimi troops, due to his previous maltreatment by al-Mufaddal's father and brother, al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra and Yazid, respectively.

Sharif Hussein In their capacity as Caliphs, the Sultans of the Ottoman Empire would appoint an official known as the Sharif of Mecca. The role went to a member of the Hashemite family, but the Sultans typically promoted Hashemite inter-familial rivalries in their choice, preventing the building of a solid base of power in the Sharif. King Ali of Hejaz With the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, the Sultan, in his capacity as Caliph, declared a jihad against the Entente powers. The British in particular hoped to co-opt the Sharif as a weighty alternative religious figure backing them in the conflict.

The then Twelver Imam, his brother Muhammad al-Baqir, did not engage in political action and the followers of Zayd believed that a true Imam must fight against corrupt rulers. One faction, the Batriyya, attempted to create a compromise between the Sunni and Shia by admitting the legitimacy of the Sunni caliphs while maintaining that they were inferior to Ali. Their argument was that while Ali was the best suited to succeed Muhammad, the reigns of Abu Bakr and Umar must be acknowledged because Ali had recognised them. This belief, termed Imamat al-Mafdul (Imamate of the inferior), is one which has also been attributed to Zayd himself.

Each "mega-recension" contains a major post-conciliar apocalypse that refers to the later Roman and Byzantine emperors, and each contains a major apocalypse that refers to the Arab caliphs. Of even further interest is that some manuscripts, such as the Vatican Arabo manuscript used in the aforementioned collation, contains no less than three presentations of the same minor apocalypse, about the size of the existing Apocalypse of John, having a great deal of thematic overlap, yet quite distinct textually. Textual overlaps exist between the material common to certain Messianic-apocalyptic material in the Mingana and Grebaut manuscripts, and material published by Ismail Poonawalla.Poonawalla, "Shi'ite Apocalyptic" in M. Eliade, ed.

Samarra is a city in central Iraq, which served as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate from 836 to 892. Founded by the caliph al-Mu'tasim, Samarra was briefly a major metropolis that stretched dozens of kilometers along the east bank of the Tigris, but was largely abandoned in the latter half of the 9th century, especially following the return of the caliphs to Baghdad. Due to the relatively short period of occupation, extensive ruins of Abbasid Samarra have survived into modern times. The layout of the city can still be seen via aerial photography, revealing a vast network of planned streets, houses, palaces and mosques.

Notably, eight generations of the Nestorian Bukhtishu family served as private doctors to caliphs and sultans between the eighth and eleventh centuries. Algebra was significantly developed by Persian scientist Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī during this time in his landmark text, Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala, from which the term algebra is derived. He is thus considered to be the father of algebra by some, although the Greek mathematician Diophantus has also been given this title. The terms algorism and algorithm are derived from the name of al-Khwarizmi, who was also responsible for introducing the Arabic numerals and Hindu-Arabic numeral system beyond the Indian subcontinent.

Romans in the fourth century banned Jewish people from holding public offices, banned Roman citizens from converting to Judaism, and often demoted Jews who were serving in the Roman military. In direct contrast, there was an event in which two viziers, Ibn al-Furat and Ali ibn Isa ibn al-Jarrah, argued about Ibn al-Furat's decision to make a Christian the head of the military. A previous vizier, Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Bazuri, had done so. These laws predated al-Mansur's laws against dhimmis and often had similar restrictions, although Roman emperors were often much more strict on enforcing these laws than many Abbasid caliphs.

In 685, Marwan and Ibn Bahdal expelled the Zubayrid governor of Egypt and replaced him with Marwan's son Abd al-Aziz, who would rule the province until his death in 704/05. Another son, Muhammad, was appointed to suppress Zufar's rebellion in the Jazira. Marwan died in April 685 and was succeeded by his eldest son Abd al-Malik. Although Ubayd Allah attempted to restore the Syrian army of the Sufyanid caliphs, persistent divisions along Qays–Yaman lines contributed to the army's massive rout and Ubayd Allah's death at the hands of the pro-Alid forces of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi of Kufa at the Battle of Khazir in August 686.

Yazid had appointed his brother, Ibrahim, as his successor, but Marwan II (744–50), the grandson of Marwan I, led an army from the northern frontier and entered Damascus in December 744, where he was proclaimed caliph. Marwan immediately moved the capital north to Harran, in present-day Turkey. A rebellion soon broke out in Syria, perhaps due to resentment over the relocation of the capital, and in 746 Marwan razed the walls of Homs and Damascus in retaliation. Marwan also faced significant opposition from Kharijites in Iraq and Iran, who put forth first Dahhak ibn Qays and then Abu Dulaf as rival caliphs.

Like their predecessors, the Lodhi Sultans stylized themselves as the deputies of the Abbasid Caliphs, and thus acknowledged the fictional authority of a united Caliphate over the Muslim World. They provided cash stipends and granted revenue-free lands (including entire villages) to the Muslim ulama, the Sufi shaikhs, the claimed descendants of Muhammad, and the members of his Quraysh tribe. The Muslim subjects of the Lodis were required to pay the zakat tax for religious merit, and the non-Muslims were required to pay the jizya tax for receiving state protection. In some parts of the Sultanate, the Hindus were required to pay an additional pilgrimage tax.

She was claimed as the ancestress of al- Mu'izz and the imams of the Fatimid dynasty; one theory is that her epithet is the source for the name al-ʾAzhar. The theory, however, is not confirmed in any Arabic source and its plausibility has been both supported and denied by later Western sources. An alternative theory is that the mosque's name is derived from the names given by the Fatimid caliphs to their palaces. Those near the mosque were collectively named al-Quṣūr az-Zāhira (, "the Brilliant Palaces") by al-Aziz Billah, and the royal gardens were named after another derivative of the word zahra.

Over 200 different zījes have been identified that were produced by Islamic astronomers during the period from the eighth to the fifteenth centuries. The greatest centers of production of zījes were Baghdad under the Abassid caliphs in the 9th century, the Maragheh observatory in the 13th century, the Samarkand observatory in the 15th century, and the Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din in the 16th century. Nearly 100 more zijes were also produced in India between the 16th and 18th centuries. One of the most famous Indian zijes was the Zij-i Muhammad Shahi, compiled at Jai Singh II of Amber's Jantar Mantar observatories.

Under the Umayyad Caliphs the Arabs attempted to conquer the frontier kingdoms of India; Kabul, Zabul, and Sindh, but were repulsed. In the early 8th Century the Kingdom of Sindh under Brahman King Dahir of the Rai dynasty was convulsed by internal strife——taking advantage of the conditions the Arabs renewed their assaults and finally occupied it under Muhammad bin Qasim, the nephew of Al-Hajjaj (governor of Iraq and Khurasan). Qasim and his successors attempted to expand from Sindh into Punjab and other regions but were badly defeated by Lalitaditya of Kashmir and Yashovarman of Kannauj. Even their position in Sindh was unstable at this time.

Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid ibn al-Walid (; 616–666) was the governor of Homs under caliphs Uthman () and Mu'awiya I (). During Mu'awiya's governorship of Syria (639–661), Abd al-Rahman commanded a number of campaigns against the Byzantine Empire and defended the Upper Mesopotamian frontier from the Iraq- based forces of Caliph Ali (). He fought reputably against the latter at the Battle of Siffin in 657 and continued his governorship of Homs and campaigns against the Byzantines after Mu'awiya became caliph in 661. His battlefield reputation and descent from his father, the prominent general Khalid ibn al- Walid, made him particularly popular among the Arabs of Syria.

The death of Suluk caused a civil war, which divided the Türgesh into two rival factions: the Yellow Türgesh, who supported Baga Tarkhan and the Black Türgesh, who supported Kut Chor. Bilge Khagan, the last of the able Turkic khagans, was already dead and with the death of Suluk, Transoxiana was opened to Arabic conquest. Around this time there was a power shift in the Caliphate, as the Umayyad dynasty was supplanted by the Abbasid dynasty. The policy of the Abbasid Caliphs was more peaceful than that of the Umayyads and Arab control of Transoxiana was limited to the occupation of a few forts.

The contents of the Lunde & Stone version are broken into small vignettes which take up less than a full page of text in most cases. In addition are several pages of poetry. The Lunde & Stone edition focuses primarily on the Abbasid period in modern-day Iraq and begins with a story involving the Caliph al- Mansur () and ends with the reign of al-Muti (). Some notable sections include several stories involving the various Caliphs and their interactions with commoners like "Mahdi and the Bedouin" (37) in which the Caliph al-Mahdi () is served a humble meal by a passing Bedouin who in turn is rewarded with a large monetary reward.

Tolerance was extended to non- Muslims, such as Christians and Jews, who occupied high levels in government based on ability, and this policy of tolerance ensured the flow of money from non-Muslims in order to finance the Caliphs' large army of Mamluks brought in from Circassia by Genoese merchants. There were exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, however, most notably by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, though this has been highly debated, with Al-Hakim's reputation among medieval Muslim historians conflated with his role in the Druze faith. The Fatimids were also known for their exquisite arts. A type of ceramic, lustreware, was prevalent during the Fatimid period.

The Fatimids focused their military on the defence of the empire as threats presented, which they were able to repel. In the mid-10th century, the Byzantine Empire was ruled by Nikephoros II Phokas, who had destroyed the Muslim Emirate of Chandax in 961 and conquered Tartus, Al-Masaisah, 'Ain Zarbah, among other areas, gaining complete control of Iraq and the Syrian borders, and earning the sobriquet "The Pale Death of the Saracens". With the Fatimids, however, he proved less successful. After renouncing his payments of tribute to the Fatimid caliphs, he sent an expedition to Sicily, but was forced by defeats on land and sea to evacuate the island completely.

The maps of the Greeks and Romans reveal a good knowledge of closed seas like the Mediterranean but little knowledge of the vast ocean expanses beyond. Although al-Mahdi had proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and had also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy, religious scholars in the Islamic world believed that al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the mihna. The penalties of the mihna became increasingly difficult to enforce as the ulema became firmer and more united in their opposition. Although the mihna persisted through the reigns of two more caliphs, al-Mutawakkil abandoned it in 848.

He was convicted of disloyalty when he opened letters of the secret services in 1013, as a result of which his hands were cut off. However the Caliph al-Hakim soon regretted this harsh punishment, and took him back into the palace and promoted him to high office. In 1015/6 he was appointed head of the dīwān al-nafaḳāt (bureau of expenditure), before rising to the post of wāsiṭa (the official intermediary between Caliph and the people) in 1021/2, and finally achieving the post of vizier in 1027. He held the post under the caliphs Ali az-Zahir and al-Mustansir until his death in March 1045.

