Massimo shakes himself under the blanket that he's wearing to protect his bronchi, bruised from several ailments.
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An investigation after the fire revealed that Jeffrey, a special needs child who was deaf, did not have smoke or soot in his mouth, trachea or bronchi — which would have been present if he had died as a result of the fire, according to court records.
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Lungs showing bronchi and bronchioles The main bronchi also known as the primary bronchi, in each lung, which are the left and right bronchus, give rise to secondary bronchi known as lobar bronchi. These in turn give rise to tertiary bronchi (tertiary meaning "third"), known as segmental bronchi. The segmentary bronchi subdivide into fourth order, fifth order and sixth order segmental bronchi before dividing into the bronchioles. These are histologically distinct from the bronchi in that their walls do not have hyaline cartilage and they have club cells in their epithelial lining.
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Bronchioles are defined as the small airways lacking any cartilagenous support. The first bronchi to branch from the trachea are the right and left main bronchi. Second only in diameter to the trachea (1.8 cm), these bronchi (1 -1.4 cm in diameter) enter the lungs at each hilum, where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi known as lobar bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi known as segmental bronchi. Further divisions of the segmental bronchi (1 to 6 mm in diameter) are known as 4th order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as subsegmental bronchi.
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A bronchus is a passage or airway in the respiratory system that conducts air into the lungs. The first bronchi to branch from the trachea are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus, also known as the primary bronchi. These are the widest and enter the lungs at each hilum, where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi or lobar bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi or segmental bronchi. Further divisions of the segmental bronchi are known as 4th order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as subsegmental bronchi.
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The bronchi when too narrow to be supported by cartilage are known as bronchioles. No gas exchange takes place in the bronchi.
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The respiratory system develops from the lung bud, which appears in the ventral wall of the foregut about four weeks into development. The lung bud forms the trachea and two lateral growths known as the bronchial buds, which enlarge at the beginning of the fifth week to form the left and right main bronchi. These bronchi in turn form secondary (lobar) bronchi; three on the right and two on the left (reflecting the number of lung lobes). Tertiary bronchi form from secondary bronchi.
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5-Oxo-ETE also stimulates contractile responses in fresh bronchi, cultured bronchi, and cultured lung smooth muscle taken from guinea pigs but in direct contrast to these studies is reported to relax bronchi isolated from humans. The latter bronchi contractile responses were blocked by cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition or a thromboxane A2 receptor antagonist and therefore appear mediated by 5-oxo-ETE-induced production of this thromboxane. In all events, the relaxing action of 5-oxo-ETE on human bronchi does not appear to involve OXER1.
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Bronchial atresia is a rare congenital disorder that can have a varied appearance. A bronchial atresia is a defect in the development of the bronchi, affecting one or more bronchi – usually segmental bronchi and sometimes lobar. The defect takes the form of a blind-ended bronchus. The surrounding tissue secretes mucus normally but builds up and becomes distended.
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Bronchoconstriction is defined as the narrowing of the airways in the lungs (bronchi and bronchioles). Air flow in air passages can get restricted in three ways: # a spasmodic state of the smooth muscles in bronchi and bronchioles # an inflammation in the middle layers of the bronchi and bronchioles # excessive production of mucus. The bronchial spasm is due to the activation of parasympathetic nervous system. Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers will release acetylcholine causing the constriction of the smooth muscle layer surrounding the bronchi.
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The left bronchus has no eparterial branch, and therefore it has been supposed by some that there is no upper lobe to the left lung, but that the so-called upper lobe corresponds to the middle lobe of the right lung. The left main bronchus divides into two secondary bronchi or lobar bronchi, to deliver air to the two lobes of the left lung—the superior and the inferior lobe. The secondary bronchi divide further into tertiary bronchi, (also known as segmental bronchi), each of which supplies a bronchopulmonary segment. A bronchopulmonary segment is a division of a lung separated from the rest of the lung by a septum of connective tissue.
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Light microscopy typically shows neutrophils in bronchi, bronchioles and adjacent alveolar spaces.
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The Intrapulmonary nodes or Lymphatic Vessels of the Lungs originate in two plexuses, a superficial and a deep. The superficial plexus is placed beneath the pulmonary pleura. The deep accompanies the branches of the pulmonary vessels and the ramifications of the bronchi. In the case of the larger bronchi the deep plexus consists of two networks—one, submucous, beneath the mucous membrane, and another, peribronchial, outside the walls of the bronchi.
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They grow as a solitary tumor attaching themselves to the sides of the bronchi.
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Bitolterol mesylate (Tornalate) is a short-acting β2 adrenergic receptor agonist used for the relief of bronchospasm in conditions such as asthma and COPD. In these disorders there is a narrowing of the airways (bronchi and their ramifications) that carry air to the lungs. Muscle spasm and inflammation within the bronchi worsen this narrowing. Bitolterol relaxes the smooth muscles present continuously around the bronchi and bronchioles facilitating the flow of air through them.
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Another example is the migration of Ascaris larvae through the bronchi of the lungs causing asthma.
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During inhalation, environmental air initially enters the bird through the nostrils from where it is heated, humidified, and filtered in the nasal passages and upper parts of the trachea. From there, the air enters the lower trachea and continues to just beyond the syrinx, at which point the trachea branches into two primary bronchi, going to the two lungs. The primary bronchi enter the lungs to become the intrapulmonary bronchi, which give off a set of parallel branches called ventrobronchi and, a little further on, an equivalent set of dorsobronchi. The ends of the intrapulmonary bronchi discharge air into the posterior air sacs at the caudal end of the bird.
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There is a smooth muscle layer below the epithelium arranged as two ribbons of muscle that spiral in opposite directions. This smooth muscle layer contains seromucous glands, which secrete mucus, in its wall. Hyaline cartilage is present in the bronchi, surrounding the smooth muscle layer. In the main bronchi, the cartilage forms C-shaped rings like those in the trachea, while in the smaller bronchi, hyaline cartilage is present in irregularly arranged crescent-shaped plates and islands.
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Asthma is marked by hyperresponsiveness of the bronchi with an inflammatory component, often in response to allergens. In asthma, the constriction of the bronchi can result in difficulty in breathing giving shortness of breath; this can lead to a lack of oxygen reaching the body for cellular processes. In this case, an inhaler can be used to rectify the problem. The inhaler administers a bronchodilator, which serves to soothe the constricted bronchi and to re-expand the airways.
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A bronchial leiomyoma is a relatively rare form of lung tumours. These tumours can form in the lower respiratory tract tissue of the bronchi, trachea and other lung tissue. They may also be derived from blood vessels. These tumors typically form from the smooth muscle tissue lining the bronchi.
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Diagram of the larynx, trachea and bronchi. The trachea and bronchi form the tracheobronchial tree. The trachea is situated between the lower end of the larynx and the center of the chest, where it splits into the two bronchi at a ridge called the carina. The trachea is stabilized and kept open by rings made of cartilage that surround the front and sides of the structure; these rings are not closed and do not surround the back, which is made of membrane.
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During inhalation air enters the trachea via the nostrils and mouth, and continues to just beyond the syrinx at which point the trachea branches into two primary bronchi, going to the two lungs (Fig. 16). The primary bronchi enter the lungs to become the intrapulmonary bronchi, which give off a set of parallel branches called ventrobronchi and, a little further on, an equivalent set of dorsobronchi (Fig. 16). The ends of the intrapulmonary bronchi discharge air into the posterior air sacs at the caudal end of the bird. Each pair of dorso- ventrobronchi is connected by a large number of parallel microscopic air capillaries (or parabronchi) where gas exchange occurs (Fig. 16).
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It is thought to result from a deficiency of cartilage formation in the 4th to 6th order segmental bronchi.
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Bronchophony may be caused by a solidification of lung tissue around the bronchi – which may indicate lung cancer – or by fluid in the alveoli, which may indicate pneumonia. However, it may also have benign causes, such as wide bronchi. As such, it is usually an indication for further investigation rather than the main basis of a diagnosis.
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Bronchial adenomas are adenomas in the bronchi. They may cause carcinoid syndrome, a type of paraneoplastic syndrome.Table 6-5 in: 8th edition.
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Also, the trachea or bronchi are easily embolized by mucus when the ventilation is poor, leading to severe respiratory disease and death.
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5-Oxo-ETE relaxes pre-contracted human bronchi by a mechanism that does not appear to involve OXER1 but is otherwise undefined.
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These cysts are located close to the trachea or main stem bronchi. Rarely there is communication of the cyst with the tracheobronchial tree.
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This property allows a bronchopulmonary segment to be surgically removed without affecting other segments. Initially, there are ten segments in each lung, but during development with the left lung having just two lobes, two pairs of segments fuse to give eight, four for each lobe. The tertiary bronchi divide further in another three branchings known as 4th order, 5th order and 6th order segmental bronchi which are also referred to as subsegmental bronchi. These branch into many smaller bronchioles which divide into terminal bronchioles, each of which then gives rise to several respiratory bronchioles, which go on to divide into two to eleven alveolar ducts.
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Activation of β2-adrenergic receptors produces relaxation of smooth muscle of the bronchi, causing bronchial dilation and in turn decreasing congestion (although not fluid) and difficulty breathing.
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Bronchophony is the abnormal transmission of sounds from the lungs or bronchi. Bronchophony is a type of pectoriloquy. It is a general medical sign detected by auscultation.
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In birds, the trachea runs from the pharynx to the syrinx, from which the primary bronchi diverge. Swans have an unusually elongated trachea, part of which is coiled beneath the sternum; this may act as a resonator to amplify sound. In some birds, the tracheal rings are complete, and may even be ossified. In amphibians, the trachea is normally extremely short, and leads directly into the lungs, without clear primary bronchi.
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Fig. 15 The arrangement of the air sacs, and lungs in birds Fig. 16 The anatomy of bird's respiratory system, showing the relationships of the trachea, primary and intra-pulmonary bronchi, the dorso- and ventro-bronchi, with the parabronchi running between the two. The posterior and anterior air sacs are also indicated, but not to scale. Fig. 17 A dove skeleton, showing the movement of the chest during inhalation.
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Acknowledging these different anatomical subtypes allows for a more comprehensive diagnosis and better management of the disease. Faro type A describes a total pulmonary agenesis, in which none of the respiratory organs are present. Type B is comparable to Floyd’s type III and describes complete agenesis of the trachea, with no joining of the bronchi. Faro type C describes total agenesis of the trachea with normal bronchi fusing at the carina.
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Lesions can be transverse, occurring between the rings of the trachea, longitudinal or spiral. They may occur along the membranous part of the trachea, the main bronchi, or both. In 8% of ruptures, lesions are complex, occurring in more than one location, with more than one type of lesion, or on both of the main bronchi and the trachea. Transverse tears are more common than longitudinal or complex ones.
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Plastic bronchitis is a rarely found condition in which thickened secretions plug the bronchi. The plugs are rubbery or plastic-feeling (thus the name). The light-colored plugs take the branching shape of the bronchi that they fill, and are known as bronchial casts. When these casts are coughed up, they are firmer in texture from typical phlegm or the short, softer mucus plugs seen in some people with asthma.
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Left ventricular relaxation is impaired which may induce an elevation in pulmonary microvascular hydrostatic pressure which would in turn lead to edema in the lungs, constricting the bronchi.
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The arrangement of the air sacs, and lungs in birds The anatomy of bird's respiratory system, showing the relationships of the trachea, primary and intra-pulmonary bronchi, the dorso- and ventro-bronchi, with the parabronchi running between the two. The posterior and anterior air sacs are also indicated, but not to scale. Inhalation–exhalation cycle in birds. Due to the high metabolic rate required for flight, birds have a high oxygen demand.
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Ipratropium as a nasal solution sprayed into the nostrils can reduce rhinorrhea but will not help nasal congestion. Combination with beta- adrenergic agonists increases the dilating effect on the bronchi.
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Therapeutic guidelines: Antibiotic. 13th ed. North Melbourne: Therapeutic Guidelines; 2006. It affects over 40 adults per 1000 each year and consists of transient inflammation of the major bronchi and trachea.
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The bronchial arteries supply blood to the bronchi and connective tissue of the lungs. They travel with and branch with the bronchi, ending about at the level of the respiratory bronchioles. They anastomose with the branches of the pulmonary arteries, and together, they supply the visceral pleura of the lung in the process. Note that much of the oxygenated blood supplied by the bronchial arteries is returned via the pulmonary veins rather than the bronchial veins.
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Diagnostic or therapeutic manipulation of the airway (such as bronchoscopy, laser therapy or stenting of the bronchi) may intermittently interfere with the ability to breathe; intubation may be necessary in such situations.
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Bronchiectasis refers to the abnormal, irreversible dilatation of the bronchi caused by destructive and inflammatory changes in the airway walls. Bronchiectasis has three major anatomical patterns: cylindrical bronchiectasis, varicose bronchiectasis and cystic bronchiectasis.
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Cilia and much smaller microvilli on non-ciliated bronchiolar epithelium The cartilage and mucous membrane of the primary bronchi are similar to those in the trachea. They are lined with respiratory epithelium, which is classified as ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium. The epithelium in the main bronchi contains goblet cells, which are glandular, modified simple columnar epithelial cells that produce mucins, the main component of mucus. Mucus plays an important role in keeping the airways clear in the mucociliary clearance process.
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During exhalation the pressure in the posterior air sacs (which were filled with fresh air during inhalation) increases due to the contraction of the oblique muscle described above. The aerodynamics of the interconnecting openings from the posterior air sacs to the dorsobronchi and intrapulmonary bronchi ensures that the air leaves these sacs in the direction of the lungs (via the dorsobronchi), rather than returning down the intrapulmonary bronchi (Fig. 18). From the dorsobronchi the fresh air from the posterior air sacs flows through the parabronchi (in the same direction as occurred during inhalation) into ventrobronchi. The air passages connecting the ventrobronchi and anterior air sacs to the intrapulmonary bronchi direct the "spent", oxygen poor air from these two organs to the trachea from where it escapes to the exterior.
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These microscopic air sacs have a very rich blood supply, thus bringing the air into close contact with the blood. These air sacs communicate with the external environment via a system of airways, or hollow tubes, of which the largest is the trachea, which branches in the middle of the chest into the two main bronchi. These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles. In birds the bronchioles are termed parabronchi.
