They would much rather have a buffer state in place.
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Preservation of the North Korean nation sustains China's buffer state against American encroachment.
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North Korea also serves as a valuable buffer state between China and U.S. forces in South Korea.
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As one senior official stated, Myanmar is a potential buffer state that sits between the world's two largest countries: China and India.
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The DPRK currently acts as a buffer state insulating China from the ideological threat of a democratic and economically thriving South Korea.
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Xi will head to Nepal on Saturday, the first Chinese president to visit the buffer state between India and China in 22 years.
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Instead, Beijing prefers to maintain the North as a buffer state, a diplomatic bargaining chip and a tool for indirectly threatening the United States.
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Buffer state The small Balkan country of 7 million people is at a crossroads, torn between European and Washington interests and historic ties to Russia.
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North Korea is a useful buffer state for China between it and U.S. forces based in South Korea, and also across the sea in Japan.
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But China also doesn't want open warfare, which would impose huge costs and would likely end with the collapse of its North Korean buffer state.
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Second, China prefers a damaged buffer state over one that collapses and ends as a part of a pro-West, unified border state with strong ties to Washington.
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Over the longer term, we need to think through what it will take to move China, whose core issue is preserving a buffer state, not the Kim regime.
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Nepal has long been a buffer state between India and China, but with a new communist government at the helm, the Himalayan nation may now lean more toward Beijing.
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The military option is too risky, and China still values a buffer state on its border rather than one falling apart or into the hands of a US ally, in South Korea.
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As much as Beijing would like to see North Korea change its ways, China will not apply so much pressure that it risks destabilizing what it sees as a valuable buffer state.
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Buying time does not sound appealing, but since war, total North Korean capitulation, and Chinese abandonment of its buffer state are off the table, it is our best option in the near term.
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The two-phase election is also expected to determine the path the country takes in balancing ties with China and India, both of whom are pushing hard to expand influence in the buffer state.
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Wedged between India and China, Nepal needs to balance ties, but the outcome of the election could determine which of the Asian giants gets the upper hand in the battle for influence in the buffer state.
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By contrast, Canada's insulation by oceans and a restrictionist buffer state to its south—the United States—more robust rights for noncitizens, and investment in a humanitarian international "brand" have together contributed to stronger protections for asylum seekers.
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"China would defend North Korea not because it's an ally but because it's in China's strategic interests to have an allied Communist state as a buffer state rather than a Korean peninsula unified under a South Korean flag," she said.
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Perhaps more significantly, however, North Korea's oft-cited role as strategic buffer state vis-à-vis US-aligned South Korea has been increasingly undermined with the decision to deploy the Terminal High Altitude Area Defence (THAAD) missile defense system in the South.
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As Ukraine is a crucial buffer state between Europe and an increasingly belligerent and aggressive Russia, what happens there over the next weeks and months should be everybody's business as it turns another page in its slow transformation from oligarchic pluralism to real pluralism.
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What sets the United States apart most, for FitzGerald, is its management of a complex, buffer-state system in Mexico and Central America (exemplified by last week's "safe third country agreement" with Guatemala), and its willingness to flout international norms and laws when it comes to providing asylum-seekers hearings, and returning people to countries where they are at serious risk of being killed.
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For the organization of the buffer state, the Central Committee of RCP(b) created on March, 3, the Dal'biuro (, an abbreviation of "Дальневосточное бюро" - "Bureau for Far East"). I.G.Kushnarev, S.G.Lazo and P.M.Nikiforov became the Vladivostok members of the Dal'biuro. But the members of the Dal'biuro had different opinions about the creation of the buffer state: for example, in Vladivostok, Kushnarev supported an idea of buffer state, but Lazo was against it. By the middle of March, 1920, a representative of the Siberian Revolutionary Committee - V.D.Vilenskij - arrived at Vladivostok with party's directives about the creation of the buffer state.
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Qasim Khanate was founded there to become a buffer state and the vassal of Muscovy later.
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A buffer state is a country lying between two rival or potentially hostile greater powers. Its existence can sometimes be thought to prevent conflict between them. A buffer state is sometimes a mutually agreed upon area lying between two greater powers, which is demilitarized in the sense of not hosting the military of either power (though it will usually have its own military forces). The invasion of a buffer state by one of the powers surrounding it will often result in war between the powers.
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Per the Domino theory, the United States proclaimed Laos a buffer state due to it bordering North Vietnam and China.
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In 1739 Kabardia was declared a buffer state between the Russian and Ottoman empires.Richmond has Treaty of Belgrade here. Other sources have Treaty of Nish.
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What was left of the Commonwealth was a small buffer state with a puppet king, and Russian garrisons keeping an eye on the reduced Polish army.
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Bithynia had been a buffer state between Rome and Pontus. Its removal caused Mithridates to march his armies westwards and invade Roman territory.Philip Matyszak, Mithridates the Great, Rome's indomitable Enemy, p.101.
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In both 1459 and 1460, the kingdom of Lanna, a buffer state between the kingdoms of Ayutthaya and Burma, attempted twice to besiege the city of Phitsanulok, although both times Phitsanulok prevailed in maintaining its sovereignty.
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The long-term result would be direct British interference in the internal state matters of Oudh, useful as a buffer state against the Marathas. The treaty also granted British traders special privileges and exemptions from many customs duties, which led to tensions as British monopolies were established. Shuja-ud-Daula bought the Mughal provinces of Kora and Allahabad in Treaty of Benares (1773) with the British (who held de-facto control over the area) for 50 lakh rupees, increased cost of Company mercenaries, and military aid in the First Rohilla War to expand Oudh as a buffer state against Maratha interests. Done by Warren Hastings, this move was unpopular among the rest of Company leadership, but Hastings continued a harsh policy on Oudh, justifying the military aid as a bid to strengthen Oudh's status as a buffer state against the Marathas.
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The British strategy for decades had been to create a buffer state to block American expansion. Britain also demanded naval control of the Great Lakes and access to the Mississippi River. The Americans refused to consider a buffer state and the proposal was dropped. Although Article IX of the treaty included provisions to restore to Native Americans "all possessions, rights and privileges which they may have enjoyed, or been entitled to in 1811", the provisions were unenforceable and the British did not try and the Americans simply broke the treaty.
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Dalvi also examines the position of Tibet vis-a-vis India and China. The British, he says, had insight into China's imperial ambitions. They had therefore cultivated Tibet as a buffer state. Expectedly, the Chinese attacked Tibet in 1950 and captured it.
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The elimination of Zhang and the Chu buffer state infringed on the treaty that the Jin and Song had negotiated. The Jin then recommenced their war with the Song. The invasion was hampered by the ongoing insurgency by Song loyalists in Northern China.
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In 1814, after the fall of the empire, a buffer state was created, with Vesoul as capital. The principality was that of Free County, of the Vosges and of Porrentruy. Today, one of the main factories of PSA Peugeot Citroën is near Vesoul.
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Musunuri kings of Warangal patronised many poets. By Shitab Khan's time the Bahmanis had recently acquired this important buffer state on their eastern frontiers. From 1480 to 1485, Shitab Khan was the governor of Rachakonda (near Narayanpur in modern Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh).
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Britain suggested Afghanistan as a buffer state, but following the June 1878 Congress of Berlin Russia sent a diplomatic mission to Kabul. Sher Ali Khan, the Amir of Afghanistan, attempted to keep the Russian envoys out, but they arrived in Kabul on 22 July 1878.
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The remaining members of the dynasty, which eventually petered out in 1 BC, had an uneasy relationship with both Rome to the west and Parthia to the east from which. Rome saw Armenia as a buffer state in relation to Parthia, requiring frequent interventions by the Romans.
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Melpadi is an ancient small town in Vellore district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is on the western bank of Ponnai near the Palar River. It is located near Thiruvalam, 7 km from Ponnai. Melpadi was a buffer state between the Chalukya and Chola dynasties.
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Rama IV hoped that the British would defend Siam if he gave them the economic concessions they demanded. In the next reign this would prove to be an illusion, but it is true that the British saw Siam as a useful buffer state between British Burma and French Indochina.
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In 1393 Tokhtamysh gave Mishar Yurt to Muscovy. After the victory in the Battle of Suzdal in 1445 Vasili II of Russia was forced to present this land to Qasim Khan. Another version is that Qasim Khanate, appeared there was created as a buffer state between Kazan and Moscow.
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The East Hebei Autonomous Government (),Japanese also known as the East Ji Autonomous Government and the East Hebei Autonomous Anti-Communist Government, was a short-lived late-1930s state in northern China. It has been described by historians as either a Japanese puppet state or a buffer state.
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Ruling from Dali, the thirteen kings of Nanzhao ruled over more than two centuries and played a vital role in the dynamic relationship between the Tang dynasty and the Tibetan Empire as a buffer state. By the 750s, Nanzhao had conquered Yunnan and became a potential rival to Tang China.
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Whilst Otomo adopted an aggressive policy towards the neighbouring kingdom, Mononobe was able to persuade Emperor Kimmei that Japan's ally Baekje would serve as an effective buffer state, and that there was no need to pursue war with Silla. As a result of his arguments, the emperor removed Otomo from power.
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The League of East European States or Federation of East European States () was a 1914 proposal by the German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews for a German-dominated consociational buffer state to be established in the Russian Partition of the multi-ethnic territory of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
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Another version is that Qasim came into Russian service and was granted those lands to create a buffer state between Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Khanate of Kazan. However, the Khanate was a vassal of Russia. From the beginning, Khans governed the Khanate's territory, but the outer politics were controlled by Russia.
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The period of major development in Ellipi was from the 9th to 7th centuries BC, as is reflected in archaeological research. The prosperity of the country came from the control of trade routes. They were also cattle dealers. It functioned as a buffer state between Assyrian provinces of Kishesim (Kar-Nergal) and Harhar (Kar- Sharrukin) and Elam.
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Map of the Balkan military theater during September 1944 – January 1945. By August 1944, the Soviet Army was approaching the Balkans. In a last-minute attempt to create a buffer state against the incoming Red Army, on 29 August, the Germans attempted to establish an 'independent' Macedonian puppet state,Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005, p. 45 led by Ivan Mihailov.
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Despite the defeat, the Tartar raids continued. As a result, the Crimean Khanate was invaded several times, conquered in the late 18th century. The Tatars eventually lost their influence in the regions. The raids began shortly after the establishment of the Russian buffer state, Qasim Khanate, and the domination of Russia in the Russo-Kazan Wars of the late 15th century.
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Osraige was largely a buffer state between Leinster and Munster. Its most significant neighbours were the Loígsi, Uí Cheinnselaig and Uí Baircche of Leinster to the north and east and the Déisi Muman, Eóganacht Chaisil and Éile of Munster to the south and west.Byrne, Irish kings and high-kings, maps on pp. 133 & 172-173; Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, p.
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The Bolshevik effort in the Far East was the same as on the other fronts: to retake or hold on to territory of the former Russian Empire. The goal of the Russian SFSR was to stop the Allied advance into Siberia. The Soviets set up the Far Eastern Republic as a buffer state to hold off the White and allied armies.
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In 1902, Zionist Max Bodenheimer proposed the idea of the League of East European States, which would entail the establishment of a buffer state (Pufferstaat) within the Jewish Pale of Settlement of Russia, composed of the former Polish provinces annexed by Russia.Michlic, Joanna Beata (2006). Poland's Threatening Other: The Image of the Jew from 1880 to the Present, pp. 48, 55–56.
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The small kingdom of Enderi, located south of the Terek, formed somewhat of a "buffer state" towards the north. In contemporary sources, its population was commonly referred to as "Lezgis". The Safavid king (shah) appointed the Shamkhal himself, but the candidate always had to be from the local princes. According to Engelbert Kaempfer, the Shamkhal also possessed the title of vali (i.e.
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In addition, the revenues from running Awadh's armed forces brought them useful returns while the territory acted as a buffer state. The Nawabs were ceremonial kings, busy with pomp and show. By the mid-nineteenth century, however, the British had grown impatient with the arrangement and demanded direct control over Awadh. Residency at Lucknow shows the gunfire it took during the rebellion.
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Brycheiniog was an independent kingdom in South Wales in the Early Middle Ages. It often acted as a buffer state between England to the east and the powerful south Welsh kingdom of Deheubarth to the west. This kingdom formed the southern part of today’s Brecknockshire. The county’s Welsh name (Sir Frycheiniog – the shire of Brycheiniog) is derived from the kingdom’s name.
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The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture. By the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, under its Rana dynasty of premiers. The country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and British India.
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In the 1380s, Patrikas arrived to Novgorod to claim the inheritance of his father, Narimantas. He was ceded the fiefs of Korela, Oreshek, Koporye, Luga, and Ladoga. He held practically all the "Votian land" as a fief from the Novgorod Republic. The Novgorodians kept the lands of Patrikas as a sort of buffer state between their republic and Sweden (see Swedish-Novgorodian Wars).
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In October 1917, Trilisser worked to foil counterrevolutionaries and bandits in Siberia. As the Bolsheviks regained territory in the Far East from the Japanese, Trilisser worked underground in the Russian-Chinese border town of Blagoveshchensk, north of Harbin. After helping form a buffer state, the Far Eastern Republic (FER) or Chita Republic (1920–1922), Trilisser was appointed commissioner of the Amur region.
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Bithynia served as a buffer state between Rome and Pontus; feeling threatened Mithridates marched his armies westwards and invade Roman territory.Matyszak, Mithridates, p. 101. The Senate responded by sending the consuls Lucius Licinius Lucullus and Marcus Aurelius Cotta to deal with the Pontic threat.Anthon, Charles & Smith, William, A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology and Geography, 1860, p. 226.
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The mutiny virtually destroyed two of Dom Pedro's supposed best units and ended his hopes for a land victory to augment his successful naval blockade of Argentina. Brazil and Argentina both agreed to give up their stalemated war. Dom Pedro ratified the peace treaty on 28 August 1828, and Uruguay became an independent buffer state between the two South American giants.
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The Kushites were a regional power in their own right and resented paying tribute. The Romans also sought a quiet southern border for their absolutely essential Egyptian grain supplies, without constant war commitments, and welcomed a friendly buffer state in a border region beset with raiding nomads. The Kushites too appear to have found nomads like the Blemmyes to be a problem.
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Among these actions were the Seven Years' War,. the American Revolutionary War, the Napoleonic Wars,. the First and Second Opium Wars, the Boxer Rebellion,. the New Zealand Wars, the Australian frontier wars, the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the first and second Boer Wars, the Fenian raids, the Irish War of Independence, interventions in Afghanistan (intended to maintain a buffer state between British India and the Russian Empire).
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In 1803, after the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon Haryana was transferred to British by Maratha Empire.British confirmed Ajit Singh's son Bahadur Singh as independent ruler of Ballabhgarh jagir,as a buffer state between British border and Sikhs rulers,1968, Haryana: Studies in History and Culture, Page 74. and it remained an independent princely state until the Indian Rebellion of 1857.Bahadur Singh died in 1806.
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The Commonwealth now comprised no more than . What was left of the Commonwealth was merely a small buffer state with a puppet king, and Russian garrisons keeping an eye on the reduced Polish army. For a year and a half, Polish patriots waited while planning an insurrection. On 24 March 1794 in Kraków, Tadeusz Kościuszko declared what has come to be known as the Kościuszko Uprising.
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This conflict had begun in 1785, and was still raging when Simcoe arrived in 1792. Simcoe had hoped to form an Indian buffer state between the two countries, even though he distrusted Joseph Brant, the main Indian leader. Simcoe rejected the section of the Treaty of Paris (1783) which awarded that area to the US, on the grounds that American actions had nullified the treaty.Taylor, pg.
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France fomented a separatist movement pointing to an independent buffer state, but it collapsed after some bloodshed. The intervention was a failure, and in summer 1924 France accepted the American solution to the reparations issues, as expressed in the Dawes Plan. According to the Dawes Plan, American banks made long-term loans to Germany which used the dollars to pay reparations.Conan Fischer, The Ruhr Crisis 1923–1924 (2003).
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Bithynia served as a buffer state between Rome and Pontus; feeling threatened Mithridates marched his armies westwards and invade Roman territory.Philip Matyszak, Mithridates the Great, Rome's Indomitable Enemy, p. 101. The Senate responded by sending the consuls Lucius Licinius Lucullus and Marcus Aurelius Cotta to deal with the Pontic threat.Anthon, Charles & Smith, William, A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology and Geography, 1860, p. 226.
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In 44BC King Burebista of Dacia died and his kingdom began to collapse. After this, the Iazyges began to take possession of the Pannonian Basin, the land between the Danube and Tisa rivers in modern-day south-central Hungary. Historians have posited this was done at the behest of the Romans, who sought to form a buffer state between their provinces and the Dacians to protect the Roman province of Pannonia.
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At this point, Serbian forces controlled 70 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The treaty was meant to limit conflict between the Serb and the Croat forces. Bosnian Muslims saw this as a sequel to the Croat-Serb deal about Bosnia. In between the newly expanded Croatia and Serbia would be a small Bosniak buffer state, pejoratively called "Alija's Pashaluk" by Croatian and Serbian leadership, and named after Bosnian president Alija Izetbegović.
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The Act of Mediation was an important political victory for Napoleon. He was able to stop the instability of the Swiss from spreading into his emerging empire or weakening his army. The Act of Mediation created a pro-French buffer state with Austria and the German states. He even added the title Médiateur de la Confédération suisse (Mediator of the Swiss Confederation) to his official titles in 1809.
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397 Nelson spent his time trying to find employment for former crew members, attending to family affairs, and cajoling contacts in the navy for a posting. In 1792 the French revolutionary government annexed the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium), which were traditionally preserved as a buffer state. The Admiralty recalled Nelson to service and gave him command of the 64-gun in January 1793. On 1 February France declared war.
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After the fall of the Khaganate Zhenzhu Khan (629-45) of the Xueyantuo ruled much of the north. Taizong made the Ashina live inside the Ordos Loop. In 639, after an Ashina assassination attempt, Taizong made them live between the Yellow River and Gobi under Qilibi Khan (639-43) as a buffer state between China and the Xueyantuo. In 642 the Xueyantuo drove them south of the river.
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Inflation heavily damaged the German middle class (because their bank accounts became worthless) but it also damaged the French franc. France fomented a separatist movement pointing to an independent buffer state, but it collapsed after some bloodshed. The intervention was a failure, and in summer 1924 France accepted the American solution to the reparations issues, as expressed in the Dawes Plan.Conan Fischer, The Ruhr Crisis 1923-1924 (2003).
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In response Brazil launched the Cisplatine War. This war ended on 27 August 1828 when Treaty of Montevideo was signed. After mediation by Viscount Ponsonby, a British diplomat, Brazil and Argentina agreed to recognise an independent Uruguay as a buffer state between them. As with Paraguay, however, Uruguayan independence was not completely guaranteed and only the Paraguayan War secured Uruguayan independence from the territorial ambitions of its larger neighbours.
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French President (and Co-Prince of Andorra) Charles de Gaulle visiting Andorra in October 1967. Andorra and France have an unusual and long relationship. Andorra was created by Charlemagne as a buffer state between France and the Umayyad conquest of Hispania.BBC: Andorra In 1278, under terms of "pareage" agreement, Andorra adopted joint allegiance to a French and a Spanish prince after disputes between French heirs to the Urgel countship and the Spanish bishops of Urgell.