There is also a difference between Jewish denial of Christian and Muslim messages, since Muhammad never claimed to be a Messiah or Son of God, although he is referred to as "the Apostle of God".Lewis (1999) p. 118 The cause of Muhammad's death is disputable, though the Hadiths tend to suggest he may have eventually succumbed to poison after having been poisoned at Khaybar by one of the surviving Jewish widows.Sahih Bukhari Volume 3, Book 47, Number 786Sahih Bukhari Volume 5, Book 59, Number 713 According to Rosenblatt, Muhammad's disputes with his neighboring Jewish tribes left no marked traces on his immediate successors (known as Caliphs).

Islamic control spread greatly under the Umayyad caliphate. It had reached all the way to Western Africa in Maghrib where the Berbers lived. These peoples fought hard and mostly retreated to the mountains while some clans from the main routes and plains of the coast submitted as dhimmis too or converted to Islam and at any case were promptly joined by the Arabs to their military machine. With their superior military arms and skills the caliphs were able to extend their control into Spain.Marshall G.S. Hodgson, “Book One: The Islamic Infusion: Genesis of a New Social Order.” The Venture of Islam: The Classical Age of Islam.

Saladin eventually overthrew the Fatimid caliphs and established himself as Sultan of Egypt. He also began to assert his independence from Nur ad-Din, and with the death of both Amalric and Nur ad- Din in 1174, he was well-placed to begin exerting control over Damascus and Nur ad-Din's other Syrian possessions. In 1177 Saladin was defeated by the crusaders at the Battle of Montgisard, despite his numerical superiority. Saladin also besieged Kerak in 1183, but was forced to withdraw. He finally launched a full invasion of Jerusalem in 1187, and annihilated the crusader army at the Battle of Hattin in July.

The difference between Sunni and Shīʻa Sharia results from a Shīʻa belief that Muhammad assigned ʻAlī to be the first ruler and the leader after him (the Khalifa or steward). This difference resulted in the Shīʻa: # Following hadith from Muħammad and his descendants the 12 Imāms. # Some of them are not accepting the "examples", verdicts, and ahādīth of Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman ibn Affan (who are considered by Sunnīs to be the first three Caliphs). # Attributing the concept of the masūm "infallibility" to the Twelve Imāms or The Fourteen Infallibles (including Muhammad and his daughter Fatimah) and accepting the examples and verdicts of this special group.

For the Twelvers, Ali and his eleven descendants, the twelve Imams, are believed to have been considered, even before their birth, as the only valid Islamic rulers appointed and decreed by God. Shia Muslims believe that with the exception of Ali and Hasan, all the caliphs following Muhammad's death were illegitimate and that Muslims had no obligation to follow them. They hold that the only guidance that was left behind, as stated in the hadith of the two weighty things, was the Quran and Muhammad's family and offspring. The latter, due to their infallibility, are considered to be able to lead the Muslim community with justice and equity.

In 948 they shifted their capital to Al-Mansuriya, near Kairouan in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established Cairo as the capital of their caliphate. Intellectual life in Egypt during the Fatimid period achieved great progress and activity, due to many scholars who lived in or came to Egypt, as well as the number of books available. Fatimid Caliphs gave prominent positions to scholars in their courts, encouraged students, and established libraries in their palaces, so that scholars might expand their knowledge and reap benefits from the work of their predecessors.Shorter Shi'ite Encyclopaedia, By: Hasan al-Amin, The Fatimids were also known for their exquisite arts.

In a quote attributed to Sulayman's brother Maslama, the head Umayyad commander on the Byzantine front, "through Raja and his likes, we are rendered victorious". In a testament to Raja's loyalty to the Umayyad caliphs Sa'id ibn Jubayr (d. 714) stated, Raja "used to be regarded as the most knowledgeable jurist (faqih) in Syria, but if you provoke him, you will find him Syrian in his views quoting Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan saying such-and- such."Tabaqat al-Fuqaha, in the biography of Sa`id ibn Jubayr Raja served as Sulayman's chief kātib (secretary or scribe) and head of the administration of justice.

This attitude led to disputes between Ad- Darazi and Hamza ibn Ali, who disliked his behaviour. Al-Darazi argued that he should be the leader of the daʻwah rather than Hamza ibn Ali and gave himself the title "Lord of the Guides" because Caliph al-Hakim referred to Hamza as "Guide of the Consented". By 1018, al-Darazi had gathered around him partisans – "Darazites" – who believed that universal reason became incarnated in Adam at the beginning of the world, was then passed from him to the prophets, then into Ali and hence into his descendants, the Fatimid Caliphs. Al-Darazi wrote a book laying out this doctrine.

From their fortresses in the Gharb area (now in Aley District of southern Mount Lebanon Governorate), the Tanukhs led their incursions into the Phoenician coast and finally succeeded in holding Beirut and the marine plain against the Franks. Because of their fierce battles with the Crusaders, the Druzes earned the respect of the Sunni Muslim caliphs and thus gained important political powers. After the middle of the twelfth century, the Ma'an family superseded the Tanukhs in Druze leadership. The origin of the family goes back to a Prince Ma'an who made his appearance in the Lebanon in the days of the 'Abbasid caliph al-Mustarshid (1118–35 CE).

At the time of his accession, critical posts were held by members of Abd al-Malik's family. His brother, Muhammad, was charged with suppressing the Qaysi tribes, while Abd al-Aziz maintained peace and stability as governor of Egypt until his death in 705. During the early years of his reign, Abd al-Malik heavily relied on the Yamani nobles of Syria, including Ibn Bahdal al-Kalbi and Rawh ibn Zinba al- Judhami, who played key roles in his administration; the latter served as the equivalent to the chief minister or wazīr of the later Abbasid caliphs. Furthermore, a Yamani always headed Abd al-Malik's shurṭa (elite security retinue).

The Umayyad emirs and caliphs who ruled in the Iberian Peninsula between 756 and 1031 were also his direct descendants. In the assessment of his biographer Chase F. Robinson, "Mu'awiya may have introduced the principle of dynastic succession into the ruling tradition of early Islam, but Abd al-Malik made it work". Family tree of the Umayyad dynasty during the reign of Abd al-Malik, whose reliance on his family was unprecedented in the Caliphate's history. Abd al-Malik's concentration of power into the hands of his family was unprecedented; at one point, his brothers or sons held nearly all governorships of the provinces and Syria's districts.

The centralized administration he established became the prototype of later medieval Muslim states. In Kennedy's assessment, Abd al-Malik's "centralized, bureaucratic empire... was in many ways an impressive achievement", but the political, economic and social divisions that developed within the Islamic community during his reign "was to prove something of a difficult inheritance for the later Umayyads". According to Wellhausen, government "evidently became more technical and hierarchical" under Abd al-Malik, though not nearly to the extent of the later Abbasid caliphs. As opposed to the freewheeling governing style of the Sufyanids, Abd al-Malik ruled strictly over his officials and kept interactions with them largely formal.

Marwan was a son of the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and his first wife Wallada bint al-Abbas ibn al-Jaz, a member of the Banu Abs tribe and fourth-generation descendant of Zuhayr ibn Jadhima. He was a full brother of the caliphs al- Walid I () and Sulayman (). According to the historian al-Tabari Abd al-Malik instructed his immediate chosen successors al-Walid and Sulayman to invest the succession after them to their half-brother Yazid II (son of Atika bint Yazid) and then to Marwan al-Akbar. According to al-Baladhuri, however, it was to be passed to Marwan al-Asghar (another son of Atika).

If such is your concern, > go back and finish up your needs and wishes for this life, pay your debts, > purchase yourself, take leave of your family and tell them that you will > never return to them. The third state, that of the "Imam of glory", are imams as active rulers of an Ibadi state. The first two caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar are considered ideal models of the . A ruling imam who sins must be removed from power; the Ibadi model for this is the assassination of the third caliph Uthman and the Kharijite revolt against Ali, both actions being viewed as legitimate resistance to a sinful ruler.

This attitude led to disputes between Ad-Darazi and Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad, who disliked his behaviour. Ad-Darazi argued that he should be the leader of the Da’wa rather than Hamza ibn Ali and gave himself the title “Lord of the Guides”, because Caliph al-Hakim referred to Hamza as “Guide of the Consented”. By 1018, ad-Darazi had gathered around him partisans - "Darazites" - who believed that universal reason became incarnated in Adam at the beginning of the world, was then passed from him to the prophets, then into Ali and hence into his descendants, the Fatimid Caliphs. Ad-Darazi wrote a book laying out this doctrine.

Calligraphic writing on a fritware tile, depicting the names of God, Muhammad and the first caliphs, Turkic peoples practiced a variety of shamanism before adopting Islam. Abbasid influence in Central Asia was ensured through a process that was greatly facilitated by the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana. Many of the various Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century. Since the founding of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottomans followed the Maturidi creed (school of Islamic theology) and the Hanafi madhab (school of Islamic jurisprudence).

Al-Azhar Mosque, founded by the Fatimids in 972. (The minarets were added later during the Mamluk period.) Bab al-Futuh, one of the northern gates of Cairo built by the Fatimid vizier Badr al-Jamali in the late 11th century. The Fatimids, an Isma'ili Shi'a caliphate which was based in Ifriqiya (Tunisia), conquered Egypt in 969 CE during the reign of Caliph al-Mu'izz. Their army, composed mostly of North African Kutama Berbers, was led by the general Jawhar al-Siqilli. In 970, under instructions from al- Mu'izz, Jawhar planned, founded, and constructed a new city to serve as the residence and center of power for the Fatimid Caliphs.

Yazid III died later in 744 and Ibrahim acceded as caliph for a few months before abdicating to his distant cousin Marwan II. In 745 Muhammad, along with his brothers Sa'id al-Khayr and Abu Bakr Bakkar and the families of his nephews, the sons of caliphs al-Walid I (), Sulayman, Yazid II () and Hisham, gave his allegiance to Marwan II at Deir Ayyub in the Hauran. In 747/48, Marwan II appointed Muhammad the governor of Mecca, Medina and Ta'if in the Hejaz (western Arabia). He led the Hajj pilgrimage in Mecca in August 748. He was replaced as governor the following year with al-Walid ibn Urwa al- Sa'di.