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MIP enhances the 3D nature of these nodules, making them stand out from pulmonary bronchi and vasculature. MIP imaging is also used routinely by physicians in interpreting Positron Emission Tomography (PET) or Magnetic Resonance Angiography studies.
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The trachea, also called the windpipe, is a cartilaginous tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi of the lungs, allowing the passage of air, and so is present in almost all air-breathing animals with lungs. The trachea extends from the larynx and branches into the two primary bronchi. At the top of the trachea the cricoid cartilage attaches it to the larynx. The trachea is formed by a number of horseshoe-shaped rings, joined together vertically by ligaments over their substance and by the trachealis muscle at their ends.
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The right main bronchus subdivides into three secondary bronchi (also known as lobar bronchi), which deliver oxygen to the three lobes of the right lung—the superior, middle and inferior lobe. The azygos vein arches over it from behind; and the right pulmonary artery lies at first below and then in front of it. About 2 cm from its commencement it gives off a branch to the superior lobe of the right lung, which is also called the eparterial bronchus. Eparterial refers to its position above the right pulmonary artery.
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Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is a procedure whereby a small volume of fluid is put into the airways in order sample the cells and fluids of the aveoli and epithelium of the bronchi. BAL may be performed using a BAL tube, which allows fluid to be added to and removed from the bronchi, or may be performed during endoscopy, if the endoscope has an irrigation channel. To perform BAL, the horse is usually sedated, and local anaesthetic is usually instilled into the airways to reduce coughing. BAL is less useful when severe hemorrhage has occurred.
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Aspergillus bronchitis is one of the Aspergillosis spectrum of diseases, in which the bronchi are specifically subject to a fungal infection. This differs from the other pulmonary aspergillosis conditions, in that it need not affect just the immunocompromised.
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Ilya Gruzinov was professor of anatomy and physiology at Imperial Moscow University. He discovered in 1812 that the actual source for a deep and pleasant vocal sound is the membrane, which is a posterior wall of trachea and bronchi.
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Cetacaine can and has been used for surgeries that include bronchi, ear, esophagus, larynx, mouth, nose, pharynx, rectal, and vaginal procedures. These procedures can include periodontal treatment, pre-probing, pre- scaling/root planning procedures, pre-injection, and laser dentistry.
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Laryngotracheal stenosis refers to abnormal narrowing of the central air passageways. This can occur at the level of the larynx, trachea, carina or main bronchi. In a small number of patients narrowing may be present in more than one anatomical location.
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Mucoepidermoid carcinoma is the most common type of minor salivary gland malignancy in adults. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma can also be found in other organs, such as bronchi, lacrimal sac, and thyroid gland. Mucicarmine staining is one stain used by pathologist for detection.
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STEFAN - The spring known since 1822. The bi- carbonate-chloride-sodium-iodide acidic water. Recommended, among others, in urinary tract inflammations, nephrolithiasis, catarrhs of nose, throat, bronchi inflammations, asthma, emphysema. JÓZEFINA - The oldest spring in Szczawnica, known already before 1810.
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It most often arises centrally in larger bronchi, and while it often metastasizes to locoregional lymph nodes (particularly the hilar nodes) early in its course, it generally disseminates outside the thorax somewhat later than other major types of lung cancer. Large tumors may undergo central necrosis, resulting in cavitation. A squamous-cell carcinoma is often preceded for years by squamous-cell metaplasia or dysplasia in the respiratory epithelium of the bronchi, which later transforms to carcinoma in situ. Large scale studies such as The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) have systematically characterized recurrent somatic alterations likely driving lung squamous-cell carcinoma initiation and development.
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EIPH is most commonly diagnosed by endoscopic examination of the trachea and larger bronchi, with the optimal timing for endoscopy being 60–90 minutes after hard exercise. This post-exercise delay allows time for blood within the lungs to travel to the trachea. Blood can usually be detected in the trachea or bronchi for 1–3 days after an episode of EIPH, but may be present for up to a week. The amount of blood visible in the trachea at the time of examination is most commonly graded on a scale of 0 (no blood) to 4 (airways awash with blood).
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Pimethixene is an antihistamine and anticholinergic of the thioxanthene chemical class that is often used to treat hyperactivity, anxiety, sleep disorders, and allergy. It is also used for anesthesia and as a bronchodilator (to dilate the bronchi and bronchioles for more airflow).
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The lung bud sometimes referred to as the respiratory bud forms from the respiratory diverticulum, an embryological endodermal structure that develops into the respiratory tract organs such as the larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. It arises from part of the laryngotracheal tube.
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Williams–Campbell syndrome (WCS) is a disease of the airways where cartilage in the bronchi is defective. It is a form of congenital cystic bronchiectasis. This leads to collapse of the airways and bronchiectasis. It acts as one of the differential to Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis.
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Because these receptors have been found in the walls of bronchi, the larynx, and the nose, they appear to be part of a widespread population of nociceptors found in most tissue. For this reason, they are now usually referred to as pulmonary C-fiber receptors.
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Isaac Adler. "Primary Malignant Growth of the Lung and Bronchi". (1912) New York, Longmans, Green. pp. 3–12. Reprinted (1980) by A Cancer Journal for Clinicians Prior to World War I, lung cancer was a rare disease that most physicians never saw in their career.
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The smaller bronchi have a single layer of lymph capillaries, and they are absent in the alveoli. Each lung is surrounded by a serous membrane of visceral pleura, which has an underlying layer of loose connective tissue attached to the substance of the lung.
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2.) includes the lower part of the larynx, the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and the alveoli. The branching airways of the lower tract are often described as the respiratory tree or tracheobronchial tree (Fig. 2). The intervals between successive branch points along the various branches of "tree" are often referred to as branching "generations", of which there are, in the adult human about 23. The earlier generations (approximately generations 0–16), consisting of the trachea and the bronchi, as well as the larger bronchioles which simply act as air conduits, bringing air to the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli (approximately generations 17–23), where gas exchange takes place.
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In the smaller bronchi there is but a single plexus, which extends as far as the bronchioles, but fails to reach the alveoli, in the walls of which there are no traces of lymphatic vessels. The superficial efferents turn around the borders of the lungs and the margins of their fissures, and converge to end in some glands situated at the hilus; the deep efferents are conducted to the hilus along the pulmonary vessels and bronchi, and end in the tracheobronchial lymph nodes. Little or no anastomosis occurs between the superficial and deep lymphatics of the lungs, except in the region of the hilus.
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CT scan of air bronchograms in a case of legionnaires' disease. An air bronchogram is defined as a pattern of air-filled bronchi on a background of airless lung. 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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Adult D. viviparus worms reside in the bronchial tree of the animal's lungs. They lay eggs into the airways (bronchi). These eggs are coughed up and subsequently swallowed by the host. The eggs hatch into Stage 1 larvae (L1) in the gastrointestinal tract of the ruminant host.
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2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. The adult worms usually remain permanently joined in this “Y” formation as they settle on the mucosal epithelium of the larynx, trachea, or bronchi. Adult M. laryngeus worms are red to reddish-brown in color due to their hemophagous nature.
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Tracheobronchomegaly is a very rare congenital disorder of the lung primarily characterized by an abnormal widening of the upper airways. The abnormally widened trachea and mainstem bronchi are associated with recurrent lower respiratory tract infection and copious purulent sputum production, eventually leading to bronchiectasis and other respiratory complications.
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Praxagoras studied Aristotle's (384-322 BC) anatomy and improved it by distinguishing between artery and veins. He saw arteries as air tubes, similar to the trachea and bronchi, which carried pneuma, the mystic force of life.Pendergraph, Garland E. (1998) Handbook of Phlebotomy and Patient Service and Techniques. Williams & Wilkins.
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Foreign body in the bronchi can also present as chronic cough.Gyanshankar Mishra, Jasmin Mulani. A non–resolving consolidation which was caused by abronchial foreign body in an adult: A case report. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research [serial online] 2013 August [cited: 2013 Aug 3 ]; 7:1750-1752.
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Bronchomalacia is a term for weak cartilage in the walls of the bronchial tubes, often occurring in children under six months. Bronchomalacia means 'floppiness' of some part of the bronchi. Patients present with noisy breathing and/or wheezing. There is collapse of a main stem bronchus on exhalation.
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Curschmann's spiral Curschmann's spirals are a microscopic finding in the sputum of asthmatics. They are spiral-shaped mucus plugs from subepithelial mucous gland ducts of bronchi. They may occur in several different lung diseases.and may refer to parts of the desquamated epithelium seen in lavages from asthmatic patients.
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Hemoptysis is the coughing up of blood or blood-stained mucus from the bronchi, larynx, trachea, or lungs. In other words, it is the airway bleeding. This can occur with lung cancer, infections such as tuberculosis, bronchitis, or pneumonia, and certain cardiovascular conditions. Hemoptysis is considered massive at .
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Tracheobronchomalacia or TBM is a condition characterized by flaccidity of the tracheal support cartilage which leads to tracheal collapse. This condition can also affect the bronchi. There are two forms of this condition: primary TBM and secondary TBM. Primary TBM is congenital and starts as early as birth.
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In type III tracheal agenesis, the trachea is completely absent and the bronchi develop individually, originating from the oesophagus directly and without joining at the carina. No tracheoesophageal fistula is present in this case as the trachea is completely absent. It is estimated that 27% of all cases are type III.
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In the lower respiratory tract excessive mucus production in the bronchi and bronchioles is known as mucus hypersecretion. Chronic mucus hypersecretion results in the chronic productive cough of chronic bronchitis, and is generally synonymous with this. Excess mucus can narrow the airways, limit airflow, and accelerate a decline in lung function.
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Bronchitis is defined as inflammation of the bronchi, which can either be acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis is usually caused by viral or bacterial infections. Many sufferers of chronic bronchitis also suffer from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and this is usually associated with smoking or long-term exposure to irritants.
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The typical symptoms of bronchiectasis are shown. Also, the change in bronchi under bronchiectasis are illustrated. Symptoms of bronchiectasis commonly include a cough productive of frequent green or yellow sputum lasting months to years. Other common symptoms include difficulty breathing, wheezing (a whistling sound when you breath), and chest pain.
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Part of the reason for this that the respiratory system in children is smaller. The bronchi and bronchioles are narrower so even a slight decrease in diameter of these airways can have serious consequences. Many children outgrow their allergies. The incidence of childhood allergies has increased in the past 50 years.
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Type II tracheal agenesis is the most common form of the disease, estimated to appear in 60% of cases. Type II is characterised by a complete absence of the trachea. The bronchi are normal and fuse at the carina. In most cases, the oesophagus and the carina are joined by a fistula.
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After reaching adulthood, M. laryngeus migrates upwards to the trachea, larynx, or bronchi, where sexual reproduction occurs. Egg production begins about three weeks later, and eggs are coughed up and expelled in sputum, or excreted in feces. Larvae may hatch from embryonated eggs outside of the mammalian host.Acha PN, Szyfres B. Mammomonogamiasis.
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Bronchitis Acute bronchitis, also known as a chest cold, is short term inflammation of the bronchi of the lungs. The most common symptom is a cough, that may or may not produce sputum. Other symptoms may include coughing up mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, fever, and chest discomfort. Fever when present is mild.
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In many people, the infection waxes and wanes. Tissue destruction and necrosis are often balanced by healing and fibrosis. Affected tissue is replaced by scarring and cavities filled with caseous necrotic material. During active disease, some of these cavities are joined to the air passages (bronchi) and this material can be coughed up.
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It forms the epithelial lining of the whole of the digestive tract except part of the mouth and pharynx and the terminal part of the rectum (which are lined by involutions of the ectoderm). It also forms the lining cells of all the glands which open into the digestive tract, including those of the liver and pancreas; the epithelium of the auditory tube and tympanic cavity; the trachea, bronchi, and alveoli of the lungs; the bladder and part of the urethra; and the follicle lining of the thyroid gland and thymus. The endoderm forms: the pharynx, the esophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, the colon, the liver, the pancreas, the bladder, the epithelial parts of the trachea and bronchi, the lungs, the thyroid, and the parathyroid.
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Pseudoephedrine is a sympathomimetic amine. Its principal mechanism of action relies on its direct action on the adrenergic receptor system. The vasoconstriction that pseudoephedrine produces is believed to be principally an α-adrenergic receptor response. Pseudoephedrine acts on α- and β2-adrenergic receptors, to cause vasoconstriction and relaxation of smooth muscle in the bronchi, respectively.
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In these cases it is known as ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis. The infection begins in the trachea where it colonises and spreads to the bronchi. The characteristic increased sputum produced can give problems in the removal of the tracheal tube (extubation). Tracheobronchial infections are responsible for up to 80% of exacerbations in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
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Acute bronchitis, also known as a chest cold, is short-term bronchitis – inflammation of the bronchi (large and medium-sized airways) of the lungs. The most common symptom is a cough. Other symptoms include coughing up mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, fever, and chest discomfort. The infection may last from a few to ten days.
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There are five or six alveolar sacs associated with each alveolar duct. The alveolus is the basic anatomical unit of gas exchange in the lung. The main bronchi have relatively large lumens that are lined by respiratory epithelium. This cellular lining has cilia departing towards the mouth which removes dust and other small particles.
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Bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchi (large and medium-sized airways) in the lungs that causes coughing. Symptoms include coughing up sputum, wheezing, shortness of breath, and chest pain. Bronchitis can be acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis usually has a cough that lasts around three weeks, and is also known as a chest cold.
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The pigmentation did not disappear after the exposure stopped. For acute high exposures (1 hour, 42 ppm) all animals died, after showing difficulty breathing and gasping for air. Their lung tissues showed hemorrhagic lesions, inflammation, edema and necrosis in the bronchi. However recovery of the animals that survived was apparent 2 weeks after the treatment.
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As a result, the fluid is disrupted and the two membranes no longer adhere to each other. When the rib cage moves out, it no longer pulls the lungs with it. Thus the lungs cannot expand, the pressure in the lungs never drops and no air is pulled into the bronchi. Respiration is not possible.
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Over the following week, the secondary buds branch into tertiary buds, about ten on each side. From the sixth week to the sixteenth week, the major elements of the lungs appear except the alveoli. From week 16 to week 26, the bronchi enlarge and lung tissue becomes highly vascularised. Bronchioles and alveolar ducts also develop.