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Common types of buffer zones are demilitarized zones, border zones and certain restrictive easement zones and green belts. Such zones may be comprised by a sovereign state, forming a buffer state. Buffer zones have various purposes, politically or otherwise. They can be set up for a multitude of reasons, such as to prevent violence, protect the environment, shield residential and commercial zones from industrial accidents or natural disasters, or even isolate prisons.
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The British continued to make that demand as late as 1814, during the Ghent Peace Conference. However, they dropped the demand since their position had been weakened by the collapse of Tecumseh's Confederacy after the Battle of the Thames. Also, they simply no longer considered the goal to be worth war against the US although much of the proposed buffer state had remained largely under British and Indian control throughout the war.
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In April 1920, the Far Eastern Republic, with its capital in Chita, was formed from Amur, Transbaikal, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, and Primorye regions as a democratic "buffer" state in order to avoid war with Japan. It existed until November 1922, when it joined the RSFSR. In January 1926, Amur Region became part of the Far Eastern Territory, which was subsequently divided into Khabarovsk and Primorye territories in 1938. Amur Region itself was included in Khabarovsk Krai.
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During Ramadanid era, Cilicia was a buffer state between two Islamic powers. The Ilkhanate lost cohesion after the death of Abu Sa'id, thus could not support Armenian Kingdom in guarding Cilicia. Internal conflicts within Armenian Kingdom and the devastation caused by the Black Death that arrived in 1348, made nomadic Türkmens to turn their eyes to unstable Cilicia. In 1352, Ramazan Beg led Turkmens settled south of Çaldağı and founded their first settlement, Camili.
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A letter dated 10 January 1626 indicates that he still held the position of Sar Lashkar. Shahaji's patron in Bijapur - Ibrahim Adil Shah II - died in September 1627. Ibrahim Adil Shah II, a Muslim, was tolerant towards Hindus like Shahaji, and saw Ahmadnagar as a buffer state between his kingdom and the Mughal Empire. After his death, an orthodox Muslim faction that advocated alliance with the Mughals against Ahmadnagar grew stronger in Bijapur.
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Violence, atrocities, and reprisals continued to erupt periodically for the next 18 months. Japan agreed to recognize the new buffer state in a truce with the Red Army signed 15 July 1920, effectively abandoning Ataman Grigory Semenov and his Russia Eastern Outskirts. By October Semenov had been expelled from his base of operations in Chita. With Semenov out of the picture, the capital of the Far Eastern Republic moved to that city.
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To compensate for this loss, Đurađ decided to build a new capital, and the choice fell to Smederevo. Smederevo, which had no prior settlement, was chosen for several reasons. In 1428, during the Ottoman Empire's war with Venice, the Hungarians and Ottomans agreed to recognize Branković as an independent ruler of Serbia, thereby turning it into a buffer state. A contract also established Ottoman overlordship of Serbia, in conjunction with remaining a Hungarian vassal.
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Tecumseh's death was a decisive blow to the American Indians. It had larger implications during negotiations for the Treaty of Ghent (1814). During the treaty process, the British called for the U.S. government to return lands in Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan to the Indians. For decades the British strategy had been to create a buffer state to block American expansion, but the Americans refused to consider the British proposal and it was dropped.
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The Thracian tribe of the agrianes, neighbors of Paioia, and their king, Langarus, also appear from 352 as allies of Philip and were and from that moment on a relevant support of the Macedonian army.Ashley, p. 45-46. To the northeast, the Thracian kingdom of Ketriporis was also a vassal. To the northwest, the defeated Grabaei were now a buffer state between Macedon and tribes non- subject to Philip, like the Taulantii.
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In the same year, Siam was compelled to conclude a treaty with France, in which the territory of Laos, located east of the Mekong, was annexed to French Indochina. The French forced Siam to refrain from any influence on its former vassal state. In 1887, the Indo-Chinese Union was founded. In 1896, British and French concluded a treaty which made a border between their colonies, with Siam defined as a buffer state.
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The Central African Federation – incorporating Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland – was designed as a buffer state to Afrikaner-dominated South Africa. Click here to enlarge map. In 1945, a Central African Council was formed as a consultative body for the three British central African territories: Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland (present-day Malawi). This was the limit of the British wish for integration: fearful for the same reasons Bledisloe had been.
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Formerly imprisoned Europeans, Irish immigrants, and other former institutionalized Europeans were immigrated through race-based policies to found the state of Georgia. They were partially recruited to form a buffer state to stop enslaved Black people from escaping from the Carolinas, Georgia, and Virginia to Florida. Slave patrols in Georgia were formed for this purpose. Free Black cities and armed and trained black militaries in Florida were a direct challenge to white dominance and profits in slave-owning states.
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A UNESCO site describes the role of the Prince-Bishops in the "buffer state between England and Scotland": > From 1075, the Bishop of Durham became a Prince-Bishop, with the right to > raise an army, mint his own coins, and levy taxes. As long as he remained > loyal to the king of England, he could govern as a virtually autonomous > ruler, reaping the revenue from his territory, but also remaining mindful of > his role of protecting England’s northern frontier.
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In the following year, Pope Gregory XI intervened and issued a crusade bull against Novgorod. Soon afterwards the Russians retreated from Ostrobothnia, leaving it for the Swedes. In the late 14th century, the Novgorodians set up the fiefs of Korela, Oreshek, Koporye, Luga, and Ladoga as a sort of buffer state between their core dominions and Sweden. Several Lithuanian dukes renowned for their military skills were invited to rule this Ingrian duchy; Narimantas, his son Patrikas, and then Lengvenis.
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Brycheiniog was an independent kingdom in South Wales in the Early Middle Ages. It often acted as a buffer state between England to the east and the powerful south Welsh kingdom of Deheubarth to the west. It was conquered and pacified by the Normans between 1088 and 1095, though it remained Welsh in character. It was transformed into the Lordship of Brecknock and later formed the southern and larger part of the historic county of Brecknockshire.
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The treaty itself makes clear that Rutog was no more a part of Maryul and various restrictions were placed on trade with Rutog. Scholar Gerhard Emmer states that Ladakh was reduced to approximately its current extent. It was henceforth treated as being outside Ngari Khorsum, as a buffer state against Mughal India. The territories of Guge, Purang and Rudok were annexed to Tibet and the frontier with Tibet was fixed at the Lha-ri stream near Demchok.
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Ultimately, the state of Belgium, composed of provinces of both French-speaking and Dutch-speaking people, gained independence as a buffer state between France and the Netherlands. French became the sole official language. Dutch speakers demanded equal rights beginning in the late 19th century, but these were only introduced gradually throughout the 20th century. While postage stamps became bilingual in 1893, it was not until 1967 that an official Dutch version of the Constitution was accepted.
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Laos never held any importance for France other than as a buffer state between Thailand and the more economically important Annam and Tonkin. During their rule, the French introduced the corvée, a system that forced every male Lao to contribute 10 days of manual labour per year to the colonial government. Laos produced tin, rubber, and coffee, but never accounted for more than one percent of French Indochina's exports. By 1940, around 600 French citizens lived in Laos.
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Before the First World War the British Indian Army commenced operations to create a neutral buffer state between Persia (modern-day Iran) and British India to protect the western borders. In 1907, Britain invaded Persia after a convention was agreed with Imperial Russia. Indian troops were stationed in Persia around Mashhad at posts along the telegraph lines. Britain was interested in the north-western region of Persia due to the arms trade between the Arabs and the Ottomans.
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During the Safavid period (1501-1736), the small kingdom of Endirey formed somewhat of a "buffer state" towards the north. Feodor I dispatched Prince Grigori Zasekin against the local shamkhal in 1591. His force of 5000 Russian musketeers and 10,000 Cherkesses captured and razed Andreyevo the next year, wounding the shamkhal. Relations with the nearby Circassians were, however, generally friendly prior to the Cossacks' submission to Peter the Great in 1712, after which raiding and invasions became more common.
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Someone was a German if he was a subject of one of the German states within the German Empire (§ 131, Frankfurt Constitution). Additionally it discussed the future of other territories where Germans lived. The members of parliament sometimes referred to the German language spoken in a territory, sometimes to historical rights, sometimes to military considerations (e.g. when a Polish state was rejected because it would be too weak to serve as a buffer state against Russia).
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The regent turned him down. Furious with his former patron, whom he now condemned as a useless windbag, Prónay moved to the Austrian border, where he continued his atrocities, and proclaimed himself Supreme Leader of a buffer state (the Banat of Leitha). Finally, in the fall of 1921, Prónay joined in the second failed attempt to oust Horthy and restore the Habsburg Charles IV, to the throne. Horthy at last permanently severed his ties with Prónay.
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With the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1978, communist Vietnam had a combined force of about 300,000 in Laos and Cambodia. This posed a massive potential threat to the Thais, as they could no longer rely on Cambodia to act as a buffer state. Small encounters occasionally took place when Vietnamese forces crossed into Thailand in pursuit of fleeing Khmer Rouge troops. However, a full and official conflict was never declared, as neither country wanted it.
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More serious was the retirement of Simon de Crépy, the Count of Amiens, to a monastery. Before he became a monk, Simon handed his county of the Vexin over to King Philip. The Vexin was a buffer state between Normandy and the lands of the French king, and Simon had been a supporter of William. William was able to make peace with Philip in 1077 and secured a truce with Count Fulk in late 1077 or early 1078.
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British interests in India compelled them to create the buffer state of Afghanistan. Iranian ambitions to recapture Herat, were constantly frustrated during the Anglo-Persian War and the city has remained a part of Afghanistan ever since. At the same time, European sea-traffic had bypassed the ancient Silk Road, which had been the backbone of Iran's economy since time immemorial. Traditional craftsmen could no longer compete with a flood of cheap, industrially produced goods from Europe.
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When World War II broke out, the Dutch initially seemed reluctant to defend their territories in the East Indies. This led the British to consider creating a buffer state in Riau. They discussed prospects for a restoration with Tengku Omar and Tengku Besar, descendants of the sultans, who were then based in Terengganu. However, as the war approached Southeast Asia, the Dutch actively engaged in the defensive system alongside the British, and the British decided to shelve the restoration plan.
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These claims ranged from denial that any agreement took place and speculation claims that they agreed on the re-partitioning of Bosnia and Herzegovina between soon to be independent Croatia and Serbia, i.e. that territories with either an ethnic Croat or Serb majority would be annexed by the two states, with a rump Bosniak buffer state remaining in between. Since the Tuđman–Milošević talks took place without any witnesses, and no transcript was taken, the exact content of the talks is not known.
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The island of Sardinia stayed out of the reach of the French for the rest of the war. In 1814, the Crown of Savoy enlarged its territories with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa, now a duchy, and it served as a buffer state against France. This was confirmed by the Congress of Vienna, which returned the region of Savoy to its borders after it had been annexed by France in 1792.Wells, H. G., Raymond Postgate, and G. P. Wells.
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When World War II broke out, the Dutch initially seemed reluctant to defend their territories in the East Indies. This led the British to consider creating a buffer state in Riau. They discussed prospects for a restoration with Tengku Omar and Tengku Besar, descendants of the sultans, who were then based in Terengganu. However, as the war approached Southeast Asia, the Dutch actively engaged in the defensive system alongside the British, and the British decided to shelve the restoration plan.
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The Jin hoped a proxy state would be capable of administering Northern China and collecting the annual indemnity without requiring Jurchen interventions to quell Anti-Jin uprisings. Instead of directly annexing the conquered Song territories, the Jin dynasty formed the buffer state of Chu in 1127. Zhang, a former prime minister of the Song Dynasty, was installed as emperor of the new dynasty. He refused to wear the formal clothing of the emperor outside of his encounters with Jin officials.
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Gibbons, p.954. Although nominally independent, it was largely controlled by the RSFSR and its main purpose was to be a democratic buffer state between the RSFSR and the territories occupied by Japan during the Russian Civil War to avoid war with Japan. Initially, its capital was Verkhneudinsk (now Ulan-Ude), but from October 1920 it was Chita. On 15 November 1922, after the war ended and the Japanese withdrew from Vladivostok, the Far Eastern Republic was annexed by Soviet Russia.
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Anatolia in the early 1st century AD with Commagene as a Roman client state The Kingdom of Commagene () was an ancient Greco-Iranian kingdom ruled by a Hellenized branch of the Iranian Orontid dynasty.; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; The kingdom was located in and around the ancient city of Samosata, which served as its capital. The Iron Age name of Samosata, Kummuh, probably gives its name to Commagene. Commagene has been characterized as a "buffer state" between Armenia, Parthia, Syria, and Rome; culturally, it was correspondingly mixed.
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She spent the rest of her life embroiled in succession disputes on behalf of her son. Her husband's death sparked renewed hostilities but Sultan Suleiman established her as a regent of the eastern regions of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary on behalf of her infant son. The region developed as a semi-independent buffer state noted for its freedom of religion. Ferdinand, however, never renounced his claims to reunite Hungary and conspired with Bishop George Martinuzzi who forced Isabella to abdicate in 1551.
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They wanted to free Rohillakhand from Maratha and give it to Nawab. The Maratha and British armies came face to face in Ram Ghat, but the sudden demise of then Peshwa and the civil war in Pune to choose the next Peshwa forced the Maratha to retreat. Rohilla decided not to pay, absent a war between the two states. The British made Oudh a buffer state in order to protect it from the Maratha, and from there on, British troops protected Oudh.
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There was intense discourse within Japan on the two diverging theories. Following World War I, Japanese troops were deployed as part of the Siberian Intervention during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, with the hope that Japan could be freed from any future Russian threat by detaching Siberia and forming an independent buffer state. The Japanese troops remained until 1922, encouraging discussion by Japanese strategic planners of the idea of permanent Japanese occupation of Siberia east of Lake Baikal.
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Despite Cesarini's solution, the negotiations lasted for ten days. The final version of the treaty re-established Serbia as a buffer state and settled its return to Branković, as well as the return of Albania and all other territory conquered, including 24 fortresses, to Hungary. The Ottomans also had to pay an indemnity of 100,000 gold florins and release Branković's two sons. Hungary, meanwhile, agreed to not attack Bulgaria or cross the Danube, and a truce of 10 years was established.
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The powers rejected the Talleyrand partition plan for Belgium, a French plan to split Belgium along language lines, and instead approved a unified and Francophone Belgian state. The Talleyrand plan was one of several ideas exploring the concept of partitioning Belgium, which was considered by some as simply a "buffer state" between France and other European nations; modern variations of the proposal include the specific separation of the areas inhabited mainly by French- speakers (Walloons) from those inhabited mainly by (Flemish) Dutch-speakers.
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In 1451, the Lodi dynasty took over the Delhi Sultanate. Initially, Bahlul Lodi maintained friendly relations with Gwalior, because it was not easy for him to subjugate, and because Gwalior served as a buffer state between Delhi and Malwa. However, in 1466, the Gwalior ruler Kirtisimha supported the Jaunpur ruler Hussain Shah Sharqi in a war against Delhi. The Gwalior ruler not only provided men and money to Hussain Shah, but also escorted him to Kalpi during his march to Delhi.
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Framing and reframing is for example important for small states if there is a high number of delegations participating in the negotiations. These strategies help small states compete, but they are not always enough for them to compete successfully. The location of a small power can be very important for its survival. If a small power is working as a so call "buffer state" between two bigger rival power then it is more likely for that state to cease to exist.
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The Romans sought a quiet southern border for their absolutely essential Egyptian grain supplies, without constant war commitments, and welcomed a friendly buffer state in a border region beset with raiding nomads. The Kushites too appear to have found nomads like the Blemmyes to be a problem, allowed Rome monitoring and staging outposts against them, and even conducted joint military operations with the Romans in later years against such mauraders.Richard Lobban 2004. Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia, 2004.
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Armenia was now no longer a buffer state. However, the victory was short-lived, Trajan being forced to withdraw to Antioch, and dying shortly afterwards in 117 AD. Trajan's successor, Hadrian (117–138) decided not to persist with the eastern provinces, and Armenia continued to be a source of conflict in this period. Marcus Aurelius (161–169) was faced with yet another invasion by Parthia on assuming the Imperial office. The war lasted five years and again the Parthian capital was sacked.
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The Russian Turkestan (including Khiva and Bukhara) after 1900s The Great Game Hopkirk. refers to British attempts to block Russian expansion southeast toward India. Although there was much talk of a possible Russian invasion of India and a number of British agents and adventurers penetrated central Asia, the British did nothing serious to prevent the Russian conquest of Turkestan, with one exception. Whenever Russian agents approached Afghanistan they reacted very strongly, seeing Afghanistan as a necessary buffer state for the defense of India.
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After the international coalition withdrew its forces, the Japanese Army stayed on. However, political opposition prevented the Army from annexing the resource-rich region. Japan continued to support White Movement leader Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak until his defeat and capture in 1920, and also supported the regime of Ataman Semenov, who they intended to take control under the planned buffer state but whose unstable government collapsed by 1922. In March and April 1922, the Japanese Army repulsed large Bolshevik offensives against Vladivostok.
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However, in the end, none of the European powers sent troops to aid the Dutch government, partly because of rebellions within some of their own borders (the Russians were occupied with the November Uprising in Poland and Prussia was saddled with war debt). Britain would come to see the benefits of isolating France geographically with the new creation of a new Belgian buffer state between France, the Netherlands, and Prussia. It was for this reason that Britain would eventually sponsor the creation of Belgium.
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He disagreed with slavery and thought a system of smallholdings more appropriate than the large plantations common in the colonies just to the north. However, land grants were not as large as most colonists would have preferred. Another reason for the founding of the colony was as a buffer state and a "garrison province" which would defend the southern British colonies from Spanish Florida. Oglethorpe imagined a province populated by "sturdy farmers" who could guard the border; because of this, the colony's charter prohibited slavery.
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In 600, Khosrow II executed Al-Nu'man III, King of the Lakhmids of Al- Hira, presumably because of the Arab king's refusal to give him his daughter al-Ḥurqah in marriage and insulting Persian women. Afterwards the central government took over the defense of the western frontiers to the desert, and the buffer state of the Lakhmids vanished. This ultimately facilitated the Muslim Caliphs' invasion and conquest of Lower Iraq, less than a decade after Khosrow's death.Richard Nelson Frye, The History of Ancient Iran, p 330.
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Spanish Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy and Andorran Prime Minister Antoni Martí at a press conference during Prime Minister Rajoy's visit to Andorra; January 2015. Andorra and Spain have an unusual and long relationship. Andorra was created by Charlemagne as a buffer state between France and the Umayyad conquest of Hispania.BBC: Andorra In 1278, under terms of "pareage" agreement, Andorra adopted joint allegiance to a French and a Spanish prince after disputes between French heirs to the Urgel countship and the Spanish bishops of Urgell.
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Furthermore, attacks on Japanese people in places throughout China became frequent. Japan planned to expand the North China buffer state further, but their defeat in the Suiyuan Campaign only strengthened China's will to resist. After the Xian Incident of 12 December 1936, the detention of Chiang Kai-shek by his subordinate Zhang Xueliang, the Republic of China and the Red Army, with the brokerage of the Comintern, concluded the Second United Front and a definite shift for the Nationalists from anti-communism to resistance against the Japanese.