In Sunni Islam, a marriage contract must have at least two witnesses. Proper witnessing is critical to the validation of the marriage, also acting as a protection against suspicions of adulterous relationships. In Shia Islam, witnesses to a marriage are deemed necessary, but in case are not available then the two parties may conduct the nikah between themselves.Witnesses for Marriage , 'Aalim Network QR It is also believed that temporary marriage, or Nikah Mut'ah (a type of contract which had more relaxed requirements) was prohibited in Sunni Islam, the necessity of witnessing was introduced by Sunni caliphs, specifically Umar, to ensure that no couples engaged in secret union.

Following the death of Muhammad in Rabi' al-awwal 11 AH (June 632 CE), Abu Bakr, an eminent Sahaba, was chosen as the new leader of the Muslim community through an election at Saqifah. Several of Muhammad's companions, most prominent among them being Ali, initially disputed this succession. It would not be until after the reigns of Abu Bakr and his successors, Umar and Uthman, that Ali would finally ascend the throne. Though these four rulers are referred to by Sunnis as the Rashidun (rightly-guided) Caliphs, only Ali is recognised by the Shia, with the remainder being viewed as usurpers to the latter's inheritance.

Another attempt in 936 to launch a campaign against the rebellious governor of Wasit, Muhammad ibn Ra'iq, failed to even get started. Coupled with his failure to counter the mounting financial crisis, this last disaster led to Ibn Muqla's downfall. In April 936, Ibn Muqla was arrested by Muhammad ibn Yaqut's brother, al-Muzaffar, who forced ar-Radi to dismiss him as vizier. Ibn Muqla's dismissal marked the end of the independence of the Abbasid caliphs, for, shortly thereafter, ar-Radi appointed Ibn Ra'iq to the new post of amir al-umara ("commander of commanders"), a military office that became the de facto ruler of what remained of the Caliphate.

In its 1909 Cairo edition, the tale comprises 70 sections in seven volumes and 5,084 pages. The subject matter of the epic draws from the long history of Arab–Byzantine wars under the Umayyad and early Abbasid caliphs, until the reign of al-Wathiq in the mid-9th century, with elements from later events, focusing on the exploits of two rival Arab tribes, the Banu Kilab, who furnish the main characters, and the Banu Sulaym.Canard (1991), pp. 233–234 The tale begins with the story of the rivalry of the two tribes during the early Umayyad period, when the Sulaym held command over both.

These slave-soldiers were opposed by the native Arab population, and riots against them in Baghdad in 836 forced Mu'tasim to relocate his capital to Samarra. The use of ghilman reached its maturity under al-Mu'tadid and their training was conceived and inspired through the noble furusiyya. From a slave, a ghulam attained his freedom after completing the formative training period and joined the elite corps as a mounted warrior. The ghilman rose rapidly in power and influence, and under the weak rulers that followed Mu'tasim, they became king- makers: they revolted several times during the so-called "Anarchy at Samarra" in the 860s and killed four caliphs.

During the Middle Ages, Greek ideas were largely forgotten in Western Europe due to the Migration Period, which resulted in a decline in literacy. In the Byzantine Empire Greek ideas were preserved and studied, and not long after the first major expansion of Islam, however, the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige. Islamic philosophers such as Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) reinterpreted these works, and during the High Middle Ages Greek philosophy re-entered the West through translations from Arabic to Latin and also from the Byzantine Empire.Lindberg, David.

The show was unforgettable. With many of the songs influenced by Caribbean rhythms, Latin, Arab and the North Brazil. The opening contained Arab themes like odalisques and Caliphs, then the end of the opening comes guitar introductions, and then Joelma and the dancers begin to dance music Temporal, the show was great excitement and participation of fans. After much shaking and dancing, romantic block come, starting with an act of Joelma and a dancer in music 'Desfaz as Malas, which had a separation scene by the man but the woman struggled to keep that from happening, it was a much discussed part of the show.

Statue of Ibn Marwan in Badajoz Badajoz attained importance during the reign of Moorish rulers such as the Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba, and the Almoravids and Almohads of North Africa. From the 8th century, the Umayyad dynasty controlled the region until the early 11th century. The official foundation of Badajoz was laid by the Muladi nobleman Ibn Marwan, around 875, after he had been expelled from Mérida. Under Ibn Marwan, the city was the seat of an effective autonomous rebel state which was quenched only in the 10th century. In 1021 (or possibly 1031 ), it became the capital of a small Muslim kingdom, the Taifa of Badajoz; with some 25,000 inhabitants.

I; Ibn Hajar Asqalani, Fath al-Bari 16:339; #Ali ibn Abu Bakr al-Haythami, Majma al-Zawa'id 5:190; Ibn Hajar Al- Haythami, Al-Sawa'iq al-Muhriqa, vol 12; Suyuti, Tarikh al-Khulafa, Vol 10; Jami' al-Saghir 1:75; Kanz al-Ummal, 13:27 > Imam Muslim on Sahih Muslim wrote: Rasulullah s.a.w said: "This religion > (Islam) will remain standing until twelve caliphs, which all of them is from > Quraysh, rule over you." (Sahih Muslim) > Imam Abu Dawud on Shahih Abi Dawud wrote: Masyruq said: We were sitting with > Abdullah bin Mas'ud to learn the Qur'an from him. Someone asked him: Did you > ask the Messenger of Allah s.a.

Umar ibn al-Khattab was one of the earliest figures in the history of Islam. While Sunnis regard Umar ibn al-Khattab in high esteem and respect his place as one of the "Four Righteously Guided Caliphs", the Shia do not view him as a legitimate leader of the Ummah and believe that Umar and Abu Bakr conspired to usurp power from Ali. Shia believe that the Sunni view of Umar was created by the later Umayyad dynasty to honour the man that gave power to the first Umayyad ruler and third Sunni Caliph, Uthman. In this way, it gives legitimacy to Umar's consultation that started their own dynasty.

Most Islamic schools of thought reject any idea of reincarnation of human beings or God. It teaches a linear concept of life, wherein a human being has only one life and upon death he or she is judged by God, then rewarded in heaven or punished in hell. Islam teaches final resurrection and Judgement Day, but there is no prospect for the reincarnation of a human being into a different body or being. During the early history of Islam, some of the Caliphs persecuted all reincarnation-believing people, such as Manichaeism, to the point of extinction in Mesopotamia and Persia (modern day Iraq and Iran).

The museum has 600 copies of the Qur'an donated to the al-Aqsa Mosque during the Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk, Ottoman eras by caliphs, sultans, emirs, ulama and private individuals. Each differ in size, calligraphy and ornamentation. One is a hand-written Qur'an whose transcription is attributed to the great-great grandson of Muhammad. Another is written in Kufic script dating back to the 8th-9th century. A 30-part Moroccan Rab’ah was bequeathed by Sultan Abu al-Hasan al-Marini of Morocco, the only manuscript remaining from three collections that the sultan dispatched to the mosques of the three holy cities in Islam — Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem.

M.J. de Goeje, et al. (Leiden, 1879-1901)) 3.2173-75, cited in but these characterizations have been attributed to the hostility of the Abbasid dynasty, during whose rule the histories were written, toward the Umayyad caliphs, including Yazid. In contrast, a letter written by a Syrian in 741, before the fall of the Umayyads in 750 and about sixty years after Yazid's death, describes the Caliph as "a most pleasant man and deemed highly agreeable by all the peoples subject to his rule. He never, as is the wont of men, sought glory for himself because of his royal rank, but lived as a citizen along with all the common people".

Shaw, Stanford J. (1976), History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey, Volume 1, p. 109. Cambridge University Press, The decisive parting of the Caucasus and the irrevocable ceding of Mesopotamia to the Ottomans happened per the next major peace treaty known as the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639 CE/AD.Феодальный строй , Great Soviet Encyclopedia Another term of the treaty was that the Safavids were required to end the ritual cursing of the first three Rashidun Caliphs, Aisha and other Sahaba (companions of Muhammad) — all held in high esteem by Sunnis. This condition was a common demand of Ottoman- Safavid treaties, and in this case was considered humiliating for Tahmasp.

"stressing the value of knowledge." With the passion of the Caliphs to establish centers of knowledge, the Muslim world quickly began to have different centers that housed libraries which contained encyclopedias, translations, commentaries and treatises written by Muslim philosophers, scholars and scientists. With the invention of paper, the Muslim world quickly began to progress in its development of libraries, and "libraries (royal, public, specialised, private) had become common and bookmen (authors, translators, copiers, illuminators, librarians, booksellers' collectors) from all classes and sections of society, of all nationalities and ethnic backgrounds, vied with each other in the production and distribution of books."Wani, Z. A., & Maqbol, T. (2012).

Along with Syria, al-Aziz presided over an expansion of Fatimid influence in the Arabian peninsula. The Hajj—at least those caravans setting off from Cairo with the pilgrims of the western Islamic world—was placed under Fatimid control and protection, despite the considerable cost. The emirs of Mecca, although de facto autonomous, recognized the Fatimids' suzerainty, in token of which the Fatimids enjoyed the prestigious privilege of furnishing each year the new cover of the Kaaba (the kiswa). Finally, in 992 the Fatimids were acknowledged as caliphs in the Yemen, and even their old enemies, the Qarmatians of Bahrayn, came around to acknowledge their claims.

Yaḥyā ibn al-Ḥakam ibn Abī al-ʿĀs () (died before 700) was an Umayyad statesman during the caliphate of his nephew, Abd al-Malik (). He fought against Caliph Ali () at the Battle of the Camel and later moved to Damascus where he was a courtier of the Umayyad caliphs Mu'awiya I () and Yazid I (). He was appointed governor of Palestine by Abd al-Malik and is credited in an inscription for building part of a road connecting Damascus to Jerusalem in 692. He served as governor of Medina for a year in 694/95 and afterward led a series of expeditions against the Byzantine Empire along the northern frontier of Syria.

219 During his lifetime, he served as a tutor to the Abbasid caliphs, al-Mu'tadid (861–902) and his son, al-Muktafi (878–908). Ibn Abi al-Dunya's treatise on music, Dhamm al-malālī ('Condemnation of the malāhī'), is believed by Amnon Shiloah (1924–2014) to have been the first systematic attack on music from Islamic scholarship, becoming 'a model for all subsequent texts on the subject'. His understanding of malāhī, as constituting not just "instruments of diversion" but also musics forbidden and for the purposes of amusement only, was an interpretation that 'guided all subsequent authors who dealt with the question of the lawfulness of music'.