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It is not unusual for subcutaneous emphysema to result from positive pressure ventilation. Another possible cause is a ruptured trachea. The trachea may be injured by tracheostomy or tracheal intubation; in cases of tracheal injury, large amounts of air can enter the subcutaneous space. An endotracheal tube can puncture the trachea or bronchi and cause subcutaneous emphysema.
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Atelectasis of the middle lobe on a sagittal CT reconstruction. Atelectasis may be an acute or chronic condition. In acute atelectasis, the lung has recently collapsed and is primarily notable only for airlessness. In chronic atelectasis, the affected area is often characterized by a complex mixture of airlessness, infection, widening of the bronchi (bronchiectasis), destruction, and scarring (fibrosis).
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Bronchogenic cysts are usually found in the middle mediastinum. Chest x-rays show a smooth density just in front of the trachea or main stem bronchi at the carinal level. When the cyst communicates with the tracheobronchial tree, the air- fluid level may be seen within the cyst. CT scanning is useful in localizing these cysts.
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It is joined to the nose by the nasopharynx at the top of the throat, and to the ear by its Eustachian tube. The throat's trachea carries inhaled air to the bronchi of the lungs. The esophagus carries food through the throat to the stomach. Adenoids and tonsils help prevent infection and are composed of lymph tissue.
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JÓZEF - spring discovered in 1986. It is used in treatment of the digestive system disorders, diseases of the upper and lower respiratory tracts, rheumatologic diseases, obesity and osteoporosis. SZYMON – Recommended in gastrointestinal diseases, as well as in neuroses, obesity and gout. PITONIAKÓWKA - Recommended in diseases of neuroses, obesity, inflammation of the upper respiratory tract and bronchi.
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Chef Yeltsin protocol Vladimir Shevchenko said that "Boris Nikolayevich cold: he had an inflammation of the bronchi, and the doctors strongly advised him not to leave the house." After taking the oath, he sounded Anthem of Russia and Vladimir Putin went to the door, simultaneously accepting congratulations spectators. After that, on Ivanovskaya Square the review of troops took place.
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Air filled structures (especially bronchi) are enhanced. MinIP is mainly used to diagnose lung diseases with computed tomography scans where the attenuation values are reduced (for example traction bronchectasis and emphysema). Another application is for assessing the bile tree and pancreatic duct which compared to the surrounding tissue is hypoattenuating (especially after intravenous contrast media administration).
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Each pair of dorso-ventrobronchi is connected by a large number of parallel microscopic air capillaries (or parabronchi) where gas exchange occurs. As the bird inhales, tracheal air flows through the intrapulmonary bronchi into the posterior air sacs, as well as into the dorsobronchi (but not into the ventrobronchi whose openings into the intrapulmonary bronchi were previously believed to be tightly closed during inhalation. However, more recent studies have shown that the aerodynamics of the bronchial architecture directs the inhaled air away from the openings of the ventrobronchi, into the continuation of the intrapulmonary bronchus towards the dorsobronchi and posterior air sacs). From the dorsobronchi the air flows through the parabronchi (and therefore the gas exchanger) to the ventrobronchi from where the air can only escape into the expanding anterior air sacs.
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This is one contributor to high altitude sickness. On the other hand, if the switch to oxygen homeostasis is incomplete, then hypoxia may complicate the clinical picture with potentially fatal results. There are oxygen sensors in the smaller bronchi and bronchioles. In response to low partial pressures of oxygen in the inhaled air these sensors reflexively cause the pulmonary arterioles to constrict.
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Small-cell lung carcinoma (microscopic view of a core needle biopsy) In SCLC, the cells contain dense neurosecretory granules (vesicles containing neuroendocrine hormones), which give this tumor an endocrine or paraneoplastic syndrome association. Most cases arise in the larger airways (primary and secondary bronchi). Sixty to seventy percent have extensive disease (which cannot be targeted within a single radiation therapy field) at presentation.
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The laryngotracheal tube will then fully separate from the foregut. Two primary bronchial buds form at the end of the tube, which then elongates to form the trachea. The buds then branch to form the bronchi, lungs and alveolar tissue. The development of the respiratory tract is closely associated to that of the oesophagus. Both organs regulate each other’s growth via molecular interactions.
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Inhalation of high doses of this gas causes lesions in the larynx, trachea, and large bronchi with inflammatory reactions and necrosis. The alkylating agent affects more the upper parts of the respiratory tract, and only intensely exposed victims showed signs like bronchiolitis obliterans in the distal part. Secondary effects of sulfur mustard exposure lead to chronic lung diseases such as chronic bronchitis.
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Another non cardiac cause of chest pain is atelectasis. It is a condition that suffered when a portion of the lung collapses from being airless. When bronchial tubes are blocked, this condition develops and causes patients to feel shortness of breath. The most common cause of atelectasis is when a bronchi that extends from the windpipe is blocked and traps air.
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Tracheobronchitis is inflammation of the trachea and bronchi. It is characterised by a cough, fever, and purulent (containing pus) sputum and is therefore suggestive of pneumonia. It is classified as a respiratory tract infection. Tracheobronchitis is often a hospital-acquired infection, particularly in an intensive care setting, associated with the use of mechanical ventilators, and the need for inserting a tracheal tube.
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Some tissues contain goblet cells and are referred to as simple glandular columnar epithelium. These secrete mucus and are found in the stomach, colon, and rectum. :(4) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium: These can be ciliated or non-ciliated. The ciliated type is also called respiratory epithelium since it is almost exclusively confined to the larger respiratory airways of the nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi.
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Males typically have larger tracheae and branching bronchi, with about 56% greater lung volume per body mass. They also have larger hearts, 10% higher red blood cell count, and higher haemoglobin hence greater oxygen-carrying capacity. They also have higher circulating clotting factors (vitamin K, prothrombin and platelets). These differences lead to faster healing of wounds and higher peripheral pain tolerance.
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The bronchioles or bronchioli are the smaller branches of the bronchial airways in the respiratory tract. They include the terminal bronchioles, and finally the respiratory bronchioles that mark the start of the respiratory zone delivering air to the gas exchanging units of the alveoli. The bronchioles no longer contain the cartilage, that is found in the bronchi, or glands in their submucosa.
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The mechanism of disease is breakdown of the airways due to an excessive inflammatory response. Involved airways (bronchi) become enlarged and thus less able to clear secretions. These secretions increase the amount of bacteria in the lungs, resulting in airway blockage and further breakdown of the airways. It is classified as an obstructive lung disease, along with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma.
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"Vicious cycle" theory of the pathogenesis of bronchiectasis. The development of bronchiectasis requires two factors: an infectious insult and impaired drainage, obstruction, or a defect in host defense. This triggers a host immune response from neutrophils (elastases), reactive oxygen species, and inflammatory cytokines that results in progressive destruction of normal lung architecture. In particular, the elastic fibers of bronchi are affected.
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The result is permanent abnormal dilation and destruction of the major bronchi and bronchiole walls. The "vicious cycle" theory is the generally accepted explanation for the pathogenesis of bronchiectasis. In this model, a predisposed individual develops an excessive inflammatory response to pulmonary infection or tissue injury. The inflammation that results is partially responsible for the structural damage to the airways.
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These microscopic casts are named after German physician Heinrich Curschmann (1846-1910). They are often seen in association with creola bodies and Charcot-Leyden crystals. They are elongated microscopic mucous casts from small bronchi and are often found in sputum samples from patients with bronchial asthma. They can be stretched out to a length of around 2 cm and can sometimes be longer.
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Sometimes overlooked is the presence of hypothermia, which can be present in sepsis. Physical examination and accessing the history and physical examination is focussed on sites of infection. Indwelling line sites, areas of skin breakdown, sinuses, nasopharynx, bronchi and lungs, alimentary tract, and skin are assessed. The diagnosis of neutropenia is done via the low neutrophil count detection on a complete blood count.
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Erythematous skin conditions arising from antigen reactions may complicate the disease, as may myalgias, arthralgias, and rarely, arthritic conditions. Emphysema sufferers may contract chronic cavitary pulmonary histoplasmosis as a disease complication; eventually the cavity formed may be occupied by an Aspergillus fungus ball (aspergilloma), potentially leading to massive hemoptysis. Another uncommon form of histoplasmosis is a slowly progressing condition known as granulomatous mediastinitis, in which the lymph nodes in the mediastinal cavity between the lungs become inflamed and ultimately necrotic; the swollen nodes or draining fluid may ultimately affect the bronchi, the superior vena cava, the esophagus or the pericardium. A particularly dangerous condition is mediastinal fibrosis, in which a subset of individuals with granulomatous mediastinitis develop an uncontrolled fibrotic reaction that may press on the lungs or the bronchi, or may cause right heart failure.
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The lungs of mammals are spongy and honeycombed. Breathing is mainly achieved with the diaphragm, which divides the thorax from the abdominal cavity, forming a dome convex to the thorax. Contraction of the diaphragm flattens the dome, increasing the volume of the lung cavity. Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities, and travels through the larynx, trachea and bronchi, and expands the alveoli.
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Stage I: HIV disease is asymptomatic and not categorized as AIDS. Stage II: include minor mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections. Stage III: includes unexplained chronic diarrhea for longer than a month, severe bacterial infections and pulmonary tuberculosis. Stage IV: includes toxoplasmosis of the brain, candidiasis of the esophagus, trachea, bronchi or lungs and Kaposi's sarcoma; these diseases are used as indicators of AIDS.
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When the secretions are removed, the affected portion of the lung is commonly able to function almost normally. However, infection is common in lungs distal to a partially obstructed bronchiole. Infected lung tissue distal to a stricture can be damaged, and wheezing and coughing may develop due to the narrowing. In addition to pneumonia, the stenosis may cause bronchiectasis, in which bronchi are dilated, to develop.
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In both populations vocal cord dysfunction may present similarly. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease can coexist with asthma and can occur as a complication of chronic asthma. After the age of 65, most people with obstructive airway disease will have asthma and COPD. In this setting, COPD can be differentiated by increased airway neutrophils, abnormally increased wall thickness, and increased smooth muscle in the bronchi.
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Lavandula stoechas is used commercially in air fresheners and insecticides. Flower spikes have been used internally for headaches, irritability, feverish colds and nausea, and externally for wounds, rheumatic pain and as an insect repellent. The lavender also produces essential oils, but is not used commercially for this purpose. The infusion of its dry inflorescences are febrifuge and fight the affections of the chest and bronchi.
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Mucoactive agents are a class of chemical agents which aid in the clearance of mucus from the upper and lower airways, including the lungs, bronchi, and trachea. Mucoactive drugs include expectorants, mucolytics, mucoregulators, and mucokinetics. These medications are used in the treatment of respiratory diseases that are complicated by the oversecretion or inspissation of mucus. These drugs can be further categorized by their mechanism of action.
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In humans, FHAD1 is expressed in testis, fallopian tube and uterine tissues in females, nasopharynx and bronchi of lungs based on studies found on the Human Protein Atlas. NCBI's EST Profile also showed that FHAD1 is highly expressed in the testis, with some expression in the trachea and esophagus. In mice, the gene was also expressed in the testis, along with the pituitary gland, lung and brain.
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Rhinoscleroma, is a chronic granulomatous bacterial disease of the nose that can sometimes infect the upper respiratory tract.Palmer & Reeder. It most commonly affects the nasal cavity—the nose is involved in 95–100 per cent of cases—however, it can also affect the nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi. Slightly more females than males are affected and patients are usually 10 to 30 years of age.
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The bronchi function to carry air that is breathed in through to the functional tissues of the lungs, called alveoli. Exchange of gases between the air in the lungs and the blood in the capillaries occurs across the walls of the alveolar ducts and alveoli. The alveolar ducts and alveoli consist primarily of simple squamous epithelium, which permits rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
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The snake's heart is encased in a sac, called the pericardium, located at the bifurcation of the bronchi. The heart is able to move around, however, owing to the lack of a diaphragm. This adjustment protects the heart from potential damage when large ingested prey is passed through the esophagus. The spleen is attached to the gall bladder and pancreas and filters the blood.
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The branching process forms the bronchi, bronchioles, and ultimately the alveoli. The four genes mostly associated with branching morphogenesis in the lung are the intercellular signalling protein – sonic hedgehog (SHH), fibroblast growth factors FGF10 and FGFR2b, and bone morphogenetic protein BMP4. FGF10 is seen to have the most prominent role. FGF10 is a paracrine signalling molecule needed for epithelial branching, and SHH inhibits FGF10.
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Size comparison of male S. punctatus and human The tuatara is considered the most unspecialised living amniote; the brain and mode of locomotion resemble those of amphibians and the heart is more primitive than that of any other reptile. The lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi. Both species are sexually dimorphic, males being larger. Adult S. punctatus males measure in length and females .
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This species is only occasionally pathogenic. Other sources have identified many species of Aspergillus as producing dry, hydrophobic spores that are easily inhaled by humans and animals. Due to the small size of the spores, about 70% of spores of A. fumigatus are able to penetrate into the trachea and primary bronchi and close to 1% into alveoli. Inhalation of spores of Aspergillus is a health risk.
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CAR (coxsackie and adenovirus receptor) also belongs to the immunoglobulin superfamily, same like JAM proteins. CAR is expressed in the epithelia of trachea, bronchi, kidney, liver and intestine, where positively contributes to the barrier function of the tight junction. This protein mediates a neutrophil migration, cells contacts and an aggregation. It´s necessary for the embryonal heart development, especially for the organization of myofibrils in cardiomyocytes.
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As compared to other forms of lung cancer, Bas-SqCC often occurs in those who are somewhat older than average. As SqCC is also associated with presentation at somewhat older ages, the true relevance/effect size of the basaloid-age interaction remains unknown. Basaloid squamous cell carcinoma usually begins centrally, in the larger proximal bronchi. Basaloid carcinoma primary in the lung may also occur in a multicentric form.
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Tracheobronchial injury is damage to the tracheobronchial tree (the airway structure involving the trachea and bronchi). It can result from blunt or penetrating trauma to the neck or chest, inhalation of harmful fumes or smoke, or aspiration of liquids or objects. Though rare, TBI is a serious condition; it may cause obstruction of the airway with resulting life-threatening respiratory insufficiency. Other injuries accompany TBI in about half of cases.