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In addition, in Ali's strategy, Syria would serve as a captive market for goods being produced in Egypt. Moreover, the extension of Egyptian control over Syria was sought because it would serve as a buffer state between Egypt and the Ottoman sultan in Constantinople. Ali was attempting to become independent of the Ottoman Empire. A new fleet and army was raised and built under Ali's leadership, and on 31 October 1831, his son Ibrahim Pasha launched an invasion of Syria, which initiated the First Egyptian–Ottoman War.
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Additionally, Gloucester had permission to create a "buffer state" in Scotland if he could take control of Scottish territory in Eskdale, Annandale, Wauchopedale, Clydesdale, and especially Liddesdale where many fierce border raiders lived. Liddesdale and its formidable stronghold, Hermitage Castle, lie about 20 miles southeast of Hawick. After witnessing nearly two centuries of cross-border political intrigue and turmoil, the people living thereabouts had little loyalty for one king or the other. Borderers, including some Routledges, would pledge allegiance to whichever side suited their current needs.
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With the removal of the Great Horde as a buffer state, Crimea became the main enemy, and work was begun to strengthen the Oka defenses. By 1533 about 250 km of the bank was extensively fortified, mainly from Kaluga (150s,75w) on the Oka bend to Kolomna (65s,75e). There were weaker fortifications in the west along the Ugra River and east down the Oka to Nizhny Novgorod(400e,75n). In addition, there was an 'out-fort' at Tula (193s) along the main invasion route.
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French medal for the Cilician campaign Along with the other Allied powers, the French abandoned interest in the Armenian population in favor of supporting Turkey as a buffer state from Bolshevik expansionism. France had better relations with the Turkish nationals during the Turkish War of Independence, chiefly on account of breaking Triple Entente solidarity and signing a separate agreement with the Turkish National Movement. The Treaty of Ankara did not resolve the problems in connection with the sanjak of Alexandretta. However, positive Franco-Turkish relations were maintained.
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Wuzhu retreated north across the Yangzi, where he fought off a stronger Song fleet commanded by Han Shizhong. The Jin persisted with their advance into the remaining Song territories south of the Yangzi. They faced an insurgency of Song loyalists in the north, the deaths of some important leaders, and military offensives by Song generals like Yue Fei. The Jin created the puppet government of (大齊) to serve as a buffer state between Song and Jin, but Qi failed to defeat the Song.
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The Soviet-led Outer Mongolian Revolution of 1921 fixed independent Mongolia's present borders to include only Outer Mongolia, because of the Soviets' needs for a buffer state rather than a vague frontier. The Buryat Mongol Agvan Dorzhiev tried advocating for Oirat Mongol areas like Tarbagatai, Ili, and Altai to get added to the Outer Mongolian state.Andreyev 2014, p. 274. Out of concern that China would be provoked, this proposed addition of the Oirat Dzungaria to the new Outer Mongolian state was rejected by the Soviets.
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The new buffer state was named Mpororo - probably meaning "place of vengeance" as it had been the scene of much bloody violence. Gisaka region in Rwanda that had been occupied by the Songora also remained autonomous and was only later reincorporated into Rwanda during the reign of Kigeri IV Rwabugiri in the 1880s. The Basongora Royals, before they decamped from the newly formed Mpororo, handed Murorwa - one of the Songora royal drums - to the new King Murari. This is how Mprororo became an independent state.
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The Agilofing family had dominated the position of Duke of Bavaria from 548 until 788, when Duke Tassilo II was deposed in the wake of his surrender of the Duchy of Bavaria. In 787, following the conquests of both Lombardy and Saxony by the Franks,Brown, Warren. Unjust Seizure: Conflict, Interest, and Authority in an Early Medieval Society. p.13-16. the Frankish King, Charlemagne, invaded Bavaria from Pannonia, determined to seize it as a buffer state against the Avars, much like he had done in Friuli.
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Spain paid cash to American General James Wilkinson for a plot to make much of the region secede, but nothing came of it.George Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (2008), pp. 46–47 Meanwhile, Spain worked on the goal of stopping American expansion by setting up an Indian buffer state in the South. They worked with Alexander McGillivray (1750-1793), who was born to a Scottish trader and his French- Indian wife, and he had become a leader of the Creek tribe as well as an agent for British merchants.
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In France, the monarchy may have favored regional languages to some degree to keep the peasantry disunified. During and after the French Revolution, successive governments instituted a policy of stamping out regional languages including Breton, Occitan, Basque and others that persisted into the late 20th century. The formation of Belgium as a multi-ethnic buffer state in western Europe placed most power in the hands of the French population, centered in the industrialized south. Except for elementary schools in Flanders, all government services were conducted exclusively in French.
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After the end of the war Lees served as an Assistant Political Officer at Halabja in Southern Kurdistan, which had been established as a buffer state between Persians and Arabs under British control to prevent future wars. In the summer of 1919 Lees acted as an advisor to the local ruler, Sheikh Mahmoud, who betrayed the British and attempted to set up his own kingdom; Lees was besieged in his house by hundreds of armed men, and only escaped through trickery.Arkell (1955) p.163 He had to beat a hasty retreat on horseback to Khanaquin.
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In 1776 the crown created the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata; Paraguay, which had been subordinate to Lima, now became an outpost of Buenos Aires. Located at the periphery of the empire, Paraguay served as a buffer state. The Portuguese blocked Paraguayan territorial expansion in the north, Indians blocked it - until their expulsion - in the south, and the Jesuits blocked it in the east. Paraguayans were forced into the colonial militia to serve extended tours of duty away from their homes, contributing to a severe labor shortage.
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The Soviet government rejected the attempt of the Political Centre to lead the creation of such a buffer state, but the idea itself was approved. At that time, Vladivostok - the capital of Maritime Territory - was ruled by general Sergey Rozanov, who was subordinated to Admiral Kolchak. At the beginning of January, 1920, an underground bolshevik's conference in Vladivostok decided to organize an uprising against Rozanov with the slogan "Whole power to Soviets!". In the middle of January a strong group of cooperative merchants and Zemstvo members organized itself in Vladivostok to oppose the Rozanov's dictatorship.
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In general, opinions of the German occupiers were mixed, between those who hoped that the Germans would set up a new Polish state, and those who feared German domination. In any case, successful attacks by the Russian army, such as the 'Brusilov offensive', forced Germany to consider a quasi independent buffer state between the two empires, hopefully set up only in the former Russian Poland and linked to Germany by its own military means. Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy By David Stevenson. Page 108 Accessed 14 March 2011.
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Toropets was first mentioned in chronicles in 1074, when it belonged to the Principality of Smolensk and was the second important town of the principality. Before 1167, Toropets was given to Mstislav the Brave, and thus the Principality of Toropets was established, which was formally subordinate to the Principality of Smolensk. All the subsequent Princes of Toropets mentioned in sources were descendants of Mstislav. In the end of the 13th century, the principality, though not particularly significant, became a buffer state between the Principality of Smolensk, the Novgorod Republic, and the duchy of Lithuania.
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However, Mócsy also suggests that the Iazyges may have arrived gradually, such that they initially were not noticed by the Romans. John Wilkes believes that the Iazyges reached the Pannonian plain either by the end of Augustus's rule (14AD) or some time between 17 and 20AD. Constantin Daicoviciu suggests that the Iazyges entered the area around 20AD, after the Romans called upon them to be a buffer state. Coriolan Opreanu supports the theory of the Iazyges being invited, or ordered, to occupy the Pannonian plain, also around 20AD.
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The allies pursued the retreating Assyrian troops to Nilap-ini but could not force a confrontation. The Assyrians seem to have retreated home in the face of the superior force of the Hittites. Shattiwaza became king of Mitanni, but after Suppililiuma had taken Carchemish and the land west of the Euphrates, that were governed by his son Piyassili, Mitanni was restricted to the Khabur River and Balikh River valleys, and became more and more dependent on their allies in Hattarsus. Some scholars speak of a Hittite puppet kingdom, a buffer-state against the powerful Assyria.
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Khazaria long served as a buffer state between the Byzantine empire and both the nomads of the northern steppes and the Umayyad empire, after serving as Byzantium's proxy against the Sasanian Persian empire. The alliance was dropped around 900. Byzantium began to encourage the Alans to attack Khazaria and weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus, while seeking to obtain an entente with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to convert to Christianity. On Khazaria's southern flank, both Islam and Byzantine Christianity were proselytising great powers.
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Gladstone believed in a buffer state policy to protect British India from invasion; built on a network of diplomatic alliance and friendships. Economic liberalism and free trade aimed to open up routes to the Far East through the Karakorams. Shaw estimated there were potentially 60 million customers in Kashgaria region waiting for his tea caravans. Lord Mayo, the Viceroy of India authorised Shaw to join a new expedition in 1869 under Sir Thomas Douglas Forsyth, a senior political officer to cement the friendship with Yakub Beg and pre-empt Russian aggression.
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In 1914, the German Zionist Max Bodenheimer founded the short-lived German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews, with the goal of establishing a buffer state (Pufferstaat) within the Jewish Pale of Settlement, composed of the former Polish provinces annexed by Russia, being de facto protectorate of the German Empire that would free Jews in the region from Russian oppression. The plan, known as the League of East European States, soon proved unpopular with both German officials and Bodenheimer's colleagues, and was dead by the following year.Walter Laqueur. A History of Zionism.
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In the context of the Great Game, the Anglo–Russian contest for influence in Central Asia, the British wished Afghanistan to remain an independent country friendly to Britain as a buffer state against Russian expansion towards India. They opposed an extension of Persian influence in Afghanistan because of the perception that Persia was unduly influenced by Russia. The Persian influence on Central Asia had caused the creation of Greater Iran; although they knew of the influence, the British had never attacked Persia. Persia had over 12 foreign provinces under its imperial control.
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In the 1st century the Romans recorded the Votadini as a British tribe. Between 138–162 they came under direct Roman military rule as occupants of the region between Hadrian's and the Antonine Walls. Then when the Romans drew back to Hadrian's Wall the Votadini became a friendly buffer state, getting the rewards of alliance with Rome without being under its rule, until about 400 when the Romans withdrew from southern Great Britain. Quantities of Roman goods found at Traprain Law, East Lothian might suggest that this proved profitable, though this is open to speculation.
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W. Daniell, 1801 The treaty of 1801 formed an arrangement that was very beneficial to the Company. They were able to use Awadh's vast treasuries, repeatedly digging into them for loans at reduced rates. In addition, the revenues from running Awadh's armed forces brought them useful revenues while it acted as a buffer state. The Nawabs were ceremonial kings, busy with pomp and show but with little influence over matters of state. By the mid-19th century, however, the British had grown impatient with the arrangement and wanted direct control.
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The map below (click twice to enlarge) portrays the Holy Roman Empire as of 1789, surrounded by a red dashed line. The Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg, shaped somewhat like a thick inverted capital T, is shown in lavender in the southern portion of the map, sandwiched between the extensive Habsburg territories (shown in orange- brown) and Bavaria (pale green).The perils that Salzburg faced as a small buffer state between two larger neighbors are discussed in . The great number of small independent states that are now mostly part of Germany can also be seen.
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Caravans increasingly opted to travel through Wadai, deeming it safer, and brought the region much wealth. Relying on its prospering economy and firearms imported from the Senussi, Wadai expanded and subjugated several other polities such as Bornu and the Sultanate of Bagirmi, forcing them to pay tribute and abducting skilled craftsmen to enrich the empire. At the same time, the Scramble for Africa resulted in the rapid colonization of the Sahel. To Wadai's east, th British defeated Mahdist Sudan and reestablished the Sultanate of Darfur as buffer state.
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In 1776, the crown created the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata; Paraguay, which had been subordinate to Lima, now became a provincial outpost of Buenos Aires. Located at the periphery of the empire, Paraguay served as a buffer state. The Portuguese blocked Paraguayan territorial expansion in the north, native tribes blocked it – until their expulsion – in the south, and the Jesuits blocked it in the east. The Viceroyalty of Peru and the Real Audiencia of Charcas had nominal authority over Paraguay, while Madrid largely neglected the colony.
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Jeet continues to pursue Alia, until it is revealed that she has been betrothed since childhood to another man. The servants at Viceroy's House are forced to choose between staying in India or going to Pakistan. Mountbatten is enraged to find that his Chief of Staff Lord Ismay (Michael Gambon), has been working covertly to draw the boundaries of Pakistan in order to create a buffer state between the Indian subcontinent and the Soviet Union. He realizes that he has been used as a pawn and the displacement of millions of people will result.
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They desired the establishment of a buffer state in Siberia,Humphreys, The Way of the Heavenly Sword: The Japanese Army in the 1920s, p. 25 and the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff viewed the situation in Russia as an opportunity for settling Japan's "northern problem". The Japanese government was also intensely hostile to communism. Allied troops parading in Vladivostok, 1918 The Italians created the special "Corpo di Spedizione" with Alpini troops sent from Italy and ex-POWs of Italian ethnicity from the former Austro-Hungarian army who were recruited to the Italian Legione Redenta.
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Abu'l-Fada'il Sa'id al-Dawla () was the third Hamdanid ruler of the Emirate of Aleppo. He succeeded his father Sa'd al-Dawla in 991, but throughout his reign real power rested in the hands of Sa'd al-Dawla's former chamberlain, Lu'lu', to whose daughter Sa'id was wed. His reign was dominated by the Fatimid Caliphate's repeated attempts to conquer Aleppo, which was prevented only by the intervention of the Byzantine Empire. Warfare lasted until 1000, when a peace treaty was concluded guaranteeing Aleppo's continued existence as a buffer state between the two powers.
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The amalgamation of Nassau-Usingen with Nassau- Weilburg in 1806 represented an effective triumph for Marschall von Bieberstein, and incorporation of the territory into the French sponsored Confederation of the Rhine created a buffer state which suited French strategic objectives. For the newly enlarged Duchy of Nassau, there was a measure of security achieved through "French acknowledgement" of the duchy's (qualified) sovereignty. After The creation of the enlarged Duchy of Nassau in 1806, Marschall von Bieberstein and Hans Christoph Ernst von Gagern headed up the government jointly. There were in effect two "Regierungspräsidenten".
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Naresuan fought back against the Burmese army, and in 1586 he occupied Lanna, a buffer state between the two kingdoms. In 1590, Naresuan's father King Sanpet I died, and Naresuan officially became the leader of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya. In 1591 the Burmese started another attack, which was cancelled when the Burmese crown prince Mingyi Swa was killed by Naresuan in personal combat on elephant back in Nong Sarai (Suphanburi). During all of the battles in the war between Ayutthaya and Burma, Phitsanulok was a major place of recruitment.
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The Japanese troops occupying Blagoveshchensk The Gongota Agreement of 1920 (, (lit. Memorandum of establishing buffer state)) was a milestone in the Russian Civil War in Transbaikal. The Agreement was finalized at Gongota railway station on July 15, 1920 between the Far Eastern Republic's delegation headed by Alexander Krasnoshchyokov and Genrich Eiche and the Japanese Expeditionary Corps under Yui Mitsue. The Far Eastern Republic's demands were the evacuation of White Army troops from the zone held by the Japanese forces and the end of hostilities between the Soviets and Japan.
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Following the division of Korea, Joseph Stalin sought to turn northern Korea into a socialist buffer state between the Soviet bloc and the American occupation in the southern half of the peninsula. Shtykov's influence rose in tandem with the rise of his mentor Andrei Zhdanov, who was thought to be Stalin's most likely successor after the war. As member of the Military Council for the Primorskiy District, Shtykov frequently visited Pyongyang and communicated to Zhdanov and Stalin about developments on the Korean Peninsula. Shtykov "exercised extremely close supervision over political events in North Korea" on Stalin's behalf.
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The Ministry of Foreign Affairs continued to press the Thai military command to live up to its March 1991 agreement to disarm rebels and discourage Laotian sabotage operations. At the same time, Thailand made very clear its unwillingness to assimilate the Hmong refugees. The threat of a return of Vietnamese troops cautioned the Thai military, who preferred keeping Laos as a buffer state rather than a military line of contact with the Vietnamese. The Friendship Bridge could open the interior to more foreign trucking and commerce and make any foreign military presence in Laos more apparent.
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During the Roman-Persian Wars, the Kingdom of Hatra was a buffer state between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire, and the dynasty was mostly under influence of the latter. Its capital city Hatra was strongly fortified, and managed to repulse sieges by Roman emperors Trajan (in 117 AD) and Septimius Severus (in 193 and 197 AD). During the reign of Sanatruq II, the kingdom expanded, and as the Parthian Empire was succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, Hatra shifted its loyalty and became a vassal kingdom of the Romans. The Sasanian king Ardashir I unsuccessfully besieged the city in 220s.
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By the time of Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) the Severian peoples had lost most of their distinctness, and the areas of Severia along the upper course of the Desna River became controlled by Chernihiv. In 1096, Oleg I of Chernigov (also referred to as Oleh) created a large Severian Principality, which stretched as far as the upper reaches of the Oka River. Until the end of the century, the principality served as a buffer state against Cuman attacks. Its most celebrated ruler was Prince Igor (1150–1202), whose exploits are recounted in the 12th century epic The Tale of Igor's Campaign.
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In 1087, following the monastic retirement of its last count, William and Philip partitioned between themselves the Vexin, a small but strategically important county on the middle Seine that controlled the traffic between Paris and Rouen, the French and Norman capitals. With this buffer state eliminated, Normandy and the king's royal demesne (the Île-de- France) now directly bordered on each other, and the region would be the flashpoint for several future wars. In 1087, William responded to border raids conducted by Philip's soldiers by attacking the town of Mantes, during the sack of which he received an accidental injury that turned fatal.
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Further Umayyad expansion was halted on Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlanis defeat at the Battle of Toulouse. Wālis were installed in Girona and Barcelona. The Muslim forces however continued to raid their Gallic neighbours to the north, reaching as far as Autun. Peace was signed in 730 between the victor at Toulouse, the Duke of Aquitaine, and 'Uthman ibn Naissa (Munuza), a Berber rebel lord stationed in Cerdanya (maybe current-day Catalonia), a region that could act as a buffer state against Umayyad expansionism. The peace treaty was sealed with the marriage of the Duke’s daughter to Munuza.
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After Napoleon's total defeat in 1815, the Congress of Vienna merged the French territory in Belgium with the Netherlands to form the United Kingdom of the Netherlands as a buffer state against the French. It was ruled by William I of Orange. The synergy of combining the manufacturing centers in Belgium with the important exporting ports in the Netherlands encouraged growth of the industrial cloth manufacturing and metallurgic centers in Wallonia. Keen to promote the economic development of the southern provinces as well, William I founded the Société Générale des Pays-Bas in 1822 to provide businesses with capital to invest in machinery.
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The Permanent Council presided over by the King The first partition left a still viable Poland-Lithuania (it became a buffer state for the three competing powers), but the country's economic potential was greatly reduced. Prussia controlled the lower Vistula, and therefore Polish agricultural exports; the salt mines were lost to Austria. Large concentrations of Poles now lived within the Prussian and Austrian states, which subjected them to Germanization pressures and lowered the percentage of ethnically Polish population in the remaining Commonwealth. The partitioning powers demanded that the Commonwealth officially approves of the partition and threatened further encroachments in case of refusal.