Muslim ibn ʿUqba al-Murrī () (pre-622–683) was a general of the Umayyad Caliphate during the reigns of caliphs Mu'awiya I ( 661–680) and his son and successor Yazid I ( 680–683). The latter assigned Muslim, a staunch loyalist who had distinguished himself at the Battle of Siffin, to be the commander of an expedition against the people of Medina for refusing to give Yazid the oath of allegiance. The victory of Muslim at the Battle of al-Harrah in 683 and the subsequent pillaging of Medina by his army was considered among the major injustices carried out by the Umayyads. Muslim died shortly after.

After the 853 expedition, the Arab rule over Georgia was never again as strong. The emirate of Tbilisi had not been abolished, but the Caliphs would not allow its power to grow again, as it had more than once led to its rebellion against central power. Furthermore, the Byzantine Empire, under Basil I the Macedonian (r. 867–886), was experiencing a political and cultural renaissance, which could only seduce Caucasians away from the Caliph's authority. Georgia and the Caucasus around 900 Christian feudal states expanded during the second half of the 9th century, and the Bagratids of Armenia and Georgia especially saw their power rise.

Rebel Castilians had also served the Almohad caliphs and resided in Morocco. Pope Honorius III had requested the Almohads to allow the Christians to freely practice their faith., page 117-20 In June 1225, Honorius III issued the bull Vineae Domini custodes that permitted two friars of the Dominican Order named Dominic and Martin to establish a mission in Morocco and look after the affairs of Christians there. The friars of Francis of Assissi were dispatched to Morocco to evangelize to the Muslims but were killed. Honorius III on February 20, 1226 told Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada to dispatch Franciscans to convert the Moroccan Muslims.

During Fatimid rule, Tripoli thrived on the trade in slaves and gold brought from the Sudan and on the sale of wool, leather, and salt shipped from its docks to Italy in exchange for wood and iron goods. Ibn Ziri's Berber Zirid dynasty ultimately broke away from the Shiite Fatimids, and recognised the Sunni Abbasids of Baghdad as rightful Caliphs. In retaliation, the Fatimids brought about the migration of thousands from two troublesome Arab Bedouin tribes, the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal to North Africa. This act drastically altered the fabric of the Libyan countryside, and cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region.

Underneath the dome was a square audience chamber , with a vaulted ceiling just as high; and above that, in the interior of the dome, was another chamber of similar dimensions. In front of the audience chamber was an alcove, called the aywan, which was surmounted by an arch high and wide. The palace and mosque appear to have been completed in 763, one year after construction began, allowing al-Mansur to take up residence in the city. While the Palace of the Golden Gate remained the official residence of the caliphs, al-Mansur and his successors also spent much time in the nearby Khuld Palace constructed soon afterwards.

Kfar Bar'am, an ancient Jewish village, abandoned some time between the 7th–13th centuries CE.Judaism in late antiquity, Jacob Neusner, Bertold Spuler, Hady R Idris, Brill, 2001, p. 155 In 634–641 CE, the region, including Jerusalem, was conquered by the Arabs who had recently adopted Islam. Control of the region transferred between the Rashidun Caliphs, Umayyads, Abbasids, Fatimids, Seljuks, Crusaders, and Ayyubids throughout the next three centuries. During the siege of Jerusalem by the First Crusade in 1099, the Jewish inhabitants of the city fought side by side with the Fatimid garrison and the Muslim population who tried in vain to defend the city against the Crusaders.

He was a great lover of The Prophet and stated that the main purpose of Hajj is to visit the Blessed Messenger of God. In fact, before his final departure for Hajj from Karachi, he had told some of his disciples that if the Prophet gave him permission to stay, he will not come back. He was succeeded by four khulafa (caliphs/successors): Maulana Umar Bhai (Bombay); Shah Shahidullah Faridi (Karachi, Pakistan, originally from the UK); Captain Wahid Baksh Rabbani (Bahawalpur, Pakistan), and Maulana Abdus Salam (India). His discourses were compiled by his khalifas Shah Shahidullah Faridi and Wahid Baksh Sial Rabbani under the title "Tarbiyyat-ul-Ushaq" (Training of the Lovers) and published in English and Urdu.

Sufyān ibn ʿAwf ibn al-Mughaffal al-Azdī al-Ghāmidī () (died 672 or 673/74) was an Arab commander in the service of the Rashidun caliphs Umar () and Uthman () and the Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya I (). He fought as a partisan of Mu'awiya against Caliph Ali during the First Muslim Civil War, leading a raid against the latter's forces in Iraq. Throughout his military career, he was major commander in the wars with the Byzantine Empire. Though the medieval Arabic, Greek and Syriac accounts are not entirely consistent, he most likely was at the head of a large Arab army that was decisively defeated by the Byzantines in 673/74 and was slain during the battle.

Sourdel, p. 232; Ibn 'Asakir, p. 376 his great- grandfather was a Zoroastrian convert to Islam.Ibn al-Tiqtaqa, p. 227 His father, Muhammad ibn Yazdad al-Marwazi, had been an official in the caliphal bureaucracy, and had served as the final secretary for the caliph al-Ma'mun prior to the latter's death in 833.Sourdel, p. 292 Ibn Yazdad likewise chose a career in the civil service and became a government secretary (katib), working under the caliphs in Samarra. In 859 he is mentioned as being in charge of the Department of Control of Estates (diwan zimam al-diya),Al-Tabari, v. 34: p. 163 which oversaw the administration of state lands.

Such knowledge is only brought into his works in contexts where the theme of a story touches on a branch of the natural sciences. According to Edward G. Browne, Attar as well as Rumi and Sana'i, were Sunni as evident from the fact that their poetry abounds with praise for the first two caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattāb - who are detested by Shia mysticism. According to Annemarie Schimmel, the tendency among Shia authors to include leading mystical poets such as Rumi and Attar among their own ranks, became stronger after the introduction of Twelver Shia as the state religion in the Safavid Empire in 1501.Annemarie Schimmel, Deciphering the Signs of God, 302 pp.

Disheartened, Hasan returned to Mecca and Fatimid allegiance, while the Jarrahid rebellion was crushed by the Fatimid troops in late summer 1013. The motives for his revolt are not entirely clear. On one part they were practical: the Hejaz had suffered due to the cessation of grain shipments, as well as monetary subsidies, from Egypt for the few years preceding the revolt, and the sources explicitly mention that this had caused grievances on the part of al-Hasan. However, the unprecedented decision to actually proclaim a counter-caliphate clearly had ideological motivation as well, being possibly prodded by al-Hakim's demand in 1005 to ritually curse the first two Rashidun caliphs across the Fatimid domains.

Two or three Abbasid expeditions to East Africa are mentioned in the late Arabic Book of the Zanj. The Abbasid caliphs al-Manṣūr (754–775), Hārūn al- Rashīd (786–809) and al-Maʾmūn (813–833) are reputed to have sent punitive expeditions to the Islamized city-states of the Somali coast and set up governors there.Ali Abdirahman Hersi, The Arab Factor in Somali History: The Origins and the Development of Arab Enterprise and Cultural Influences in the Somali Peninsula, Ph.D. diss. (University of California at Los Angeles, 1977), pp. 111–112.H. Neville Chittick, "The East Coast, Madagascar and the Indian Ocean", in J. D. Fage and R. Oliver (eds.), The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c.

Ali ibn Musa al-Ridha (; 1 January 766 – 6 June 818), also spelled Rida or Reza in Persian, also known as Abu al-Hasan, was a descendant of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, and the eighth Shia Imam, after his father Musa al-Kadhim, and before his son Muhammad al-Jawad. He was an Imam of knowledge according to the Zaydi (Fiver) Shia school and Sufis. He lived in a period when Abbasid caliphs were facing numerous difficulties, the most important of which was Shia revolts. The Caliph Al-Ma'mun sought out a remedy for this problem by appointing Al-Ridha as his successor, through whom he could be involved in worldly affairs.

After the death of Harun al-Rashid in 809, Harun's two sons began fighting for control of the Abbasid Empire. One son, Al-Amin, had an Arab mother and thus had the support of Arabs, while his half-brother Al-Ma'mun had a Persian mother and the support of Persia. After defeating his brother, al-Ma'mun faced many insurrections from the followers of Muhammad's family in many areas. The Shia of al-Ma'mun's era, like the Shia of today, who made a large population of al-Ma'mun's Iran, regarded the Imams as their leaders who must be obeyed in all aspects of life, spiritual and terrestrial, as they believed in them as the real caliphs of Muhammad.

The original pool of the south has been conserved, whereas the one of the north front, of the 14th century, has been covered with a wood floor. The restoration tried to give the courtyard the original splendor, and for that a marble floor was arranged in the corridors that surround the orange and flower garden. The arcade that is contemplated looking towards the south portico is restored by means of the emptying of the original arcs that are deposited in the National Archaeological Museum of Madrid and in the Museo de Zaragoza . They suppose the greater audacity and distance for their innovation with respect to the caliphs models of the arcades of the north side.

As there was now nothing the crusaders could do in Syria, they were forced to look to the south if they wanted to expand their territory. The capture of Ascalon had already succeeded in cutting off Egypt from Syria, and Egypt had been politically weakened by a series of very young Fatimid caliphs. By 1163, the caliph was the young al- Adid, but the country was ruled by the vizier Shawar. That year, Shawar was overthrown by Dirgham; soon afterwards, the King of Jerusalem, Amalric I, led an offensive against Egypt, on the pretext that the Fatimids were not paying the tribute they had promised to pay during the reign of Baldwin III.

The Emirate of Aleppo had been a Byzantine vassal since the 969 Treaty of Safar, but in the years before the death of Basil II (), its emirs had come under the suzerainty of the Fatimid caliphs of Egypt. By the time the Mirdasid dynasty (1025–1080) gained control of the city, Byzantine influence over Aleppo and northern Syria in general had declined considerably. After the Mirdasid emir Salih ibn Mirdas was killed by the Fatimids at the Battle of al-Uqhuwanah in Palestine in 1029, he was succeeded by his young sons Nasr and Thimal. The katepano of Antioch, Michael Spondyles, used the inexperience of Salih's successors as an opportunity to establish a protectorate over the Mirdasid domains.

The Battle of Siffin was the second battle of the First Fitna, after the Battle of the Camel. It was fought between Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth of the Rashidun caliphs, and Muawiyah I on the banks of the Euphrates river in Siffin around the present-day Syrian city of Raqqa. The armies had encamped at the site for more than two months prior to the battle and the offensive was finally launched by the Qurra' in Ali's army on July 26 (8 Safar 37 AH) and the battle lasted till July 28 (10 Safar 37 AH). The battle ended when the two sides decided to stop fighting and instead settle their conflict via arbitration.