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The supraspinatous fossas are divided by a "secondary spine" and the bronchi are divided anteriorly. Otariids consist of two types: sea lions and fur seals. Sea lions are distinguished by their rounder snouts and shorter, rougher pelage, while fur seals have more pointed snouts, longer fore-flippers and thicker fur coats that include an undercoat and guard hairs. The former also tend to be larger than the latter.
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The cough reflex has both sensory (afferent) mainly via the vagus nerve and motor (efferent) components. Pulmonary irritant receptors (cough receptors) in the epithelium of the respiratory tract are sensitive to both mechanical and chemical stimuli. The bronchi and trachea are so sensitive to light touch that slight amounts of foreign matter or other causes of irritation initiate the cough reflex. The larynx and carina are especially sensitive.
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Size comparison The respiratory tube is also known in LACM 128319, preserved as cartilaginous tracheal rings. Only the posterior- most end of the tracheal tube – at the end of the neck near the pectoral girdle – is known. The section where the two bronchi split was also preserved in the specimen, but was destroyed during excavation. This is an indication that Platecarpus and other mosasaurs had two functional lungs.
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The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles, and the lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi. The tuatara has a well-developed parietal eye on its forehead. Lizards have skulls with only one fenestra on each side, the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost.
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The peak expiratory flow (PEF), also called peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR), is a person's maximum speed of expiration, as measured with a peak flow meter, a small, hand-held device used to monitor a person's ability to breathe out air. It measures the airflow through the bronchi and thus the degree of obstruction in the airways. Peak expiratory flow is typically measured in units of liters per minute (L/min).
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This suggests that SHH is partially responsible for the branching of the lungs. Further evidence of SHH’s role in lung branching has been seen with qPCR. SHH expression occurs in the developing lungs around embryonic day 11 and is strongly expressed in the buds of the fetal lungs but low in the developing bronchi. Mice who are deficient in SHH can develop tracheoesophageal fistula (abnormal connection of the esophagus and trachea).
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Although SHH is most commonly associated with brain and limb digit development it is also important in lung development. Studies using qPCR and knockouts have demonstrated that SHH contributes to embryonic lung development. The mammalian lung branching occurs in the epithelium of the developing bronchi and lungs. SHH expressed throughout the foregut endoderm (innermost of three germ layers) in the distal epithelium where the embryonic lungs are developing.
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In the upper part of the respiratory tract the nasal hair in the nostrils traps large particles, and the sneeze reflex may also be triggered to expel them. The nasal mucosa also traps particles preventing their entry further into the tract. In the rest of the respiratory tract, particles of different sizes become deposited along different parts of the airways. Larger particles are trapped higher up in the larger bronchi.
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Those who survive the acute phase of TEN often suffer long-term complications affecting the skin and eyes. Skin manifestations can include scarring, eruptive melanocytic nevi, vulvovaginal stenosis, and dyspareunia. The epithelium of the trachea, bronchi, or gastrointestinal tract may be involved in SJS and TEN. Ocular symptoms are the most common complication in TEN, experienced by 20–79% of those with TEN, even by those who do not experience immediate ocular manifestations.
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240px An adult's trachea has an inner diameter of about and a length of about ; wider in males than females. It begins at the bottom of the larynx, and ends at the carina, the point where the trachea branches into left and right main bronchi. The trachea is surrounded by 16 - 20 rings of hyaline cartilage; these 'rings' are 4mm high in the adult, incomplete and C-shaped. Ligaments connect the rings.
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Accessed 2016-08-11. For that reason, lesions greater than should be excluded, and lesions should be considered with caution, given high risk of recurrence. Additionally, for safety reasons, lesions less than from the trachea, main bronchi, esophagus and central vessels should be excluded from RFA, given high risk of complications and frequent incomplete ablation. An animal tumor model demonstrated improved survival after combined treatment with RFA and radiation therapy compared to either treatment alone.
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A mediastinoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument used to examine the tissues and lymph nodes in the area between the lungs (mediastinum) in a procedure known as mediastinoscopy. These tissues include the heart and its large blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and bronchi. The mediastinoscope has a light and a lens for viewing and may also have a tool to remove tissue. It is inserted into the chest through a cut above the breastbone.
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The eparterial bronchus (right superior lobar bronchus) is a branch of the right main bronchus given off about 2.5 cm from the bifurcation of the trachea. This branch supplies the superior lobe of the right lung and is the most superior of all secondary bronchi. It arises above the level of the pulmonary artery, and for this reason is named the eparterial bronchus. All other distributions falling below the pulmonary artery are termed hyparterial.
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Squamous-cell carcinoma (SCC) of the lung is a histologic type of non-small- cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). It is the second most prevalent type of lung cancer after lung adenocarcinoma and it originates in the bronchi. Its tumor cells are characterized by a squamous appearance, similar to the one observed in epidermal cells. Squamous-cell carcinoma of the lung is strongly associated with tobacco smoking, more than any other forms of NSCLC.
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This was previously attempted in a patient with end-stage lung disease secondary to WCS. Although the patient did not have proximal airway collapse prior to transplantation, his posttransplant course was complicated by the development of bronchomalacia of the right and left mainstem bronchi. The patient experienced recurrent pulmonary infections and died of bacterial pneumonia one year after transplantation. In 2012, the first WCS patient lung transplant with prolonged survival (approaching 10 years) was reported.
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In these cases, the excess fluid usually spills out externally through the nostrils. 3D animation showing accumulated mucus in the airways. In the lower respiratory tract impaired mucociliary clearance due to conditions such as primary ciliary dyskinesia may result in mucus accumulation in the bronchi. The dysregulation of mucus homeostasis is the fundamental characteristic of cystic fibrosis, an inherited disease caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, which encodes a chloride channel.
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Influenza, or flu, is a viral infection that affects mainly the throat, nose, bronchi and occasionally lungs. It is considered one of the most common human infectious diseases. Seasonal influenza epidemics are a major public health concern, causing tens of millions of respiratory illnesses and 250,000 to 500,000 deaths worldwide each year. Early detection of disease activity, when followed by a rapid response, can reduce the impact of both seasonal and pandemic influenza.
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Mathematisch–naturwissenschaftliche Classe, Wien, 1868, 58 Band, II. Abtheilung: 909-937. is a reflex triggered to prevent the over-inflation of the lung. Pulmonary stretch receptors present on the wall of bronchi and bronchioles of the airways respond to excessive stretching of the lung during large inspirations. Once activated, they send action potentials through large myelinated fibers of the vagus nerve to the inspiratory area in the medulla and apneustic center of the pons.
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Interleukin-13 induces goblet cell differentiation and allows for the production of MUC5AC in tracheal epithelium. 15-Lipoxygenase-1 (15LO1) which is an enzyme in the fatty acid metabolism and its metabolite, 15-HETE, are highly expressed in asthma (which lead to the overexpression of MUC5AC) and are induced by IL-13 in human airway epithelial cells. With the increasing number of goblet cells, there is the production of excessive mucus within the bronchi.
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The pleural cavity is surrounded by the rib cage, and itself surrounds the lungs. A small amount of fluid lies in the potential space between the two pleural layers. In humans, there is no anatomical connection between the left and right pleural cavities. Therefore, in cases of pneumothorax, the other lung will still function normally unless there is a tension pneumothorax or simultaneous bilateral pneumothorax, which may collapse the contralateral parenchyma, blood vessels and bronchi.
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Absent pulmonary valve syndrome is a congenital heart defect that occurs when the flaps of the pulmonary valve do not develop or are severely underdeveloped (hypoplasia) resulting in aneurysms (dilation) of the pulmonary arteries and softening of the trachea and bronchi (tracheobronchomalacia). Usually, APVS occurs together with other congenital heart defects, most commonly ventricular septal defect and right ventricular outflow tract obstruction. It is sometimes considered a variant of Tetralogy of Fallot.
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Adler I. Primary malignant growths of the lungs and bronchi. New York: Longmans, Green; 1912., cited in With the postwar rise in cigarette smoking, however, the significant increase in lung cancer promoted nascent investigations into the link between smoking and cancer. In 1929, Fritz Lickint of Dresden, Germany, published a formal statistical description of a lung cancer–tobacco link, based on a study that showed lung cancer sufferers were likely to be smokers.
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The numbers of basal cells are highest in the large airways and become increasingly decreased in the smaller airways. Their percentage in the trachea is 34%, in the large bronchi 27%, and 10% in the larger of the bronchioles. Basal cells can express a number of different receptors, notably EGFR. Basal cell derived precursors are found as intermediate cells (also known as parabasal, or indetermined cells) between the basal cells and the differentiated cells.
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There is also bronchospasm and mucous production in the bronchi associated with laryngospasm, and these may prevent water entry at terminal relaxation. The hypoxemia and acidosis caused by asphyxia in drowning affect various organs. There can be central nervous system damage, cardiac arhythmia, pulmonary injury, reperfusion injury, and multiple-organ secondary injury with prolonged tissue hypoxia. A lack of oxygen or chemical changes in the lungs may cause the heart to stop beating.
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In essence, asthma is the result of an immune response in the bronchial airways. The airways of asthma patients are "hypersensitive" to certain triggers, also known as stimuli (see below). (It is usually classified as type I hypersensitivity.) In response to exposure to these triggers, the bronchi (large airways) contract into spasm (an "asthma attack"). Inflammation soon follows, leading to a further narrowing of the airways and excessive mucus production, which leads to coughing and other breathing difficulties.
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Their granules contain a chemical called serotonin, which stimulates smooth muscle contractions. Functionally, it is believed that serotonin diffuses out of the argentaffin cells into the walls of the digestive tract, where neurons leading to the muscles are stimulated to produce the wavelike contractions of peristalsis. Peristaltic movements encourage the passage of food substances through the intestinal tract. The mucosa of bronchi contains numerous neuroendocrine cells which are bronchial counterparts of argentaffin cells of alimentary canal....
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Cigarettes contain polonium-210, originating from the decay products of radon, which stick to tobacco leaves. Heavy smoking results in a radiation dose of 160 mSv/year to localized spots at the bifurcations of segmental bronchi in the lungs from the decay of polonium-210. This dose is not readily comparable to the radiation protection limits, since the latter deal with whole body doses, while the dose from smoking is delivered to a very small portion of the body.
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Later divisions such as the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli are specialized for gas exchange. The trachea and the first portions of the main bronchi are outside the lungs. The rest of the "tree" branches within the lungs, and ultimately extends to every part of the lungs. The alveoli are the blind-ended terminals of the "tree", meaning that any air that enters them has to exit via the same route it used to enter the alveoli.
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Goblet cells are found scattered among the epithelial lining of organs, such as the intestinal and respiratory tracts. They are found inside the trachea, bronchi, and larger bronchioles in the respiratory tract, small intestines, the large intestine, and conjunctiva in the upper eyelid. In the conjunctiva goblet cells are a source of mucin in tears and they also secrete different types of mucins onto the ocular surface. In the lacrimal glands, mucus is synthesized by acinar cells instead.
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The family wanted to have the memory ceremony in Oslo because Sand church is not large enough to accommodate all who wanted to show the deceased artist one last honor. The result of the autopsy was finally ready in early January 2007. It appears that Danielsen's death was caused by heart failure, most likely as a result of an inflammation of the bronchi of the lungs, combined with physical fatigue after a period with too much work.
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Pathology of the affected bronchi by bronchoscopy showing the deficiency of cartilaginous plates in the bronchial wall is the confirmatory test. However, lung biopsy has several complications and is not always diagnostic. Considering its non-invasive methodology, facility of execution, and good patient tolerance, multi-slice spiral CT or CT bronchoscopy should be the test of choice to study cystic lung diseases in particular WCS. Radiologically, the lungs are overinflated, and on bronchoscopy bronchomalacia is demonstrated.
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Snakes, which are closely related to mosasaurs, have only one functional lung with the second often being vestigial or absent. Unlike terrestrial lizards, however, the bronchi separate in front of the area of the forelimbs rather than at the level of the limbs. Soft tissues in the head and neck of specimen LACM 128319: Tracheal rings are shown in the bottom three photographs. Skin impressions are known from Platecarpus, preserved in LACM 128319 as soft impressions and phosphate material.
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Hyaline cartilage is covered externally by a fibrous membrane known as the perichondrium or, when it's along articulating surfaces, the synovial membrane. This membrane contains vessels that provide the cartilage with nutrition through diffusion. Hyaline cartilage matrix is primarily made of type II collagen and chondroitin sulphate, both of which are also found in elastic cartilage. Hyaline cartilage exists on the sternal ends of the ribs, in the larynx, trachea, and bronchi, and on the articulating surfaces of bones.
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Toundi becomes sick and Mendim takes him to the hospital. They have to wait a very long time to see a doctor because the black doctor is the only doctor there, the other white doctor having been promoted to captain. The doctor finds out that Toundi's ribs are broken and have punctured his bronchi. While Toundi is still at the hospital, in a dazed state, M. Moreau returns with the white doctor and talks about punishing Toundi some more.
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Rounded atelectasis (also known as Blesovsky’s or folded lung syndrome) develops from infolding of thickened visceral pleura with collapse of the intervening lung parenchyma. It presents radiographically as a mass and may be mistaken for a tumour. On a CT scan of the chest it appears as a rounded mass like opacity in the peripheral lung adjacent to thickened pleura and with curvilinear opacities which are the bronchi and vessels (comet tail).Batra, P., et al.
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The Posterior Bronchial Branches (rami bronchiales posteriores; posterior or dorsal pulmonary branches), more numerous and larger than the anterior, are distributed on the posterior surface of the root of the lung; they are joined by filaments from the third and fourth (sometimes also from the first and second) thoracic ganglia of the sympathetic trunk, and form the posterior pulmonary plexus. Branches from this plexus accompany the ramifications of the bronchi through the substance of the lung.
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The trachea (windpipe) divides at the carina into two main or primary bronchi, the left bronchus and the right bronchus. The carina of the trachea is located at the level of the sternal angle and the fifth thoracic vertebra (at rest). The right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left main bronchus, Alt URL its mean length is 1.09 cm. It enters the root of the right lung at approximately the fifth thoracic vertebra.