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After the Greek failure to rout and defeat the new established Turkish army in the First and Second Battle of İnönü the Italians began to evacuate their occupation zone in southwestern Anatolia in July 1921. Furthermore, the Italians also claimed that Greece had violated the limits of the Greek occupation laid down by the Council of Four. France, on the other hand, had its own front in Cilicia with the Turkish nationalists. The French, like the other Allied powers, had changed their support to the Turks in order to build a strong buffer state against the Bolsheviks and were looking to leave.
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Darjeeling District Map (1838) Darjeeling general view. 1912 The History of Darjeeling covers the history of Darjeeling town and its adjoining hill areas belonging to Sikkim, but eventually part of British India so now in the Indian state of West Bengal, which is intertwined with the history of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Bengal and Great Britain. Part of the state of Sikkim, Darjeeling became part of an important buffer state between Nepal and Bhutan. The British, using the area as a sanitorium, found that the climate provided excellent tea-cultivating conditions and soon began to grow tea on the hills of Darjeeling.
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The fortress of Jajce was built by Hrvoje Vukčić between 1391 and 1404; the fortress consisted of a citadel and a fortified settlement, surrounded by wall with two towers, a gatehouse, and a bastion. The fort fell to the Ottomans in 1463, but was retaken by Matija Korvin on 26 December of the same year. Hungarians fortified Jajce and adjacent castles heavily and made it the seat of a Banovina, a sort of buffer state in former Bosnia for the defense of Hungary and Croatia. Jajce successfully withstood Ottoman attacks in 1464, 1491, 1493, 1501, 1502, 1514, and 1515.
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At the end of this period, in 885, the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia was established with Ashot I, a Christian king, as the first monarch. The Byzantine Empire and the Abbassid Caliphate's willingness to recognize the existence of the kingdom stemmed from the need to maintain a buffer state between them. Particularly for the Caliphate, Armenia was more desirable as a buffer rather than a province due to the threat of the Khazars, who were allied with Byzantium. Ashot's regime and those who succeeded him ushered in a period of peace, artistic growth, and literary activity.
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Furthermore, the Ikhshidids realized that they would have difficulty in asserting and maintaining control over northern Syria and Cilicia, which were traditionally oriented more towards the Jazira and Iraq. Not only would Egypt, threatened by this time by the Fatimids in the west, be spared the cost of maintaining a large army in these distant lands, but the Hamdanid emirate would also fulfil the useful role of a buffer state against incursions both from Iraq and also from Byzantium.Bianquis (1998), pp. 114, 115 The agreement of 945 was reiterated, with the difference that the Ikhshidids ceased paying tribute for Damascus.
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Abolishing the Lakhmid Arab buffer state had forced the Persians to take over the desert defense themselves, leaving them overextended. As a result of al-Qadisiyyah, the Arab-Muslims gained control over the whole of Iraq, including Ctesiphon, the capital city of the Sassanids. The Persians lacked sufficient forces to make use of the Zagros mountains to stop the Arabs, having lost the prime of their army at al-Qadisiyyah. The Persian forces withdrew over the Zagros mountains and the Arab army pursued them across the Iranian plateau, where the fate of the Sasanian empire was sealed at the Battle of Nahavand (642).
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In 1915 an agreement was signed more precisely delimiting the border between the Ili Valley and the Dzungarian Alatau region. The southernmost section of the frontier (i.e. roughly the southern half of the modern China–Tajikistan border) remained undemarcated, owing partly to the ongoing rivalry between Britain and Russia for dominance in Central Asia known as the Great Game; eventually the two agreed that Afghanistan would remain an independent buffer state between them, with Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor being created in 1895. China was not a party to these agreements and hence the southernmost section of the China- Russia boundary remained undefined.
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Regarding Ukrainians, he favoured setting up a buffer state to ease pressure on the German eastern frontier, while agreeing with the notion of the exploitation of Russia for the benefit of Germany.Andreyev, Caterine (1990) Vlasov and the Russian Liberation Movement: Soviet Reality and Émigré Theories London: Cambridge University Press. p.30. During the war, Rosenberg was in favour of collaboration with the East Slavs against Bolshevism and offering them national independence unlike other Nazis such as Hitler and Himmler who dismissed such ideas.Herbert, Ulrich (1997) Hitler's Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labor in Germany Under the Third Reich London: Cambridge University Press. pp.
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The last Khan of the Great Horde was killed by the Crimeans in 1502. The steppe peoples then became known as the Nogai Horde. The Nogais on the Volga had their own Beg, while those north of the Black Sea were nominally subject to the Crimean Khan. The removal of the Great Horde as a buffer state brought Russia and Crimea into direct confrontation. Consolidation North of the Oka By 1450 the Grand Duchy of Moscow held most of the land north of the Oka, except for an enclave about 150 km north and west of Moscow.
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Gonzalo Bulnes writes: "The target of the política boliviana was the same as before, to seize Tacna and Arica for Bolivia and put Bolivia as a buffer state between Peru and Chile, on the assumption that Peru would accept the Chilean peace conditions. The initiated called such policy 'to clear up Bolivia.'" Moreover, the Chilean government had to find a border agreement with Argentina to avoid war. After the occupation of the salpeter and guano deposits, the Chilean government restituted the oficinas salitreras, which had been nationalized by Peru, to the owner of the certificate of debt.
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Paleontologia Indica (1871) His third and last expedition was the most important expedition (1873–1874) during the height of the "Great Game", the rivalry between the Russian and British empires. Eastern Turkestan (Kashgaria) was a buffer state of prime importance. The British launched an official diplomatic enterprise—the Second Yarkand Mission led by Thomas Douglas Forsyth and to Yakub Beg, the ruler of Chinese Turkestan. The mission included 350 support staff and 550 animals. The expedition also needed 6476 porters and 1621 horses and it is said that the Ladakh economy took four years to recover from the losses incurred.
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At first this was a client state held by Liu Bang's Baiyue ally Wu Rui that served as a means of controlling the restive Chu people and as a buffer state against Nanyue. By Linxiang had city walls to protect it against uprisings and invasions. The famous Mawangdui tombs were constructed between 186 and Lady Xin Zhui was buried in the earliest tomb and, during its excavation in the 1970s, was found to have been very well preserved. More importantly, the tombs included the earliest surviving copies of the Tao Te Ching and other important literary and historical documents.
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In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names "United Provinces of the Netherlands" and "United Netherlands" were used. In 1815, it was rejoined with the Austrian Netherlands and Liège (the "Southern provinces") to become the Kingdom of the Netherlands, informally known as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, to create a strong buffer state north of France. On 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890, the King of the Netherlands was also in a personal union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg.
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The United Kingdom of the Netherlands (; ) is the unofficial name given to the Kingdom of the Netherlands as it existed between 1815 and 1839. The United Netherlands was created in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars through the fusion of territories that had belonged to the former Dutch Republic, Austrian Netherlands, and Prince-Bishopric of Liège in order to form a buffer state between the major European powers. The polity was a constitutional monarchy, ruled by William I of the House of Orange-Nassau. The polity collapsed in 1830 with the outbreak of the Belgian Revolution.
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After the First World War and the demise of Austria-Hungary, the question of the status of Fiume became a major international problem. At the height of the dispute between the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later called Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and the Kingdom of Italy, the Great Powers advocated the establishment of an independent buffer state. President Woodrow Wilson of the U.S. became the arbiter in the Yugoslav-Italian dispute over the city.Harold G. Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919 He suggested that Fiume be set up as an independent state, and indeed as the potential home for the League of Nations organisation.
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By the 6th century Christian Ghassanids formed a Byzantine vassal confederacy with a capital on the Golan, forming a buffer state between the Byzantine Empire and the Arabian tribes. In 614, both Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Secunda were conquered by a joint Sasanian-Jewish army. The leader of the Jewish rebels was Benjamin of Tiberias, a man of "immense wealth" according to Middle Aged sources, and by Nehemiah ben Hushiel, a Jewish Exilarch. The event came as shock to the Christian society, as many of its churches were destroyed according to Christian sources of that period.
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Until 602 the desert frontier of greater Iran had been guarded by the Lakhmid kings of Al-Hira, who were themselves Arabs but who ruled a settled buffer state. In that year Shahanshah Khosrow II Aparviz rashly abolished the Lakhmid kingdom and laid the frontier open to nomad incursions. Farther north the western quarter was bounded by the Byzantine Empire. The frontier more or less followed the modern Syria-Iraq border and continued northward into modern Turkey, leaving Nisibis (modern Nusaybin) as the Sasanian frontier fortress while the Byzantines held Dara and nearby Amida (modern Diyarbakır).
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When Belgium broke away from the Netherlands in 1830 it was initially expected that a neutral buffer state, with its borders guaranteed by France, Britain and Prussia, could avoid the need for an expensive permanent military force, relying instead on the part-time militia of the existing Garde Civique (Civil Guard). The need for a regular army was however soon acknowledged. The basis for recruitment was one of selective conscription under which exemptions could be purchased by obtaining substitutes.John Keegan, page 55 "World Armies", In practice this meant that only about a quarter of each year's eligible intake actually served, with the burden falling on the poorer classes.
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France was unable to support its distant ally—the largest French force during the war, deployed off of the Baltic, consisted of just 2,000 men—and consoled itself by attacking Austria instead, sparking major action in the Rhineland and across Italy. Meanwhile, in Poland, Stanisław, unable to break the siege on Danzig, fled to France, leaving Russia to reconfirm Augustus III as king. Poland was confirmed as a Russian buffer state, and in the following decades Russian troops would intervene there at will. Lacy led troops west towards the ongoing fight between Austria and France, but did not see action before the Treaty of Vienna was ratified, ending the short war.
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From now on, Armenia would become a buffer state between the two competing empires of the Romans and the Parthians. Tigranes' heir Artavasdes II maintained the alliance with Rome, giving helpful advice to the Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus on his campaign against the Parthians – advice which went unheeded and led to Crassus' disastrous defeat at the Battle of Carrhae. When Mark Antony became ruler of Rome's eastern provinces, he began to suspect the loyalty of Artavasdes, who had married his sister to the heir to the Parthian throne. In 35, Antony invaded Armenia and sent Artavasdes into captivity in Egypt, where he was later executed.
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This may somewhat validate line 77 of Greenstein's and Marcus's translation of Idrimi's statue inscription, "Together with them I took (booty)," suggesting that Idrimi led raids into Kizzuwatna and wanted to end them in order to gain Pilliya's favor against bigger enemies like the Hittites as a buffer state. This favor was to be gained by a runaway slave clause within the treaty allowing ordinary citizens to retrieve runaway slaves for rewards of five-hundred copper shekels for a man and one thousand shekels for a woman. A slave owner could also enter into Kizzuwatna and Alalakh to retrieve their runaway slaves for no reward.
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Khazaria long served as a buffer state between the Byzantine Empire and both the nomads of the northern steppes and the Umayyad Caliphate and Abbasid Caliphate, after serving as the Byzantine Empire's proxy against the Sasanian Empire. The alliance was dropped around 900. Byzantium began to encourage the Alans to attack Khazaria and weaken its hold on Crimea and the Caucasus, while seeking to obtain an entente with the rising Rus' power to the north, which it aspired to convert to Christianity. Between 965 and 969, the Kievan Rus' ruler Sviatoslav I of Kiev and his allies conquered the capital Atil and destroyed the Khazar state as an independent one.
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Fuad I of Egypt, 1930 The Belgian Government sent the King to the Paris Peace Conference in April 1919, where he met with the leaders of France, Britain and the United States. He had four strategic goals: # to restore and expand the Belgian economy using cash reparations from Germany; # to assure Belgium's security by the creation of a new buffer state on the left bank of the Rhine; # to revise the obsolete treaty of 1839; # to promote a 'rapprochement' between Belgium and the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg. He strongly advised against a harsh, restrictive treaty against Germany to prevent future German aggression.Vincent Dujardin, Mark van den Wijngaert, et al.
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7 Dec. 2010. <> The report also claimed that senior officials and the general public in China were becoming increasingly frustrated with the North acting like a "spoiled child," following its repeated missile and nuclear tests, which were seen as a gesture of defiance not only to the West, but also to China. The business magazine Caixin reported that North Korea accounted for 40% of China's foreign aid budget and required 50,000 tonnes of oil per month as a buffer state against Japan, South Korea, and the United States, with whom trade and investment is now worth billions. North Korea is seen in China as expensive and internationally embarrassing to support.
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Plaque on the house in Estella where Manuel Irujo Ollo was born Irujo went into exile after the defeat of the Republic in the Spring of 1939. He became one of the leaders of the International League of Friends of the Basques. During World War II (1939–45) he chaired the Basque National Council in London in 1941 in the absence of Aguirre, and signed an agreement with General Charles de Gaulle on the Europe of Tomorrow. He proposed a constitution for a Basque Republic as a buffer state between a future liberated France and a reduced or confederated Spain, supposing that the Allies would defeat Franco.
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However, the pope wanted an independent Principality of Capua as a buffer state between the Kingdom of Sicily and the Papal States, something Roger would not accept. In the summer of 1139, Innocent II invaded the kingdom with a large army, but was ambushed at Galluccio on 22 July 1139, southeast of present-day Cassino, by Roger's son and was captured. Three days later, by the Treaty of Mignano, the pope proclaimed Roger II rex Siciliae ducatus Apuliae et principatus Capuae (king of Sicily, duke of Apulia and commander of Capua). The boundaries of his regno were only later fixed by a truce with the pope in October 1144.
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In the Berlin Conference of 1884–85, European leaders officially recognised Leopold's control over the of the notionally-independent Congo Free State on the grounds that it would be a free trade area and buffer state between British and French spheres of influence. In the Free State, Leopold exercised total personal control without much delegation to subordinates. African chiefs played an important role in the administration by implementing government orders within their communities. Throughout much of its existence, however, Free State presence in the territory that it claimed was patchy, with its few officials concentrated in a number of small and widely dispersed "stations" which controlled only small amounts of hinterland.
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The movement for independence in Outer Mongolia was to a large extent the reaction to the new Qing policies aimed at assimilating the Mongols by Han Chinese. Russian imperial government preferred to see Outer Mongolia as a buffer state against Chinese and Japanese influences on the Russian borders in Siberia, a dependent state or autonomy of China. The revolution also reflected a growing sense of nationalism on the part of the Mongolians,On the establishment of the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, letters were sent to the Inner Mongols, the Barguts, the Oirats of western Mongolia, the Tannu Uriankhai inviting them to join in the all-Mongolian state. Ewing, p. 116.
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The Far Eastern Republic (), sometimes called the Chita Republic, was a nominally independent state that existed from April 1920 to November 1922 in the easternmost part of the Russian Far East. Although theoretically independent, it largely came under the control of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), which envisaged it as a buffer state between the RSFSR and the territories occupied by Japan during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922. Its first president was Alexander Krasnoshchyokov. The Far Eastern Republic occupied the territory of modern Zabaykalsky Krai, Amur Oblast, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Khabarovsk Krai, and Primorsky Krai of Russia (the former Transbaikal and Amur oblasts and Primorsky krai).
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The two nations disagreed on debts, reparations, and restraints on Germany. Clemenceau was also determined that a buffer state consisting of the German territory west of the Rhine River should be established under the aegis of France. In the eyes of the U.S. and British representatives, such a crass violation of the principle of self-determination would only breed future wars, and a compromise was therefore offered Clemenceau, which he accepted. The territory in question was to be occupied by Allied troops for a period of five to fifteen years, and a zone extending fifty kilometers east of the Rhine was to be demilitarized.
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" The Franks then imprisoned Syagrius, and once his control over Syagrius' former kingdom was secure, Clovis had him beheaded.Gregory of Tours, Decem Libri Historiarum, II.27; translated by Lewis Thorpe, History of the Franks (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), p. 139 However, Wolfram points out that at the time "Clovis got no farther than the Seine; only after several more years did the Franks succeed in occupying the rest of the Gallo-Roman buffer state north of the Loire." Any threat of war Clovis could make would only be effective if they were neighbors; "it is nowhere written that Syagrius was handed over in 486 or 487.
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On 28 October 969, the Byzantine Empire reconquered the city of Antioch after an eleven- month siege. To give more strategic depth to the new possession, the Byzantine general Peter advanced on the Hamdanid capital city of Aleppo. After a 27-day siege, the Hamdanids surrendered in January 970 and agreed to become a Byzantine client state in the Treaty of Safar. At the same time, the Fatimid Caliphate seized control of Egypt in 969 and adopted a policy of securing the Levant as a buffer state against a northeastern invasion of Egypt and to advance their claims to leadership over the Muslim world, replacing the Abbasid Caliphate.
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Amir Abdur Rahman Khan (The Iron Amir) in 1897. As far as British interests were concerned, Abdur Rahman answered their prayers: a forceful, intelligent leader capable of welding his divided people into a state; and he was willing to accept limitations to his power imposed by British control of his country's foreign affairs and the British buffer state policy. His twenty-one-year reign was marked by efforts to modernize and establish control of the kingdom, whose boundaries were delineated by the two empires bordering it. Abdur Rahman turned his considerable energies to what evolved into the creation of the modern state of Afghanistan.
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Influence over the buffer state of the Kingdom of Armenia, located to the north-east of Roman Syria, was often a central issue in the Roman-Parthian conflict. In 95 BC, Parthian Shah Mithridates II, installed Tigranes the Great as Parthian's client-king over Armenia. Tigranes would wage a series of three wars against Rome before being ultimately defeated by Pompey in 66 BC.Scullard, 1984, p. 106 Thereafter, with his son Artavasdes II in Rome as a hostage, Tigranes would rule Armenia as an ally of Rome until his death in 55 BC.Fuller, 1965, p. 45 Rome then installed Artavasdes II as king and continued its influence over Armenia.
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British influence was to be extended into Afghanistan and it was to become a buffer state. The intention to invade was clear, and when a copy of the Manifesto reached London there was no objection. In December, the British marched into Afghanistan and arrested Dost Mohammad, sent him into exile in India and replaced him with the previous ruler, Shah Shuja, who shared their more progressive vision for the people of the region. Shah Shuja ul-Mulk had ascended the throne in 1803 and had signed a mutual defence agreement with the British in 1809 against a possible Franco-Russian invasion of India via Afghanistan.
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Thus, the Modenish-Habsburg interlude for Breisgau and Ortenau lasted only briefly, because Napoleon located in occupied Vienna, commanded that these areas have passed to Baden. Freiburg was degraded from an outpost of Habsburg on the Upper Rhine to a provincial town in a buffer state promoted by Napoleon's grace in 1806 to the Grand Duchy of Baden. Mercilessly, Napoleon squeezed money from the coalition states and especially for fresh troops which he needed for his campaign against Russia. Among the 412,000 of men in the Grande Armée, who fought in wars leading to Moscow, there were around 150,000 Germans, but only 1,000 of them returned to Germany after the wars.
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The next year (1193), Ottone's wife, Alda, a daughter of the Crusader lord Hugh III of Giblet of the Embriaco family, appears in the record for the first time when she ratified the sale of Quiliano and Albisola. From the sale of his rights in Savona and his control of the trade route from the city to the mountains, Ottone gained enormous wealth. He turned his court into a centre of culture, capable of competing with that of the margraves of Montferrat, and he patronised Occitan poets. His patrimony served as a "buffer state" between the margraviate of Montferrat and the nascent subalpine communes, like Alba and Asti.