These early Islamic legal treatises covered the application of Islamic ethics, Islamic economic jurisprudence and Islamic military jurisprudence to international law, and were concerned with a number of modern international law topics, including the law of treaties; the treatment of diplomats, hostages, refugees and prisoners of war; the right of asylum; conduct on the battlefield; protection of women, children and non-combatant civilians; contracts across the lines of battle; the use of poisonous weapons; and devastation of enemy territory. The Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphs were also in continuous diplomatic negotiations with the Byzantine Empire on matters such as peace treaties, the exchange of prisoners of war, and payment of ransoms and tributes.

According to Wafaa H. Wahaba, "For al-Mawardi the caliphate symbolized an entire politico-religious system that regulates the lives of men in a Muslim community to the smallest detail. Hence the emphasis in [The Ordinances] placed on the qualifications, power and duties pertinent to [a given office of government]... This approach to the matter would explain the working arrangement finally reached by the Buyids and the Abbasid caliphs, later followed also by the more efficient Seljuqs, whereby the military held actual power while recognizing the Caliph as the supreme head of government and receiving from him, in turn, recognition of their mundane authority."Introduction to "The Ordinances of Government", trans., Wafaa H. Wahaba (Lebanon: Garnet Publishing, 1996), xv.

In matters of faith, traditionalists were pitted against Mu'tazilites and other theological currents, condemning many points of their doctrines as well as the rationalistic methods they used in defending them. Traditionalists were also characterized by their avoidance of all state patronage and by their social activism. They attempted to follow the injunction of "commanding good and forbidding evil" by preaching asceticism and launching vigilante attacks to break wine bottles, musical instruments and chessboards. In 833 the caliph al-Ma'mun tried to impose Mu'tazilite theology on all religious scholars and instituted an inquisition (mihna) which required them to accept the Mu'tazilite doctrine that the Qur'an was a created object, which implicitly made it subject to interpretation by caliphs and scholars.

Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq's 10th-century Kitab al-Tabikh (Book of Dishes), a collection of Arabic and Persian recipes and food advice of the Abbasid caliphs, mentions neither the word kunāfa, nor a description of the dish as it is known today. However, it does feature a chapter on desserts made with the related qatāyif, meaning crêpes, from which the Turkish word kadayıf and Greek word kataïfi derive. In one recipe, qatāyif are stuffed with nuts, deep-fried, and topped with honey- sugar syrup, which is essentially unchanged in today's version. Also described are large thin crêpes resembling fabric, called ruqāq, cooked on a round sheet of metal called a tābaq, layered with fruit, and drenched with sugar.

In the south of Lebanon, Jabal Amel, Baalbek and the Beqaa Valley was ruled by Shia feudal families under the Mamluks and the Ottoman Empire. Major cities on the coast, Acre, Beirut, and others, were directly administered by the Muslim Caliphs and the people became more fully absorbed by the Arab culture. Following the fall of Roman Anatolia to the Muslim Turks, the Byzantines put out a call to the Pope in Rome for assistance in the 11th century. The result was a series of wars known as the Crusades launched by the Franks from Western Europe to reclaim the former Byzantine Christian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially Syria and Palestine (the Levant).

However he faced opposition from some factions including the Levant governor, Muawiyah I. A civil war, called the First Fitna, took place within the early Islamic state which resulted in the overthrow of the Rashidun caliphs and the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty. It began when the caliph Uthman ibn Affan was assassinated in 656 and continued through the four-year reign of Ali. After Ali agreed to arbitration with Muawiyah I following the Battle of Siffin (657), a revolt happened against him by some members of his army, later known as Kharijites ("those who leave"). They killed some of Ali's supporters, but they were crushed by Ali's forces at the Battle of Nahrawan in July 658.

Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great grandson of Islamic prophet Muhammad, was the victim of harassment by the Abbasid caliphs and was eventually poisoned and murdered at the orders of the Caliph Al-Mansur in response to his growing popularity among the people. This was in the tenth year of Al-Mansur's reign. According to a number of sources, Abu Hanifa an-Nu'man (who founded a school of jurisprudence) was imprisoned by al-Mansur. Malik ibn Anas, the founder of another school, was flogged during his rule, but al-Mansur himself did not condone this – in fact, it was his cousin, the governor of Madinah at the time, who ordered it (and was punished for doing so).

A page from the well known Blue Qur'an provides an example of gold kufic script on indigo-dyed parchment. The Blue Qur'an is considered one of the most extraordinary Qur'an manuscripts ever created; its origins are 9th-tenth century North African, and it was likely created for the Fatimid caliphs ruling from Qayrawan. Located on the main floor of the museum, the Bellerive Room displays a selection from the ceramics collection of the late Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan and Princess Catherine Aga Khan. The room is a recreation of the “La Chambre Persane,” or “Persian Salon,” in their home, Château de Bellerive in Geneva, Switzerland, where part of the collection was originally on display.

Al'Akbar founded the city of Ekbir and, for the last decade of his mortal life, ruled the nation of Ekbir as the first of its caliphs. Eventually he had a mosque to himself built and allowed his followers to call on his name in their prayers. Soon after, he ascended to the heavens to take his place among the gods. Al'Akbar is revered primarily in Ekbir, Ket, the Plains of the Paynims, Tusmit, and Zeif. “Akbar” was first mentioned in The Strategic Review #7, wherein Neal Healey described The Cup and Talisman of Akbar [sic], and associated them with worship of Allah without mention of whether “Akbar” (Arabic for “greater”/“greatest”) was a person, place, or descriptor.

This may have been related to the high level of tribute which the Zirids were compelled to pay annually to the Fatimids (one million gold dinars a year). When al-Muizz (under the influence of Sunni jurists in Kairouan, growing Sunni public pressure in his realm and a violent backlash against the Shi'ite minority) recognised the Abbasids in Baghdad as rightful Caliphs in 1045 and adopted Sunni orthodoxy, the break with the Fatimids was complete. He even denounced the Fatimids and their followers as heretics in newly minted coinage. The Fatimids then sent a military campaign composed of Bedouin tribes of the Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym from Egypt to Ifriqiya.

Omar () or Omar Farouk () is a historical Arab television drama miniseries- serial that was produced and broadcast by MBC1 and directed by the Syrian director Hatem Ali. Co-produced by Qatar TV, the series is based on the life of Omar ibn Al-Khattab, the second Caliph of Islam, and depicts his life from 18 years old until the moments of his death. The series faced large controversy due to its depiction of Omar, Abu Bakr, Uthman and Ali, the four Rashidun Caliphs, along with other characters, who some Muslims believe should not be depicted, much like Mohammad. The series consists of 31 episodes and was originally aired in the month of Ramadan since July 20, 2012.

Denia had perhaps hosted a naval squadron under the Caliphs of Córdoba in the tenth century; its port was "very good and very old". According to al-Idrīsī, as quoted in al-Himyarī, its shipyards were important in outfitting the caliphal fleet, and the fleet launched against Sardinia may have originated in them.Bruce 2006, 128. In 940 or 941, the Caliphate signed treaties with Amalfi, Barcelona, Narbonne and the judgeships of Sardinia promising safe conduct in the western Mediterranean, an area where they had been subject to raids from Muslim pirates based out of Fraxinetum, the Balearic IslandsOnly under Abd-ar-Rahman III (912–61) did Fraxinetum and the Balearics come under Caliphal control.

One story relates that Aisha, having noted that Muhammad reclined comfortably and spoke casually with Abu Bakr and Umar, asked him why when he addressed Uthman, he chose to gather his clothing neatly and assume a formal manner. Muhammad replied that "Uthman is modest and shy and if l had been informal with him, he would not have said what he had come here to say". Uthman was a family man who led a simple life even after becoming the caliph, despite the fact that his flourishing family business had made him rich. Prior caliphs had been paid for their services from the bayt al-mal, the public treasury, but the independently wealthy Uthman never took a salary.

Omar is remembered by Sunnis as a rigid Muslim of a sound and just disposition in matters of religion; a man they title Farooq, meaning "leader, jurist and statesman", and the second of the rightly guided caliphs. He patched his clothes with skin, took buckets on his two shoulders, always riding his donkey without the saddle, rarely laughing and never joking with anyone. On his ring is written the words "Enough is Death as a reminder to you O' 'Omar".Tartib wa Tahthib Kitab al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah by ibn Kathir, published by Dar al- Wathan publications, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 1422 AH (2002), compiled by Muhammad ibn Shamil as-Sulami, p.

Unlike his brother, Muhammad al- Baqir, the fifth Imam of the Twelver Shi'as, Zayd ibn Ali believed the time was ripe for renewing the rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphs in support of the claims of his own Hashemite clan. On his trip to Iraq, he was persuaded by pro-Alids of Kufa that he had support of 10,000 warriors and could easily drive out a few hundred Umayyad soldiers stationed there. Kufa had previously been the capital of his great-grandfather Ali, and the place where his grandfather Husayn also sought support for his own rebellion in 680. He started his propaganda in Kufa, Basra and Mosul and 15,000 people were enlisted on his army register.

Futūh al-Buldān () is the best known work by the 9th century Persian historian Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri of Abbasid era Baghdad. An Arabic work, the Kitāb Futūḥ al-Buldān is a digest of a larger lost work of geographical history of the Caliphate empire, the political histories and events leading to inclusion of the locations within it, including accounts of the prophet Muhammad's early conquests and the early caliphs. Al-Baladhuri travelled widely in regions of northern Syria and Mesopotamia, collecting traditions for material to include in his book. Futūḥ al-Buldān ("Book of the Conquests of the Lands") was edited by M. J. de Goeje as Liber expugnationis regionum (Leiden, 1870; Cairo, 1901).

During his stay at Delhi and Patna, many people became his Mureed (disciples), some of them attained accomplishment and became his Khalifa (caliphs). Notable disciples (mureeds) of Makhdoom Munim Pak are Quazi Maulana Hassan Raza Khan Raipuri, Sayed Dayem (Dhaka, Bangladesh) the Ustaad-e-Shahr of Patna Mulla Shoaibul Haque Musafir, the renowned teacher of calligraphy Shah Izzuddin, Khairuddin Kashmiri and Shah Quamar Ali, the younger brother of Shah Kamal Dewarvi. Makhdoom Munim Pak died in the evening at the time of Isha after the day of 11 Rajab in 1185 Hijri. His abbey (khanqah) is at Meetanghat, Patna City and his grave is situated in the premises of Mulla Meetan's mosque.