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The respiratory bronchioles are the narrowest airways of the lungs, 0.5 mm across.Merck Manual of Medical Information, home edition, copyright 1997, first printing of Pocket Books 1999, Pocket Books, a division of Simon and Schuster Inc The bronchi divide many times before evolving into the bronchioles. The respiratory bronchioles deliver air to the exchange surfaces of the lungs.Human Anatomy by Frederic Martini sixth edition, page 643 They are interrupted by alveoli which are thin walled evaginations.
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Similar to other local anesthetics, benzonatate is a potent voltage-gated sodium channel inhibitor. After absorption and circulation to the respiratory tract, benzonatate acts as a local anesthetic, decreasing the sensitivity of vagal afferent fibers and stretch receptors in the bronchi, alveoli, and pleura in the lower airway and lung. This dampens their activity and reduces the cough reflex. Benzonatate also has central antitussive activity on the cough center in central nervous system at the level of the medulla.
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Treatments to slow down the progression of this chronic disease include keeping bronchial airways clear and secretions weakened through various forms of airway clearance. Aggressively treating bronchial infections with antibiotics to prevent the destructive cycle of infection, damage to bronchi and bronchioles, and more infection is also standard treatment. Regular vaccination against pneumonia, influenza, and pertussis are generally advised. A healthy body mass index and regular doctor visits may have beneficial effects on the prevention of progressing bronchiectasis.
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Fast skeletal muscle TnI was first cloned from a skeletal muscle cDNA library. It is generally observed that fsTnI is exclusively expressed in fast twitch skeletal muscle fibers. More recent studies reported that subunits of fast skeletal muscle troponin (fsTnI, fsTnT, fsTnC) were expressed at significant levels in smooth muscle cells of mouse blood vessels, bladder and bronchi. Expression of fsTnI was also found in non-muscle cells, such as human corneal epithelial cells and cartilage.
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Obstructive lung disease is a category of respiratory disease characterized by airway obstruction. Many obstructive diseases of the lung result from narrowing (obstruction) of the smaller bronchi and larger bronchioles, often because of excessive contraction of the smooth muscle itself. It is generally characterized by inflamed and easily collapsible airways, obstruction to airflow, problems exhaling and frequent medical clinic visits and hospitalizations. Types of obstructive lung disease include; asthma, bronchiectasis, bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
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5-(S)-HETE acylated into the phosphatidylethanolamines fraction of human neutrophil membranes is associated with the inhibition of these cells from forming neutrophil extracellular traps, i.e. extracellular DNA scaffolds which contain neutrophil-derived antimicrobial proteins that circulate in blood and have the ability to trap bacteria. It seems unlikely that this inhibition reflects involvement of OXER1. 5-Oxo-ETE relaxes pre-contracted human bronchi by a mechanism that does not appear to involve OXER1 but is otherwise undefined.
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The use of podiatry drills, in the absence of engineering controls and personal protective equipment, is an occupational hazard to the healthcare provider. Nail dust collected during foot care procedures performed in office settings has been found to contain keratin, keratin hydrolysates, microbial debris, and viable fungal elements, including dermatophytes (most commonly Trichophyton rubrum) and saprotrophs.Ward GW, Karlsson G, Rose G, Platts-Mills TAE (1989). "Trichophyton asthma: sensitization of bronchi and upper airways to dermatophytes anitigen".
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Chemical structure of terbutaline Terbutaline is a type of sympathomimetic drug. Terbutaline is a selective β2 receptor agonist that is clinically used to treat asthma. Since terbutaline is an agonist selective to β2 receptors, it activates β2 receptors in smooth muscles and stimulates sympathetic responses, including the increased relaxation of smooth muscles. Relaxation of smooth muscles in bronchi and trachea provides the effect of airway widening and hence can be served as a bronchodilator for asthma treatment.
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The Reid Index is a mathematical relationship that exists in a human bronchus section observed under the microscope. It is defined as ratio between the thickness of the submucosal mucus secreting glands and the thickness between the epithelium and cartilage that covers the bronchi. The Reid index is not of diagnostic use in vivo since it requires a dissection of the airway tube, but it has value in post mortem evaluations and for research.B. Karger, T. Fracasso, B. Brinkmann and T. Bajanowski.
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The white areas are bone; below the center is the spinal column, and around the lungs are sections through the ribs. In general the tomato red areas are muscular tissue and the lavender areas are fatty tissue. The branched areas in the lungs are blood vessels and bronchi. The picture was made (by the Delta Scanner built by Ohio-Nuclear, Inc.) in the course of a study that was conducted by Ralph J. Alfidi, M.D. of the Cleveland Clinic Foundation.
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This unorganized network of microscopic tubes branches off from the posterior air sacs, and open haphazardly into both the dorso- and ventrobronchi, as well as directly into the intrapulmonary bronchi. Unlike the parabronchi, in which the air moves unidirectionally, the air flow in the neopulmonic parabronchi is bidirectional. The neopulmonic parabronchi never make up more than 25% of the total gas exchange surface of birds. The syrinx is the sound-producing vocal organ of birds, located at the base of a bird's trachea.
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The trachea is also preserved, along with part of what may be the retina in the eye. The placement of the kidneys is farther forward in the abdomen than it is in monitor lizards, and is more similar to those of cetaceans. As in cetaceans, the bronchi leading to the lungs run parallel to each other instead of splitting apart from one another as in monitors and other terrestrial reptiles. In mosasaurs, these features may be internal adaptations to fully marine lifestyles.
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An incision is then made from under the patient's armpit, around to the sternum, and then back towards the other armpit; this is known as a clamshell incision. In the case of a sequential transplant the recipient's lung with the poorest lung functions is collapsed, the blood vessels tied off, and cut at the corresponding bronchi. The new lung is then placed and the blood vessels reattached. To make sure the lung is satisfactory before transplanting the other a bronchoscopy is performed.
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Sputum is mucus that is coughed up from the lower airways (the trachea and bronchi). In medicine, sputum samples are usually used for naked eye exam, microbiological investigations of respiratory infections and cytological investigations of respiratory systems. It is critical that the patient not give a specimen that includes any mucoid material from the interior of the nose. Naked eye exam of sputum can be done at home by a patient in order to note the various colors (see below).
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Approximately 43 to 75% of horses have blood in the trachea and bronchi following a single post-race endoscopic examination. In one study, all horses endoscoped on at least three separate occasions following racing had EIPH at least once. Epistaxis (blood coming from one or both nostrils) is much less common, occurring in 0.25–13% of cases. In a survey of over 220,000 horse starts in UK Flat and National Hunt (jump) racing, 185 cases of epistaxis were identified (0.83 per 1000 starts).
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In normal respiratory function, the air flows in through the upper airway, down through the bronchi and into the lung parenchyma (the bronchioles down to the alveoli) where gas exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen occurs. During inspiration, the lungs expand to allow airflow into the lungs and thereby increasing total volume. After inspiration follows expiration during which the lungs recoil and push air back out of the pulmonary pathway. Lung compliance is the difference of volume during inspiration and expiration.
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But bronchial circulation supplies fully oxygenated arterial blood to the lung tissues themselves. This blood supplies the bronchi and the pleura to meet their nutritional requirements. Because of the dual blood supply to the lungs from both the bronchial and the pulmonary circulation, this tissue is more resistant to infarction. An occlusion of the bronchial circulation does not cause infarction, but it can still occur in pulmonary embolism when the pulmonary circulation is blocked and the bronchial circulation cannot fully compensate for it.
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This particular variant of lung cancer is usually asymptomatic and is found after chest x-rays are taken for other reasons. Hemoptysis is seen occasionally and, in some cases, distal obstruction of bronchi by blood clots or mucus plugs produces cough and/or infection. Lesions often enlarge and progress slowly, over many years. The 1999 World Health Organization classification system defined MCACL as a cystic adenocarcinoma with copious mucin production that, histologically, resembles (the more common) mucus-producing cystadenocarcinomas originating in the ovary, breast and pancreas.
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Actual or impending airway obstruction is a common indication for intubation of the trachea. Life-threatening airway obstruction may occur when a foreign body becomes lodged in the airway; this is especially common in infants and toddlers. Severe blunt or penetrating injury to the face or neck may be accompanied by swelling and an expanding hematoma, or injury to the larynx, trachea or bronchi. Airway obstruction is also common in people who have suffered smoke inhalation or burns within or near the airway or epiglottitis.
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The diagnosis of VAP varies among hospitals and providers but usually requires a new infiltrate on chest x-ray plus two or more other factors. These factors include temperatures of >38 °C or <36 °C, a white blood cell count of >12 × 109/ml, purulent secretions from the airways in the lung, and/or reduction in gas exchange. A different less studied infection found in mechanically ventilated people is ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis (VAT). As with VAP, tracheobronchial infection can colonise the trachea and travel to the bronchi.
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EMZLs are a form of MZL in which malignant marginal zone B-cells initially infiltrate MALT tissues of the stomach (50-70% of all EMZL) or, less frequently, the esophagus, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, conjunctiva of the eye, nasal passages, pharynx, lung bronchi, vulva, vagina, skin, breast, thymus gland, meninges (i.e. membranes) that envelop the brain and spinal cord, or other organs. These EMZLs are classified into subtypes based on the organ(s) involved. For example, EMZL of the stomach is termed primary gastric EMZL.
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From there the fresh air from the posterior air sacs flows through the parabronchi (in the same direction as occurred during inhalation) into ventrobronchi. The air passages connecting the ventrobronchi and anterior air sacs to the intrapulmonary bronchi open up during exhalation, thus allowing oxygen-poor air from these two organs to escape via the trachea to the exterior. Oxygenated air therefore flows constantly (during the entire breathing cycle) in a single direction through the parabronchi. The cross-current respiratory gas exchanger in the lungs of birds.
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Ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis is a hospital-acquired infection usually contracted in an intensive care unit when a mechanical ventilator is used. The insertion of a tracheal tube can cause an infection in the trachea which then colonises and spreads to the bronchi. If there is further spread and development into the lungs this will give rise to ventilator-associated pneumonia. Antibiotics are recommended to prevent this development but only as a short term measure as antibiotic resistance is already high in some of the pathogens involved.
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Functional Properties of Traditional Foods, edited by Kristberg Kristbergsson, Semih Otles, page 101 It contains β-carotene, group B vitamins, calcium, potassium, and iron and is drunk for its antiseptic effects. It was reported in academic journals that it helps to remove toxins from the human body, can also help with reducing kidney stones. It is also used to treat pubertal acne, eczema, abscesses, whitlow, and hematomas. Şalgam is considered a functional food by some researchers, since it is a diuretic that also cleans lungs and bronchi.
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This causes symptoms of pressure on the nearby organs. It is associated with several cardiac abnormalities such as patent ductus arteriosus, atrial septal defect, ventricular septal defect, and tetralogy of Fallot. Although CLE may be caused by the abnormal development of bronchi, or compression of airways by nearby tissues, no cause is identified in half of cases. CT scan of the lungs is useful in assessing the anatomy of the lung lobes and status of the neighbouring lobes on whether they are hypoplastic or not.
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The pleural cavity also known as the pleural space, is the thin fluid-filled space between the two pulmonary pleurae (known as visceral and parietal) of each lung. A pleura is a serous membrane which folds back onto itself to form a two-layered membranous pleural sac. The outer pleura (parietal pleura) is attached to the chest wall, but is separated from it by the endothoracic fascia. The inner pleura (visceral pleura) covers the lungs and adjoining structures, including blood vessels, bronchi and nerves.
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Several studies have proven the use of a nasal bridle prevents the loss of the NG placement that provides necessary nutrients or suctioning. A study conducted in the UK from 2014 through 2017, determined that 50% of feeding tubes secured with tape were lost inadvertently. The use of bridle securement decreased the percentage of NGs lost from 53% to 9%. Great care must be taken to ensure that the tube has not passed through the larynx into the trachea and down into the bronchi.
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Like all β adrenoreceptor agonists, olodaterol mimics the effect of epinephrine at β2 receptors in the lung, which causes the bronchi to relax and reduces their resistance to airflow. Olodaterol is a nearly full β2 agonist, having 88% intrinsic activity compared to the gold standard isoprenaline/isoproterenol). Its half maximal effective concentration (EC50) is 0.1 nM. It has a higher in vitro selectivity for β2 receptors than the related drugs formoterol and salmeterol: 241-fold versus β1 and 2299-fold versus β3 adrenergic receptors.
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The lungs are part of the lower respiratory tract that begins at the trachea and branches into the bronchi and bronchioles, and which receive air breathed in via the conducting zone. The conducting zone ends at the terminal bronchioles. These divide into the respiratory bronchioles of the respiratory zone which divide into alveolar ducts that give rise to the alveolar sacs that contain the alveoli, where gas exchange takes place. Alveoli are also sparsely present on the walls of the respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts.
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Cross-sectional detail of the lung TEM image of collagen fibres in a cross sectional slice of mammalian lung tissue. Lung tissue 3D Medical Illustration Showing Different Terminating Ends of Bronchial Airways The lungs are part of the lower respiratory tract, and accommodate the bronchial airways when they branch from the trachea. The bronchial airways terminate in alveoli, the lung parenchyma (the tissue in between), and veins, arteries, nerves, and lymphatic vessels. The trachea and bronchi have plexuses of lymph capillaries in their mucosa and submucosa.
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In the bronchi there are incomplete tracheal rings of cartilage and smaller plates of cartilage that keep them open. Bronchioles are too narrow to support cartilage and their walls are of smooth muscle, and this is largely absent in the narrower respiratory bronchioles which are mainly just of epithelium. The absence of cartilage in the terminal bronchioles gives them an alternative name of membranous bronchioles. A lobule of the lung enclosed in septa and supplied by a terminal bronchiole that branches into the respiratory bronchioles.
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The protein has a physiological function in regulation of water transport mainly in apocrine glands in the axilla, vulva, eyelid and ear canal, serous cells of the submandibular salivary gland, serous cells of the submucosal glands of the bronchi, and accessory lacrimal glands as well as cutaneous eccrine glands. It is also found in amniotic fluid and seminal fluid. PIP has the ability to bind immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgG-Fc, CD4-T cell receptor suggesting a wide range of immunological functions. PIP also binds to AZGP1.