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The Rwandan Royals also had good reason to seek an end to the war - besides war casualties, the reign of their king was troubled by misfortunes. Ncenderi, the Queen of Rwanda and wife to King Kigeri II would commit suicide before his reign was over. To end the war, the Rwandans and the Basongora held negotiations and agreed to a truce that would ensure they would never again go to war. The terms of the peace were thus: the region of south Busongora known as Ndorwa was made a buffer state with Prince Murari [brother to Kigeri of Rwanda and consort to Kitami of Busongora] as its first king.
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A. A. Vasiliev, "The Foundation of the Empire of Trebizond (1204–1222)", Speculum, 11 (1936), pp. 18f While Michel Kurskanskis has argued in support of Vasiliev's interpretation, he disagrees with Vasiliev over the intent of Tamar's intervention: Vasiliev has argued that the Queen intended to create a buffer state to protect the Georgian Kingdom, while Kurskanskis believes she supported the brothers in their attempt to reclaim the Byzantine throne in Constantinople.Michel Kuršanskis, "L'Empire de Trébizonde et la Géorgie", Revue des études byzantines, 35 (1977). pp. 243–247 After marching from Georgia, and with the help of their paternal aunt Queen Tamar, Alexios and David occupied Trebizond in April 1204.
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In going to war in 1919 against British India, Amir Amanullah's war aims were complicated. Even up against a depleted British Indian Army, a tactical victory was unlikely; however, the war served the dual purpose of deflecting domestic criticism and also offering the opportunity for strategic political gains. As a result of the peace treaty that was negotiated, the British ceased payment of the Afghan subsidy, and thus ended their claim to direct Afghan foreign policy, which had been the quid pro quo of the Emir accepting the subsidy. The British had traditionally wanted Afghanistan as a buffer state between India and the Russian Empire.
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In 1919, the Russian Civil War was raging and any threat from Russia to India at the time was potential rather than real. Moreover, the British were by far the largest supporters of the White movement in the Russian Civil War with the British contributing more arms to the Whites than all other nations combined. It was assumed in London that if the Whites won the Civil War, a new era in Anglo-Russian relations might possibly open as the victorious Whites might be grateful for British support, rendering the need for a buffer state in Central Asia irrelevant. The British also stopped arms sales from India to Afghanistan.
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Mashad saw its greatest glory under Nader Shah, ruler of Iran from 1736 to 1747, and also a great benefactor of the shrine of Imam Reza, who made the city his capital. Nearly the whole eastern part of the kingdom of Nadir Shah passed to foreign rulers in this period of Persian impotence under the rule of the vigorous Ahmad Shah Durrani of the Afghan Durrani Empire. Ahmad defeated the Persians and took Mashhad after an eight- month siege in 1753. Ahmad Shah and his successor Timur Shah left Shah Rukh in possession of Khurasan as their vassal, making Khurasan a kind of buffer state between them and Persia.
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Liu Yan enlisted the help of powerful local families to raise an army and put down the rebellion. Once firmly in control of the region, he plotted to gain independence from the central Han government. The first step in his plan was to send Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu () to attack the forces of the official Han governor of Hanzhong, Su Gu () and take over his territory. Zhang Lu first killed Zhang Xiu, and after absorbing the latter's armies he successfully managed to kill Su Gu and take control of the territory, which created an independent buffer state between Liu Yan's Yi Province and the Han central government.
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Where Ura was located is unclear today, but it must have been somewhere in the vicinity of the modern city Silifke. After this victory, Neriglissar continued his campaign, marching another 65 kilometres to the north along the Göksu river to attack and destroy the city Kirshu (rebuilt centuries later as Claudiopolis). After having taken Kirshu, Neriglissar undertook an amphibious attack against the island Pitusu, two miles off-shore, and then laid waste to the mountain passes that led to the settlement Sallune at the border of Lydia. Though Appuwashu escaped Neriglissar's onslaught, the campaign was successful in asserting Babylonian control of Piriddu and turned the small kingdom into a buffer state between the Babylonian, Lydian and Median empires.
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The charter was granted to the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America, a group formed by James Oglethorpe. Oglethorpe envisioned the province as a location for the resettlement of English debtors and " worthy poor", although few debtors were part of the organized settlement of Georgia. Another motivation for the founding of the colony was to create a "buffer state" (border), or "garrison province" that would defend the southern part of the British colonies from Spanish Florida and French Mississippi. Oglethorpe envisioned a province populated largely by yeoman farmers who would secure the southern frontier of British America; because of this, as well as on moral grounds, the colony's regulations prohibited slavery.
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245 The Franks became foederati in 358 AD, when Emperor Julian let them keep the areas in northern Gaul, which had been depopulated during the preceding century. Roman soldiers defended the Rhine and had major armies south and west of the Rhine. Frankish settlers were established in the areas north and east of the Romans and helped with the Roman defense by providing intelligence and a buffer state. The breach of the Rhine borders in the frozen winter of 406 and 407 made an end to the Roman presence at the Rhine when both the Romans and the allied Franks were overrun by a tribal migration en masse of Vandals and Alans.
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Patricia Buckley Ebrey: Emperor Huizong Though residing in Kaifeng, Empress Dowager Meng was not taken captive with the rest of the court, simply because she was living in a temple and not at the Imperial court. Instead of annexing the Song land, the Jurchen Jin dynasty created a buffer state named Chu, and installed Zhang Bangchang, a former prime minister of the Song Dynasty, as the emperor of a puppet dynasty named Da Chu. The only member of the Song dynasty left in the capital of Kaifeng was empress dowager Meng, which gave her great status. Zhang Bangchang asked for her support to ensure some sort of dynastic legitimacy to his rule.Franke, Herbert (1994).
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The Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 or the War of the Armenian Succession was fought between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire over control of Armenia, a vital buffer state between the two realms. Armenia had been a Roman client state since the days of Emperor Augustus, but in 52/53, the Parthians succeeded in installing their own candidate, Tiridates, on the Armenian throne. These events coincided with the accession of Nero to the imperial throne in Rome, and the young emperor decided to react vigorously. The war, which was the only major foreign campaign of his reign, began with rapid success for the Roman forces, led by the able general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo.
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The Republic of Central Lithuania was a short-lived political entity, which was the last attempt to restore Lithuania in the historical confederacy state (it was also supposed to create Lithuania Upper and Lithuania Lower). The republic was created in 1920 following the staged rebellion of soldiers of the 1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division of the Polish Army under Lucjan Żeligowski. Centered on the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vilna (, ), for 18 months the entity served as a buffer state between Poland, upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area. After a variety of delays, a disputed election took place on 8 January 1922, and the territory was annexed to Poland.
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Commanding Officers and Chiefs of Staff of the Allied Military Mission to Siberia, Vladivostok during the Allied Intervention During 1917–18, Japan continued to extend its influence and privileges in China via the Nishihara Loans. During the Siberian Intervention, following the collapse of the Russian Empire after the Bolshevik Revolution, the Imperial Japanese Army initially planned to send more than 70,000 troops to occupy Siberia as far west as Lake Baikal. The army general staff came to view the Tsarist collapse as an opportunity to free Japan from any future threat from Russia by detaching Siberia and forming an independent buffer state. The plan was scaled back considerably due to opposition from the United States.
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As the war progressed and Italy needed help, he attempted to solicit material aid from Germany but despite assurances little came of it. When the war began to deteriorate for the Axis, he wrote communiques and expressed verbally to Mussolini that the Germans simply saw Italy as a buffer state from the encroaching allies and urged the Duce to seek peace with the allies while simultaneously assuring the Germans that Italy was not betraying them. He was urgently called to Rome in 1943 by members of the Grand Council in order to participate in a meeting. It is unclear as to whether he truly realized what was being proposed at the meeting.
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British army entering Kandahar Dost Mohammad unsuccessfully attacked the British and their Afghan protégé Shuja, and subsequently surrendered and was exiled to India in late 1840. In 1839–40, the entire rationale for the occupation of Afghanistan was changed by the Oriental Crisis when Mohammad Ali the Great, the vali (governor) of Egypt who was a close French ally, rebelled against the Sublime Porte; during the subsequent crisis, Russia and Britain co-operated against France, and with the improvement in Anglo-Russian relations, the need for a buffer state in Central Asia decreased.Yapp, M.E "British Perceptions of the Russian Threat to India" pp. 647–65 from Modern Asian Studies, Volume 21, No. 4 1987 p. 656.
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Psamtik had over the last few years campaigned to establish dominance over the small city-states of the Levant and it was in his interests that Assyria survived as a buffer state between his own empire and those of the Babylonians and Medes in the east. A joint Egyptian-Assyrian campaign to capture the city of Gablinu was undertaken in October of 616 BC, but ended in failure after which the Egyptian allies kept to the west of the Euphrates, only offering limited support. Following this failure, Assyria quickly collapsed. In March 615 BC, Nabopolassar inflicted a crushing defeat on the Assyrian army at the banks of the Tigris, pushing them back to the Little Zab.
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After the death of Alexander on June 11, 323 BCE, the city was contested by his successors: Perdiccas, Antigonus Monophthalmus, and Eumenes visited the city, but eventually it became part of the realm of Seleucus I Nicator, of the Seleucid Empire, and capital of a province called Osrhoene (the Greek rendering of the old name Urhai). For one and a half centuries the town flourished, and became independent when the Parthian dynasty of Persia occupied Babylonia. The Parthian and Seleucid kings were both happy with a buffer state, and the dynasty of the Arabian Abgarides, technically a vassal of the Parthian "king of kings", was to rule Osrhoene for centuries. The main language spoken in Oshroene was Aramaic.
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The present name of the city was mentioned for the first time in 1461 in a charter from King Stephen Tomašević to his uncle Radivoj. The charter stated that King Stephen Tomašević grants him, among other possessions "i na Usori grad Tešanj -- the city of Tešanj, in the Usora region". Between the second half of the 15th century and the first half of the 16th century, the history of Tešanj was rather chaotic. Since Bosnia was considered a buffer state by the Ottomans, it changed rulers quite often, alternating between Ottoman and Hungarian occupation. Between 1463 and 1476 Tešanj was the center of the Bosnian Kingdom and the residence of Duke Radivoj Kotromanić.
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Britain was deeply concerned throughout the 1870s about Russian attempts to increase its influence in Afghanistan, which provided a Central Asian buffer state between the Russian Empire and British India. Lytton had been given express instructions to recover the friendship of the Amir of Afghanistan, Sher Ali Khan, who was perceived at this point to have sided with Russia above Britain, and made every effort to do so for eighteen months. In September 1878, Lytton sent the general Sir Neville Bowles Chamberlain as an emissary to Afghanistan, but he was refused entry. Considering himself left with no real alternative, in November 1878, Lytton ordered an invasion which sparked the Second Anglo-Afghan War.
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Alania was an important buffer state during the Byzantine-Arab Wars and Khazar-Arab Wars of the 8th century. Theophanes the Confessor left a detailed account of Leo the Isaurian's mission to Alania in the early 8th century. Leo was instructed by Emperor Justinian II to bribe the Alan leader Itaxes into severing his "ancient friendship" with the Kingdom of Abkhazia which had allied itself with Caliph Al-Walid I He crossed the mountain passes and concluded an alliance with the Alans, but was prevented from returning to Byzantium through Abasgia. Although the Abkhazians spared no expense to have him imprisoned, the Alans refused to convey the Byzantine envoy to his enemies.
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For a large part of the county's history, the powers held by the Bishop of Durham meant that the county virtually operated as an independent state from the rest of England. A steward of Bishop Antony Bek in the thirteenth century is quoted as saying England had two kings; the king and the Bishop of Durham. A 1788 report states that the Bishops had the authority to appoint judges and barons and to offer pardons. The UNESCO site describes the role of the Prince-Bishops in the "buffer state between England and Scotland": > From 1075, the Bishop of Durham became a Prince-Bishop, with the right to > raise an army, mint his own coins, and levy taxes.
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The Franco–Turkish War, known as the Cilicia Campaign () in France and as the Southern Front () of the Turkish War of Independence in Turkey, was a series of conflicts fought between France (the French Colonial Forces and the French Armenian Legion) and the Turkish National Forces (led by the Turkish provisional government after 4 September 1920) from December 1918 to October 1921 in the aftermath of World War I. French interest in the region resulted from the Sykes-Picot Agreement and returning Armenian refugees of the Armenian Genocide back to their homes. Along with the other Allied powers, the French abandoned interest in the Armenian population in favor of supporting Turkey as a buffer state from Bolshevik expansionism.
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Thailand's unique history of being an authoritarian buffer state during the Cold War and being under the constant threat of a coup d'état means that privacy laws have so far been limited in order to preserve national security and public safety. Thailand uses bureaucratic surveillance to maintain national security and public safety, which explains the 1991 Civil Registration Act that was passed to protect personal data in computerized record-keeping and data-processing done by the government. The legislature passed the Official Information Act 1997 to provide basic data protection by limiting personal data collection and retention in the public sector. It defines personal information in a national context in relation to state agencies.
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The Arab world dealt with social tensions through conflict, which the Soviets used to drive wedges between the Arabs and the West. The Middle East (the birthplace of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity) is a key supplier of oil for the Europeans. Arab nationalism affected relations between Iran and the rest of the Arab world; unlike the other Arab countries, it was not colonized by the Western powers (who viewed it as a buffer state with the Soviet Union) after the breakup of the Ottoman Empire following World War I and saw itself as equal to the Europeans. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan created further tension with its support of fledgling Communist regimes while attacking an Islamic nation.
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Sanju believes that the Treaty represented Nepal's importance as a buffer state to India from China and was the first affirmation of China's military strategy for Nepal, in that it was seen as a fundamental part of "China's inner security ring" and "cannot be spared to any regional or global power". Recently, Nepalese journalists and military personnel have stressed the significance of the Treaty in proving a history of successful co-operation between the two nations. Both Chinese and Indian sources have stressed the importance of this agreement in allowing for later co-operation, such as Nepal supporting the PRC's membership of the UN in 1971 and Nepal's agreement to join the Belt and Road Initiative in 2017.
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On the eastern side across the strait, the Balinese courts of Gelgel and Mengwi, also has invested its political interest in the region, as the Balinese regarded Blambangan as a buffer state to ward off Islamic expansive influences. In the first decades of the 16th century, Tomé Pires' informants reported that the "heathen" Blambangan kingdom was the most powerful Javanese kingdom east of Surabaya. At that time, the port of Panarukan was the commercial as well as the political center of the kingdom. For almost three centuries, Blambangan was situated between two different political factions, the Islamic state of Mataram in the west, and various Hindu realms in Bali (Gelgel, Buleleng, and Mengwi) in the east.
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He first became a Church of England clergyman for three years, serving as secretary and chaplain to the Archbishop of York, William Thomson, but gave up the church in 1873, and after training as a barrister he was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1875. In 1883 he took up the post of English Secretary and Counsellor to the legation in London of Siam, which was at that time a buffer state between the parts of South of Asia controlled by France and those under British rule. The Kingdom of Siam honoured him for his diplomatic services by appointing him as a Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant.
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The Japanese were initially asked by the French in 1917 to intervene in Russia but declined. However, in February 1918, a "Siberia Planning Committee" was formed by the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff and the Army Ministry with the aim of exploring the possibility that the Tsarist collapse was an opportunity to free Japan from any future threat from Russia by detaching Siberia and forming an independent buffer state. The Army proposed attacking on two fronts, from Vladivostok to Khabarovsk along the Amur River and also via the Chinese Eastern Railway to cut off the Russian Trans-Siberian Railway at Lake Baikal. The Japanese government, then under the civilian leadership of Prime Minister Hara Takashi rejected the plan.
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Japan's motives in the Siberian Intervention were complex and poorly articulated. Overtly, Japan (as with the United States and the other international coalition forces) was in Siberia to safeguard stockpiled military supplies and to rescue the Czechoslovak Legion. However, the Japanese government's antipathy to communism and socialism, a determination to recoup historical losses to Russia, and the perceived opportunity to settle the "northern problem" to Japan's advantage by either creating a buffer state or through outright territorial acquisition were also factors. However, patronage of various White Movement leaders left Japan in a poor diplomatic position vis-à-vis the government of the Soviet Union, after the Red Army eventually emerged victorious from the Russian Civil War.
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Though the term 'prince-bishop' has become a common way of describing the role of the bishop prior to 1836, the term was unknown in Medieval England. A UNESCO site describes the role of the prince-bishops in the "buffer state between England and Scotland": > From 1075, the bishop of Durham became a prince-bishop, with the right to > raise an army, mint his own coins, and levy taxes. As long as he remained > loyal to the king of England, he could govern as a virtually autonomous > ruler, reaping the revenue from his territory, but also remaining mindful of > his role of protecting England’s northern frontier. A 1788 report adds that the bishops had the authority to appoint judges and barons and to offer pardons.
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The 1149 siege of Dún Béal Gallimhe was led by Toirdhealbhach O Brían, then King of Thomond. It was a combined raid of plunder (taking the rich pickings of Maigh Seola) and military strategy (destroying the Dún). In the years immediately prior to 1149, the respective interests of Connacht - still ruled by High King Tairrdelbach mac Ruaidri Ua Conchobair - and of Thomond had were confined to putting down rebellions and civil strife in their kingdoms, as well as maintaining their areas of interest. Ruaidri was frequently at odds with the O Neills in Ulster and Meath, and had a sometime antagonistic relationship with Tighernan O Rúairc, King of Brefine, which was a buffer state carved out of disputed territory between Connacht and Ulster.
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Russian President Vladimir Putin and German Chancellor Angela Merkel in Sochi, Russia, 2 May 2017. Germany–Russia relations display cyclical patterns, moving back and forth from cooperation and alliance to strain and to total warfare. Historian John Wheeler-Bennett says that since the 1740s: :Relations between Russia and Germany...have been a series of alienations, distinguished for their bitterness, and of rapprochements, remarkable for their warmth....A cardinal factor in the relationship has been the existence of an independent Poland...when separated by a buffer state the two great Powers of eastern Europe have been friendly, whereas a contiguity of frontiers has bred hostility.John W. Wheeler-Bennett, "Twenty Years of Russo-German Relations: 1919-1939" Foreign Affairs 25#1 (1946), pp. 23-43.
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Spain would never again be a threat to the Republic from this quarter, actually hoping to conclude a defensive alliance against France. Though the Republic in these first years after the war with Spain was loath "to shore up a neighboring ruin" as De Witt remarked to the Spanish ambassador, the latter's reply that he would be wise to do so, "if he didn't want that ruin to fall on his head",Israel (1995), p. 778 later proved all too true. From 1667 on, the Republic was continually engaged in chasing the French out of the Spanish lands, and probably could have taken the Spanish Netherlands for itself, any time it wanted, but it preferred the Spanish Netherlands as a buffer state.
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The intervention ended in the wake of the collapse of the White Army and regime in 1919; all Allied forces except the Japanese withdrew by the end of 1920. American troops marching on Vladivostok following the Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1918 Throughout 1919 the region was engulfed in a partisan war. To avoid a war with Japan, with the filing of the Soviet leadership, the Far Eastern Republic, a Soviet-backed buffer state between the Soviet Russia and Japan, was proclaimed on April 6, 1920. The Soviet government officially recognized the new republic in May, but in Primorye a riot occurred, where significant forces of the White Movement were located, leading to the creation of the Provisional Priamurye Government, with Vladivostok as its capital.