The minbar is symbolically the seat of the imam who leads prayers in the mosque and delivers sermons. In the early years of Islam, this seat was reserved for the Prophet Muhammad and then for the caliphs who followed him, who were officially the imam of the whole Muslim community, but it eventually became standard for all Friday mosques and was used by the local imam. Nonetheless, the minbar retained its significance as a symbol of authority. While minbars are roughly similar to church pulpits, they have a function and position more similar to that of a church lectern, being used instead by the imam for a wide range of readings and prayers.

Ghassanid rule also brought a period of considerable prosperity for the Arabs on the eastern fringes of Syria, as evidenced by a spread of urbanization and the sponsorship of several churches, monasteries and other buildings. The surviving descriptions of the Ghassanid courts impart an image of luxury and an active cultural life, with patronage of the arts, music and especially Arab-language poetry. In the words of Ball, "the Ghassanid courts were the most important centres for Arabic poetry before the rise of the Caliphal courts under Islam", and their court culture, including their penchant for desert palaces like Qasr ibn Wardan, provided the model for the Umayyad caliphs and their court.; .

While condemned for his religious policies and activities, Ibn Abi Du'ad was simultaneously praised by the sources for his tolerant and humane nature, along with his learning and magnanimity. Numerous anecdotes consistently portray the chief judge as a man of compromise and generosity, and he is frequently shown as intervening to resolve disputes between the caliphs and their opponents in an effort to prevent bloodshed. He was also known as a competent poet, and was a patron of various poets and literary men. He particularly was associated with the fellow Mu'tazilite and author al- Jahiz, who dedicated at least one of his works to him and provided him with theological arguments to use against the traditionalists.

Following the Muslim conquest of Eastern Christendom outside Anatolia and Europe in the 7th century and after the establishment of secured lines of demarcation between Islamic Caliphs and Byzantine Emperors, little was heard from the Maronites for 400 years. Secure in their mountain strongholds, the Maronites were re-discovered in the mountains near Tripoli, Lebanon, by Raymond of Toulouse on his way to conquer Jerusalem in the Great Crusade of 1096–1099. Raymond later returned to besiege Tripoli (1102–1109) after the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099, and relations between the Maronites and European Christianity were subsequently reestablished. The Maronites assisted the crusaders and affirmed their affiliation with the Holy See of Rome in 1182.

Additionally, the book has a pronounced scholastic orientation. Again in the second part, Shah Wali Allah presents an in-depth study of the verses of the Qur'an and Muhammad's traditions that allude to the high status of the four caliphs in general and the first two among them in particular, either explicitly or implicitly. To this end, he not only interprets the relevant texts (nusus), but also marshals additional evidence from the generally accepted principles of jurisprudence with regard to the interpretation of texts to support and substantiate his contentions. In this process, he takes notice of the many objections, real as well as hypothetical, that can be raised against these interpretations and then refutes them.

In 962 the son of the governor of Fatimid Sicily, Ahmad ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi, captured and reduced the city of Taormina, one of the last Byzantine strongholds on the island. The last major Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, Rometta, soon appealed to the newly crowned emperor Nikephoros for aid against the approaching Muslim armies. Nikephoros soon renounced his payments of tribute to the Fatimid caliphs, and sent a huge fleet, purportedly boasting a size of around 40,000 men, under Patrikios Niketas and Manuel Phokas, to the island. The Byzantine forces, however, were swiftly routed in Rometta and at the Battle of the Straits, and Rometta soon fell to the Muslims, completing the Islamic conquest of Sicily.

The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in Damascus. After the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids, some of their remaining leaders escaped to Spain under the leadership of Abd-ar-rahman I who challenged the Abbasids by declaring Córdoba an independent emirate. Al- Andalus was rife with internal conflict between the Arab Umayyad rulers, the north-African Berbers who had formed the bulk of the invasion force and the Visigoth-Roman Christian population that was a majority for almost the next four centuries. In the 10th century Abd-ar-rahman III declared the Caliphate of Córdoba, effectively breaking all ties with the Egyptian and Syrian caliphs.

During this time, mints in cities on the Moroccan coast (Fes, Sijilmasa, Sfax, and al-Nakur) occasionally issued coins with the names of Umayyad caliphs, showing the extent of Umayyad diplomatic influence. The text of a letter of friendship from a Berber leader to the Umayyad caliph has been preserved in the work of 'Isa al-Razi. During the reign of Abd ar-Rahman III tensions increased between the three distinct components of the Muslim community in al-Andalus: Berbers, Saqaliba, and those of Arab or mixed Arab and Gothic descent. Following Abd ar-Rahman's proclamation of the new Umayyad caliphate in Cordoba, the Umayyads placed a great emphasis on the Umayyad membership of the Quraysh tribe.

Sri Indravarman was an 8th-century king of Srivijaya Kingdom who sent three emissaries to China, first in 702 CE, second in 716 CE, and third in 724 CE. His name was recorded in the Chinese sources as Che-li-t'o-lo-pa-mo. He was also recorded to have sent two letters to the Arabian Umayyad caliphs, first in c.680 CE and second in 718 CE. Listed among the Srivijayan gifts to the Chinese emperor was a ts'engchi (from Arabic: zanji, black people) slave, presumably received from its Arabic connection. These relationships suggested that Srivijaya during his reign already had good international trades with the outside world, both from West and East Asia.

Abu Bakr Abdullah ibn Uthman (; 573 CE23 August 634 CE) was a companion and, through his daughter Aisha, a father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, as well as the first of the Rashidun Caliphs. Initially a rich and respected businessman, Abu Bakr later became one of the first converts to Islam and extensively contributed his wealth in support of Muhammad's work. He was among Muhammad's closest companions, accompanying him on his migration to Medina and being present at a number of his military conflicts, such as the battles of Badr and Uhud. Following Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr succeeded in the leadership of the Muslim community as the first Rashidun Caliph.

Qanungoh Shaikhs are the descendants of the Muslim Qanungohs of what is now Pakistan who are styled Shaikh and often retain their tribal or familial names. The title of Qanungoh appeared in the Sub-Continent between 1270 and 1290 owing to migrations of the minor Arab aristocracy prompted by Hulegu Khan's destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad. The hereditary office of the Qanungoh was well established and instituted during the Khalji dynasty. The loose suzerainty of the Mamluk Caliphs over the Khaljis served as a further conduit for the movement of literate people from Central Asia and the Middle East to the Delhi Sultanate to serve as administration over the local populace.Rehman.

The Kitab al-'uyun wa'l-hada'iq fi akhbar al-haqa'iq () is an Arabic chronicle covering Muslim history up to the year 961 AD. The author of the work is anonymous, but the text was likely written in the late eleventh century. The contents of the Kitab al-'Uyun are organized by the reigns of successive caliphs and are loosely subdivided in an annalistic fashion. Much of the work consists of selections from the histories of al-Tabari, al-Mas'udi, Miskawayh and al-Farghani, but it also includes otherwise lost material from a number of other sources, especially Egyptian and North African authors. Only the third and fourth volumes of the work survive.

The Ottoman sultan, Selim I (1512–1520) reclaimed the title of caliph, which had been in dispute and asserted by a diversity of rulers and "shadow caliphs" in the centuries of the Abbasid-Mamluk Caliphate since the Mongols' sacking of Baghdad and the killing of the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad, Iraq 1258. The Ottoman Caliphate as an office of the Ottoman Empire was abolished under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924 as part of Atatürk's Reforms. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. Their territory could expand by royal intermarriage or merge with another state when the dynasty merged.

His successor, al-Walid, continued his father's policies and his rule likely marked the peak of Umayyad power and prosperity. Abd al-Malik's key administrative reforms, reunification of the Caliphate and suppression of all active domestic opposition enabled the major territorial expansion of the Caliphate during al-Walid's reign. Three other sons of Abd al-Malik, Sulayman, Yazid II and Hisham, would rule in succession until 743, interrupted only by the rule of Abd al-Aziz's son, Umar II (). With the exceptions of the latter and Marwan II (), all the Umayyad caliphs who came after Abd al-Malik were directly descended from him, hence the references to him as the "father of kings" in the traditional Muslim sources.

Abd al-Malik shifted away from his predecessors' use of Arab tribal masses in favor of an organized army. Likewise, Arab noblemen who had derived their power solely through their tribal standing and personal relations with a caliph were gradually replaced with military men who had risen through the ranks. These developments have been partially obscured by the medieval sources due to their continued usage of Arab tribal terminology when referencing the army, such as the names of the tribal confederations Mudar, Rabi'a, Qays and Yaman. According to Hawting, these do not represent the "tribes in arms" utilized by earlier caliphs; rather, they denote army factions whose membership was often (but not exclusively) determined by tribal origin.

The Ibadis were members of a Kharijite sect formed in the seventh century. Centered in Basra in southern Iraq, they initially formed a moderate alternative to the more extremist elements of Kharijism, and sought to peaceably win over the Umayyad caliphs to their cause. By the second quarter of the eighth century, however, the prospect of a reconciliation with the Umayyads had become increasingly unlikely, and radical elements among the Ibadis eventually steered the sect toward active resistance against the ruling government. The Ibadis of Basra under Abu Ubaydah began planning for the establishment of a universal Ibadi imamate, forming a treasury for their operations and training teams of adherents for missionary work.

The Abbasids marked their new rule in Egypt by founding a new administrative capital called al-'Askar, slightly northeast of Fustat, under the initiative of their governor Abu 'Aun. The city was completed with the foundation of a grand mosque (called Jami' al-'Askar) in 786, and included a palace for the governor's residence, known as the Dar al-'Imara. Nothing of this city remains today, but the foundation of new administrative capitals just outside the main city became a recurring pattern in the history of the area. The leftAhmad Ibn Tulun was a Turkish military commander who had served the Abbasid caliphs in Samarra during a long crisis of Abbasid power.

The Arab- Byzantine frontier zone during Ashot's lifetime. During the Arab-Byzantine Wars, much of Ashot's territory was located near the main site of conflict. In 862, Ashot was recognized as the Prince of Princes of Armenia by Abbasid Caliph al-Musta'in, who saw this as a measure of protection against the local autonomous emirs. This title essentially granted Ashot the status of de facto king and placed him at a similar level of power as the emirs, but did not allow Ashot to have administrative rule over the kingdom. Ashot kept this status during the reigns of Abbasid Caliphs al-Mu'tazz (866–869), al-Muhtadi (869–870) and al-Mu'tamid (870–892).