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Middendorff received his early education from tutors in Reval and at a gymnasium in Saint Petersburg. From 1832 he pursued a medical degree at the Imperial University of Dorpat where his professors included Georg Friedrich Parrot, Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov, Hermann Martin Asmuss, and Alexander Friedrich von Hueck. Middendorff graduated in 1837 with a dissertation (written in Latin) on polyps in the bronchi. He then undertook further studies at the Humboldt University of Berlin, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, University of Vienna, and University of Breslau.
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The lung bud branches into two lateral outgrowths known as the bronchial buds, one on each side of the trachea. The right and left bronchial buds branch into main (primary), lobar (secondary), segmental (tertiary), and subsegmental bronchi and lead to the development of the lungs. The Hox complex, FGF-10 (fibroblast growth factor), BMP-4 (bone morphogenetic protein), N-myc (a proto-oncogene), syndecan (a proteglycan), tenascin (an extracellular matrix protein) and epimorphin (a protein) appear to play a role in development of the respiratory system.
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In other words, this branch of the vagus is said to inhibit or disinhibit defensive limbic circuits, depending on the situation. Note: Attributing defensive behaviours purely to the limbic system is an oversimplification, as these are triggered by _perceived_ threats, thus requiring an interplay of brain areas performing sensory integration, memory and semantic knowledge with the limbic system to be elicited. Similarly, the regulation of emotions requires a complex interplay of higher cognitive areas with limbic ones. The vagus nerve mediates control of supradiaphragmatic visceral organs, such as the esophagus, bronchi, pharynx, and larynx.
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The epiglottis closes the opening to the larynx during swallowing. The trachea begins to form in the second month of development, becoming longer and more fixed in its position over time. It is epithelium lined with column-shaped cells that have hair-like extensions called cilia, with scattered goblet cells that produce protective mucins. The trachea can be affected by inflammation or infection, usually as a result of a viral illness affecting other parts of the respiratory tract, such as the larynx and bronchi, called croup, that can result in a barking cough.
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The trachealis muscle connects the ends of the incomplete rings and runs along the back wall of the trachea. Cross section of a trachea and esophagus The trachea begins at the lower edge of the cricoid cartilage of the larynx, and ends at the carina, the point where the trachea branches into left and right main bronchi. The trachea begins level with the sixth cervical vertebra (C6) and the carina is found at the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra (T4), although its position may change with breathing.
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A bronchodilator or broncholytic (although the latter occasionally includes secretory inhibition as well) is a substance that dilates the bronchi and bronchioles, decreasing resistance in the respiratory airway and increasing airflow to the lungs. Bronchodilators may be endogenous (originating naturally within the body), or they may be medications administered for the treatment of breathing difficulties. They are most useful in obstructive lung diseases, of which asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are the most common conditions. Although this remains somewhat controversial, they might be useful in bronchiolitis and bronchiectasis.
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Respiratory diseases, or lung diseases, are pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange difficult in air-breathing animals. They include conditions of the respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleurae, pleural cavity, and the nerves and muscles of respiration. Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, influenza, and pharyngitis to life- threatening diseases such as bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, tuberculosis, acute asthma, COVID-19, lung cancer, and severe acute respiratory syndromes. The study of respiratory disease is known as pulmonology.
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Bronchoscopy is the most effective method to diagnose, locate, and determine the severity of TBI, and it is usually the only method that allows a definitive diagnosis. Diagnosis with a flexible bronchoscope, which allows the injury to be visualized directly, is the fastest and most reliable technique. In people with TBI, bronchoscopy may reveal that the airway is torn, or that the airways are blocked by blood, or that a bronchus has collapsed, obscuring more distal (lower) bronchi from view. Chest x-ray is the initial imaging technique used to diagnose TBI.
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Emus can suffer from both external and internal parasites, but under farmed conditions are more parasite-free than ostriches or rheas. External parasites include the louse Dahlemhornia asymmetrica and various other lice, ticks, mites and flies. Chicks sometimes suffer from intestinal tract infections caused by coccidian protozoa, and the nematode Trichostrongylus tenuis infects the emu as well as a wide range of other birds, causing haemorrhagic diarrhoea. Other nematodes are found in the trachea and bronchi; Syngamus trachea causing haemorrhagic tracheitis and Cyathostoma variegatum causing serious respiratory problems in juveniles.
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So, during inhalation, both the posterior and anterior air sacs expand, the posterior air sacs filling with fresh inhaled air, while the anterior air sacs fill with "spent" (oxygen-poor) air that has just passed through the lungs. During exhalation the intrapulmonary bronchi were believed to be tightly constricted between the region where the ventrobronchi branch off and the region where the dorsobronchi branch off. But it is now believed that more intricate aerodynamic features have the same effect. The contracting posterior air sacs can therefore only empty into the dorsobronchi.
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In anatomy, the carina is a ridge of cartilage in the trachea that occurs between the division of the two main bronchi. This occurs at the lower end of the trachea (usually at the level of the 4th thoracic vertebra, which is in line with the sternal angle, but may raise or descend up to two vertebrae higher or lower with breathing). This ridge lies to the left of the midline, and runs antero-posteriorly (front to back). Foreign bodies that fall down the trachea are more likely to enter the right bronchus.
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Passerine birds produce song through the vocal organ, the syrinx, which is composed of bilaterally symmetric halves located where the trachea separates into the two bronchi. Using endoscopic techniques, it has been observed that song is produced by air passing between a set of medial and lateral labia on each side of the syrinx. Song is produced bilaterally, in both halves, through each separate set of labia unless air is prevented from flowing through one side of the syrinx. Birds regulate the airflow through the syrinx with muscles—M.
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M. pneumoniae can cause infections in humans, animals, plants, and cell cultures. It is a parasitic bacterium that invades the mucosal membranes of the upper and lower respiratory tract, including nasopharynx, throat, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. In order to survive, M. pneumoniae needs essential nutrients and compounds such as amino acids, cholesterol, precursors to nucleic acid synthesis, and fatty acids obtained from the mucosal epithelial cells of the host. Its adhesion proteins attach to tracheal epithelial cells by sialoglycoproteins or sialoglycolipid receptors, which are located on its cell surface.
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EATL arises from the malignant transformation of small intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL). IEL are a heterogeneous group of principally T cell lymphocytes, that reside in epithelial tissues which interface the environment such as the mucosa of the bronchi, reproductive tract, and gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). At these sites, IEL are exposed and regulate immune responses to non-dietary and dietary antigens, pathogenic and non-pathogenic organisms, and injured self tissues. Gastrointestinal tract IEL are in the epithelium of the small intestine, colon, stomach, and esophagus, residing between the epithelial cells which line these organs' lumens.
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The right bronchus now passes below the artery, and is known as the hyparterial branch which divides into the two lobar bronchi to the middle and lower lobes. The left main bronchus is smaller in caliber but longer than the right, being 5 cm long. It enters the root of the left lung opposite the sixth thoracic vertebra. It passes beneath the aortic arch, crosses in front of the esophagus, the thoracic duct, and the descending aorta, and has the left pulmonary artery lying at first above, and then in front of it.
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To avoid this complication, simple nomenclature is used to indicate the different degrees of relative penetration of a PM particle into the cardiovascular system. Inhalable particles penetrate no further than the bronchi as they are filtered out by the cilia. Thoracic particles can penetrate right into terminal bronchioles whereas PM, which can penetrate to alveoli, the gas exchange area, and hence the circulatory system are termed respirable particles. In analogy, the inhalable dust fraction is the fraction of dust entering the nose and mouth which may be deposited anywhere in the respiratory tract.
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Hermes C. Grillo (1923–2006) was a world-famous thoracic surgeon and professor of surgery at Harvard Medical School. He was born in Boston in 1923 and died at age 83 in a car accident in Italy on October 14, 2006. He is considered the father of tracheal surgery and wrote what is considered the definitive text on the subject, "Surgery of the Trachea and Bronchi", published in 2004.Hermes C. Grillo: Faculty of Medicine — Memorial Minute, Harvard Gazette, November 15, 2007 He graduated from Brown University in 1943 and Harvard Medical School in 1947.
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Because of this, when the intercostal muscles move the ribcage outward, the lungs are pulled out as well, dropping the pressure in the lungs and pulling air into the bronchi, when we 'breathe in'. The pleural space is maintained in a constant state of negative pressure (in comparison to atmospheric pressure). If the chest wall, and thus the pleural space, is punctured, blood, air or both can enter the pleural space. Air and/or blood rushes into the space in order to equalise the pressure with that of the atmosphere.
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Upper respiratory tract (pharynx and larynx) and lower respiratory tract (trachea, bronchi, and lung) Risk factors for pulmonary aspiration include conditions which depress the level of consciousness (such as traumatic brain injury, alcohol intoxication, drug overdose, and general anesthesia). A decreased gag reflex, upper esophageal sphincter and lower esophageal sphincter tone, gastroesophageal reflux, full stomach, as well as obesity, stroke, and pregnancy can all increase the risk of aspiration in the semiconscious. Tracheal intubation or presence of a gastric tube (for example, a feeding tube) may also increase the risk.
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The left lung shares space with the heart, and has an indentation in its border called the cardiac notch of the left lung to accommodate this. The front and outer sides of the lungs face the ribs, which make light indentations on their surfaces. The medial surfaces of the lungs face towards the centre of the chest, and lie against the heart, great vessels, and the carina where the trachea divides into the two main bronchi. The cardiac impression is an indentation formed on the surfaces of the lungs where they rest against the heart.
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There are usually three arteries, two to the left lung and one to the right, and they branch alongside the bronchi and bronchioles. The pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns the oxygenated blood to the heart to supply the rest of the body. The blood volume of the lungs is about 450 millilitres on average, about 9% of the total blood volume of the entire circulatory system. This quantity can easily fluctuate from between one-half and twice the normal volume.
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The LeCompte maneuver is a technique used in open heart surgery, primarily on infants and children. The maneuver entails cutting the main pulmonary artery and moving it anterior to the aorta before reattaching the pulmonary artery during the following reconstruction of the great vessels. It allows the surgeon to reconstruct the right ventricular outflow tract without needing to connect the proximal and distal sections with a graft. It also enables the surgeon to avoid compressing the coronary arteries and relieves compression of the bronchi in cases where the pulmonary artery is severely dilated or aneurysmal.
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The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the esophagus and larynx – the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs. It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its structure varies across species. In humans, the pharynx is part of the digestive system and the conducting zone of the respiratory system. (The conducting zone—which also includes the nostrils of the nose, the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles—filters, warms and moistens air and conducts it into the lungs).
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The sympathetic nervous system is involved in stimulating the fight-or-flight response of the body. Activating the sympathetic pathway results in physiological effects including the acceleration of heart beat, increase in force of heart contraction, secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline by the adrenal gland, bronchi relaxation, and the inhibition of peristalsis and gastrointestinal secretions. Neurotransmitters are used to relay neurotransmission in order to bring about these physiological effects. Acetylcholine is a type of neurotransmitter released from the preganglionic nerve which binds to nicotinic receptors in the autonomic ganglion.
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Time line for cold symptoms In uncomplicated colds, coughing and nasal discharge may persist for 14 days or more even after other symptoms have resolved. Acute URTIs include rhinitis, pharyngitis/tonsillitis, and laryngitis often referred to as a common cold, and their complications: sinusitis, ear infection, and sometimes bronchitis (though bronchi are generally classified as part of the lower respiratory tract.) Symptoms of URTIs commonly include cough, sore throat, runny nose, nasal congestion, headache, low-grade fever, facial pressure, and sneezing. Symptoms of rhinovirus in children usually begin 1–3 days after exposure. The illness usually lasts 7–10 more days.
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Reflexogenous (reflexogenic) zone (or the receptive field of a reflex) is the area of the body stimulation of which causes a definite unconditioned reflex. For example, stimulation of the mucosa of the nasopharynx elicits a sneezing reflex, and stimulation of the tracheae and bronchi elicits a coughing reflex.Kiselev P. A. Reflexogenous Zone // The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition. The receptive fields of various reflexes may overlap, and in consequence a stimulus applied to a certain part of the skin can elicit one reflex or another depending on its strength and the state of the central nervous system.
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The diagnostic criteria for acute exacerbation of COPD generally include a production of sputum that is purulent and may be thicker than usual, but without evidence of pneumonia (which involves mainly the alveoli rather than the bronchi). Also, diagnostic criteria may include an increase in frequency and severity of coughing, as well as increased shortness of breath. A chest X-ray is usually performed on people with fever and, especially, hemoptysis (blood in the sputum), to rule out pneumonia and get information on the severity of the exacerbation. Hemoptysis may also indicate other, potentially fatal, medical conditions.
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The nasopulmonary and nasothoracic reflexes regulate the mechanism of breathing through deepening of inhalation. Triggered by the flow of the air, the pressure of the air in the nose, and the quality of the air, impulses from the nasal mucosa are transmitted by the trigeminal nerve to the breathing centres in the brainstem, and the generated response is transmitted to the bronchi, the intercostal muscles, and the diaphragm. The conchae are also responsible for filtration, heating, and humidification of air inhaled through the nose. Of these three, filtration is achieved mostly by other more effective means such as mucous and cilia.
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Crocodilians were traditionally thought to breathe like mammals, with airflow moving in and out tidally, but studies published in 2010 and 2013 conclude that crocodilians breathe more like birds, with airflow moving in a unidirectional loop within the lungs. When a crocodilian inhales, air flows through the trachea and into two primary bronchi, or airways, which branch off into narrower secondary passageways. The air continues to move through these, then into even narrower tertiary airways, and then into other secondary airways which were bypassed the first time. The air then flows back into the primary airways and is exhaled.
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Oxygen breathed in, diffuses through the walls of the alveoli into the enveloping capillaries and into the circulation, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the lungs to be breathed out. Estimates of the total surface area of lungs vary from ; although this is often quoted in textbooks and the media being "the size of a tennis court", it is actually less than half the size of a singles court. The bronchi in the conducting zone are reinforced with hyaline cartilage in order to hold open the airways. The bronchioles have no cartilage and are surrounded instead by smooth muscle.