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The main source of division is over the issue of if the Romans approved, or even ordered, the Iazyges to migrate, with both sides being subdivided into groups debating the timing of such a migration. Andreas Alföldi states that the Iazyges could not have been present to the north-east and east of the Pannonian Danube unless they had Roman approval. This viewpoint is supported by János Harmatta, who claims that the Iazyges were settled with both the approval and support of the Romans, so as to act as a buffer state against the Dacians. András Mócsy suggests that Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Augur, who was Roman consul in 26BC, may have been responsible for the settlement of the Iazyges as a buffer between Pannonia and Dacia.
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Joseph II, Ruler of the Austrian Empire and Catherine II, Empress of Russia between 1762–1796, were willing to unite Moldavia and Wallachia, then under Ottoman sovereignty, in order to create an independent buffer state between Russia and Austria. The proposed independent state, named Dacia, would have contained Moldavia, Bessarabia and Wallachia, but Catherine wished it under Russian influence as it was presented in the so-called "Greek Project".Keith Hitchins, The Romanians: 1774–1866, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1996, pg44, pg.47 During the British Parliament debates of 1793, Mr. Whitebread, speaking about the initiative of France to erect an independent Belgium from Austria, mentions Edmund Burke's initiative to form an independent state from the Ottoman Empire, named Circle of the Danube comprising Wallachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia.
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In 1971, after holding observer status for three years, Bhutan was admitted to the UN. In an effort to maintain Bhutan as a stable buffer state, India continued to provide substantial amounts of development aid. Jigme Dorji Wangchuck ruled until his death in July 1972 and was succeeded by his seventeen-year-old son, Jigme Singye Wangchuck. The close ties of the Wangchuck and Dorji families were reemphasized in the person of the new king, whose mother, Ashi Kesang Dorji (Ashi means Queen), was the sister of the lonchen, Jigme Palden Dorji. Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who had been educated in India and Britain, had been appointed ponlop of Tongsa in May 1972 and by July that year had become the Druk Gyalpo.
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The first record of the Cimmerians appears in Assyrian annals in the year 714 BC. These describe how a people termed the Gimirri helped the forces of Sargon II to defeat the kingdom of Urartu. Their original homeland, called Gamir or Uishdish, seems to have been located within the buffer state of Mannae. The later geographer Ptolemy placed the Cimmerian city of Gomara in this region. The Assyrians recorded the migrations of the Cimmerians, as the former people's king Sargon II was killed in battle against them while driving them from Persia in 705 BC. The Cimmerians were subsequently recorded as having conquered Phrygia in 696–695 BC, prompting the Phrygian king Midas to take poison rather than face capture.
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"So I dared to assume," writes Karpov, "that the seal points out the date of the capture of Trebizond."Karpov, "New Archival Discoveries of Documents concerning the Empire of Trebizond", Gamer, 1 (2012), pp. 75f Vasiliev points out that the brothers occupied Trebizond too early to have done so in response to the Crusaders capturing Constantinople; Alexios and David began their march on Trebizond before news of the sack of Constantinople on 13 April 1204 could reach either Trebizond or Georgia. According to Vasiliev, however, their original intention was not to seize a base from which they could recover the capital of the Byzantine Empire, but rather to carve out of the Byzantine Empire a buffer state to protect Georgia from the Seljuk Turks.
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It did little to slow the pace of conquest north of the Oxus, but did ensure that Afghanistan remained independent as a buffer state between the two Empires. After the fall of Tashkent to General Cherniaev in 1865, Khodjend, Djizak, and Samarkand fell to the Russians in quick succession over the next three years as the Khanate of Kokand and the Emirate of Bukhara were repeatedly defeated. In 1867 the Governor-Generalship of Russian Turkestan was established under General Konstantin Petrovich Von Kaufman, with its headquarters at Tashkent. In 1881–85 the Transcaspian region was annexed in the course of a campaign led by Generals Mikhail Annenkov and Mikhail Skobelev, and Ashkhabad (from Persia), Merv and Pendjeh (from Afghanistan) all came under Russian control.
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During the next years, the Babylonians scored several other victories against the Assyrians and by 616 BC, Nabopolassar's forces had reached as far as the Balikh River. Pharaoh Psamtik I, Assyria's ally, marched his forces to help Sinsharishkun. The Egyptian pharaoh had over the last few years campaigned in order to establish dominance over the small city-states of the Levant and it was in his interests that Assyria survived as a buffer state between his own empire and those of the Babylonians and Medes in the east. A joint Egyptian-Assyrian campaign to capture the city of Gablinu was undertaken in October of 616 BC, but ended in defeat after which the Egyptian allies kept to the west of the Euphrates, only offering limited support.
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Unlike Spain and Sweden, great powers that were allowed to settle peacefully into secondary status at the periphery of Europe at the end of their time of glory, Poland endured its decline at the strategic crossroads of the continent. Lacking central leadership and impotent in foreign relations, Poland-Lithuania became a chattel of the ambitious kingdoms that surrounded it, an immense but feeble buffer state. During the reign of Peter the Great (1682-1725), the Commonwealth fell under the dominance of Russia, and by the middle of the 18th century Poland-Lithuania had been made a virtual protectorate of its eastern neighbor, retaining only a theoretical right to self-rule. By the 18th century, outside commentators routinely ridiculed the ineffectiveness of sejms, blaming the liberum veto.
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After the fall of the rebellion and the reconquest of Xinjiang by Zuo Zongtang, the border between the Russian and the Qing empires in the Ili River basin was further slightly readjusted, in Russia's favour, by the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881) and a series of later protocols. In 1915 an agreement was signed more precisely delimiting the border the Ili Valley and Dzungarian Alatau region. The southernmost section of the frontier (i.e. roughly the southern half of the modern China-Tajikistan border) remained undemarcated, owing partly to the ongoing rivalry between Britain and Russia for dominance in Central Asia known as the Great Game; eventually the two agreed that Afghanistan would remain an independent buffer state between them, with Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor being created in 1895.
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The acting government of the Ukraine, the Ukrainian People's Republic, acquiesced to the German terms, though a number of small militant groups actively resisted the Germans. However, none of the various militant groups operating against the Germans were capable of effectively holding territory in the face of the overwhelmingly superior German army. On 29 April 1918 a former General of the Imperial Russian Army, Pavlo Skoropadskyi, orchestrated a coup that succeeded in dissolving the Central Council of the republic and enthroning himself as the Hetman of the new Ukrainian State. The new government was supported by Germany, which desperately needed Ukraine's food supplies and sought to create a postwar buffer state between Germany and any nation-states that would arise in Russia.
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After the victory at Fleurus, long debates took place at the Convention to decide the fate of the Austrian Netherlands. Pushed by Merlin de Douai, the Convention feared that a separate Belgian republic, along the lines of the Batavian Republic, would be too weak to resist the British and the Austrians, and would become a buffer state against the French republic. The convention finally voted for annexation of Belgium on October 1, 1795, creating the nine Belgian départements: Dyle, Deux-Nèthes, Escaut, Forêts, Jemmape, Lys, Ourte, Meuse-Inférieure, and Sambre-et-Meuse. This annexation was confirmed by the Treaty of Campo Formio, by which the Austrian Empire ceded the Austrian Netherlands to France, followed by the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801.
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Halford J. Mackinder's major work, Democratic ideals and reality: a study in the politics of reconstruction, appeared in 1919.[12] It presented his theory of the Heartland and made a case for fully taking into account geopolitical factors at the Paris Peace conference and contrasted (geographical) reality with Woodrow Wilson's idealism. The book's most famous quote was: "Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the Heartland commands the World Island; Who rules the World Island commands the World." This message was composed to convince the world statesmen at the Paris Peace conference of the crucial importance of Eastern Europe as the strategic route to the Heartland was interpreted as requiring a strip of buffer state to separate Germany and Russia.
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The name of Alençon is first recorded in a document dated in the seventh century. During the tenth century, Alençon was a buffer state between Normandy and the Maine regions. In 1049–1051, William Duke of Normandy, later known as William the Conqueror and king of England, laid siege to the town, which had risen in support of the Count of Anjou along with two other towns of the Bellême estates, Domfront (then in Maine) and Bellême (held directly from King Henry I of France). According to Duke William's chaplain and panegyrist, William of Poitiers, the citizens insulted William by hanging animal skins from the walls, in reference to his ancestry as the illegitimate son of Duke Robert and a tanner's daughter.
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Finland's independence during the First World War created a buffer state between Sweden and Imperial Russia's successor state, the Soviet Union, which radically changed the strategic value of northern Sweden, put the usefulness of Boden Fortress into question. Only the most basic needs were satisfied during the interwar period; even apparent needs--based on the experiences from the war-- such as better air defence and fortifications to halt or temporarily impede attacks by armoured forces were neglected. Thanks to local commanders, construction of new fortifications and improvements to already existing ones were done with the help of garrisoned troops. Engineer companies built new shelters and trenches as training, and the telephone network was improved and completed by the garrisoned telegraph company.
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Benty Grange Farm, near Monyash in the Derbyshire Dales The helmet was discovered in a barrow on the Benty Grange farm in Derbyshire, in what is now the Peak District National Park. Thomas Bateman, an archaeologist and antiquarian who led the excavation, described Benty Grange as "a high and bleak situation"; its barrow, which still survives, is prominently located by a major Roman road, now the A515, possibly to display the burial to passing travellers. It may have also been designed to share the skyline with two other nearby monuments, Arbor Low stone circle and Gib Hill barrow. The seventh-century Peak District was a small buffer state between Mercia and Northumbria, occupied, according to the Tribal Hidage, by the Anglo-Saxon Pecsæte.
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After its eastward flight from Chengzhou (modern-day Xi'an) to Luoyi (modern-day Luoyang), the Zhou kings retained some of their prestige but no longer had the power to assert its will over the regional vassal lords. The state of Zheng had been one of the key protectors of the Zhou court in Luoyang, moving its capital eastwards as well to Xinzheng (modern-day Zhengzhou) and serving as a buffer state to the east. During the rule of Duke Zhuang, Zheng grew strong and began to assert its independence, allying with Lu and Qi and conquering other small vassals in the Central Plains. Since Zheng was in close proximity to the Zhou court, these actions increased tension between the two powers.
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In 1452 Emperor Frederick III offered the duchy to Borso d'Este, whose family had ruled the city of Modena and nearby Reggio Emilia for centuries. Borso in 1450 had also succeeded his brother as margrave in the adjacent Papal Duchy of Ferrara, where he received the ducal title in 1471. The Este lands on the southern border of the Holy Roman Empire with the Papal States formed a stabilizing buffer state in the interest of both. Ducal Palace of Modena The first Este dukes ruled well and the city achieved an economic and cultural peak: Borso's successor Duke Ercole I had the city of Modena rebuilt according to plans designed by Biagio Rossetti, his successors were patrons of artists like Titian and Ludovico Ariosto.
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The Oath crisis () was a World War I political conflict between the Imperial German Army command and the Józef Piłsudski-led Polish Legions. Initially supporting the Central Powers against Imperial Russia, Piłsudski hoped for the defeat of one of the partitioning powers—Russia—with the help of the other two partitioning states, Austria-Hungary and Germany. However, after the Russian defeat in 1917 it became clear that the Central Powers were in no position to guarantee the independence of Poland. Despite the Act of November 5th of 1916 and the creation of Kingdom of Poland, it was apparent that the newly created state would be little more than a puppet buffer-state for Germany, a part of its Mitteleuropa plan.
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Following the war, and the threat of invasion by France resulting from an assassination attempt on the French Emperor (perceived to originate in Britain), the British Army was under great pressure to provide a permanent force in Britain capable either of defending the country in case of invasion, or of mounting an expeditionary campaign similar to the Crimea. As its funding was not to be increased, it could only do this by redeploying units back to Britain from imperial garrison duty. Britain's primary motivation in supporting the Ottoman Empire against Russia (and its serial attempts to prop- up friendly governments in the buffer state of Afghanistan) was to prevent the border of the Russian Empire advancing to meet that of British India.
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After the fall of the rebellion and the reconquest of Xinjiang by Zuo Zongtang, the border between the Russian and the Qing empires in the Ili River basin was further slightly readjusted, in Russia's favour, by the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881) and a series of later protocols. In 1915 an agreement was signed more precisely delimiting the border the Ili Valley and Dzungarian Alatau region. The southernmost section of the frontier (i.e. roughly the southern half of the modern China–Tajikistan border) remained undemarcated, owing partly to the ongoing rivalry between Britain and Russia for dominance in Central Asia known as the Great Game; eventually the two agreed that Afghanistan would remain an independent buffer state between them, with Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor being created in 1895.
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At the time the Khmer Empire was in decline (possibly from an outbreak of the Black Death and the combined influx of Tai peoples), both Lanna and Sukhothai had been established in what had been Khmer territory, and the Siamese were growing in the area of the Chao Phraya River which would become the Ayutthaya Kingdom. The opportunity for the Khmer was to create a friendly buffer state in an area they could no longer effectively control with only a moderately sized military force. Fa Ngum's campaign started in southern Laos, taking the towns and cities in the region around Champasak and moving northward through Thakek and Kham Muang along the middle Mekong. From his position on the middle Mekong, Fa Ngum sought assistance and supply from Vientiane in attacking Muang Sua, which they refused.
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The Konesar Kalvettu dates Kullakottan's renovations to specifically between 432—440. C. Rasanayagam notes that the Vanniar chiefs who were in control of the temple could not have multiplied so fast within 150 years causing the king Aggrabodhi I of Anuradhapura to take elaborate steps to contain the Vanniars in 593. He argues the Vanniars of the Vannimai were a buffer state between Trincomalee and Mannar from the classical period. Other historians suggest that Kullakottan arrived to the island during the island's reign of The Five Dravidians of Pandyan descent, between 103—88 B.C., corroborating the Yalpana Vaipava Malai equation of his grandfather Manu Needhi Chola's identity with that of Ellalan Chola, a historical king who ruled the island from 205—161 B.C. that shared many character traits with the legendary Manu Needhi.
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Sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri spent the winter of 1515 and the spring of 1516 preparing an army he proposed leading to the disturbed confines of Asia Minor. Before beginning the march, an embassy arrived from Selim I promising in friendly terms to agree to Mamluk requests to appoint an Egyptian vassal to the Beylik of Dulkadir – a long-standing buffer state between Mamluks and Ottomans – and to reopen the frontier to the traffic of goods and slaves. On 18 May Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri set out from Cairo with a large force, appointed well in all respects but artillery. Portrait of Selim I by Konstantin Kapıdağlı Leaving Al-Ashraf Tuman bay II in control of Cairo, the sultan and his army marched north with great pomp, accompanied by music, singing, and festivity.
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Oudong was established in 1601 as the last royal residence of the Middle Period. The 19th-century arrival of then technologically more advanced and ambitious European colonial powers with concrete policies of global control put an end to regional feuds and as Siam/Thailand, although humiliated and on the retreat, escaped colonisation as a buffer state, Vietnam was to be the focal point of French colonial ambition. Cambodia, although largely neglected, had entered the Indochinese Union as a perceived entity and was capable to carry and reclaim its identity and integrity into modernity. After 80 years of colonial hibernation, the brief episode of Japanese occupation during World War II, that coincided with the investiture of king Sihanouk was the opening act for the irreversible process towards re-emancipation and modern Cambodian history.
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An Inner Mongolian cavalry unit of Prince De's personal guard, 1935 The idea of using the Inner Mongolia region as a buffer state against China and Russia had been considered by Japanese government circles since the early 20th century. Throughout the 1930s the Japanese Kwantung Army wanted to use the Mongols as a method of obstructing the Chinese government's control over northern China. In 1929, they made contact with Prince Demchugdongrub (De Wang), an Inner Mongolian nobleman and nationalist leader who wanted more autonomy from the Kuomintang government in Nanjing. The Japanese knew of his ambitions to create an independent Mongolian state and wanted to use him for their own purpose, while the Prince considered allying them in order to obtain weapons and training for his Mongolian Army.
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Russian policy towards Iran in 1914 was based on assurances that Iranian territorial integrity would be respected but Tsarist expansion in northern Iran and opposition to the emergence of a stable modern state, led to suspicion that its policy was really to keep Iran as a dependency or to absorb more of its northern provinces. Britain traditionally sought to maintain commercial interests in the country and the use of naval power to protect India. The geographical position of Iran, between Europe and India and the ancient west–east trade routes through Iranian provinces, had led the British in the nineteenth century to follow a policy of using Iran as a buffer state. The British in practice preferred inaction, although it enabled Russian expansionism until the Anglo-Russian Convention (Anglo-Russian Entente) of 1907.
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Lopez founded the Christian Peace Alliance to oppose the passage of the Philippine Bangsamoro Basic Law (BBL). In a July 2015 forum in Cebu City, Lopez said the BBL is a clear and present danger to the Philippines' national security, interest and welfare, stating that it was patterned after the Federation of Malaysia. The proposed legislation, he said, will lead to the creation of a Bangsamoro Islamic sub-state controlled by the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, allegedly a Malaysian-backed insurgent group that may eventually lead the sub-state to secede and declare independence. "The Malaysian interest in the passage of the BBL is not to help Filipino Muslims; (the law) is designed for the purpose of creating a buffer state that prevents the Philippines from enforcing its legitimate claim on Sabah," Lopez said.
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There was destruction of the existing state, loss of neighboring territories and ruin of the Paraguayan economy, so that even decades later, it could not develop in the same way as its neighbors. Paraguay is estimated to have lost up to 69% of its population, most of them due to illness, hunger and physical exhaustion, of which 90% were male, and also maintained a high debt of war with the allied countries that, not completely paid, ended up being pardoned in 1943 by the Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas. A new pro-Brazil government was installed in Asunción in 1869, while Paraguay remained occupied by Brazilian forces until 1876, when Argentina formally recognized the independence of that country, guaranteeing its sovereignty and leaving it a buffer state between its larger neighbors.
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After the abolition of the buffer state of Far Eastern Republic in 1922 the Far Eastern Oblast was established with capital Chita (since 1924 the capital was Khabarovsk), which included the lands of FER and Amurskaya, Transbaikalskaya, Kamchatskaya, Priamurskaya, Primorskaya (with northern part of Sakhalin island) guberniyas (provinces). It also had right of way by the Chinese Eastern Railway. A brief history of the Khabarovsk Krai , a webpage of the Ministry of Economic Development and Foreign Relations of Khabarovsk Krai Geographically, it was an easternmost area of Asian Russia, bounded by the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean (Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan), and by China. In 1926 the Far Eastern Oblast was reorganized into the Far Eastern Krai with Amurski, Vladivostokski, Zeiski, Kamchatski, Nikolaevski, Sakhalinski, Sretenski, Khabarovski, Chitinski Okrugs.
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While not well known today even as a tribal name in the aftermath of becoming extinct during generations-long plagues and near continuous internecine warfare, the Wenro People are known primarily through the mentions in the decades the Jesuit Relations were published. The tribe's villages the Missionaries describe seem to have been reduced to relatively fewer permanent settlements than their neighbors by internecine warfare in the late 16th century before becoming known to the few French who encountered them. Protected by the gorges of the Genesee River on the east, their small territory likely contained few valuable resources save for hunting lands, and their survival between the oft warring Huron and Iroquois was because they managed to trade simultaneously with both and their presence was valuable as a buffer state.