Map of the Byzantine-Arab frontier zone in southeastern Asia Minor, along the Taurus-Antitaurus range Following the failure to capture Constantinople in 717–718, the Umayyads for a time diverted their attention elsewhere, allowing the Byzantines to take to the offensive, making some gains in Armenia. From 720/721 however the Arab armies resumed their expeditions against Byzantine Anatolia, although now they were no longer aimed at conquest, but rather large-scale raids, plundering and devastating the countryside and only occasionally attacking forts or major settlements.Treadgold (1997), pp. 349ff. Under the late Umayyad and early Abbasid caliphs, the frontier between Byzantium and the Caliphate became stabilized along the line of the Taurus-Antitaurus mountain ranges.

Abu'l-Saj belonged to Sogdian family from Jankakath and Suydak, which were two villages that were very close to each other, and were the dependencies of Ushrusana. He entered into the service of the Abbasids and fought under the Afshin during the latter's final campaign against the rebel Babak Khorramdin in 837 AD. He also fought against the Karenid rebel Mazyar in 839, and one year later against Mankjur al- Farghani, the lieutenant and cousin of Afshin. Over the next several decades he served the caliphs in various provinces.Madelung, "Dynasties," 228 In 865 he sided with the caliph al-Musta'in during the civil war of that year, and was put in charge of the defense of al-Mada'in.

Dinar minted in Palestine under al-Ikhshid, 944 CE. From 942 on, Ibn Tughj included his name and title ("Muhammad al-Ikhshid"), alongside that of the caliph in his coinage. Writing to Caliph al-Radi () in 936, Muhammad ibn Tughj could present a commendable record: the Fatimid invasion was defeated and first measures for improving the financial situation in the province had been undertaken. The caliph confirmed him in his post and sent robes of honour. As Hugh N. Kennedy writes, "in some ways the Fatimid threat actually helped Ibn Tughj" since, as long as he supported the Abbasids, "the caliphs were prepared to give their approval to his rule in return".

Temple of Baal, Palmyra, Syria, 1st century CE. The face veil was originally part of women's dress among certain classes in the Byzantine Empire and was adopted into Muslim culture during the Arab conquest of the Middle East.See for instance F. R. C. Bagley, "Introduction", in B. Spuler, A History of the Muslim World. The Age of the Caliphs, 1995, X; for a different view T. Dawson, "Propriety, practicality and pleasure : the parameters of women's dress in Byzantium, A.D. 1000-1200", in L. Garland (ed.), Byzantine women: varieties of experience 800-1200, 2006, 41-76. However, although Byzantine art before Islam commonly depicts women with veiled heads or covered hair, it does not depict women with veiled faces.

Marrakesh has long been an important centre for healthcare in Morocco, and the regional rural and urban populations alike are reliant upon hospitals in the city. The psychiatric hospital installed by the Merinid Caliph Ya'qub al-Mansur in the 16th century was described by the historian 'Abd al-Wahfd al- Marrakushi as one of the greatest in the world at the time. A strong Andalusian influence was evident in the hospital, and many of the physicians to the Caliphs came from places such as Seville, Zaragoza and Denia in eastern Spain. A severe strain has been placed upon the healthcare facilities of the city in the last decade as the city population has grown dramatically.

The death of Yusuf II in 1224 began a period of instability. Marrakesh became the stronghold of the Almohad tribal sheikhs and the ahl ad-dar (descendants of Ibn Tumart), who sought to claw power back from the ruling Almohad family. Marrakesh was taken, lost and retaken by force multiple times by a stream of caliphs and pretenders, such as during the brutal seizure of Marrakesh by the Sevillan caliph Abd al-Wahid II al-Ma'mun in 1226, which was followed by a massacre of the Almohad tribal sheikhs and their families and a public denunciation of Ibn Tumart's doctrines by the caliph from the pulpit of the Kasbah Mosque.Cenival (1913–38: p.

In 711 CE, Muhammad Bin Qasim extended Umayyad rule to Sindh, making it the easternmost province of the Umayyad empire based in Damascus. Under Umayyad rule, the Arab Habbari dynasty was established as a vassal state of the Umayyads, before ruling semi independently between the 9th and 11th centuries from their capital at Mansura. The Umayyad Caliphate was overthrown by the Abbasids of Baghdad in 750, and the Habbari state continued to rule mostly independently, despite nominal recognition from the Abbasids. The Arab Habbari state was then invaded in 1010 by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi, who believed the Abbasids of to be the rightful caliphs and sought to extinguish any remnants of Umayyad influence in Sindh by sacking Mansura.

The Great Mosque of Asmara (; alternately known as Al Kulafah Al Rashidan, Al Kulafah Al Rashidin, Al Kuaka Al Rashidin or Al Khulafa Al Rashiudin; , "Mosque of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs") is a mosque located in the center of Asmara, the capital city of Eritrea. It is considered to be one of the three prominent edifices of the city, along with Church of Our Lady of the Rosary and Enda Mariam Coptic Cathedral. Designed by Guido Ferrazza, it was built in 1938 on the initiative of Benito Mussolini, to impress the Muslim population, who make up about 50% of the locality. The Arabic phrase al-Khulafā’ ar- Rāshidīn can mean "followers of the right path".

Jaharkas reportedly disposed of the bones of the Fatimid royal family by throwing them into the rubbish hills east of the city. Also adjacent to the caliphs' mausoleum was the later 12th-century shrine which allegedly housed the head of al-Husayn, the son of Ali ibn Abi Talib who was slain at the Battle of Karbala in 680 and is revered as a martyr by the Shi'a. His head was originally believed to be interred at Ascalon, but the Fatimids brought it to Cairo in 1153 when Ascalon was threatened by the Crusaders. Since the Fatimids claimed descent through al-Husayn's mother, Fatima, the creation of this shrine was an important symbolic and religious act.

The descendants of that group are today known as the Parsis—"as the Gujaratis, from long tradition, called anyone from Iran"—who today represent the larger of the two groups of Zoroastrians. The struggle between Zoroastrianism and Islam declined in the 10th and 11th centuries. Local Iranian dynasties, "all vigorously Muslim," had emerged as largely independent vassals of the Caliphs. In the 16th century, in one of the early letters between Iranian Zoroastrians and their co-religionists in India, the priests of Yazd lamented that "no period [in human history], not even that of Alexander, had been more grievous or troublesome for the faithful than 'this millennium of the demon of Wrath'.".

Little is known about the progress of viticulture and winemaking during this period but there is evidence that some viable form of the wine industry was present when the Moors conquered the land during the early 8th century AD. While the Moors were Muslim and subjected to Islamic dietary laws that forbid the use of alcohol, the Moorish rulers held an ambiguous stance on wine and winemaking during their rule. Several caliphs and emirs owned vineyards and drank wine. While there were laws written that outlawed the sale of wine, it was included on lists of items that were subject to taxation in Moorish territories. The Spanish Reconquista reopened the possibility of exporting Spanish wine.

The city is presumed to have been renamed Madinat al-Nabi ("City of the Prophet" in Arabic) in honour of Muhammad's prophethood and the city being the site of his burial. Alternatively, Lucien Gubbay suggests the name Medina could also have been a derivative from the Aramaic word Medinta, which the Jewish inhabitants could have used for the city. Under the first three caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, Medina was the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim Empire. During the reign of 'Uthman ibn al-Affan, the third caliph, a party of Arabs from Egypt, disgruntled at some of his political decisions, attacked Medina in 656 CE and assassinated him in his own home.

The Age of the Caliphs During the caliphate of the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I, the Moorish commander Tariq ibn-Ziyad led a small force that landed at Gibraltar on April 30, 711, ostensibly to intervene in a Visigothic civil war. After a decisive victory over King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete on July 19, 711, Tariq ibn-Ziyad, joined by Arab governor Musa ibn Nusayr of Ifriqiya, brought most of the Visigothic Kingdom under Muslim rule in a seven-year campaign. They crossed the Pyrenees and occupied Visigothic Septimania in southern France. Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expanding Umayyad Empire, under the name of al-Andalus.

The Ushrusaniyya served under al-Mu'tasim and several of his successors The formation of the Ushrusaniyya regiment was part of a general policy initiated by al-Ma'mun and expanded by al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842) to recruit soldiers from the various frontier districts of Transoxiana. As a result, the Ushrusaniyya were joined by other newly formed regiments from Central Asia, such as the Turks, the Faraghina, and the Ishtakhaniyya. These soldiers soon formed the majority of the caliphs' guard and replaced the older Khurasani Abna' as the backbone of the army. For the next several decades, these units collectively remained the dominant force in the caliphal military, both in Baghdad and, after 836, in Samarra.

Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant in 636, Samaritans suffered more disabilities than Christians and Jews, as Arab rulers often doubted whether Samaritans are included within the Muslim definition of "People of the Book", though according to Nathan Schur, the Arab Islamic invasion had initially benefited the community.Russel, G. Heirs to Forgotten Kingdoms: Journeys into the Disappearing Religions of the Middle East. 2014. Samaritans still converted to Islam due to economic reasons, social advancement and theological reasons and thus community numbers plunged further. Harsh persecution of Samaritans was however led by the more fanatical Caliphs, such as Al-Mansur (754–775), Harun al-Rashid (786–809) and al- Mutawakkil (847–861).

According to another version, Ya'qub accompanied the Caliph al-Mu'izz when he went to Egypt in 972. After the Fatimid takeover of Egypt, Ibn al-Furat continued in office as vizier, but in 974 he resigned and al-Mu'izz handed over the administration to Ibn Killis. During the last years of the reign of al-Mu'izz, and the first two years of the period of his successor al-Aziz, (975-996), due to toil, honesty and intelligence of Ya'qub ibn Killis, this position became firm and stable, so much so that in 977-78 al-Aziz appointed him as Wazir al- Adjall (Chief Minister). Prior to this, the first four Fatimid caliphs had an assistant called wasta.

29-30 Strong Christian states now separated the weakened emirate of Tbilisi from its overlords, who exerted only the most theoretical suzerainty over the two restored kingdoms. Another vassal of the Caliphate, Yusuf Ibn Abi'l-Saj, emir of Azerbaijan, led in 914 the last Arab attempt to restore their domination over the Caucasus. The Sajid invasion of Georgia, as it is known, was however a failure, although it devastated Georgian lands, and allowed the Bagratids to restore the alliance with Byzantium, which they had earlier neglected in favour of the Caliphs. This renewed alliance with a strong Christian power kept Georgia free from Arab interference, and allowed an economic and artistic renaissance.Toumanoff (1966), p.