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The arista (bristles arising from the antennae) of D. subobscura contain 6-8 branches, with 1-2 of those branches below the terminal fork. The species has a brown antenna with grey pollinosity that is approximately the same color as the rest of the head-capsule. The front of the antenna is dark brown and matte, without any pollinosity except on the frontal triangle and fronto-orbital plates, both of which are shiny and slightly pollinose. The carina (tracheal cartilage that divides the two bronchi) of the fly is rounded, widening below, and the face is a paler brown color with grey pollinosoty.
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In the fourth week of development of the human embryo as the respiratory bud grows, the trachea separates from the foregut through the formation of ridges which eventually separate the trachea from the oesophagus, the tracheoesophageal septum. This separates the future trachea from the oesophagus and divides the foregut tube into the laryngotracheal tube. By the start of the fifth week, the left and right main bronchi have begin to form, initially as buds at the terminal end of the trachea. The trachea is no more than 4mm diameter during the first year of life, expanding to its adult diameter of approximately 2cm by late childhood.
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Inflammation of the trachea is known as tracheitis, usually due to an infection. It is usually caused by viral infections, with bacterial infections occurring almost entirely in children. Most commonly, infections occur with inflammation of other parts of the respiratory tract, such as the larynx and bronchi, known as croup, however bacterial infections may also affect the trachea alone, although they are often associated with a recent viral infection. Viruses that cause croup are generally the parainfluenza viruses 1-3, with influenza viruses A and B also causing croup, but usually causing more serious infections; bacteria may also cause croup and include Staphylococcus aureus, Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Moraxella catarrhalis.
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Body sites in which brachytherapy can be used to treat cancer. Brachytherapy is commonly used to treat cancers of the cervix, prostate, breast, and skin. Brachytherapy can also be used in the treatment of tumours of the brain, eye, head and neck region (lip, floor of mouth, tongue, nasopharynx and oropharynx), respiratory tract (trachea and bronchi), digestive tract (oesophagus, gall bladder, bile-ducts, rectum, anus), urinary tract (bladder, urethra, penis), female reproductive tract (uterus, vagina, vulva), and soft tissues. As the radiation sources can be precisely positioned at the tumour treatment site, brachytherapy enables a high dose of radiation to be applied to a small area.
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MUC5B is a polymeric protein secreted from submucosal glands, and some goblet cells, and this is in the form of strands. In the airways – the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, the lining of mucus is produced by specialized airway epithelial cells called goblet cells, and submucosal glands. Small particles such as dust, particulate pollutants, and allergens, as well as infectious agents and bacteria are caught in the viscous nasal or airway mucus and prevented from entering the system. This process together with the continual movement of the cilia on the respiratory epithelium toward the oropharynx (mucociliary clearance), helps prevent foreign objects from entering the lungs during breathing.
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Chest wall oscillation is when devices are used in airway clearance therapy to clear excess mucus from lung airways (bronchi and bronchioles). It is principally used in the treatment of cystic fibrosis, but is gaining use in the treatment of other diseases, such as bronchiectasis, COPD, cerebral palsy and muscular dystrophy, in which excessive mucus can block airways due to excessive production or impaired clearance. This "passive system" is not dependent on the effort of the patient. It uses a compressor to inflate and deflate the vest rhythmically at timed intervals and thus imposes high frequency chest wall oscillations (HFCWO) that are transferred to the lungs.
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After a filariform "infective" larva penetrates the intact skin – most commonly through the feet – the larva enters the blood circulation. It is then carried to the lungs, breaks into alveoli, ascends the bronchi and trachea, and is coughed up and swallowed back into the small intestine, where it matures. The larva later matures into an adult in the small intestine (jejunum mainly), where they attach to the villi and female worms can lay 25,000 eggs per day. The eggs are released into the feces and reside on soil; when deposited on warm, moist soil, a larva rapidly develops in the egg and hatches after 1 to 2 days.
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One: The smaller, spherically shaped nanoparticles are able to pass through cell membranes simply due to their reduced size, as well as their shape- compatibility with the typically spherical pores of most cell membranes. Although this hypothesis needs to be further supported by future work, the authors did cite another paper which tracked the respiratory intake of platinum nanoparticles. This group found that 10 µm platinum nanoparticles are absorbed by the mucus of the bronchi and trachea, and can travel no further through the respiratory tract. However, 2.5 µm particles showed an ability to pass through this mucus layer, and reach much deeper into the respiratory tract.
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It shows the relationship of the arches to the trachea and bronchi. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Magnetic resonance imaging provides excellent images of the trachea and surrounding vascular structures and has the advantage of not using radiation for imaging compared to Computed tomography. Cardiac catherization/aortography: Today patients with double aortic arch usually only undergo cardiac catherization to evaluate the hemodynamics and anatomy of associated congenital cardiac defects. Through a catheter in the ascending aorta contrast media is injected and the resulting aortography may be used to delineate the anatomy of the double aortic arch including sites of narrowing in the left aortic arch.
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They almost always arise from connective tissue and are generally formed of cartilage, connective tissue, and fat cells, although they may include many other types of cells. The great majority of them form in the connective tissue on the outside of the lungs, although about 10% form deep in the linings of the bronchi. They can be worrisome, especially if situated deep in the lung, as it is sometimes difficult to make the important distinction between a hamartoma and a lung malignancy. An X-ray will often not provide a definitive diagnosis, and even a CT scan may be insufficient if the hamartoma lacks the typical cartilage and fat cells.
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In 0.1 to 5% of people there is a right superior lobe bronchus arising from the main stem bronchus prior to the carina. This is known as a tracheal bronchus, and seen as an anatomical variation. It can have multiple variations and, although usually asymptomatic, it can be the root cause of pulmonary disease such as a recurrent infection.but,in such cases resection is often curative The cardiac bronchus has a prevalence of ≈0.3% and presents as an accessory bronchus arising from the bronchus intermedius between the upper lobar bronchus and the origin of the middle and lower lobar bronchi of the right main bronchus.
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Smooth muscle is a type of non-striated muscle, and, unlike striated muscle, contraction of smooth muscle is not under conscious control. Smooth muscle may contract spontaneously or rhythmically and be induced by a number of physiochemical agents (hormones, drugs, neurotransmitters). Smooth muscle is found within the walls of various organs and tubes in the body such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, urethra, bladder, and blood vessels. Although smooth muscles do not form regular arrays of thick and thin filaments like the sarcomeres of striated muscles, contraction is still due to the same sliding filament mechanism controlled by myosin crossbridges interacting with actin filaments.
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All of the lower respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles is lined with respiratory epithelium. This is a ciliated epithelium interspersed with goblet cells which produce mucin the main component of mucus, ciliated cells, basal cells, and in the terminal bronchioles–club cells with actions similar to basal cells, and macrophages. The epithelial cells, and the submucosal glands throughout the respiratory tract secrete airway surface liquid (ASL), the composition of which is tightly regulated and determines how well mucociliary clearance works. Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells are found throughout the respiratory epithelium including the alveolar epithelium, though they only account for around 0.5 per cent of the total epithelial population.
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The lungs as main part of respiratory tract The lower respiratory tract is part of the respiratory system, and consists of the trachea and the structures below this including the lungs. The trachea receives air from the pharynx and travels down to a place where it splits (the carina) into a right and left bronchus. These supply air to the right and left lungs, splitting progressively into the secondary and tertiary bronchi for the lobes of the lungs, and into smaller and smaller bronchioles until they become the respiratory bronchioles. These in turn supply air through alveolar ducts into the alveoli, where the exchange of gases take place.
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Physical examination of someone with hypocalcemia may show tetany, but it is also possible to provoke tetany of the facial muscles by tapping on the facial nerve (a phenomenon known as Chvostek's sign) or by using the cuff of a sphygmomanometer to temporarily obstruct the blood flow to the arm (a phenomenon known as Trousseau's sign of latent tetany). A number of medical emergencies can arise in people with low calcium levels. These are seizures, severe irregularities in the normal heart beat, as well as spasm of the upper part of the airways or the smaller airways known as the bronchi (both potentially causing respiratory failure).
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Unidirectional airflow in both birds and alligators suggests that this type of respiration was present at the base of Archosauria and retained by both dinosaurs and non- dinosaurian archosaurs, such as aetosaurs, "rauisuchians" (non-crocodylomorph paracrocodylomorphs), crocodylomorphs, and pterosaurs. The use of unidirectional airflow in the lungs of archosaurs may have given the group an advantage over synapsids, which had lungs where air moved tidally in and out through a network of bronchi that terminated in alveoli, which were cul-de- sacs. The better efficiency in gas transfer seen in archosaur lungs may have been advantageous during the times of low atmospheric oxygen which are thought to have existed during the Mesozoic.
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The larynx and cervical trachea may also be injured in front-on collisions by the seat belt. Although the mechanism is not well understood, TBI due to blunt trauma is widely thought to be caused by any combination of three possible mechanisms: an increase in pressure within the airways, shearing, and pulling apart. The first type of injury, sometimes called an "explosive rupture", may occur when the chest is violently compressed, for example when a driver strikes the steering wheel in a vehicle accident or when the chest is crushed. The pressure in the airways, especially the larger airways (the trachea and bronchi), quickly rises as a result of the compression, because the glottis reflexively closes off the airways.
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The bronchi split into smaller branches and then to bronchioles that supply air to the alveoli, the tiny air-filled sacs in the lungs responsible for absorbing oxygen. An arbitrary division can be made between the intrathoracic and cervical trachea at the thoracic inlet, an opening at the top of the thoracic cavity. Anatomical structures that surround and protect the tracheobronchial tree include the lungs, the esophagus, large blood vessels, the rib cage, the thoracic spine, and the sternum. Children have softer tracheas and a more elastic tracheobronchial trees than adults; this elasticity, which helps protect the structures from injury when they are compressed, may contribute to the lower incidence of TBI in children.
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Oxalic acid in concentrated form can have harmful effects through contact and if ingested. It is not identified as mutagenic or carcinogenic, although there is a study suggesting it might cause breast cancer; there is a possible risk of congenital malformation in the fetus; may be harmful if inhaled, and is extremely destructive to tissue of mucous membranes and upper respiratory tract; harmful if swallowed; harmful to and destructive of tissue and causes burns if absorbed through the skin or is in contact with the eyes. Symptoms and effects include a burning sensation, cough, wheezing, laryngitis, shortness of breath, spasm, inflammation and edema of the larynx, inflammation and edema of the bronchi, pneumonitis, pulmonary edema.Oxalic acid dihydrate. MSDS. sigmaaldrich.
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The anatomy of a typical mammalian respiratory system, below the structures normally listed among the "upper airways" (the nasal cavities, the pharynx, and larynx), is often described as a respiratory tree or tracheobronchial tree (figure on the left). Larger airways give rise to branches that are slightly narrower, but more numerous than the "trunk" airway that gives rise to the branches. The human respiratory tree may consist of, on average, 23 such branchings into progressively smaller airways, while the respiratory tree of the mouse has up to 13 such branchings. Proximal divisions (those closest to the top of the tree, such as the trachea and bronchi) function mainly to transmit air to the lower airways.
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Diagrammatic location of the air sacs of the common ostrich Morphology of the common ostrich lung indicates that the structure conforms to that of the other avian species, but still retains parts of its primitive avian species, ratite, structure. The opening to the respiratory pathway begins with the laryngeal cavity lying posterior to the choanae within the buccal cavity. The tip of the tongue then lies anterior to the choanae, excluding the nasal respiratory pathway from the buccal cavity. The trachea lies ventrally to the cervical vertebrae extending from the larynx to the syrinx, where the trachea enters the thorax, dividing into two primary bronchi, one to each lung, in which they continue directly through to become mesobronchi.
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The enzyme is distributed in cells of the gastrointestinal tracts, lymphoid tissues, blood cells, urinary organs and microglia. Its intracellular localization in different mammalian cells is different to that of its analog Cathepsin D. Cathepsin E associates with the membrane tissue in the intracellular canaliculi of gastric parietal cells, bile canaliculi of hepatic cells, cells of the rinal proximal tubule in the kidney, epithelial cells in the intestine, trachea and bronchi, osteoclasts and even in erythrocytes. Its localization in the endosome structures can be seen in many different cell types such as antigen-presenting B cell lymphoblasts, gastric cells and microglia. Its presence is also detected in the cisternae of the cell’s endoplasmic reticulum.
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The development of the human lungs arise from the laryngotracheal groove and develop to maturity over several weeks in the foetus and for several years following birth. The larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs that make up the respiratory tract, begin to form during the fourth week of embryogenesis from the lung bud which appears ventrally to the caudal portion of the foregut. Lungs during development, showing the early branching of the primitive bronchial buds The respiratory tract has a branching structure, and is also known as the respiratory tree. In the embryo this structure is developed in the process of branching morphogenesis, and is generated by the repeated splitting of the tip of the branch.
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Consolidation and mucoid impaction are the most commonly described radiological features described in ABPA literature, though much of the evidence for consolidation comes from before the development of computed tomography (CT) scans. Tramline shadowing, finger-in-glove opacities and ‘toothpaste shadows’ are also prevalent findings. When utilising high- resolution CT scans, there can be a better assessment of the distribution and pattern of bronchiectasis within the lungs, and hence this is the tool of choice in the radiological diagnosis of ABPA. Central (confined to medial two- thirds of the medial half of the lung) bronchiectasis that peripherally tapers bronchi is considered a requirement for ABPA pathophysiology, though in up to 43% of cases there is a considerable extension to the periphery of the lung.
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However, there are two problems with this as an explanation: ## Even with a high level of training the hypercapnic urge to breathe is almost impossible to overcome; swimmers typically suffer an uncontrollable, violent, deep inhalation of water even when, intellectually, they know that to do so is fatal. This is a simple case of running out of air and drowning. Victims of ascent blackout, if they have any water in the lungs at all will have a limited amount in the bronchi consistent with natural ingress after death. ## Victims of deep water blackout closely observed from both below and above water do not exhibit the signs of distress associated with an uncontrollable urge to breathe and those that have survived a blackout report no such distress.