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There is also debate about whether or not > Durham Castle was originally a stone or a wooden structure. Historic sources > mention that its keep (fortified tower) was built of wood, but there is > enough archaeological evidence to indicate that even in the late 11th > century when it was first built, it had numerous stone buildings. A UNESCO site describes the role of the Prince-Bishops in the "buffer state between England and Scotland": > From 1075, the Bishop of Durham became a Prince-Bishop, with the right to > raise an army, mint his own coins, and levy taxes. As long as he remained > loyal to the king of England, he could govern as a virtually autonomous > ruler, reaping the revenue from his territory, but also remaining mindful of > his role of protecting England’s northern frontier.
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The Babylonians scored repeated victories against the Assyrians and by 616 BC Babylonian troops had even reached as far north as the Balikh River. Assyria's ally, Pharaoh Psamtik I of Egypt, who saw Assyria as a useful buffer state between his own empire and those of the Babylonians and Medes in the east, rushed to Sinsharishkun's aid, but a joint Egyptian-Assyrian campaign into Babylonia was unsuccessful. In 614 BC, the city of Assur, once the capital and still the ideological and religious center of Assyria, was captured, plundered and sacked by the Medes under King Cyaxares, allies of Nabopolassar. The Babylonian army under Nabopolassar had been late to the battle, only arriving after the Medes had already killed many of the city's inhabitants and begun plundering it.
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Relations between France and Prussia quickly soured when Prussia eventually discovered that Napoleon had secretly promised to return sovereignty of Hanover back to Britain during his abortive peace negotiations with the British. This duplicity by the French would be one of the main causes for Prussia declaring war that autumn. Another cause was Napoleon's formation in July 1806 of the Confederation of the Rhine out of the various German states which constituted the Rhineland and other parts of western Germany. A virtual satellite of the French Empire with Napoleon as its "Protector", the Confederation was intended to act as a buffer state from any future aggressions from Austria, Russia or Prussia against France (a policy that was an heir of the French revolutionary doctrine of maintaining France's "natural frontiers").
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Zimmermann also testified about Tuđman's fears of an "Islamic fundamentalist state", referring to Izetbegović as a "fundamentalist front man for Turkey" and accused them of "conspiring to create a Greater Bosnia" by "flooding Bosnia with 500,000 Turks." Mario Nobilo, a senior advisor to Tuđman, is reported by Tim Judah to have informed him directly that talks took place "to resolve the Yugoslav conflict by carving up the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and creating an Islamic buffer-state between them". Testimonies of other American and British politicians such as Ambassador Herbert Okun (a US veteran diplomat) suggested that the meeting was about the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Paddy Ashdown also claimed that the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Croatia and Serbia was a goal of Tuđman's.
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Benty Grange Farm, in the parish of Monyash in the Derbyshire Dales district The hanging bowl was discovered in a barrow on the Benty Grange farm in Derbyshire, in what is now the Peak District National Park. Thomas Bateman, an archaeologist and antiquarian who led the excavation, described Benty Grange as "a high and bleak situation"; its barrow, which still survives, is prominently located by a major Roman road, now the A515, possibly to display the burial to passing travellers. It may have also been designed to share the skyline with two other nearby monuments, Arbor Low stone circle and Gib Hill barrow. The seventh- century Peak District was a small buffer state between Mercia and Northumbria, occupied, according to the Tribal Hidage, by the Anglo-Saxon Pecsæte.
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The territory comprised the Alpine Berchtesgaden hollow, that is, the modern communities of Berchtesgaden, Bischofswiesen, Marktschellenberg, Ramsau and Schönau am Königssee, located in the present-day German state of Bavaria, as well as a number of estates further afield. Berchtesgaden and Watzmann massif The location of the monastery was strategically important. Firstly, it is in an area possessing immensely valuable salt deposits, and was situated in such a way that it was able to act as a buffer state between its much larger neighbours, the Duchy of Bavaria and the Archbishopric of Salzburg, and to make this situation work to its advantage. Secondly, the Berchtesgaden valley is almost entirely enclosed by high mountains, except for a single point of access to the north, and is thus virtually impregnable.
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The banner was characterized by a black and a white field, divided diagonally. In the coat of arms there appeared "the village between the two small streams, with two fish on the right and the plant of Nicotiana tabacum on the left, above was the motto and years of the republic". The cospaiesi did not, therefore, have tribute obligations with either the Papal States nor the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, and the goods that passed through the territory were not subject to any tariffs; it was therefore a free economic zone and buffer state between the two powers. Although Cospaia extended over just 330 hectares (2 kilometers long and about 500 meters wide), the 250 inhabitants treasured the situation and took advantage of it to increase the cultivation of tobacco, among the first in the Italian peninsula.
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Like other rulers of Egypt before him, Ali desired to control Bilad al-Sham (the Levant), both for its strategic value and for its rich natural resources; nor was this a sudden, vindictive decision on the part of Ali since he had harboured this goal since his early years as Egypt's unofficial ruler. For not only had Syria abundant natural resources, it also had a thriving international trading community with well-developed markets throughout the Levant; in addition, it would be a captive market for the goods now being produced in Egypt. Yet perhaps most of all, Syria was desirable as a buffer state between Egypt and the Ottoman Sultan. A new fleet was built, a new army was raised and on 31 October 1831, under Ibrahim Pasha, the Egyptian invasion of Syria initiated the First Turko- Egyptian War.
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The Kajaki hydroelectric dam was completed in 1953 with the aid of a loan from the Export-Import Bank of the United States,Damming Afghanistan: Modernization in a Buffer State, Nick Cullather, Journal of American History, Volume 89, Issue 2, Pp. 512-537. in order to provide electricity and irrigation to the population of Helmand and Kandahar provinces under the Helmand Valley Authority. It was supposed to house three turbines, but only two were ever installed, and after years of civil war, only one was still in service by 2001 In 2004, the United States started work on restoring the dam's capacity and bringing its output to 53 megawatts. One turbine was repaired in 2005, but the restoration was hampered by the difficulty of delivering new turbines to Kajaki through Taliban-controlled territory, that required a large-scale military operation.
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The Far Eastern Republic was established comprising only the area around Verkhne-Udinsk, but during the summer of 1920, the Soviet government of the Amur territory agreed to join. The Far Eastern Republic was formed two months after Kolchak's death with the tacit support of the government of Soviet Russia, which saw it as a temporary buffer state between the RSFSR and the territories occupied by Japan.Alan Wood, "The Revolution and Civil War in Siberia," in Edward Acton, Vladimir Iu. Cherniaev, and William G. Rosenberg (eds.), Critical Companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914–1921. Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1997; pp. 716–717. Many members of the Russian Communist Party had disagreed with the decision to allow a new government in the region, believing that their approximately 4,000 members were capable of seizing power in their own right.
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The Republic of Central Lithuania or Central Lithuania (; ), was a short-lived puppet republic of Poland created in 1920 without international recognition. It was founded after Żeligowski's Mutiny, when soldiers of the Polish Army, mainly the 1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Infantry Division under Lucjan Żeligowski, fully supported by the Polish air force, cavalry and artillery, attacked Lithuania. Centered on the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, for 18 months the entity served as a buffer state between Poland, upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area. This territory was a means of pressure on Lithuania as Poland tried to trade the Lithuanian capital to Lithuania in return for the dependence of re-emerged Lithuania (proposal of union between the two states) or surrender to Poland (proposal of autonomy for Lithuania within Polish borders).
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He was from the Hohenem dynasty which sought to establish a buffer state between Austrian lands and Old Swiss Confederacy, although citizens resented paying taxes to both the Holy Roman Empire and the Swabian League and the area which became Lichtenstein became embroiled in Thirty Years War beginning in 1618 From 1631 until 1637, Třanovský served as pastor at a church in Liptovský Svätý Mikuláš (Liptószentmiklós), Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Slovakia). Cithara Sanctorum, 1828 edition Třanovský appreciated poetry and hymns, and wrote as well as compiled both. In 1629, he published his first hymnal, oddly named in Latin Odarum Sacrarum sive Hymnorum Libri III ("Three Books of Sacred Odes or Hymns"). His most important and most famous work was Cithara Sanctorum ("Lyre of the Saints"), written in Czech, which appeared in 1636 in Levoča (Lőcse).
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The Qarlughids were a tribe of Turkic origin that controlled Ghazni, lands of the Bamyan, the Kurram Valley (Ghazna, Banban, and Kurraman), and established a short-lived Muslim principality and dynasty which lasted between 1224 and 1266. The Qarlughids (or Karluk Turks) arrived from the north to settle in the regions of Hazarajat together with the armies of Muhammad II of Khwarezm, the Shah of Khwarezm. Throughout most of its existence, the Qarlugh Kingdom functioned as a buffer state between its two powerful neighbors, the Delhi Sultanate to the east and south and the Mongol Empire to the north and west. With the Malik at the throne, the Qarlugh would frequently switch allegiances between their two powerful neighbors, and through balanced diplomacy managed to become an important trade intermediary between the Mongols of Central Asia and the lands of the subcontinent.
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For this reason President Woodrow Wilson would argue for the creation of self-determining states in the wake of the Great War. However, the belief in romantic nationalism would be honored in the breach. In redrawing the map of Europe, Yugoslavia was created as an intentional coalition state among competing, and often mutually hostile, southern Slavic peoples, and the League of Nations' mandates were often drawn, not to unify ethnic groups, but to divide them. To take one example, the nation now known as Iraq intentionally joined together three Ottoman vilayets, uniting Kurds in the north, Sunni Arabs in the center, and Shia Arabs in the south, in an effort to present a strong national buffer state between Turkey and Persia: over these was placed a foreign king from the Hashemite dynasty native to the Hijaz.
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The Inner Mongolian Campaign in the period from 1933 to 1936 were part of the ongoing invasion of northern China by the Empire of Japan prior to the official start of hostilities in the Second Sino-Japanese War. In 1931, the invasion of Manchuria secured the creation of the puppet state of Manchukuo and in 1933, Operation Nekka detached the province of Jehol from the Republic of China. Blocked from further advance south by the Tanggu Truce, the Imperial Japanese Army turned its attention west, towards the Inner Mongolian provinces of Chahar and Suiyuan, with the goal of establishing a northern China buffer state. In order to avoid overt violation of the Truce, the Japanese government used proxy armies in these campaigns while Chinese resistance was at first only provided by Anti-Japanese resistance movement forces in Chahar.
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Because of the Treaty of Apamea the following year, Pergamon was granted all of the Seleucid lands north of the Taurus mountains (Phrygia, Lydia, Pisidia, Pamphylia, and parts of Lycia) and Rhodes was given all that remained (part of Lycia and Caria). A stronger Pergamon suited Roman interests as a buffer state between the Aegean and the Seleucid Empire. However, Rome needed to intervene on a number of occasions to ensure the integrity of the enlarged territory, including wars against Prusias I of Bithynia (187–183 BC) and Pharnaces I of Pontus (183–179 BC). Following Eumenes' support for Rome in the Third Macedonian War (170 – 168 BC) Macedon's power had been crushed and Rome no longer felt the need for such a strong Pergamon, and the Senate set about weakening it, negotiating with Eumenes' brother Attalus II Philadelphus (c.
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From the beginning, President Cardenas realized that the success of the Republic of the Rio Grande depended on Texan support. Texas also had conflicting interests on whether to support the new Republic or not. On one hand, the formation of the Republic of the Rio Grande would create a buffer state between Mexico and Texas, postponing any possible intentions Mexico had for the reinvasion of Texas; on the other hand, Texas needed Mexico to recognize its independence and supporting the new Republic would certainly anger them. Texas’ official stance on the issue was neutral, but president Mirabeau Lamar secretly encouraged Texans to volunteer in Canales’ army and gave Canales access to Texan arms and ammunition.Vigness, David M. “Relations of the Republic of Texas and the Republic of the Rio Grande.” The Southwestern Historical Quarterly 57, no.
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On September 26, 1942 Eden declared Churchill's plan of creation of a "Danube confederation" composed of former Austria, Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia – a vast buffer state that would have separated Western Europe from the USSR. In the Spring of 1943, a 34-year- old civil servant in the Foreign office Geoffrey Harrison developed a plan for the post-war organisation of Austria, which subsequently became the official British policy in regard to the Austrian question. Harrison's viewpoint was that recreation of an independent but weak Austria within the borders of the First Republic was only possible with the readiness of the Western allies to support the new state for many years. Harrison did not believe in the ability of the Austrians to self-organize nor in the probability of them rising in armed resistance against the regime.
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Towards the end of the sixth century, the Turkic Khaganate, which has recently succeeded the Rouran Khaganate as the hegemonic power of the Mongolian Plateau was involved in civil war and by 603 it has separated in two independent states: The Eastern Turkic Khaganate and the Western Turkic Khaganate. This state of affairs would be short lived, with the Eastern Khaganate being conquered by the Chinese Tang dynasty in 630, and the Western Khaganate suffering the same fate in 657. After their conquest by Tang, the Eastern Turks wore forced to accept a protectorate status on China's outskirts. They were confined to live inside the Ordos Loop and in 639, after an Ashina assassination attempt on Emperor Taizong of Tang, they were forced to live between the Yellow River and Gobi, as a buffer state between China and the Xueyantuo.
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While Stalin intended to use North Korea as a buffer state to American- friendly South Korea and Japan, Shtykov was sympathetic to North Korean attempts to 'liberate' the South through socialism. Shtykov supported Kim Il- sung and Bak Heon-yong's 31 May 1949 proposal to create a Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland to advocate for peaceful unification of North and South, noting that Syngman Rhee's likely refusal would damage his legitimacy among the Korean population. Shtykov suspected that Rhee would attack the North by June 1950, and backed the DFUF "to slow down southern aggression, cultivate alliances with anti-Rhee forces in the South, and make the Americans appear opposed to North-South unification." After the victory of the People's Republic of China in the Chinese Civil War Kim persistently lobbied the Soviets to support a Northern-led violent unification of the peninsula.
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A 1926 League of Nations meeting Finland had been the eastern part of the Swedish kingdom for centuries until 1809, during the Napoleonic Wars, when Imperial Russia conquered and converted it into an autonomous buffer state within the Russian Empire to protect Saint Petersburg, the imperial capital. Finland enjoyed wide autonomy and its own Senate until the turn of the century, when Russia began attempts to assimilate Finland as part of a general policy to strengthen central government and unify the Empire by Russification. These attempts ruined relations and increased the support of Finnish movements vying for self-government.Trotter 2002, pp. 3–5 The outbreak of the First World War gave Finland a window of opportunity to achieve this. The Finns sought aid from both the German Empire and the Bolsheviks to that end, and on 6 December 1917, the Senate of Finland declared the country's independence.
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Kern succeeded to the Bonn History professorship. His wife and children remained in the family home just outside Frankfurt for more than a year, but in July 1923 a suitable newly-constructed "professor house" became available for rent in the Baumschulwäldchen quarter of the town and they joined him in Bonn. The period was one of domestic and international crisis, with the value of money collapsing and French forces still occupying the Rhineland as the government in Paris sought to exploit problems over reparations as justification for the permanent annexation of this coal-rich part of Germany, or at least the permanent conversion of it into a quasi-autonomous "buffer state" under French influence. Towards the end of 1923 Kern was involved in obtaining weapons from the army for the students "defending themselves against Rhineland separatists" who had launched an anti-government insurrection in Aegidienberg and the surrounding countryside.
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The Yíng clan, then a minor marcher vassal based in the Longxi Basin as a buffer state on the western frontier of the Chinese civilization, sent troops to escort King Ping of Zhou along the journey. In gratitude, King Ping granted a mid-level nobility to the Yíng leader, Count Xiang, and promised him authority to permanently claim any lands his clan can recapture from the nomads. The resultant Qin state then spent the next few centuries fighting off various nomads to its north and west and eventually consolidated its base in the Guanzhong Plain and the Loess Plateau. The Qin capital then relocated progressively east from Qinyi (in modern Qingshui County, Gansu) to Yong (in modern Fengxiang County, Shaanxi), then to Yueyang (in modern Yanliang District of Xi'an, Shaanxi), and eventually to Xianyang northeastly across the Wei River from the ruined old Zhou capital of Fenghao.
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The Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia, also known as Bagratid Armenia (, Bagratuneats Hayastan or Բագրատունիների թագավորութիւն, Bagratunineri t’agavorut’iwn, "kingdom of the Bagratunis"), was an independent state established by Ashot I Bagratuni in the early 880s following nearly two centuries of foreign domination of Greater Armenia under Arab Umayyad and Abbasid rule. With each of the two contemporary powers in the region - the Abbasids and Byzantines - too preoccupied to concentrate their forces in subjugating the people of the region, and with the dissipation of several of the Armenian nakharar noble families, Ashot succeeded in asserting himself as the leading figure of a movement to dislodge the Arabs from Armenia. Ashot's prestige rose as both Byzantine and Arab leaders - eager to maintain a buffer state near their frontiers - courted him. The Abbasid Caliphate recognized Ashot as "prince of princes" in 862 and, later on, as king (in 884 or 885).
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The Republic ended after Prussian and Austrian coalition troops started the Siege of Mainz and forced the surrender of the city. Lazare Hoche in 1793 After the ' from August 1793, French forces were able to conquer vast territories on the Left Bank of the Rhine up to the 'natural Rhine border' proclaimed by Georges Danton in the National Convention. Under the terms of the 1795 Peace of Basel, the Kingdom of Prussia had been compelled to cede all her territories west of the Rhine river, but the French forces initially failed to coordinate a civil administration or to establish a Rhenish buffer state, and the ongoing occupation at the expense of the civilian population met with growing rejection. The situation did not improve until, in early 1797, the French Directory delegated General Louis Lazare Hoche to build up an orderly public administration based on the French model.
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800 near Tudela (Tutera in Basque), acted as a buffer state between the Basques and the Cordovan Umayyads that helped consolidate the independent Kingdom of Pamplona after the second Battle of Roncevaux, when a Frankish expedition led by the counts Eblus and Aznar (sometimes identified as the local Frankish vassal toppled in Aragon some 10 years earlier) was defeated by the Pamplonese and maybe the Banu Qasi,Ducado de Vasconia (Auñamendi Encyclopedia) after crossing the Pyrenees, probably in the wake of Basque rebellions north of the Pyrenees. In the west fringes of Basque territory, Álava arose first in history attacked by Asturian and Cordovan hostsÁlava - Historia: Alta Edad Media (Auñamendi Encyclopedia) and comprising a blur territory previously held by the Duchy of Cantabria (current Cantabria, Biscay, Álava, La Rioja and Burgos). After the battle, Enecco Arista (Basque Eneko Aritza, i.e. Eneko the Oak), re-asserted his power in Pamplona c.