Mahdavis believe in oneness of Allah, the prophethood of Muhammad as the last messenger of Allah, and the Quran as their holy book. They strictly adhere to the five pillars of Islam, sunnah tradition, and sharia, while having high respect and reverence for the House of Muhammad and his immediate progeny (ahl-e bayt), the Rashidun caliphs, and the companions of Muhammad (sahaba). Mahdavis also respect all four schools of Islamic jurisprudence, but widely follow the traditions similar to Hanafi jurisprudence. They offer prayers five times a day led by their murshids, or spiritual guides; fast during Ramadan; offer special thanks on Dugana Laylat al-Qadr past midnight between 26 and 27 Ramadan; perform hajj; and pay zakat.

The area of Tabaristan quickly gained a large Shi'ite element, and by 900, a Zaydi Shi'ite kingdom was established under the Alavids. In 930, a Zoroastrian commander named Mardavij established the Ziyarid dynasty and briefly conquered much of northern Persia before being betrayed and killed in 935 CE. The Ziyarid dynasty continued to rule over much of Tabaristan until its demise in 1090 CE. While the Dabuyids controlled the lowlands, the Sokhrayans governed the mountain regions. Vandad Hormozd ruled the region for about 50 years until 1034 CE. After 1125 CE, (the year Maziar was assassinated by subterfuge) an increase in conversion to Islam was achieved, not by the Arab Caliphs, but by the Imam's ambassadors.

Roman rule was nevertheless troubled by several Jewish revolts, to which Rome answered with the Sack of Jerusalem, the second destruction of the Temple. After the final Bar Kokhba revolt Hadrian joined the provinces of Judaea and Syria to form Syria Palaestina. Later, with the Christianization of the Roman Empire Palestine became a center of Christianity, attracting numerous monks and religious scholars. The region of Palestine was conquered by the Rashidun caliphs following the 636 CE Battle of Yarmouk during the Muslim conquest of Syria, and incorporated into the Bilad al-Sham province as the military districts of Urdunn and Filastin. In 661 CE, Muawiyah I founded the Umayyad Caliphate in Jerusalem.

878: = he looks like his father) These beardless youths are also described as wearing sumptuous robes and having perfumed hair. In addition, there is a number of "purported (but mutually inconsistent) reports" (athar) of punishments of sodomy ordered by early caliphs. Abu Bakr apparently recommended toppling a wall on the culprit, or else burning him alive, while Ali bin Abi Talib is said to have ordered death by stoning for one sodomite and had another thrown head-first from the top of a minaret—according to Ibn Abbas, the latter punishment must be followed by stoning. There are, however, fewer hadith mentioning homosexual behavior in women; but punishment (if any) for lesbianism was not clarified.

A print from a 1571 anonymous German broadsheet after the Battle of Lepanto of the same year, where Ali Pasha was wounded and killed in action by being shot in the head and beheaded. The print ostensibly shows his "true likeness" in the foreground, while his head is displayed on a pike on an Ottoman battleship in the background. Ali Pasha was commander-in-chief of the Ottoman naval forces at the Battle of Lepanto on 7 October 1571. Selim had entrusted him with one of the most precious possessions of the Ottoman Sultans, the great "Banner of the Caliphs", a huge green banner heavily embroidered with texts from the Qur'an and with the name of Allah emblazoned upon it 28,900 times in golden letters.

The first dated coins that can be assigned to the Muslims are copies of silver Dirhams of the Sassanian ruler Yazdegerd III, struck during the Caliphate of Uthman. These coins differ from the original ones in that an Arabic inscription is found in the obverse margins, normally reading "in the Name of Allah". The subsequent series was issued using types based on drachmas of Khosrau II, whose coins probably represented a significant proportion of the currency in circulation. In parallel with the later Khosrau-type Arab-Sassanian coins, first issued under the Well-Guided Caliphs of Islam, a more extensive series was struck with Khosrau's name replaced by that of the local Arab governor or, in two cases, that of the Caliph.

After the Rashidun Caliphs, later Caliphates during the Islamic Golden Age had a much lesser degree of collective participation, but since "no one was superior to anyone else except on the basis of piety and virtue" in Islam, and following the example of Muhammad, later Islamic rulers often held public consultations with the people in their affairs. The legislative power of the Caliph (or later, the Sultan) was always restricted by the scholarly class, the ulama, a group regarded as the guardians of Islamic law. Since the law came from the legal scholars, this prevented the Caliph from dictating legal results. Sharia rulings were established as authoritative based on the ijma (consensus) of legal scholars, who theoretically acted as representatives of the Ummah (Muslim community).

The corporations into which they organized themselves attracted adventurers, zealots and religious and political dissidents of all ethnicities. In time, though, soldiers of Turkic ethnicity predominated, mirroring the acquisition of Mamluks, Turkic slaves in the Mamluk retinues and guard corps of the caliphs and emirs and in the ranks of the ghazi corporation, some of whom would ultimately rise to military and later political dominance in various Muslim states. In the west, Turkic ghāzīs made continual incursions along the Byzantine frontier zone, finding in the akritai (akritoi) their Greek counterparts. After the Battle of Manzikert these incursions intensified, and the region's people would see the ghāzī corporations coalesce into semi-chivalric fraternities, with the white cap and the club as their emblems.

See for instance F. R. C. Bagley, "Introduction", in B. Spuler, A History of the Muslim World. The Age of the Caliphs, 1995, X; for a different view T. Dawson, "Propriety, practicality and pleasure : the parameters of women's dress in Byzantium, A.D. 1000-1200", in L. Garland (ed.), Byzantine women: varieties of experience 800-1200, 2006, 41-76.. Culturally, in the modern world it is "a custom imported from Najd, a region in Saudi Arabia and the power base of its Salafi fundamentalist form of Islam. Within Muslim countries it is very contested and considered fringe." Today, the niqab is most often worn in its region of origin: the Arab countries of the Arabian Peninsula – Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates.

The main battle between the two armies commenced on 26 July. As Ali's troops advanced toward Mu'awiya's tent, the governor ordered his elite troops forward and they bested the Iraqis before the tide turned against the Syrians the next day with the deaths of two of Mu'awiya's leading commanders, Ubayd Allah, a son of Caliph Umar, and Dhu'l-Kala Samayfa, the so-called "king of Himyar". The loss of Ubayd Allah was a blow to Mu'awiya's prestige as he had been the sole, non- Umayyad blood connection to the early caliphs to lend Mu'awiya his support at this juncture. Liwā’ of Muawiyah I at the Battle of Siffin Mu'awiya rejected suggestions from his advisers to engage Ali in a duel and definitively end hostilities.

The Abbasid caliphs were the holders of the Islamic title of caliph who were members of the Abbasid dynasty, a branch of the Quraysh tribe descended from the uncle of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. The family came to power in the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750, supplanting the Umayyad Caliphate. They were the rulers of the Abbasid Caliphate, as well as the generally recognized ecumenical heads of Islam, until the 10th century, when the Shi'a Fatimid Caliphate (established in 909) and the Caliphate of Córdoba (established in 929) challenged their primacy. The political decline of the Abbasids had begun earlier, during the Anarchy at Samarra (861–870), which accelerated the fragmentation of the Muslim world into autonomous dynasties.

Umar II was succeeded by Yazid II. The unanimous view in the Muslim traditional sources is that Umar was pious and ruled like a true Muslim in singular opposition to the other Umayyad caliphs, who were generally considered "godless usurpers, tyrants and playboys". The tradition recognized Umar as an authentic caliph, while the other Umayyads were viewed as kings. In the view of Hawting, this is partly based on the historical facts and Umar's character and actions, but "He truly as all evidence indicates was a man of honour,dignity and a ruler worthy of every respect". As a result of this and his short term in office, it is difficult to assess the achievements of his caliphate and his motives.

A number of medieval-era Muslim accounts credit the construction of the al-Aqsa Mosque to al-Walid, while others credit his father. Furthermore, it is likely that the currently unfinished administrative and residential structures that were built opposite the southern and eastern walls of the Haram, next to the mosque, date to the era of al-Walid, who died before they could be completed and were not finished by his successors. In 706/707, al-Walid instructed Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz to significantly enlarge the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. Its redevelopment entailed the demolition of the living quarters of Muhammad's wives and the expansion of the structure to incorporate the graves of Muhammad and the first two caliphs, Abu Bakr () and Umar ibn al-Khattab.

And his criticism was that they arrived at theologically erroneous conclusions. The three most serious of these, in his view, were believing in the co-eternity of the universe with God, denying the bodily resurrection, and asserting that God only has knowledge of abstract universals, not of particular things (not all philosophers subscribed to these same views). During his life, al-Kindi was fortunate enough to enjoy the patronage of the pro-Mutazilite Caliphs al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tasim, which meant he could carry out his philosophical speculations with relative ease. In his own time, al- Kindi would be criticized for extolling the "intellect" as being the most immanent creation in proximity to God, which was commonly held to be the position of the angels.

Abān ibn al-Walīd ibn ʿUqba ibn Abī Muʿayṭ () was a member of the Umayyad family who served as governor of Hims, Qinnasrin (with the Jazira) and Armenia for the caliphs Marwan I (r. 684–685) and Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705). His brother Uthman may have been his deputy in Armenia, or a governor in his own right, while another deputy of his was Dinar ibn Dinar, who defeated the Byzantines in 694/5. In circa 688/89, Abd al-Malik tasked Aban with suppressing the rebellion of the Qaysi chieftain Zufar ibn al-Harith al- Kilabi, who, from his fortified, strategic outpost of al-Qarqisiya on the Euphrates, posed an nagging obstacle to the caliph's planned conquest of Iraq.

During the second third of the 10th century, the balance of power shifted in the Fatimids' favour: while the Fatimids consolidated their regime, the Abbasid Caliphate was weakened by constant power struggles between rival bureaucratic, courtly, and military factions. Gradually deprived of its outlying provinces by ambitious local dynasts and reduced to Iraq, after 946, the Abbasid caliphs themselves were reduced to powerless pawns of the Buyids. By the 960s, the Ikhshidids were also facing a crisis, a combination of domestic tensions and external pressures. The Christian Nubian kingdom of Makuria launched invasions of Egypt from the south, while in the west, the Lawata Berbers occupied the region around Alexandria, and allied themselves with local Bedouin tribes of the Western Desert to confront the Ikhshidid troops.