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Management of the airway in the emergency department is optimal given the presence of trained personnel from multiple specialties, as well as access to "difficult airway equipment" (videolaryngoscopy, eschmann tracheal tube introducer, fiberoptic bronchoscopy, surgical methods, etc.). Of primary concern is the condition and patency of the maxillofacial structures, larynx, trachea, and bronchi as these are all components of the respiratory tract and failure anywhere along this path may impede ventilation. Excessive facial hair, severe burns, and maxillofacial trauma may prevent acquisition of a good mask seal, rendering bag-valve mask ventilation difficult. Edema of the airway can make laryngoscopy difficult, and therefore in those with suspected thermal burns, intubation is recommended in attempts to quickly secure an airway prior to progression of the swelling.
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DPB is distinguished by the presence of lesions that appear on X-rays as nodules in the bronchioles of both lungs; inflammation in all tissue layers of the respiratory bronchioles; and its higher prevalence among individuals with East Asian lineage. DPB and bronchiolitis obliterans are two forms of primary bronchiolitis. Specific overlapping features of both diseases include strong cough with large amounts of often pus-filled sputum; nodules viewable on lung X-rays in the lower bronchi and bronchiolar area; and chronic sinusitis. In DPB, the nodules are more restricted to the respiratory bronchioles, while in OB they are often found in the membranous bronchioles (the initial non-cartilaginous section of the bronchiole, that divides from the tertiary bronchus) up to the secondary bronchus.
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The size of the particle is the main determinant of where in the respiratory tract the particle will come to rest when inhaled. Larger particles are generally filtered in the nose and throat via cilia and mucus, but particulate matter smaller than about 10 micrometers, can settle in the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. The 10-micrometer size does not represent a strict boundary between respirable and non-respirable particles but has been agreed upon for monitoring of airborne particulate matter by most regulatory agencies. Because of their small size, particles on the order of 10 micrometers or less (coarse particulate matter, PM) can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs such as the bronchioles or alveoli.Region 4: Laboratory and Field Operations – PM 2.5 (2008).
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Gas exchange in mammals occurs between this alveolar air (which differs significantly from fresh air) and the blood in the alveolar capillaries. The gases on either side of the gas exchange membrane equilibrate by simple diffusion. This ensures that the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood leaving the alveolar capillaries, and ultimately circulates throughout the body, are the same as those in the FRC. The marked difference between the composition of the alveolar air and that of the ambient air can be maintained because the functional residual capacity is contained in dead-end sacs connected to the outside air by long, narrow, tubes (the airways: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their branches and sub-branches down to the bronchioles).
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As the bird inhales, tracheal air flows through the intrapulmonary bronchi into the posterior air sacs, as well as into the dorsobronchi, but not into the ventrobronchi (Fig. 18). This is due to the bronchial architecture which directs the inhaled air away from the openings of the ventrobronchi, into the continuation of the intrapulmonary bronchus towards the dorsobronchi and posterior air sacs. From the dorsobronchi the inhaled air flows through the parabronchi (and therefore the gas exchanger) to the ventrobronchi from where the air can only escape into the expanding anterior air sacs. So, during inhalation, both the posterior and anterior air sacs expand, the posterior air sacs filling with fresh inhaled air, while the anterior air sacs fill with "spent" (oxygen-poor) air that has just passed through the lungs.
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Pneumonectomy specimen containing a squamous-cell carcinoma, seen as a white area near the bronchi If investigations confirm NSCLC, the stage is assessed to determine whether the disease is localized and amenable to surgery or if it has spread to the point where it cannot be cured surgically. CT scan and positron emission tomography (PET-CT), non-invasive tests, can be used to help rule out malignancy or mediastinal lymph node involvement. If mediastinal lymph node involvement is suspected using PET-CT, the nodes should be sampled (using a biopsy) to assist staging, a PET-CT scan is not accurate enough to be used alone. Techniques used for obtaining a sample include transthoracic needle aspiration, transbronchial needle aspiration (with or without endobronchial ultrasound), endoscopic ultrasound with needle aspiration, mediastinoscopy, and thoracoscopy.
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The pathogenesis of the cardiac lesions and the bronchoconstriction is unknown, but the former probably involves activation of serotonin 5-HT2B receptors by serotonin. When the primary tumor is in the gastrointestinal tract, as it is in the great majority of cases, the serotonin and kallikrein are inactivated in the liver; manifestations of carcinoid syndrome do not occur until there are metastases to the liver or when the cancer is accompanied by liver failure (cirrhosis). Carcinoid tumors arising in the bronchi may be associated with manifestations of carcinoid syndrome without liver metastases because their biologically active products reach the systemic circulation before passing through the liver and being metabolized. In most patients, there is an increased urinary excretion of 5-HIAA (5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid), a degradation product of serotonin.
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A later study, by Lands and Grant, showed that a dose of ~0.6 mg/kg of racemic synephrine, given intravenously to anesthetized dogs, produced a rise in blood pressure of 34 mmHg lasting 5–10 minutes, and estimated that this pressor activity was about 1/300x that of epinephrine. Using cats and dogs, Tainter and Seidenfeld observed that neither d- nor l-synephrine caused any changes in the tone of normal bronchi, in situ, even at "maximum" doses. Furthermore, the marked brocho-constriction produced by injections of histamine was not reversed by either l-synephrine or d,l-synephrine. In experiments with isolated sheep carotid artery, d-, l- and d,l-synephrine all showed some vasoconstrictor activity: l-synephrine was the most potent, producing strong contractions at a concentration of 1:10000.
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In waterslager canaries, which produce most syllables using the left syrinx, as soon as a unilaterally produced syllable finishes, the right side opens briefly to allow inspiratory airflow through both bronchi before being closed again for left syrinx song production. During this “mini- breath” the left side may remain partially or fully adducted, allowing less inspiratory airflow than the right side while remaining ready to quickly resume singing. When bilateral airflow and subsyringeal air sac pressure were monitored along with electromyographic activity of expiratory abdominal muscles in brown thrashers (Toxostoma rufum), it was observed that during unilateral production of song, expiratory abdominal muscle activity was the same on both sides. This indicates that while inspiration and syringeal song control may be lateralized, motor control of respiratory muscles possibly remains bilateral.
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As about the biologic species, the HNMT enzyme is found in vertebrates, including birds, reptiles and amphibian, but not in invertebrates and plants. The NHMT enzyme resides in the cytosol intracellular fluid. Whereas DAO metabolizes extracellular free histamine, be it either exogenous came with food or mostly endogenous released from granules of mast cells and basophils as a result of allergic reactions, in view of the fact that DAO is mainly expressed in the cells of intestinal epithelium, HNMT is involved in metabolism of the persistently present intracellular primarily endogenous histamine, mainly in kidneys and liver, but also in bronchi, large intestine, ovary, prostate, spinal cord, spleen, trachea and peripheral tissues. In the case of flawed HNMT activity, the organs which are most affected are brain, liver and mucous membrane of bronchus.
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Larger particles above 10 µm in size are generally filtered out in the nose and throat via cilia and mucus but particulate matter smaller than 10 µm, referred to as PM10, can settle in the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. Similarly, particles smaller than 2.5 µm, (PM2.5), tend to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the lung, and very small particles (less than 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. Though the total particulate emissions from wet cooling towers with fresh water make-up is much less, they contain more PM10 and PM2.5 than the total emissions from wet cooling towers with sea water make-up. This is due to lesser salt content in fresh water drift (below 2,000 ppm) compared to the salt content of sea water drift (60,000 ppm).
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Lebrikizumab blocks interleukin 13 (IL-13), a cytokine (cell-signalling protein) that is produced by a type of white blood cell called Th2 cells. IL-13 is thought to induce the expression of another signalling protein, periostin, by epithelial cells of the bronchi. Periostin in turn seems to partake in a number of asthma related problems, such as bronchial hyperresponsiveness, inflammation, and activation and proliferation of airway fibroblasts, which are involved in airway remodelling. This theory is supported by the fact that patients with high periostin levels responded significantly better to lebrikizumab in the Phase II study: the forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) was 8.2% higher than under placebo in this group (measured from the respective baselines), while low-periostin patients had 1.6% higher FEV1, and the average value for all patients was 5.5%.
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Drawing of the measles virus attaching to the lining of the trachea Once the measles virus gets onto the mucosa, it infects the epithelial cells in the trachea or bronchi. Measles virus uses a protein on its surface called hemagglutinin (H protein), to bind to a target receptor on the host cell, which could be CD46, which is expressed on all nucleated human cells, CD150, aka signaling lymphocyte activation molecule or SLAM, which is found on immune cells like B or T cells, and antigen-presenting cells, or nectin-4, a cellular adhesion molecule. Once bound, the fusion, or F protein helps the virus fuse with the membrane and ultimately get inside the cell. As the virus is a single-stranded negative-sense RNA virus, it includes the enzyme RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) which is used to transcribe its genome into a positive-sense mRNA strand.
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The xanthogranulomatous type of inflammation is most-commonly seen in pyelonephritis and cholecystitis, although it has more recently been described in an array of other locations including bronchi, lung, endometrium, vagina, fallopian tubes, ovary, testis, epydidymis, stomach, colon, ileum, pancreas, bone, lymph nodes, bladder, adrenal gland, abdomen and muscle. Telling apart clinically a XP from a tumor condition can be challenging as pointed out by several authors. Cozzutto and Carbone suggested that a wide array of entities characterized by a large content of histiocytes and foamy macrophages could be traced back at least in part to a xanthogranulomatous inflammation. These include such varied disturbances as xanthoma disseminatum, ceroid granuloma of the gallbladder, Whipple's disease, inflammatory pseudotumor of the lung, plasma cell granuloma of the lung, malakoplakia, verruciform xanthoma, foamy histiocytosis of the spleen in thrombocytopenic purpura, isolated xanthoma of the small bowel, xanthofibroma of bone, and gastric xanthelasma.
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It is seen in 1% of the population. Embryologically, it arises from an anomalous lateral course of the azygos vein in a pleural septum within the apical segment of the right upper lobe or in other words an azygos lobe is formed when the right posterior cardinal vein, one of the precursors of the azygos vein, fails to migrate over the apex of the lung and penetrates it instead, carrying along two pleural layers that invaginates into the upper portion of the right upper lobe . As it has no bronchi, veins and arteries of its own or corresponding alteration in the segmental architecture of the lung, so it is not a true (misnomer), or even accessory, pulmonary lobe, but rather an anatomically separated part of the upper lobe. It is usually an incidental finding on chest x-ray or computed tomography and is as such not associated with any morbidity but can cause technical problems in thoracoscopic procedures .
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As mentioned in the section above, the corresponding partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the ambient (dry) air at sea level are 21 kPa (160 mmHg) and 0.04 kPa (0.3 mmHg) respectively. This marked difference between the composition of the alveolar air and that of the ambient air can be maintained because the functional residual capacity is contained in dead-end sacs connected to the outside air by fairly narrow and relatively long tubes (the airways: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their branches down to the bronchioles), through which the air has to be breathed both in and out (i.e. there is no unidirectional through-flow as there is in the bird lung). This typical mammalian anatomy combined with the fact that the lungs are not emptied and re-inflated with each breath (leaving a substantial volume of air, of about 2.5-3.0 liters, in the alveoli after exhalation), ensures that the composition of the alveolar air is only minimally disturbed when the 350 ml of fresh air is mixed into it with each inhalation.
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LXs and epi-LXs have been detected in a various human tissues undergoing a wide range of inflammatory reactions, allergic reactions, and other conditions such as in the blood of patients undergoing coronary angioplasty or strenuous exercise. LXA4 inhibits the-bronchial contracting action of LTC4 and relaxes pre-contracted bronchi in asthmatic individuals. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) causes the malignant transformation of human cells and is responsible for Kaposi’s sarcoma and primary effusion lymphoma, two cancers which afflict in particular humans infected with HIV. Studies in human Kaposi sarcoma and primary effusion lymphoma cells find that: a) KSHV promotes the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, lipoxygenases, cyclooxygenase, and metabolites of the latter two classes of enzymes while suppressing production of anti-inflammatory signaling agents such as LXA4, apparently as a strategy to promote its latency and malignant transforming ability; b)' Karposi sarcoma and primary effusion lymphoma cells express the ALX/FPR receptor; and c)' treatment of the latter cells with LXA4 or 15-epi-LXA4 reverses this pro-malignancy profile of pro- inflammatory signaling by an ALX/FPR-dependent mechanism.
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Mechanism of Inhibitors of AChE Chronic exposure to high level of nitrogen dioxide results in the allosteric inhibition of glutathione peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase, both of which are important enzymes found in the mucous membrane antioxidant defense system, that catalyse nucleophilic attack by reduced glutathione (GSH) on non- polar compounds that contain an electrophillic carbon and nitrogen. These inhibition mechanisms generates free radicals that causes peroxidation from the lipids in the mucous membrane leading to increased peroxidized erythrocyte lipids, a reaction that proceeds by a free radical chain reaction mechanism that result in oxidative stress. The oxidative stress on the mucous membrane causes the dissociation of the GSTp-JNK complex, oligomerization of GSTP and induction of the JNK pathway, resulting in apoptosis or inflammation of the bronchioles and pulmonary alveolus in mild cases. On migrating to the bloodstream, nitrogen dioxide poisoning results in an irreversible inhibition of the erythrocite membrane acetylcholinesterase which may lead to muscular paralysis, convulsions, bronchoconstriction, the narrowing of the airways in the lungs (bronchi and bronchioles) and death by asphyxiation.
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The Greek physician Galen may have been the first to describe artificial ventilation: "If you take a dead animal and blow air through its larynx through a reed, you will fill its bronchi and watch its lungs attain the greatest distention." Vesalius too describes ventilation by inserting a reed or cane into the trachea of animals. In 1773, English physician William Hawes (1736–1808) began publicizing the power of artificial ventilation to resuscitate people who superficially appeared to have drowned. For a year he paid a reward out of his own pocket to any one bringing him a body rescued from the water within a reasonable time of immersion. Thomas Cogan, another English physician, who had become interested in the same subject during a stay at Amsterdam, where was instituted in 1767 a society for preservation of life from accidents in water, joined Hawes in his crusade. In the summer of 1774 Hawes and Cogan each brought fifteen friends to a meeting at the Chapter Coffee-house, St Paul's Churchyard, where they founded the Royal Humane Society as a campaigning group for first aid and resuscitation.
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