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The Liberal Delusions That Provoked Putin, Foreign Affairs, 2014 September/October Issue Mearsheimer argued that Russian intervention in Crimea and Ukraine had been motivated by what he saw as the irresponsible strategic objectives of NATO in Eastern Europe. He compared NATO expansion into Eastern Europe, led by NATO and the planned inclusion of Ukraine to the hypothetical scenario of a Chinese military alliance in North America: "Imagine the American outrage if China built an impressive military alliance and tried to include Canada and Mexico." Mearsheimer argued that Russia's annexation of the Crimea was fueled by concerns that it would lose access to its Black Sea Fleet naval base at Sevastopol if Ukraine continued to move towards NATO and European integration. Mearsheimer concluded that US policy should shift towards recognising Ukraine as a buffer state between NATO and Russia rather than attempting, to absorb Ukraine into NATO.
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In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the "Great Game" between British India and the Russian Empire. In the First Anglo-Afghan War, the British East India Company seized control of Afghanistan briefly, but following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919 the country was free of foreign influence, eventually becoming a monarchy under Amanullah Khan, until almost 50 years later when Zahir Shah was overthrown and a republic was established. In 1978, after a second coup, Afghanistan first became a socialist state and then a Soviet protectorate, evoking the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s against mujahideen rebels. By 1996, most of the country was captured by the Islamic fundamentalist Taliban, who ruled as a totalitarian regime for over five years; they were removed from power after the US invasion in 2001 but still control a significant portion of the country.
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The British Army's response to the situation it found itself in, following The Crimea, was a series of reforms, redeployments, and re-structuring that stretched over the next fifty years. It was realised that a standing body of soldiers was required in Britain, composed of all of the combat and support elements required for either countering an invasion of Britain or for dispatch to another campaign like The Crimea. As the Government was unwilling to fund an actual increase of its manpower, the Army could only accomplish this by withdrawing units from Imperial garrisons, and by placing much of the obligation for home defence onto the Volunteer Army. Withdrawing units from much of the Empire would have resulted in native insurrections and border insurgencies, or invited attacks by powerful neighbours (this was especially true in India, with its internal intrigues, Russian and Turkish neighbours, and Afghanistan as a buffer state).
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On the death of his father on 5 November 1806, Ponsonby succeeded him as Baron Ponsonby, and for some time held an appointment in the Ionian Islands. On 28 February 1826 he went to Buenos Aires as envoy-extraordinary and minister-plenipotentiary until 1828 and moved then to Rio de Janeiro in the same capacity. An exceptionally handsome man, he was sent, it was reported, to South America by George Canning to please King George IV, who was envious of the attention paid him by Lady Conyngham. Once there he greatly fostered the independence of Uruguay as a buffer state between Argentina and Brazil, to the benefit of British commerce. In December 1830 he was entrusted with a special mission to Belgium, in connection with the candidature of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to the Belgian throne, and remained in Brussels until Leopold was elected king on 4 June 1831.
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The bishop's council, consisting of the clergy, the sheriff and the barons, regulated judicial affairs, and later produced the Chancery and the courts of Admiralty and Marshalsea. The entrance to Durham Castle, the bishops' palace until 1832 when it moved to Auckland Castle The prior of Durham ranked first among the bishop's barons. He had his own court, and almost exclusive jurisdiction over his men. A UNESCO site describes the role of the Prince-Bishops in Durham, the "buffer state between England and Scotland": > From 1075, the Bishop of Durham became a Prince-Bishop, with the right to > raise an army, mint his own coins, and levy taxes. As long as he remained > loyal to the king of England, he could govern as a virtually autonomous > ruler, reaping the revenue from his territory, but also remaining mindful of > his role of protecting England’s northern frontier.
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In the summer of 1927 (June 27 – July 7), Tanaka convened a "Far East Conference" with members of the Japanese Foreign Ministry, Army Ministry, Navy Ministry, and Finance Ministry. However, instead of producing a master plan for world domination, the result of the Conference was a rough consensus that Japan should support the Kuomintang government of China against the Chinese Communists, as long as the Japanese could convince General Zhang Zuolin to consolidate his base in a virtually autonomous Manchuria, which would serve as a buffer state, and would fall eventually within Japanese domination.. It is alleged that the Tanaka Memorial is a secret report of this Conference. When the Allies searched for incriminating documents to support war crime charges following the surrender of Japan, no drafts or copies of anything corresponding to the Tanaka Memorial appeared among them; a Japanese language "original" has never been produced despite extensive research efforts. The origin of the Memorial is still in question.
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Rule by fiefdoms and aristocracy was widely replaced by national ideologies based on shared origins and culture. Bonaparte's reign over Europe sowed the seeds for the founding of the nation-states of Germany and Italy by starting the process of consolidating city-states, kingdoms and principalities. At the end of the war Denmark was forced to cede Norway to Sweden mainly as a compensation for the loss of Finland which the other coalition members agreed to, but because Norway had signed its own constitution on 17 May 1814 Sweden initiated the Swedish–Norwegian War of 1814. The war was a short one taking place between 26 July – 14 August 1814 and was a Swedish victory that put Norway into a personal union with Sweden under Charles XIV John of Sweden. The union was peacefully dissolved in 1905. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands created as a buffer state against France dissolved rapidly with the independence of Belgium in 1830.
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After Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo in 1815, the major victorious powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) agreed at the Congress of Vienna on uniting the former Belgium Austriacum and the former Seven United Provinces, creating the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, which was to serve as a buffer state against any future French invasions. This was under the rule of a Protestant king, namely William I. Most of the small and ecclesiastical states in the Holy Roman Empire were given to larger states at this time, and this included the Prince-Bishopric of Liège which now became formally part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The enlightened despot William I, who reigned from 1815–1840, had almost unlimited constitutional power, the constitution having been written by a number of notable people chosen by him. As despot, he had no difficulty in accepting some of the changes resulting from the social transformation of the previous 25 years, including equality of all before the law.
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Alfoldy (1974) 30 The Romans saw the regnum as a useful buffer-state covering Italy's northeastern flank and a critical source of raw minerals and, above all, of Noric steel. The Norici saw the Romans as potential protectors in the event of major invasion by the powerful Germanic peoples across the Danube. Although there was no formal treaty of military alliance, the Norici could count on Roman military support, as demonstrated in 113 BC, when a vast host of Teutones invaded Noricum. In response to a desperate appeal by the Norici, the Roman consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo rushed an army to the Alps and attacked the Germans near Noreia (although, in the event, he was heavily defeated).Appian 13 After finally crushing the Teutones in 101 BC, the Romans established a major trading colony within the leading Noric oppidum on the Magdalensberg (Carinthia, Austria), which may have been the site of Noreia.
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After his election to the consulship he was chosen to replace Publius Sulpicius Galba who was consul with Gaius Aurelius in 200 BC, according to Livy, as general during the Second Macedonian War. He chased Philip V of Macedon out of most of Greece, except for a few fortresses, defeating him at the Battle of the Aous, but as his term as consul was coming to an end he attempted to establish a peace with the Macedonian king. During the negotiations, Flamininus was made proconsul, giving him the authority to continue the war rather than finishing the negotiations. In 197 BC he defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in Thessaly, the Roman legions making the Macedonian phalanx obsolete in the process. Philip was forced to surrender, give up all the Greek cities he had conquered, and pay Rome 1,000 talents, but his kingdom was left intact to serve as a buffer state between Greece and Illyria.
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It was agreed that the country would be under the rule of Carol I, and ethnic Romanians would occupy the main positions of the ministries of defense. According to the Romanian historian Alex Mihai Stoenescu, this was supported by Germany, the United Kingdom and even Austria- Hungary at some point, although France stayed on the Russian side. Stoenescu thought this powerful Bulgarian-Romanian state with control of the eastern Black Sea could act as a buffer state, which, added to the formation of Western Balkan states and the preservation of Greece in the Western sphere of influence, could have even prevented World War I. Political situation of Europe in the late 19th century, showing Russia, Romania and Bulgaria The regents hoped that a union between Bulgaria and Romania would not only solve the crisis, but would be the first step towards a future strongly anti-Russian Balkan confederation. Whether this was true is questionable.
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The several characters live within a divided United States, in which the Empire of Japan takes the Pacific states, governing them as a puppet, Nazi Germany takes the East Coast of the United States and parts of the Midwest, with the remnants of the old United States' government as the Neutral Zone, a buffer state between the two superpowers. The book has inspired an Amazon series of the same name. Vladimir Nabokov's novel, Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle (1969), is a story of incest that takes place within an alternate North America settled in part by Czarist Russia and that borrows from Dick's idea of "alternate-alternate" history (the world of Nabokov's hero is wracked by rumors of a "counter-earth" that apparently is ours). Some critics believe that the references to a counter- earth suggest that the world portrayed in Ada is a delusion in the mind of the hero (another favorite theme of Dick's novels).
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In January 1920, with the civil war nearing an end, Krasnoshchyokov crossed the front line to reach Red Army headquarters in Tomsk, and persuaded Vladimir Lenin to create a democratic buffer state in the far east, to enable the allied troops in Siberia to withdraw without loss of face. He wrote the constitution of the Far Eastern Republic in English, before it was translated into Russian, served as first minister and minister for foreign affairs of the Far Eastern Republic from April 1920 to July 1921, and generally made a very good impression on the English and Americans who met him during this period, particularly the journalist H.K.Norton, who wrote an entire book eulogising Krasnoshchyokov's career. The republic was recognised by the Japanese Army Command May 11, 1920, and by Soviet Russia May 16, 1920. Thanks to his efforts, the Gongota Agreement was signed 15 July 1920 with General Takayanagi of the Japanese Expeditionary Corps.
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Trautsch, "Review of Whose War of 1812? Competing Memories of the Anglo-American Conflict" Canadian historians in recent decades look at the war as a defeat for the First Nations of Canada, and also for the merchants of Montreal (who lost the fur trade of the Michigan-Minnesota area)."The Indians and the fur merchants of Montreal had lost in the end," says Randall White, Ontario: 1610-1985 p. 75 The British had a long-standing goal of building a "neutral" but pro-British Indian buffer state in the American Midwest.Dwight L. Smith, "A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea" Northwest Ohio Quarterly 1989 61(2-4): 46-63 They demanded a neutral Indian state at the peace conference in 1814 but failed to gain any of it because they had lost control of the region in the Battle of Lake Erie and the Battle of the Thames in 1813, where Tecumseh was killed.
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According to Vasiliev, however, their original intention was not to seize a base from which they could recover the capital of the Byzantine Empire, but rather to carve out of the Byzantine Empire a buffer state to protect Georgia from the Seljuk Turks.Vasiliev, "Foundation", p. 19 Kuršanskis, while agreeing with Vasiliev that Tamar was motivated by revenge for Alexios Angelos's insult, proposed a more obvious motivation for the brother's return to Byzantine territory: they had decided to raise the banner of revolt, depose Alexios Angelos, and return the imperial throne to the Komnenos dynasty. However, not long after they had gained control of Trebizond and the neighboring territories, news of the Latin conquest of Constantinople reached them, and the brothers entered the competition for recovery of the imperial city against Theodore I Laskaris in western Anatolia (ruler of the "Empire of Nicaea") and Michael Komnenos Doukas in mainland Greece (ruler of the "Despotate of Epirus").
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In 1814 the Comte d'Artois of the House of Bourbon, was proclaimed King Louis XVIII, and when d'Auvergne visited him in Paris, agreed to support d'Auvergne's claim to the Duchy of Bouillon, for all the support he had given to the Royalists over the last 20 years. The officials of the Duchy taking an oath to d'Auvergne as the 8th Duc de Bouillon and he was formally declared Prince of Bouillon. On hearing Napoleon had returned, d'Auvergne went to Brussels, he marched to war with a small regiment formed in the colours of Bouillon, where nine days before the Battle of Waterloo, d'Auvergne discovered that the Treaty of Paris which had left the Congress of Vienna to rewrite the map of Europe, had decided to form a buffer state, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, along the border of France. This meant there was no place for an independent principality and the Duchy would be part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
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Japanese troops entering Shenyang during the Mukden Incident The internecine warfare in China provided excellent opportunities for Japan, which saw Manchuria as a limitless supply of raw materials, a market for its manufactured goods (now excluded from the markets of many Western countries as a result of Depression-era tariffs), and a protective buffer state against the Soviet Union in Siberia. Japan invaded Manchuria outright after the Mukden Incident in September 1931. Japan charged that its rights in Manchuria, which had been established as a result of its victory at the end of the Russo-Japanese War, had been systematically violated and there were "more than 120 cases of infringement of rights and interests, interference with business, boycott of Japanese goods, unreasonable taxation, detention of individuals, confiscation of properties, eviction, demand for cessation of business, assault and battery, and the oppression of Korean residents".POLITICAL STRATEGY PRIOR TO OUTBREAK OF WAR PART I Japanese monograph No. 144 After five months of fighting, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932, and installed the last Emperor of China, Puyi, as its puppet ruler.
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Visiting during the coronation ceremonies for Russian Tsar Nicholas II,the Japanese delegation discussed the growing friction over Korea, and proposed that the Korean peninsula be divided at the 38th parallel, should Japanese and Russian troops be forced to occupy Korea. The proposal was rejected, but the concept was resurrected by Soviet premier Joseph Stalin many years later at the Yalta Conference negotiations with the United States during World War II.Kim, The History of Korea, page 114 The Yamagata–Lobanov Agreement was signed in Saint Petersburg by ex-Prime Minister of Japan Yamagata Aritomo, and Russian Foreign Minister, Prince Alexei Lobanov-Rostovsky. The Agreement in effect guaranteed Korean independence through a tacit co-protectorate maintained by both Japan and Russia, with the aim of preserving Korea as a buffer state between Japan, and Russian interests in Manchuria and the Russian Maritime Provinces.Gills, Korea versus Korea, page 26 The Agreement also stated a joint intention to encourage fiscal reform in Korea, promote the formation of a modern police and army, and to maintain telegraph lines.
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The Egyptian ruler knew that he would have difficulty in asserting and maintaining control over northern Syria and Cilicia, which had traditionally been influenced more by Upper Mesopotamia and Iraq. By abandoning its claims on these distant provinces, not only would Egypt be spared the cost of maintaining a large army there, but the Hamdanid emirate would also fulfil the useful role of a buffer state against incursions from both Iraq and a resurgent Byzantine Empire. Indeed, throughout al-Ikhshid's rule, and that of his successors, relations with the Byzantines were quite friendly, as the lack of a common border and the common hostility to the Fatimids guaranteed that the interests of the two states did not clash. Despite Sayf al-Dawla's attempt to push again into southern Syria soon after al-Ikhshid's death, the border agreed in 945 held, and even outlived both dynasties, forming the dividing line between Mesopotamian-influenced northern Syria and the Egyptian- controlled southern part of the country until the Mamluks seized the entire region in 1260.
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From right to left: Wajid Ali Shah along with his son Birjis Qadr and wife Begum Hazrat Mahal Wajid Ali Shah succeeded to the throne of Awadh when the kingdom was well past its heyday. The British had annexed much of the kingdom under the treaty of 1801, and had impoverished Awadh by imposing a hugely expensive, British-run army and repeated demands for loans. The independence of Awadh in name was tolerated by the British only because they still needed a buffer state between their presence in the east and south, and the remnants of the Mughal Empire to the north. Wajid Ali Shah was most unfortunate to have ascended the throne of Oudh at a time when the British East India Company was determined to grab the coveted throne of prosperous Awadh, which was "the garden, granary, and queen- province of India"- the royal predecessors and successors of Awadh were one of the major threats to the Mughal Empire before Britain's attempt at usurping full political control in India.
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It may be awarded to a person of any rank in any service and to civilians under military command. The first ceremony was held on 26 June 1857, when Queen Victoria invested 62 of the 111 Crimean recipients in Hyde Park.Ashcroft, Michael; preface; XI-XIII The original Royal Warrant did not contain a specific clause regarding posthumous awards, although official policy was to not award the VC posthumously. Between 1897 and 1901, several notices were issued in the London Gazette regarding soldiers who would have been awarded the VC had they survived. In a partial reversal of policy in 1902, six of the soldiers mentioned were granted the VC, but not "officially" awarded the medal. In 1907, the posthumous policy was completely reversed and medals were sent to the next of kin of the six officers and men. The Victoria Cross warrant was not officially amended to explicitly allow posthumous awards until 1920, but one quarter of all awards for the First World War were posthumous.Crook, MJ, Chapter 8 pp.68-90 In the 19th century, Afghanistan was seen as an important buffer state to the north-west of British-ruled India.
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Unlike Pyrrhus, the Spartans were intelligent enough to avoid this kind of costly fighting; in addition, they were probably keen to keep some semblance of political order in Argos in order to keep it as a buffer state against Athens. Tomlinson also notes that although Herodotus describes Argos after the battle as "emptied of men" and controlled by the "slaves", this likely means that the entire body of landowning male citizens of military age were killed, but not nearly all the men, as Argos was divided into a society of hoplites, craftsmen, and gymentes farmers at this time. As for the slaves, the term doulos used by Pausanias could mean 'slave', or simply "worker", and it is likely that in this instance it referred to the gymnetes, a large body of disenfranchised free agricultural workers of the Argolid, not strictly speaking "slaves" who were bought and sold, in this he cites the evidence of Plutarch, who corrected Herodotus. If so, like the wall, this would be another anachronism from Pausanias's time in which both the physical nature of Argos and its social organization and settlement patterns had changed.
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However, Fatimid policy with regard to Syria during the early part of al-Aziz's reign was dominated by the vizier Ibn Killis, who, according to historian Hugh N. Kennedy, "believed that the Fatimids should concentrate on controlling Palestine and southern Syria, while leaving the north of the Hamdanids and their successors to form a buffer state against the Byzantines, with whom the caliph should try to keep on good terms". Despite initial successes, the initial Fatimid invasion of Syria, under the Kutama general Ja'far ibn Fallah, quickly came to a halt through a combination of rebellions by the citizens of Damascus and the Bedouin tribes of the Syrian Desert. In August 971, the Fatimids were defeated in battle against the Bedouin and their Qarmatian allies, leading to the near total collapse of Fatimid control in southern Syria and Palestine, and even a short-lived Qarmatian invasion of Egypt. When al-Aziz came to power, Damascus was ruled by the Turk Alptakin, who with only 300 of his fellow Turks had taken power by exploiting the unpopularity of the Fatimids' Kutama troops, gained popular support by restoring order in the city, and held it against the Fatimids, recognizing Abbasid suzerainty.
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The Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and Limburg in 1839 1, 2 and 3 United Kingdom of the Netherlands (until 1830) 1 and 2 Kingdom of the Netherlands (after 1830) 2 Duchy of Limburg (1839–1867) (in the German Confederacy after 1839 as compensation for Waals-Luxemburg) 3 and 4 Kingdom of Belgium (after 1830) 4 and 5 Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (borders until 1830) 4 Province of Luxembourg (Waals-Luxemburg, to Belgium in 1839) 5 Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (German Luxemburg; borders after 1839) In blue, the borders of the German Confederation. After the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Congress of Vienna created a kingdom for the House of Orange-Nassau, thus combining the United Provinces of the Netherlands with the former Austrian Netherlands in order to create a strong buffer state north of France; with the addition of those provinces the Netherlands became a rising power. Symptomatic of the tenor of diplomatic bargaining at Vienna was the early proposal to reward Prussia for its fight against Napoleon with the former Habsburg territory. When Great Britain insisted on retaining the former Dutch Ceylon and the Cape Colony, which they had seized while the Netherlands was ruled by Napoleon, the new kingdom of the Netherlands was compensated with these southern provinces (modern Belgium).
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